1

COSMOS:
A

SKETCH
OF

THE

OF

DESCRIPTION

A PHYSICAL

UNIVERSE.

BY

TRANSLATED

BY

Naturte

vero

E.

ac

non

totam

AND

majestas in

NEW
"
329

"

W.

GERMAN,

S.

omnibus

complectatur animo.

VOL.

HARPER

THE

FROM

OTTE

vis atque

rerum

partes ejus

C.

HUMBOLDT.

YON

ALEXANDER

momentis
"

FRANKLIN

fide

caret, si quis

V.

YORK:

PEARL

mod*

Plin., His'. Xat., lib. vii.,c. 1.

PUBLISHERS,

BROTHERS,
321

F.L.S.

DALLAS,

STREET,
SQUARE.

vr

GENERAL

SUMMARY

OF

CONTENTS

OF

VOLUME

Introduction
telluric

First

the

to

V.

special

COSMOS.

OF

results

of

observation

in

the

phenomena

and

heat

density
of the

activity

Magnetic

of the

earth

14-37

earth

of the

Historical

37-50
earth

50-156

portion

50-88

Intensity

87-100

Inclination

100-1

Declination

115-146

Polar

146-156

light.:

Section

Reaction

with

of the

interior

of

and

icithout

of volcanoes

the

earth

action,

waves

its surface.
upon
of concussion...

157,

etc*

160-176
177-198

volcanoes, naptha

structural

mountains)
Range

15

157-

Earthquakes;
dynamic
Thermal
springs
Gas
springs, salses, mud

Volcanoes

5-14

14-156

Size, form,

Second

of

Page

Section

Internal

domain

frames

springs

{conical

and

198-214
....

bell-shaped
21 4-45

from

(19|" N. lat.) to south, as far as 46"

south
latitude
Mexican
and
375
volcanoes, p. 266
:
(Jorullo, p. 292,
de Perote, p. 307, Cotopaxi, notes
at p. 293) ; Cofre
304, note
p. 317321.
Subterranean
Central
eruptions of vapor, p. 322-324.
America,
New
Granada
and
and
notes
Quito, p. 266-270,
p. 255-263.
(AntiSangay, p. 416; Tungurahua,
sana,
Cotopaxi,
p. 311-316;
p. 415;
and
Chimborazo,
*); Peru
p. 318-320;
Bolivia, p. 270,
p. 431, note
note
Chili, p. 272,
note;
|](Antilles, p. 394, note
*).
Enumeration
of all the
active
volcanoes
in the
Cordilleras, p. 270.
Relation
of the tracts
without
volcanoes
those
in them,
to
abounding
volcanoes
in the Northwest
at
of America,
the
268;
to
p. 280, note
north
of the
review
of all the
parallel of the Rio Gila, p. 377-392;
volcanoes
not
belonging to the New
Continent, p. 270-377;
Europe,
of the Atlantic
p. 328, 329
Ocean, p. 330 ; Africa, p. 332 ;
; islands
Asia"
Continent,
Thian-shan,
334-344;
336, 337, 405, and
p.
p.
notes
to 330
Eastern
(peninsula of Kamtschatka,
p. 327
p. 340-344);
AsiaMc
Islands, p. 344
(island of Saghalin, Tarakai
or
Karafuto, noteu
*

north

IV

SYNOPSIS.

and

288

p.

Asia,

p.

363

the

289

South

Sea,

number

of

continents

of

interior

pumice,

the

to

volcanic

summits

fluidity,

but

rubbish

with

the

these
p.

groups,

or

feldspar,

of
at

p.

pumice,

of

in

the

and

the
at

conditions
in

the

trachytes,

in

440,

which
of

441,

441

p.

the
the

the
451.

Quito,

at

Caucasus,
chemical

simple

minerals

(page

315).
of

according

to

conformity

distribution
and

of"

andesine,
of

ingredients,

the

frequently
ibid.

Mica,

leucite,

opinion
remote

on

and

oli-

volcanoes,
the

Mexican

Diversity

320-324.

processes

very

glassy

formation

from
in

444;

p.
the

Huichapa
p.

and

ing,
glow-

ingredients

443;

of

from

been

in

volcanoes

p.

mit-craters,
sum-

blocks

trachytes,

unessential

pumice-beds,

Tschigem

formation

augite,

of

andesite

in

difference

Cordilleras

under

p.

and
the

subterranean

447;

also
which

to

generalization

characteristic

attention,

great

and

the

note

geographical

and

are

of

hornblende

obsidian,

Zumbalica,

proceed
into

p.

Highland,

there

deserves

442;

p.
444

with

absence

constant

groups
;

and

continuous

all

divisions

or

designations

the

Along

formations

other

each

Rose

the

not

of

not

rock

rugated
cor-

dome-

or

ejected

(p. 289),

of

six

of

the

effusions

the

have

volcanic

classification

Gustav

440.

note

the

into

series

from

in

pearl-stone

consist

which

stones

of

423-436

note,

trachyte

vin,

of

p.

abundance
near

p.

definitions

422-437,

the

of

ingredients,

essential

of

surface

surface,

Even

gions
Re222.

221,

conical

of

the

streams

even

322-326,

423

layers

fissures).

405.

fissures
of

above

some

and

of

393-403

p.

the

the

on

404,

funnels,
reach

some

lava

composition

trachyte,

term

their

or

of

ejections

312-315,

311,

358-

p.

distribution

279,

p.

Mine

construction

appearance

in

sea,

net-work

and

effects

scoria1,

are

Southern

Ocean,

their

may
a

upheaval

not

loose

Mineralogical
the

through

their
the

the

masses

phonolite,

do

there

291,

p.

the

to

of

and

Maars,

solid

earth,

owe

but

globe,

from

403-407;

p.

(basalt,

seem

of

Page

activity

without

piles

the

on

which

in

of

soil,
shaped

volcanoes

volcanic

modes

Different

islands

Indian

The

281-290.

p.

350

p.

363-376.

p.

depression,

of

Japan,

islands

and

Distance

of

Java,

354-358);

Probable

the

volcanoes

of
their

volcanicity
association

INTRODUCTION.

RESULTS

SPECIAL

TELLURIC

OF

IN

OBSERVATION

OF

THE

DOMAIN

PHENOMENA.

embracing so wide a field as the Cosmos, which

aims
at
combining perspicuous comprehensibility with general
of the whole
clearness, the composition and co-ordination
copiousness of detail.
are, perhaps, of greater importance than
ble
desirathe more
of treating the subject becomes
This
mode
of Nature,
the
generalization of
because, in the Book
to the
objectivity of external
nomena
pheviews, both in reference
In

work

imagination
from

reflection

and

feelingsof

of the

volumes

Cosmos

in which
as

mankind

had, in the
the

mutual

in

of the

and

of

collection

inner

those

of

the

at

ization,
generalwas

sidered
con-

time

same

widely remote
gradually striven
forces.
Although

zones,
to

cover
dis-

great

tend
their
demonstrate
to
may
of Nature
Picture
can
only produce

sacrificed

not

bounded

to

by

narrow

excessive

an

gation
aggre-

facts.

of crowded
As

while

impressions when,

limits, its perspicuity is

kind

most

ages,
of natural

General

vivid

and

of

phenomena

connection,
fresh

course

first two

Universe

of the

in the

the

upon

The

this

to

whole,

how,

actions
of

accumulation
causal

devoted

contemplation

show

to

results.

individual

great natural

one

nature

carefullyseparated

be

must

man,

were

the

taken

was

care

of

enumeration

the

aspects of

of the

the

and

graphical
of the

structure

of

illustrations
earth's

of

crust,

surface

the

general

maps

that
to me
precede
special character,
in a physical description of the
it would
Universe
be
most
in accordance
with
the plan of the
appropriate, and most
of the entire Universe
present work, if,to the consideration

from
the

general

and

latter

volumes

the

present

which

based.
in

accordance

p.

5-9),

careful

be

it has

to
higher points of view, I were
append in
those
special results of observation
upon
of our
condition
knowledge is more
ularly
partic-

These
with

seemed

volumes
a

remark

the

General

work

my

already
merely as an

considered

exposition of

of

made

Picture

must,

therefore,

(Cosmos,

expansion
of Nature

vol.

and

iii.,

more

(Cosmos,

COSMOS.

vol.

sidereal sphere
or
i.,p. 56-359), and, as the uranological
Cosmos
was
exclusivelytreated of in the two last

of the

volumes, the present

of the

will be devoted

volume

to

the

eration
consid-

the ancient,
sphere. In this manner
jects
simple,and natural separationof celestial and terrestrial obwhich
find by the earliest evidences
has been preserved,
we
of human
tions.
knowledge to have prevailedamong all na-

As

telluric

in the realms
from

system

of space,

the

the

to descend

small
relatively

from

our

ary
planet-

own

fixed stars, illumined

by
round
they be isolated or circling

suns, whether
another, or whether
they be

is indeed

to

region of the

innumerable
one

transition

from

and

mere

"

of remote

ulae,
neb-

great and the universal

the

special
more
infinitely

masses

so

does the field of

our

to

templation
con-

become
contracted when
we
pass
collective solar system, which
is so rich in varied
the
terrestrial spheroid,circlinground
to our
own

the

forms,

The

sun.

is 263

distance of

times

even

greater than

fixed star, a Centauri,

of our
solar system,
the diameter
the nearest

of 1680 ; and
apheliondistance of the comet
yet this aphelion is 853 times further from the sun than our
earth (Cosmos,vol. iv.,p. 190). These
numbers, reckoning
the parallaxof a Centauri
at 0/7,9187,determine
mately
approxiof
ens
the
both the distance of a near
region
starry heavsolar system and the distance
from the supposed extreme
of those limits from the earth's place.
Uranology, which embraces the consideration of all that
reckoned

to the

fillsthe remote

realms

of space, stillmaintains

the character

ancientlybore, of impressingthe imaginationmost deeply

of the relations
and powerfully
by the incomprehensibility

it

of space
and

der
orby the known
of
the
bodies
of
motions
heavenly
regularity the
;
is naturallyyielded to the
and by the admiration
which
results of observation
and intellectual investigation.This
pressed
of regularity
and periodicity
consciousness
so
was
early im-

those
the

and

numbers

which

it embraces;

often reflected in
mind, that it was
upon the human
of
forms of speech which
refer to the ordained course

celestial bodies.

The

known

laws

which

rule the

tial
celes-

sphere excite,perhaps,the greatest admiration by their

and distribution
based, as they solelyare, upon the mass
simplicity,
its
forces
and upon
of accumulated
ponderablematter
of attraction.
The
impressionof the sublime,when it arises
and physically
from that which
is immeasurable
great,passes
almost unconsciouslyto ourselves beyond the mysterious

INTRODUCTION.

which

boundary
and

leads

metaphysicalwith the physical,

and higher sphere of ideas.
into another
The
immeasurable, the boundless,and the eternal,is

us

image of the

with

associated

which excites within us a more

power
of feeling,
and which, like the
tone

solemn

and

the

connects

of all that is

spiritually
great

est
earn-

sion
impresmorally exalted,is not

and

of emotion.

devoid

effect which

The

celestial phenomena
aspect of extraordinary

the

entire
exerts
generallyand simultaneously
upon
witness
to the influence of such an
masses
people,bears
association of feelings.The impressionproduced in excitable
the
of
minds
of
the starry vault
heaven
mere
by
aspect
is increased by profounderknowledge, and by the use of those
so

of

which

means

and

and

the

at

of vision,
his powers
observenlargethe horizon of his ation.

time

same

to

augment

impressionof peace and calmness blends

the impressionof the incomprehensiblein the universe,
is awakened
by the mental conceptionof normal regularity
and order.
It takes from the unfathomable
depths of
A

with

has invented

man

space

certain

and

of terror

those features

time

which

an

excited

agination
im-

is apt to ascribe to them.

In all latitudes man,
of his mind, prizes" the
in the simple natural susceptibility
calm

stillness of

starlit summer

of space

Although magnitude
to
especially

the

the

eye is the

night."

sidereal

only organ

and

portionof

appertainsmore

mass

cosmical

of cosmical

and
delineation,
luric
tel-

contemplation,our

vantage
sphere has, on the other hand, the preponderating adwith
and
of presentingus
a
a
scientifically
greater
the
i
n
numerous
diversity
elementary bodies
distinguishable
of which
it is composed. All our
senses
bring us in contact
with

terrestrial nature

knowledge
to

of

and

while

celestial bodies

luminous

moving

mathematical

treatment,

in the most

astronomy, which,
the

means

the

sible
acces-

of increasing

splendorof the
its
and has equallyenlargedthe limhigher forms of analysis,
of the extensive domain
of optics,our
earthlysphere,on
of elements,and by the
the other hand, by its heterogeneity
complicated play of the expressionsof force inherent in
basis for chemistry,and for all those
a
matter, has formed
of physical science
of phenomena
branches
which
treat
that have

not

as

marvelous

has been

is most

as

yet

been

generating heat
in

accordance

it presents

to

our

and

with

found

to

light.
the

the

manner

nature

be connected

tions
vibra-

fore,
sphere has, there-

Each

of the

exerted
investigation,

with

problems which

different influence

COSMOS.

the intellectual

on

activityand

scientific

knowledge

of

kind.
man-

own
bodies, excepting our
planet and the
attracted by it,are, to our
aerolites which
are
conception,
of
homogeneous gravitatingmatter, without
composed only

celestial

All

any
Such

so-called elementary difference of

or
specific
a
simple assumption is,however, not by

substances.
means

any

and constitution of these remote

upon the inner nature
of the
the simplicity
celestial orbs, but arises merely from

based

hypotheseswhich are capable of explainingand leading us to

This idea
of the heavenly bodies.
predictthe movements
to remark
arises,as I have alreadyhad occasion frequently
(Cosmos,vol. i.,p. 62-G7, and p. 135-137
; vol. iii.,
p. 6-20,
from
of
of
all recognition heterogeneity
the exclusion
and 22-2-4),
of matter, and presents us with the solution of the
all that is variable
great problem of celestial mechanics, in which
the
sole
is
to
in the uranological
trol
consphere subjected
of

dynamical laws.

light upon the surface of the

planetMars do indeed point,in accordance with its different
of the year, to various meteorological
seasons
processes, and
excited by cold in the atmosphere
to the polar precipitates
Guided
gies
of that planet (Cosmos, vol. iv.,p. 160).
by analothe presence
indeed here assume
and reasoning,
we
may
of ice or snow
(oxygen and hydrogen),as in the eruptive
the exthe annular
istence
we
assume
or
masses
plainsof the moon
of

alternations

Periodical

of different kinds

of rock

on

our

but direct
satellite,

nothing in reference to these points.

ventured
Even
Newton
only on conjectures regarding the
elementary constitution of the planetswhich belong to our
solar system, as wre learn from an important conversation
own
he had at Kensington with Conduit
which
(Cosmos,vol.
i.,p. 132). The uniform image of homogeneous gravitating
matter
conglomerated into celestial bodies has occupied the
in various ways, and mythology has even
fancy of mankind
the
of music to the voiceless regionswithin
linked the charm
observation

teach

can

us

vol. iv.,p.
of space (Cosmos,
of
wealth
the boundless
Amid

realms

with
the

world, and

creative

of many
of matter

of creation

strivingto

grasp

and
at

chemicallyvarying

energy

of the whole

inorganic substances
which

of force

manifestations

their numberless

plasticand

108-110).

exhibits

an

annihilation,the
order, often yearns

"

of the
amid

for

amid

organic

the metamorphosis

ever-active
human

"

stances,
sub-

ance
appear-

mind,

simple laws

ever

of

INTRODUCTION.

the terrestrial

of
investigation
Aristotle,in his Physics,states
motion

in the

of all nature

and

change

are

recognizethis truth

that

the fundamental

"

motion

he who

Even

ciples
prindoes not

herself"

Nature

recognizesnot

sphere.

(Phys.

ence
to the differAuscult.,iii.,
1, p. 200, Bekker),and, referring
in essence"),
of matter
he designates
tion,
mo("a diversity
its
in respectto
qualitative
nature, as a metamorphosis,
from
different
and a
mere
aAAoiojoig,very
mixture, fii^tc,
penetrationwhich does not exclude the idea of subsequent
i.,1, p. 327).
separation(De Gener. et Corrupt.,
The

of fluids in

unequal ascent

mosis

which

is

tubes
capillary
and
active in all organiccells,
capillaritythe condensation

so

of

the endos-

"

is

probably

of different

consequence
kinds of gases in porous bodies (of oxygen
in spongy
is
with a pressure which
equal to a force of more
acid in boxwood

atmospheres,and of carbonic

700
when
the

"

more

than

walls

of the

which

in

third is condensed

one

cells)
"

the chemical

action

their presence occasion

combinations
themselves
without
them

all these

"

small

distances

by

phenomena
exert

an

teach

us

attraction

that

upon

num,
platithan

charcoal,

liquidstate

on

of contact-substances,

talysis)
destroy(by cataking any part in
bodies at infinitely
or

another, which

one

their specific
conceive
"We can
not
natures.
upon
of
attractions to exist independently
motions, which

depends
such

be excited

to our
by them althoughinappreciable
eyes.
of
We
which
still entirely
the
relations
are
ignorant
rocal
recipof unceasing motion
attraction as a cause
molecular
and very probably also in the interior of the
the surface,
on
the attraction of gravitation,
earth's body, exerts
by
upon
which
the planetsas well as their central body are
tained
mainof
in constant
motion.
solution
Even
the partial
this
would
the
and
most
purely physicalproblem
yield
highest
results
that
of
attained
in
be
these
quiry,
incan
splendid
paths
by the aid of experimentaland intellectual research.
from associating
I purposelyabstain in these sentences
(as is
of Newton
with that law of attraction
commonly done) the name
must

which

distances,and
distance.

Such

less
the celestial bodies in space at boundwhich
is inversely
the square of the
as

rules

an

association

implies almost

injustice

an

of this great man,

the memory
who
had recognized
these manifestations of force,althoughhe did not separate

toward
both

them

with

sufficient distinctness

the felicitouspresentimentof future

in the

Queries

to

his
A

find

we

discoveries

to
Optics,

for

refer

"

"

as

if in

that he attempted,

and
capillarity,

10

COSMOS.

the littlethat

of chemical

then known

was

gravitation
(Laplace,Expos,
Cosmos, vol. iii.,
p. 23).
As in the physicalworld,
of the

sea, delusive

du

Syst.clu Monde,
on
especially

more

often

images

to universal
affinity,

p. 384

the

borders

which

for a
seem
appear
to promise to the expectant discoverer the possessionof
the ideal horizon
and
unknown
land ; so, on
of
new

time
some

the

regions

remotest

vestigatoris
vanish

almost

of thought, the

of the world

often cheered

in-

sanguine hopes, which

by many

quickly as they

as

earnest

have

been

formed.

Some

of the

splendiddiscoveries of modern times have undoubtedly

been of a nature
these
to heightenthis expectation. Among
instance
we
magnetism of rotation,
contact-electricity
may
"

which
form

either in their aqueous

be excited by fluids,
even
may
the felicitous attempt of conconsolidated
into ice
or
sidering
"

all chemical

as
affinity

relations of atoms

the

of the electrical

consequence

predominating polar force

the theory of isomorphous substances
in its application
to
of crystals many
the formation
phenomena of the electrical
the knowledge
condition of livingmuscular
fibre
and, lastly,
which
have obtained of the influence exerted by the sun's
we
force of the solar rays,
that is to say, the thermic
position,
upon the greater or lesser magnetic capacityand conducting
of the constituents of our
of one
atmosphere,namely,
power
When
is
thrown
unexpectedly
light
upon any previously
oxygen.
in
the
of
obscure
world,
physical
phenomena
group
old
the
we
more
readilybelieve that we are on the threshmay
with

"

"

"

of

when
discoveries,

new

to

either obscure,
facts.

be

established
I have

dynamic
by

which

of

the

more

Ave
or

find that

even

adduced
particularly

actions of

attractingforces

in

these relations appear

oppositionto already
examples

seem

to

in which

show

toward

the
the

the

course

solution

approximate
original,unchangeable, and hence
problem
stance,
named
the elementary heterogeneityof substances
(for inhydrogen, sulphur, potassium,phosphorus,
oxygen,
of their tendency to combine
the amount
of
and
tin,etc.),
;
in other wrords,their chemical
affinity.Differences cf form
and mixture
again repeat, the only elements of
are, I would
our
knowledge of matter; they are the abstractions under
which
endeavor
to comprehend the all-movinguniverse,
wre
of the
detonation
both as to its size and composition. The
fulminates
under a slightmechanical
pressure, and the still
formidable
more
explosion of terehloride of nitrogen,which
we

may

hope

of

the

to

11

INTRODUCTION.

accompanied

is

of
sun's

by

chlorine
fall

rays

of

and

hydrogen,

directly

"The

quantity

same

of

existing

of

cells

in

their

dence
evi-

inorganic

and

plants

remains,

change

violet

afford

elements

the

the

the

separation

matter

alone

when

especially

and
of

nation
combi-

detonating
explodes

(more

living

the

in

elements

the

it

upon

circulation

than

less

no

the

which

union,

eternal

the

nature

animals.

however,

relative

the

positions

to

another."

one

We

thus

verification

created

things

find

that

agoras,

Universe,

the

and
of

destruction

of

the

organic
is

that

great
does

bodies

combine

new

of
life

which

physical

world

the

process
terminate
to

active

germinates

which

form

is

from

is
of

laboratory
of

slow
in

bosom

to

and

decay

the

but
call

we

through

incorporated
of

liberated

The
and

servation,
ob-

our

which

annihilation.

are

Our

portion

that

accessible

structures,

the

parts.

all

combustion,

which
the

of

death

in

termed

Greeks

comprised

which

decrease

nor

separation

other

forces

the

mere

within

increase

Anax-

of

axiom

ancient

the

neither
that

apparently

not

of

was

natural

decay,

agency

that

matter

sphere,

earthly

contrast

Metamorphosis,

rays).

with

fire,

earth.

in

the

them

COSMOS.

In

the

to

to

attempt

the

phenomena

in

study

group
into

their

can

only
in the
are

"

TELLURIC

THE

physical

causal

such

world

UNIVERSE.

THE

materials
in

or,

ed
afford-

other

words,

facilitate

to

as

manner

PORTION

our

sight
in-

cidity
luand
general clearness
where
more
special details
ticularly
parof
cultivated
fields
servation
obsuccessfully

connection,

secured

be

OF

inexhaustible

the

grasp

of

the

by

IN

DESCRIPTION

PHYSICAL

THE

OF

OBSERVATION

OF

RESULTS

"

long and
not
separated

higher points of view

sphere, as opposed to the

from

the

telluric
unity. The
organic
portions, namely, the inuranological, is separable into two
former
the organic departments.
The
and
comprises
terrestrial
ternal
the size, form, and
density of our
planet ; its inof

cosmical

heat

its

of the

the

electro-magnetic activity ;
earth's

crust

the

of

reaction

mineral

the

stitution
con-

interior

of

surface
its outer
which
acts
planet on
dynamically by
producing earthquakes, and chemically by rock-forming, and
rock-metamorphosing
partial covering of the
; the
processes
solid surface
the
contour
by the liquid element
ocean
; the
of the upheaved
and
articulation
earth
into
continents
and
islands
investment
general external
; and, lastly,the
gaseous
The
second
or
(the atmosphere).
organic domain
comprises
the

"

forms

individual

not

the

the

Delineation

of

of life which

Nature,

the

but

relations

they bear to the solid and fluid parts

the geography
of plants and
animals,
and

races

This
to

the

varieties

division

and

and

the

the

almost

was

into

animals

of

of
based

total

upon

domains

the

from

difference

See

Cosmos,

and

the

all

body

between

vol.

in

certain

change

the

of

of form
In

increasing

the

two

part upon

iii.,p. 42.

extent,

another.

to

for

the

stock.

phenomena

as

means

of

primary

processes
one

surface,

descent

in

which

space

earth's

vital

the

intuition, and

mere
*

of

the

common,

from

matter

of

considered
in

belongs, to

material

deficiency

vision,

one

separated
such

transition

from

man

two

ancients, who

plants

powers

of

have

we

organisms*
the

dogma

14

COSMOS.

of self-nutrition

kind

spontaneous

felicitous

that

ideas,which

his
him

was

so

in the

apparent

an

the

This

intuition,

power
of the

characteristic

assumption
from
to the living,

the inanimate

named

of combining

Stagyrite,
from

transition
element

mere

14,

motion.

to

I have

acumen

of

the

to

incentive

comprehension which

of mental

togetherwith
led

l)e Anima, ii.,1, t. i.,p. 412,

(Aristot.,

of

Bekker), and

the

to

adopt the view that in the

of plastic
formation there were
ual
grader
and intermediate
stages connectingplantswith the lowanimals
(Aristot.,De part. Animal.,iv.,5, p. 681, a 12,
and Hist. Animal., viii.,
1, p. 588, a 4, Bekker). The history
of organims (taking the wrord historyin its originalsense,

plant,and induced him

ever-ascending
processes

therefore

and

in relation

periods of time)

to

even

to

faunas

the

and

floras of earlier

with
intimatelyconnected
geology,
of
with the order
the superimposed terrestrial
annals of the upheaval
strata, and with the chronometrical
of continents and mountains, that it has appeared most
propriate
apis

so

of succession

to

on

me,

widely diffused phenomena,

of organic and

element

of classification in

she

avoid

as

the main

treatingof the Cosmos.

mere
morphologicalrepresentation

work

here

strivingto give a
of the organicworld, but rather
comprehensive views of nature, and
bringsinto play.
not

are

and

to

of great and
the natural
establishing

inorganic terrestrial life

division

We

of the connection

account

arrive at bold

to

the

forces

which

I.
SIZE,
IN

OF

INTERIOR

THE

OF

THE

SUN'S
OF

RAREFACTION

AND

OF

THE

POSITION
THE

IN

AIR.

ITS

"

HEAT

THE

DISTRIBUTION."

CHANGES

IN

INTENSITY

AND

DECLINATION,

EARTH."

THE

AND

EARTH,

THE

MANIFESTED

ACTIVITY,

OF

DENSITY

AND

CONFIGURATION,

OF
FORCE

UNDER

REFERENCE

MAGNETIC

NETIC
MAG-

INCLINATION,
TO

STORMS.

THE
THE

FLUENCE
INHEAT

"

POLAR

LIGHT.

languages is comprehended under

etymologicallydifferingsymbolicalforms by the expression
who
originallyrefers every thing
Nature, and which
man,
restrial
local habitation,has further designatedas Terto his own
Nature, is the result of the silent co-operationof a
That

which

in

all

system of active forces,whose

by

means

of that which

existence

they move,

we

can

blend

only recognize
together,and

THE

15

EARTH.

again dissever ; and which they in part develop into organic

of reprohave the power
tissues (livingorganisms),which
ducing
of
like structures.
The
cited
appreciation nature is exof man
the
mind
in the susceptible
profound
through
of
forces.
the
manifestation
these
awakened
by
impression
Our

is at first attracted

attention

by

the

relations of size in

ful
planet,which seems
only like a handspace exhibited by our
in the immeasurable
universe.
of conglomerated
matter
A

system of co-operatingforces,which

either

tend

to

bine
com-

the deshows
pendence
separate (through polar influences),
of every part of nature
other parts, both in
upon

or

of inorganic
elementary processes (as in the formation
of life.
substances)and in the production and maintenance
the

of .the earth, its mass, that is to say, the

quantity of its material parts, which, when compared with
The

the

form

size and

of the latter,
and by means
volume, determines its density,
under certain conditions,both the constitution of the interior
of its attraction,
of the earth and the amount
tions
relaare
which
stand in a more
matically-demon
mathemanifest, and a more

dependence
we

in the

observe

in the distribution
or

Conditions,which

of the

upon
above-named

one

another

than

vital processes,
of heat, in the telluric conditions of electro-magnetism

case

in the
we

chemical
not

are

of

of matter.

metamorphoses

yet able

to

determine

tatively
quanti-

complicationof phenomena, may

nevertheless be present, and may
be demonstrated
through
inductive reasoning.
Although the two kinds of attraction,namely, that which
acts
at perceptibledistances,
the force of gravity (the
as
of
the
celestial
bodies toward
gravitation
one
another), and
that which
is manifested
at immeasurably small
distances,
account

on

as

molecular

contact-attraction,
can
be
reduced
to
science,
one
or

of

condition

yet it is not on
attraction and

that

account

the

To

refer to extreme

and

the less credible

endosmosis,which

to

not, in the present

is

so

the

law,

same

that

capillary

important in

ence
refer-

of

and in respect to animal

and
fluids,
affected by the
be quite as much
vegetablephysiology,
may
force of gravitation,
and its local distribution,
magnetic
electroas
ter.
metamorphosis of matprocesses and the chemical
our

ascent

processes,

the

mountain

may

assume

that

if

and therefore alof the moon,

most
of gravity,the meteorological
less intensity

planethad only the

six times

conditions,we
mass

climate, the hypsometricalrelations of upheaved

of
the
and
the
chains,
physiognomy
vege-

16

COSMOS.

tation

would

quite different from what

are.
they now
absolute size of our planet,which
here considering,
we
are
the
its
in
maintains
collective economy
of
importance
the
it
relations
which
bears
nature
and
to mass
merely by
in the universe,if the dimensions
rotation ; for even
of the
be

The

of the bodies

admixture
planets,the quantitative
their velocities and

them,

all to increase

were

all the
would

diminish

or

from

distances
in

and

one

one

the

depending upon
unchanged in this ideal

pose
com-

another,

same

relations of

phenomena
remain

which

tion,
propor-

tion
gravita-

macrocosmos,

or

microcosmos.*

and Densityof the Earth.

Size,Figure,Ellipticity,

a.

(Expansion of
The

earth

the Picture

has

been

of

Nature, Cosmos, vol. i.,p. 163-171.)

measured

and

weighed in order

termine
to de-

The
which
form, density,and mass.
accuracy
these
has been incessantly
aimed
terrestrial determinaat in
tions
has contributed,simultaneouslywith the solution of
the problems of astronomy, to improve instruments
of measurement
of analysis.A very important part
and methods
of the process involved in the measurement
of a degree is
strictly
astronomical,since the altitudes of stars determine
the curvature
of the arc, whose
tion
length is found by the soluof a series of triangles. The
higher departments of
mathematics
have succeeded, from given numerical
data, in
solvingthe difficult problems of the figureof the earth, and
the surface of equilibrium of a fluid homogeneous, or dense
shell-like heterogeneous mass, which rotates
uniformlyround
and Huygens, the
Since the time of Newton
a solid axis.
most
distinguished
geometriciansof the eighteenthcentury
its

law

"The

of

acts
inversely as
reciprocalattraction which
is that of emanations, proceeding from
a

of the distance

square

It appears
at

to

sensible

be the

law

of all those

distances,

as

in the

forces

case

whose

the
tre.
cen-

action

is perceptible
magnetic
is that,if the

of electrical and

propertiesof this law

tual
universe,together with their muand
distances
their velocities,
or
were
proportionallyincreased
diminished, they would still describe curves
preciselysimilar to those
which
describe ; so that the universe, after being thus successively
they now
conceivable
reduced
to the smallest
limits,would stillalways
forces.

dimensions

One

of the remarkable

of all the bodies

in the

These
to the observer.
are
appearances
appearance
virtue
of
the
dimensions
the
in
of
universe,
consequentlyindependent
as,

present
of

they

are

the

the

same

law

of the

ratio which

independent of absolute
du Syst. du Monde
(5eme

exists between
movement

ed.), p.

in
385.

force

and

velocity,
position
space." Laplace, Ex"

18

COSMOS.

the effects of

der
gravityin continental regionsmay indeed rena
gradual change inappreciableto actual observation ;
and, according to Bessel's calculation,in order to increase
the latitude of a place by a change of only 1", it must
be
is a transposition
that there
in the interior of the
assumed
whose
earth of a mass
weight (itsdensitybeing assumed to
be that of the mean
densityof the earth)is that of 7296 geographical
the
this
However
of
cubic miles.*
volume
large
it with
when
to
us
we
mass
transposed
appear
may
compare
of Mont
the volume
Blanc, or Chimborazo, or Kintschindjinga,our surpriseat the magnitude of the phenomenon soon
that our
diminishes
when
remember
terrestrial spheroid
we
comprisesupward of 1096 hundreds of millions of such cubic

miles.
different methods

Three

attempted, although
with
unequal success,
solvingthe problem of the figure
of the earth,whose connection with the geologicalquestion
of the earlier liquid condition
of the rotating planetary
bodies was
known
at the brilliant epoch of Newton, HuyThese
the geodetico-asmethods
were
gens, and Hooke.f
of a degree,pendulum experiments,*
tronomical
measurement
have

been

for

and

calculations
of the

two

of the

inequalitiesin

In

moon.

separate processes

of

degree of
of

forward
the

are

latitude

the

on

seven

dimensions

of

Nature,

of

of

arc

degree of longitudeon

his work

of

now

not

and

meridian, and

gitude
lon-

yet

been

urements
meas-

different

parallels.
passed since I brought

important labors
globe, in my General

our

has

latitude

applicationof the first method

required,namely, measurements

years have
the results of Bessel's

Although
to

the

the

in reference
Delineation

supplantedby

any

one

cent
recomprehensive character,or based upon more
of a degree. An important addition and
great improvements in this department of inquirymay, howmore

measurements

Bessel, Ueber den Elnfluss der Verandcrungen des Erdhorpers auf

unci Bohnenberger,Zeitsclirift
Polhohen, in Lindenau
fur Astrono"The
in
of
the
earth,
mie, bd. v., 1818, s. 29.
expressed
weight
German
=1)933
X
and
=947
that
of
the
mass
pounds
10*"',
transposed
*

die

XlO14."

f The

theoretical

labors

of

that

time

were

followed

by those of
by Laplace.
by Jacobi, in

and D'Alembert, by Legendre, and

Maclaurin, Clairaut,
To this latter period we
add the theorem
advanced
may
of three unequal axes
certain conditions,
under
1834, that ellipsoids
may,
than
the
of
the
less
two
no
figures
equilibrium
represent
viously-indica
preof rotation.
See the treatise of this writer,
ellipsoids
whose
loss to science,in PoggendorfPs
earlydeath has proved a severe
Annakn
der Physilc
und Chemie, bd. xxxiii.,1834, s. 229-233.
"

THE

ever,

be

the

expected on
which

measurements,

they

SIZE

extend

will afford
of the

from

good

basis

the

According
the
1841, the
year

mean

well

as

first accurate

value
a

of the

careful

dimensions

of

investigation*of

in
our

ten

of geodeticmeasurements
large number
(includingthose made in the elevated plateau of Quito, two
Indian
East
together with the French, English, and
measurements,
recent
was
Lapland observations)
successfullyeffected by Walbeck, at
in
1819.
He
found
the
value for the earth's ellipticity
to
mean
Abo,
an"^
De
TTcr^VsT' tuat of a mei'idian degree 57009*758 toises,or 321,628
feet.
ct Magnitudine TclUnfortunately his work, entitled Be Forma
form.
in
has
been
Excited
not
a
couragement
complete
by the enluris,
published
led to repeat and correct
of Gauss, Eduard
Schmidt
was
his results in his admirable
Hand-book
of Mathematical
Geography,
in which
he took into account
both the higher powers
given for the
intermediate
and the latitudes observed
at the
ellipticity,
points,as
*

The

Indian

survey.
determinations
published by Bessel

according to

was,

19

EARTH.

completion of the Russian geodetic

now
nearly finished,and which, as
the North
Cape to the Black Sea,
of comparison for testingthe accuracy

results of the
to

planet

are

almost

THE

OF

comparison

the Hanoverian
far

of

measurements,

Formentera

Biot

and

those

and

which
The

had

been

tended
ex-

results of this

by
Arago.
comparison have appeared in three forms, after undergoing a gradual
von
correction,namely, in Gauss's Bcstimmimg der Breitenunterschiede
Lehrbuch
der
und Alcona, 1828, s. 82 ; in Eduard
Schmidt's
G'ottingen
Mathem.
ly,
und Phys. Geographic,1829, Th. 1, s. 183, 191-199
; and, lastin the preface to the latter work
last
result
for
The
a
is,
5).
(s.
for
the
meridian
feet
57008*055
ellipticity,
degree,
toises,or 321,261
;
as

as

"^a-*-h-~i7-Bessel

first work

of 1830

had

been

immediately

preceded

by Airy's treatise on the Figure of the Earth, in the Encyclopaedia

Metropolitana, ed. of 1819, p. 220-239.
(Here the semi-polar axis
miles
feet=3919*585
at
was
20,853,810
given
; the semi-equatorial
the
meridian
axis at 20,923,713 feet=3962*S21
miles;
quadrant at
The great astronomer
at try^T-ir-")*
32,811,980 feet,and the ellipticity
culations
of Konigsberg was
engaged, from 1836 to 1812, in caluninterruptedly
regarding the figureof the earth ; and, as his earlier works
the admixture
amended
of results of
were
by subsequent corrections,
of
in
a
t
different
time
has,
works, proved
periods
investigations
many
In numbers, which, from their very naof great confusion.
ture,
a
source
is rendered
still
are
dependent on one another, this admixture
reduction
of measurements
more
confusing from the erroneous
; as,
miles
of 60 and 69 to
for instance, toises,metres, English feet,and
this is the more
to be regretted,since
the equatorialdegree ; and
which
of time and labor,
have cost a very large amount
works,
many
would
be.
less value than
of much
thus rendered
are
they otherwise
of which
of 1837 Bessel published two
In the summer
treatises,one
devoted
of the irregularity
of the influence
to the consideration
was
and their comparof the earth's figureupon
geodetic measurements,
ison
other
with astronomical
the
while
determinations,
gave the axes
of the oblate spheroid,which
seemed
to
closelyto
correspond most
Astr.
Nachr., bd.
of meridian
arcs
(Schum.,
existingmeasurements
xiv.,No. 329, s. 269, No. 833, s. 315). The results of his calculation

20

COSMOS.

of

degrees,as follows : The semi-axis major

a
ly
rotatingspheroid,a form that approximates most closeof
to the
our
3272077*14
earth, was
irregularfigure

measurements

of

or
20,924,774 feet ; the semi-axis minor, 3261139-33
toises,
toises,or 20,854,821 feet; the length of the earth's quadrant,
5131179-81
the
toises,or 32,811,799 feet;
length of
57013-109
meridian
mean
a
toises,or 364,596 feet;
degree,
the length of a paralleldegree at 0" latitude,and
quently
consethat of an
57108-52
equatorialdegree,
toises,or
of
the
at
a
feet;
40449-371
365,186
length
parallel
degree 45",
of the earth,
the
o
r
258,657
feet;
toises,
ellipticity
-g-g-gvfBT'
and the length of a geographicalmile, of which
sixtygo to
an
equatorialdegree,951-8 toises,or 6086*5 feet.

The

table

the meridian
found

been

of the

length of
degree from the equator to the pole,as it has
from observations,and therefore modified by the
on

21

page

shows

the increase

of attraction

local disturbances

toises for the semi-axis

were, 3271953*854
for the semi-axis

major

; 3261072-900

toises

for the length of a mean

meridian
gree
de; and
that is to say, for the ninetieth
part of the earth's quadrant
An
of 68 toises,
toises.
to the equator) 57011-453
error
(vertically
minor

"

"

410-8

or

feet,which

that had

detected

was

by Puissant,in

adopted, in 1808, by
for determining the distance

Institute

been

the mode

Commission

of calculation

of the National

of the

parallelsof Montjouy,
Formentera,
near
Bessel, in the year
Barcelona, and Mola,
of
1841, to submit his previous calculations regarding the dimensions
the earth to a new
revision.
(Schum., Astr. Nachr.,bd. xix.,No. 438,
This correction yielded for the length of the earth's quads. 97-1 16).
rant
w
hich
had
been
5130740
tained
obi
nstead
of
5131179-81
toises,
toises,
led

in

with

in accordance
for the

length

mean

is about

numbers

The

of

0*611

The

of

the
a

toise

of

error

would

therefore

255-63

for the entire circumference

originalassumption
which

the metre

amounts,
1756-27
the

than

the

for the

toises,which

metres,

to

Bessel's

21563-92
The

entire

metres,

last determination

the
at

it

which

between

the

Mtsures, according

et

ference,
of the earth's circum3123

to

geographicalmiles,
to

lat.

with
toises,

difference

circumference,
two

45"

at

latest calculations.

geographicalmiles,

des Poids

part
forty-millionth

speaking, 1-84. According

determined
was
length of the metre

according

or

10000856

of the earth.

is almost

degree

quadrant,5131180

of the Commission

was

meridian

; and

toises,which

the result of Bessel's

toises,is therefore

give 40003423

of the metre

degree, 57013-109

meridian
more

given in the text are

length of the meridian

mean

to

first determination

earliest

0*5130740

ought

to

metres,
or,

more

or
curately
ac-

determinations,
of

toise,while

be 0-5131180

of

is,therefore, 0-038
length of the metre
sel
established
been
The
of a French
line.
metre
by Bestherefore,
has,
its
is
which
instead
French
of
443*334
443*296,
as
lines,
equal to
ard,
standnatural
so-called
this
value.
(Compare also, on
present legal
Faye, Lerons de Cosmoyrajdue,1852, p. 93.)

toise.

The

difference

for the

THE

SIZE

THE

OF

21

EARTH.

Length
Degree for

The

Geographical
of the
of the

Latitude

Countries.

Middle
measured

66"
Svreden

66
56

Russia

54
54

Prussia

Denmark

....

Hanover

France

North

America

East

Indies

Quito

(s. l.)

of the
Arc.

Arc.

"M' 10'
37
3 55 5
53 26-0

19

of the

MiJdie

Arc

obtained

Observers.

as

from

Observations, and
given in Feet.
37' ll." -t5

3054734

57

365SS2-1
365363-0

30 4

28-9

30

29-0

13 -7
166

31

53 3

45-0

57

194

59

52

44

51

39

12

21-5

112

8
32

20-8

31

04

2-5

van
berg.
Maupertuis.
Struve, Tenner.
Bessel, Baeyer.

3G5396-0
3650S7-0

Schumacher.

3(i5400-0

32
35

Cape of Good
Hope (s. l.).

Length
measured

52
52

England

Latitude

of
the

3G5071

13

364951

1}
-5

12

22

12-7

3G4671

28

45-0

363785-1

15

57

407

34

53-4

3C3044-0
362959-6

3-5

363625-2

Gauss.

Roy, Mudge,
Delambre,

Mechain,
Biot, Arago.

Mason, Dixon.
Everest.
Lambton,
Lambton.
La

Condamine,
Bouguer.

IS

30

13

17-5

364S19-2

Lacaille.

35

43

20

34

347

3G4160-0

Maclear.

Kater.

of the

determination

urement
figureof the earth by the measlongitudeon different parallels
requires
of different places.
very great accuracy in fixingthe longitudes
Cassini de Thury and Lacaille employed, in 1740, powder
signalsto determine a perpendicularline at the meridian of
In more
Paris.
recent
survey
times, the great trigonometrical
of England has determined,by the help of far better instruments
and with greater accuracy, the lengthsof the arcs
of parallelsand
the differences of the meridians
between
Dover
and
Beachy Head and Dunnose, as well as between
Falmouth.
These
determinations
were, however, only made
for differences of longitude of 1" 26' and
6" 22 V*
By far

The

of degreesof

the

considerable

most

carried

on

chain

surveys is the one

the meridians
of Marennes, on

between
of

coast

of these

France, and Fiume.

of the

Alps, and

It extends

over

that

was

the western
the western

the

plainsof Milan and Padua,

in a direct distance of 15" 32/ 27", and was
executed
under
the direction of Brousseaud
and Largeteau,Plana
and
Caralmost entirely
under the so-called mean
lini,
of 45".
parallel
The numerous
pendulum experiments which have been conducted
in the neighborhood of mountain
chains have
firmed
conin the most
remarkable
the previously-recogmanner
nized
influences of those local attractions

from

the

suits of
*

comparison

of astronomical

geodeticmeasurements,

Airy, Figure of

the

Earth,

which

inferred

were

latitudes with

the

re"

f
in the

Encycl.Metrop., 1849, p.

214:-.

216.

t Biot, Astr.

Physique,t. ii.,p. 482,

and

t.

iii.,
p.

482.

very

ac-

22

cosmos.

In

addition

measurement

still to refer to

have
the

for the direct

secondary methods
meridian
and
degree on
parallelarcs, we

the two

to

of

purely astronomical
This

figureof the earth.

the earth

exerts

upon

Laplace, who

motion

the

was

the
moon,

the

cause

of

action which
or, in

longitudesand

discover

first to

determination

upon

of the

in lunar
inequalities

the

words, upon

the

is based

other

latitudes.

of these

equalities
in-

taught us their applicationby ingeniously

afford
the
vidual
indihow
which
they
showing
great advantage
of a degree and pendulum experiments
measurements
are
incapable of yielding,namely, that of showing in one
We
would
singleresult the mean
here,
figureof the earth."
of
the
refer
of
discoverer
the
this
to
again,
happy expression
"
that an
tory,
method,
astronomer, without
leavinghis observahas

may
he

also

discover

dwells, from

the individual

the

of

motion

form

of the earth

in which

of the

heavenly bodies."
After his last revision of the inequalities
in the longitude
and by the aid of several thouand latitude of our
sand
satellite,
of

observations

found, by

means

one

place
Burg, Bouvard, and Burckhardt,f Laof his lunar method, a compression

which
is the more
curate
geodeticalmeasurement,
important from its
lantic,
and Atserving as a comparison of the levels of the Mediterranean
the parallelof the chain of the Pyrenees by
has been made
on
Corabceuf,Delcros, and Peytier.
*
"It is very remarkable
that an
mer,
astronoCosmos, vol. i.,p. 168.
without
leaving his observatory,may, merely by comparing his
with analyticalresults,not only be enabled
observations
to determine
of the earth, but also
the size and degree of ellipticity
with
exactness
results that otherwise
and moon
the sun
could only
its distance from
the
to
most
remote
be arrived at by long and arduous
expeditions
parts
The
of both hemispheres.
moon
therefore,by the observation
may,
render appreciableto the higher departments of asof its movements,
tronomy
of the earth, as it taught the early astronomers
the ellipticity
of its eclipses."(Laplace,Expos,
earth by means
the rotundityof our
have already in Cosmos, vol. iv.,p.
du Syst.du Monde, p. 280.) We
of an
almost
mention
analogous opticalmethod
145-146, made
gested
sugbased
the
observation
and
that the intensity
by Arago,
upon
of the ash-colored
light that is to say, the terrestrial lightin the moon
information
in reference
to the transparency
might afford us some
entire atmosphere. Compare also Airy, in the Encycl.Metrop.,
of our
of the earth's ellipticity
the determination
by means
p. 189, 236, on
"

"

"

motions

of the

which
and

he

of

draws

nutation.
would

widely
t.

the

moon,

as

regarding
According

to

only give,for

differing values

(y-^jand

well as at p. 231-235,
the figure of the earth

on

from

the

ences
infer-

sion
preces-

the latter determination

investigations,
the earth's ellipticity,
limitingand
-i-y). Astro?}. Physique, 3eme ed.,
Biot's

ii.,1844, p. 463.
ed. de 1846,
f Laplace, Mecanique Celeste,

t. v.,

p. 16, 53.

FIGURE

THE

amounting to ^-J^,which
by the measurements
of the

vibrations

The

23

EARTH.

THE

OF

nearly equal to that yielded

of
latitude
a
(-^17).
degree
third
of determining
means
pendulum yielda
is very

of

lation
figureof the earth (or,in other words, the rethe
of the major to the minor
axis,on
suppositionof
our
planetbeing of a spheroidalform),by the elucidation of
the law according to which
gravityincreases from the equator
Arabian
the pole. The
and
toward
more
astronomers,
of
tenth
close
the
at
the
Ebn-Juuis,
especially
century, and
Califs,*first
during the brilliant epoch of the Abbassidian
of time, and,
employed these vibrations for the determination
after a neglectof six hundred
method
was
years, the same
again adopted by Galileo,and Father Riccioli,at Bologna.t
The pendulum, in conjunctionwith a system of wheels used
first employed in the imperfect
to regulatethe clocks (which were
experiments of Sanctorius at Padau, in 1612, and
then in the more
perfectobservations of Huygens in 1656),
of gravity
gave the first material proof of the different intensity
at different latitudes in Kicher's
comparison of the beats of

the

the

same

Picard

clock

astronomical

and

Paris

at

Cavenne, in 1672.

indeed, engaged in the equipment of this important

was,

self
to himassume
voyage, but he does not on that account
of
first
left
the merit
its
Paris in
suggestion. Richer

October, 1671
of

Picard, in the descriptionof his measurement

of
in
which
the same
latitude,
degree
appeared
;

year,1:
merely
*

Cosmos,

the first who

refers to

Inscr.,t.

conjecturewhich

advanced

was

Edward

Bernard, an Englishman, was

of penduapplicationof the isochronism
lum-oscillati
in the writings of the Arabian
astronomers.
(See
Robert
to Dr.
Oxford, April, 1683, and addressed
Philos. Transac, vol. xii.,
Dublin.
p. 567.)

f Freret de V Etude
des

"

vol. i.,p. 166.

recognized the

letter,dated
Huntington, in
his

and

xviii.

X Picard, Mesure

de la

Ancienne
Philosophic

in the Mem.

de VAcad.

(1753), p. 100.
de la

Terre, 1671, Art.

It is

4.

scarcelyprobable
Academy even
before the year 1671, to the effect that the intensityof gravityvaries
with the latitude (Lalande, Astronomic, t. iii.,
p. 20 " 2668), should
have been made
the
illustrious
had certainly
who
by
Huygens,
sented
prela
his Discours
la
de
the
Cause
Gravite
to
sur
Academy in the
that

the

course

conjecture which

of the year

16G9.

was

advanced

There

is

no

in the

mention

of the

shortening of the seconds-pendulum,

by Richer at Cayenne, although a reference
to

this work

(one of which

must

Paris

made

which

was

it occurs

in this treatise

being

observed

ments
supplecompleted after the
consequently later than 1687).
hujus libelli scriptaest,
pars
have

to

in the

been

publicationof Newton's
Principia,and
writes
follows:
"Maxima
as
Huygens
Lutetian
cum
locum, ubi de alteradegerem (to 1681) ad eum
usque
Terra?."
Sec also the explanation
tione,quje pendulis accidit e motu

24

cosmos.

by

of the

one

members,

at

meeting of
a
body must

the

Academy,

ing
accord-

be less at the equaweight of

tor
the
in
the
of
the
rotation
of
at
than
pole,
consequence
that although it would
He adds, doubtfully,
earth."
appear,
and
certain
made
in
logna,
Bofrom
experiments
London, Lyons,
if the seconds-pendulum must
the
be shortened
as
we
nearer
approach to the equator ; yet, on the other hand,
convinced
of the accuracy of the measnot sufficiently
urements
he was
at the
adduced, because
Hague, notwithstanding
found
northern
its more
latitude,the pendulum lengthswere
The
at Paris.
the same
to be precisely
as
periodsat which
Newton
first became
lum
acquainted with the important penduobtained
results that had
been
by Richer as early as
not
1672, although they were
printed until 1679, and at
he first heard of the discoverythat had been made
which
by
Cassini,before the year 1666, of the compression of Jupiter's
the

which

to

not
unfortunately

disk, have
exactness

as

the

fact

been

of his very

recorded

with

the

same

tardy acquaintance with

The observations
made
given in Cosmos, vol. ii.,
p. 351.
have
until
I
not
were
as
1679,
published
already
by
Cayenne
until fullysix years after his
observed
in the text, and therefore
not
annals of the Academie
what
the
is
des
more
remarkable,
return, and,
contain no
portant
notice during this long period of Richer's imInscriptions
of the pendulum clock and of the simple
double
observations
first became
seconds-pendulum. We do not know the time when Newton
with
Richer's
his
earliest
oretical
theown
results,although
acquainted
speculationsregarding the figureof the earth date farther back
which

I have

Kicher

than

the

at

year

1665.

It would

appear

that

Newton

did

not

become

had
which
acquainted until 1682 with Picard's geodetic measurement,
of it at
heard
then "he
been published in 1671, and even
accidentally
edge
a meeting of the
Royal Society, which he was attending." His knowlBrewster
has shown
of this fact, as Sir David
{Memoirs of Sir I.
termination
exerted
influence
his devol.
a very
on
Newton,
i.,p. 291),
important
the fall
of the earth's diameter, and of the relation which
of -a body upon
our
planet bears to the force which retains the moon
Newton's
have
been similarlyinfluenced
in its orbit.
views may
by
had been ascertained
the knowledge of the spheroidal form of Jupiter,which
in 1691, in
first described
by Cassini prior to 1666, but was
Could
Newton
de P Academie
the Memoires
des Sciences,t. ii.,p. 108.
which
of
have learned
much
earlier
of
some
a
publication,
thing
any
of the sheets were
in the possession of Maraldi?
seen
by Lalande
oirs
Mem(Compare Lalande, Astr., t. iii.,
p. 335, " 3345, with Brewster,
Amid
vol.
Sir
I.
vol.
and
i.,p. 165.)
Cosmos,
of
i.,p. 322,
Neicto",
the simultaneous
labors of Newton, Huygens, Picard, and Cassini, it
is often very difficult to arrive, with any certainty,at a justappreciation
of the diffusion of scientific knowledge, owing to the tardiness
tions,
the result of their observaknown
with which
at that
men
day made
the publicationof which
by
frequentlydelayed
was, moreover,
accidental

circumstances.

26

cosmos.

pendulum lias been determined with as much accuracy as the

and
positionof the place in respect to its latitude,
longitude,
elevation

the measured

on

of
Great

Captain

of

admit
individually

by

the

French

mers
astrono-

ations
part of a meridian arc, and the observIvater in the trigonometricalsurvey of

Britain,concurred
the

proportionalto

sea.

experiments made

pendulum

The

level of the

the

above

in

showing

being referred
of the

square

that the results do

to

variation

sine of the

of

not

gravity

latitude.

On

the

English government determined,at the suggestion

of the Vice-presidentof the Royal Society,Davies
which
ed
intrustGilbert,to fit out a scientific expedition,
was
friend Edward
to my
Sabine, who had accompanied Captain
tronomer.
Parry on his first polar voyage in the capacityof asthis account

In

the

of this

course

the years 1822

and
shores
of Africa,from

through
the

western

of St.

Thomas,
America, from

South

his way
to
after which

the

near

Bahia

the West

he

1823,

the mouth

and

the

by

tinued
con-

was

coasted

Sierra Leone

equator, then

to

Indies

which

voyage,

to

along
and
Isl-

the

Ascension

to

of the

Orinoco, on
England States,

New

penetratedinto the Arctic regions as far as

Spitzbersen,and a hitherto unexplored and ice-bound portion
of East Greenland
(74" 327). This brilliant and ablyconducted
had
the advantage of being mainly directed
expedition
and
of embracing
sole objectof investigation,
to one
tude.
pointswhich are separatedfrom one another by 93" of latihe

field of observation

The

of

measurements

and

arctic
a

in the French

degreeswas

it had

; but

zones

linear series of

remote

more

the

expeditionfor
from

the

the

tial
equinoc-

great advantage of

senting
pre-

ing
points of observation,and of afford-

of

comparison with the partialcurvature

of the arcs
obtained by geodetico-astronomical
observations.
Biot, in 1824, carried the line of pendulum measurements
from Formentera
(38" 39' 5G"),where he had alreadymade'
observations
conjointlywith Arago and Chaix, as far as
Unst, the most
northerlyof the Shetland Islands (60" 45'
he extended
it to the parallelsof
25//),and with Mathieu
These
Bordeaux, Figeac, and Padua, as far as Fiume.*
direct

means

Croyere),which, however,

do

not

comparison

bear

with

the

former

in

point of
*

accuracy.
Biot and Arago, Recueil

1821,

p.

465-473.

526-540;

and

d'Observ.

Biot,

Traitc

Geodesiques et Astronomiques,
Physique,t. ii.,1811, p.

d'Astr.

THE

FIGURE

OF

THE

27

EARTH.

tainly
compared with those of Sabine, cerof
whole
northern
for the compression
the
give -j^jy
quadrant ; but when separatedinto two halves, they yield a
still more
varying result,giving -^g from the equator to
in
from 45" to the pole.* It has been
shown
45", and -jiginstances, and in both hemispheres,that there is an
many
appreciableinfluence exerted by surrounding denser rocks
(basalt,
green-stone,diorite,and melaphyre, in oppositionto
in the
specifically
lightersecondary and tertiaryformations),
volcanic islandsfinfluence gravityand augmanner
same
as
ment
which
its intensity.Many of the anomalies
presented

pendulum results,when

themselves

in these

being explained by

observations
any

visible

do

of

not, however, admit

of the

geologicalcharacters

soil.

hemisphere we possess a small number

of admirable, but very widely-diffused
observations,made by
Freycinet,Duperrey, Fallows,Liitke,Brisbane,and Rumker.
For

the southern

the Variation in
Sabine [Expcr.for determining
Op. cit.,
p. 488.
the Length of the Pendulum
Seconds, 1825, p. 352) finds ^-g^.^
vibrating
standing
all the thirteen stations of his pendulum expedition, notwithfrom
*

British

their great distances from one

another
in the
and
from
increased
all
the
pendulum
these,
by
;
and of the French
geodetic measurement
survey

northern

isphere
hem-

stations of the
from

Formen-

Dunkirk, comprising,therefore,in all a comparison of twentyfive points of observation,he again found ^-^-.-yIt is still more
ing,
strikthat far to the west
as
was
"Liitke,
already observed by Admiral
of the Atlantic
of Petropawlowski and New
region,in the meridians
Ai-changel,the pendulum lengths yield a much
greater ellipticity,
As
influence of the
tne
the
of
namely, ^jpreviouslyappliedtheory
air surrounding the pendulum
and
led to an error
in the calculation,
had rendered
correction
a
what
as
early as 1786 (when a somenecessary
obscure
of
was
one
given by the Chevalier de BuatJ, on account
the difference in the loss of weight of solid bodies,when
they are either
at rest in a fluid,
or
impelled in a vibratorymotion, Bessel,with his
usual analyticalclearness,
laid down
in his Unterthe followingaxiom
iiber
die
des
suchungen
s. 32, 63, 126Lange
einfachenSeciindenpendels,
129 : "When
a
body is moving in a fluid (the atmosphere), the latter
be
belongs with it to the moved
system, and the moving force must
distributed
not
only over the particlesof the solid moved
body, but
also over
all the moved
On the experiments
particlesof the fluid."
of Sabine
and Baily, which
Bessel's
important
practically
originatedin
pendulum correction (reductionto a vacuum), see John Herschel
in the Memoir
of Francis Bail//,
1815, p. 17-21.
t Cosmos, vol. i.,p. 167.
Compare, for the phenomena occurring
in islands,Sabine,Pend. Exper., 1825,
du Penp. 237 ; and Liitke, Obs.
dule invariable,
a
This
work contains
de 1826-1829, p. 241.
execntees
16
at
remarkable
rocks
of the
occurring
table,p. 239, on the nature
pendulum
so
stations,from .Melville Island (79" 50' N. lat.)to Valparai(32" 2' S. lat.).

tera

to

"

28

cosmos.

These

observations

have

confirmed

fact

which

had

been

in the northern
demonstrated
hemisphere,namely,
strikingly
is
not
the same
for all places
that the intensity
of gravity
the
that
and
the
increase of gravity
same
latitude,
having
the poles appears
the equator toward
from
to be subjected
different meridians.
under
to different laws
Although the
made
by Lacaille at the Cape of
pendulum measurements
Good
igating
Hope, and those conducted in the Spanish circumnavexpeditionby Malaspini,may have led to the belief
much
that the southern hemisphere is,in general,
more
pressed
combetween
the
than the northern, comparisons made

Holland
the one
on
hand, and
Falkland Islands and New
New
the other, have,
on
York, Dunkirk, and Barcelona
that the conexact
trary
results,shown
however, by their more
I have

is the case, as
From
the above

already elsewhere
it follows

data

that

indicated.*

the

pendulum (although

in
an
unimportant instrument
by no means
it
of
sort
a
were
plummet
geognosticobservations,being as
it is

into the

cast

deep

the form

determine

observations

of

planet with

our

which

stations

mean

comparison

the

Isle of

used

the

of Lacaille's

France

that

with

made

were

the

belong
compression
to

day did
appliances of

at

the

which

Atrevida, under

and

erta

by

strata of the

unseen

the

earth)does

not

exactitude

same

Eduard
Schmidt
graphic,
(Mathem. und Phys. GeoCosmos, vol. i.,p. 1G9.
Th. i.,s. 394) has separated from a large number
of the pendulum

and

Malaspina,
hemisphere, from

Ysb-Ti'

observations

Paris,but

not

afford the

Borda

and

the corvettes

of

southern
of

board

on

command

the

MatMeu
at

the

Cape

same

Kater, and

of Good
of

certaintyas
the

more

thirteen

which

obtained

instruments

Descubi-

those

he

tained
ob-

from
"%$"."%

Hope

and

measurement
we

now

modern

obtain
methods

The
a
fitting
place to notice the
present would seem
experiments of Foucault,which afford so high a proof of the
ingenuityof the inventor,and by which we obtain ocular evidence of
of the pendulum, whose
the rotation of the earth on its axis by means
from
vibration
rotates
to
east
west.
slowly
(Comptes rendus
plane of
des Sc, Seance du 3 Fevrier, 1851, t. xxxii.,p. 135.) Experiments
de V Acad,
toward
the east in observations
for noticingthe deviation
church
into mines, as sugof fallingbodies,dropped from
towers
or
gested
and
a
Reich, require
by Benzenbei'g
very great height,while
of observation.

beautiful

Foucault's
with

apparatus

makes

the effects of the earth's

rotation

tible
percep-

the
long. We must not confound
which- may
be explained by rotation
(as,for instance,
phenomena
tion
Richer's clock experiments at Cayenne, diurnal aberration, the deviaof projectiles,
trade-winds,etc.)with those that may at any time
the members
of
be produced by Foucault's
apparatus, and of which
del C'anento appear
had some
the Academia
to have
idea,although they
did not farther develop it (Antinori,in the Comptes rendus,t. xxxii.,
p. 635).
a

pendulum only

six feet

FIGURE

THE

THE

OF

of

29

EARTH.

of our
degree or the movements
and individually
satellite. The concentric,elliptical,
homogeneous
strata, which increase in densityaccordingto certain
the

as

measurement

the
of

give rise

earth,may

the

differ

accordingto
several points. If
much

are

crust, the

however, much
to

results,or
the various

take

we

sel's last
inruTTiJ'

of

intensity

surface,which

produce

of the fused

motion

pendulum

Even

where

of the

assumed

be

not

can

be ascribed

to

these deviations

the consolidation

surface

the

great

the

from

deduced

If

centre

has
regularity,

masses.

is,

measurements

the

at

present day

coincidence

to

in the

discovered

been

by

of the points of observation,

grouping and combination
the pendulum always gives a greater ellipticity

(varying between
been

than

results of

obvious

an

the
in the

earth's

which

the internal

of observation.

errors

local fluctuations

recent

figureof

too

toward

and densityof the

character,position,

more

difference of the

The

to

the conditions

modified by
locally

be

the surface

pointsof the

individual

gravityat

outer

from

of distance

functions

limits

-^5

and

the measurements

-jwu) than
of

could

have

degree.

accordance
with Beswhich,
ellipticity
is
now
determination,
generallyadopted,namely,
we

In Grecian

the

snaU

in

find that

antiquitytwo

bulging* at

the

regions of

accordance

with

the earth

the

equator

designatedas

were

the

prevalent opinionsof the

time, by remarkable
protuberances of the surface, namely, the high
the equator.
"The
north of Asia and the land lying under
high and
naked
Scythian plains,"says Hippocrates (De A'ere et Aqiiis,
" xix.,p.
by mountains, stretch far upward
being crowned
72, Littre),"without
A similar opinion had previouslybeen
of the Bear."
to the meridian
ascribed to Empedocles (Pint.,De Plac. Philos.,ii.,
3). Aristotle {Meteor.,
cording
i.,1 a 15, p. 66; Ideler)says that the older meteorologists,acto whose
opinions the sun "did not go under the earth,but
that the protuberances of the earth toward
passed round it,"considered
of the disajmearance of the sun, or of
the north were
the cause
in the compilation of the Problems
the production of night. And
ascribed to
(xxvi., 15, p. 941, Bekker), the cold of the north wind was
in all these
the elevation of the soil in this region of the earth,and
there is no
reference
to mountains, but
merely to a bulging
passages
of the earth into elevated plateaux. I have
already elsewhere shown
alone makes
that
who
of the
use
(Asie Centrale,t. i.,p. 58)
Strabo,
6po~edia,says that the difference of climate
very characteristic word
guished
which
arises from
be distingeographical positionmust
every where

being characterized,in

from
Armenia

that

which

we

ascribe
in

to

elevation
which

above

the

sea,

is inhabited

in

by

Lycaonia,
(xi.,p. 522, Casaub.),
(xii.,p. 568), and in Upper India,in the auriferous country
of the Derdi
in southern
(xv.,p. 706). "Even
parts of the world,"
if it be also a
the geographer of Amasia,
says
every hijih district,
plain,is cold" (ii.,
cndFolybius ascribe the very
p. 73). Eratosthenes

wild

asses

"

30

COSMOS.

to

amounts

rately,
accu645,457 feet; about Hi, or, more
As
miles.
a
comparison has
geographical

about

11 "492

prevailsunder the equator not only to the

sun
(Geminus, Elem. Astron.,c. 13; Cleom.,
more
rapid
especiallyto the bulgingof the earth (see
Theor.,1, 6), but more
Cgc.l.
Both maintain, acCrit. de la Gtogr., t. iii.,
cording
p. 150-152).
my Ex amen
that
the
district
to the testimony of Strabo
(ii.,
lying
p. 97),
much
immediately below the equator is the highest,on which account
of the very large accumulation
of
rain falls there, in consequence
those winds
clouds at the period when
northern
prevail,which change
of the year." Of these two
with the season
opinions regarding the
tus)
Asia (theScythian Europe of Herodoelevation of the land in Northern
of the two, with the pertiand in the equatorialzone, the former
nacity
sand
characteristic of error, has kept its ground for nearly two thouinterrupted
unto the geologicalmyth of an
years, and has given occasion
plateau in the Tartar district lying to the north of the
in reference
Himalayas, while the other opinion could only be justified
and
the
of
a
tropicalzone,
consequently
to
Asia, lying beyond
portion
plateau,Mem,"
applies only to the colossal," elevated or mountain
moderate

which

temperature

transit of the

"

in the most

is celebrated

which

poetry.
wdiere

(See Wilson's
Meru

the word

is

and

ancient

noblest

Sanscrit and

Diet.

explained

signifyan

to

memorials

of Indian

English,1832,
elevated

p. 674,
plateau.) I

thought it necessary to enter thus circumstantiallyinto this question,

in order
that I might refute the hypothesis of the intellectual

have

Greek
from
writers,and
indicating"
any passages
of tropicalrain,interprets
to treat
merely alluding to one which seemed
the opinion advanced
regarding bulgings of the soil as having
reference
de
to compression or elongation at the poles. In
the Mem.
des Inscriptions,
VAcad.
t. xviii.,
Freret
self
him1753, p. 112,
expresses
follows : " To explain the rains which
as
prevailed in those equinoctial
first made
regions,which the conquests of Alexander
known,

Freret, who, without

it

supposed that

was

the

poles toward

their progress,
whose
surface

the

they
at

there

equator, where,
arrested

were

the

equator

which

currents

were

by

in

drove

default

the

is farther

general

removed

the clouds

of mountains
elevation

from

from

to

of the

the centre

stop

soil,
than

poles. Some physicistshave ascribed to the globe the figure

of a spheroid,which
bulges at the equator and is flattened toward the
poles;while on the contrary, in the opinion of those of the ancients
who
believed that the earth was
elongated toward the poles,the polar
farther
removed
than
the equatorialzone
are
from the centre
regions

under

the

of the earth."

find

can

no

evidence

in the

works

of the ancients

to

In the third section of the firstbook of Strabo

justifythese assertions.
has
(p. 48, Casaub.), it is expressly stated that, "after Eratosthenes
observed
that the whole
earth is spherical,although not like a sphere
that has been made
by a turning-lathe
(an expression that is borrowed
from Herodotus, iv.,36), and exhibits many
deviations from this form,
adduces
he
modifications
of shape which
have been produced
numerous
and fire,
currents
by the action of water
by earthquakes, subterranean
of wind (elastic
of the same
kind, which,
vapors?), and other causes
for the rotundity
however, are not given in the order of their occurrence,
of the entire earth
modifications
lesser

in

no

vanishing in

results from

the co-ordination

affectingthe

of the whole, such

genei-alform of our earth,the

degree
greater." Subsequentlywe

the

read, also

in Gros-

FIGURE

THE

of astronomical

the earliest times

from

frequentlybeen made
inquirybetween

very

31

EARTH.

THE

OF

elevation
swelling or convex
mountain
and
of the earth's surface
carefullymeasured
I will select as objectsof comparison the highestof
masses,
the known
peaks of the Himalayas, namely, that of Kinfixed by Colonel Waugh
at 28,174
which
was
tschindjinga,
feet,and that portionof the elevated plateauof Thibet which
is nearest

to

rova, and
is situated

of

of Rakas-Tal

lakes

sacred

the

and

Manassa-

Henry Strachey,
which, according to Lieutenant
at the mean
height of 15,347 feet. The bulging

planet at

our

this

the

equatorialzone

not quite
is,therefore,

"
that the earth,togetherwith the sea, is
translation,
The projecsurface.
the
two
tion
constitutingone and the same
spherical,
inconsiderable
and
remain
which
is
the
of
unnoticed,is
land,
may

admirable

kurd's

lost in such

magnitudes,so

that in these

cases

are

we

unable

to

ine
determ-

of a sphere
with the same
as in the case
accuracy
who
the
from
well
as
or
as
judges
sculptor,
turning-lathe,
by
his conceptionsof form, for here we
are
obliged to determine by phys
"
The world
ical and less delicate perception." (Strabo,ii.,
p. 112.)
of
and
work
of
much
of
work
nature
is at once
a
providence a
nature, inastoward
of
the
round
one
point,the centre
whole,
as all thingstend
which
they group themselves,the less dense element (water) containing
find the figthe denser (earth)."(Strabo,xvii.,
we
ure
p. 809.) Wherever
of the earth described by the Greeks, it is compared (Cleom., Cycl.
Theor.,i.,8, p. 51) with a flat or centrallydepresseddisk,a cylinder
find it generallyheld
we
(Anaximander),a cube or pyramid ; and, lastly,
of the Epicureans, who
to be a sphere,notwithstanding the long contest
its sphericalform

made

"

denied

the

tendency of

does

attraction

toward

the centre.

The

idea of

pression
com-

presented itself to their

imagination.
ened
lengthdrum-like
in one
direction.
The
form, rb cxviia Tv/urravoetdec,
which
from Leucippus (Plut.,
seems
more
especiallyto have emanated
De Plac.Pkilos.,
Galen. Hist. Phil.,cap. 21 ; Aristotle,De Coeh,
iii.,10;
ii.,13, p. 293 Bekker), appears to have been founded upon the idea of
a
hemisphere with a flat basis,which probably representedthe equator,
while the curvature
A passage in Pliny,
was
regardedas the oIkovjievt].
elucidates
this
while
Aristotle merely
Pearls
form,
(xi.,51),
regarding
the segments
of the sphere with the drum
(Meteorol, ii.,5,
compares
also find from
of
the commentary
a
10, Ideler,t. i.,p. 563), as we
ferring
Olympiodorus (Ideler,t. i.,p. 301). I have here purposely avoided rewell known
in Agathemerus
to me,
to two
are
passages, which
and
lib.
i.,cap. 1, p. 2, Hudson),
inEusebius("W?"7e/.
(De Geographia,
Prceparat.,t. iv.,p. 125, ed. Gaisford,1843), because they prove with
The

Eudoxus
stood

reference

in relation

have

only the

often ascribed

disk of Thales

to

to

one

another

as

1 to

the ancients
to

these

views

versions,

earth's disk values

2 ; the

same

is said

in

toDicffiarchus,the pupilof Aristotle,

who, however, advanced

specialproofsof the sphericalform of the earth (Marcian, Ca192). Hipparchus regarded the earth as TpaKE"eidTJc,
Thales
held it to be a sphere !"

own

lib. vi.,p.
yella,
and

writers

was

totallyforeign to them.
According
breadth
and
of the
for
the
length
gave

were

which

have

of Democritus

inaccuracylater

which

his

to

seem

elongated earth

what
"

not

32

cosmos.

times

three

as

mountains

above

great

as

great

the

as

the

highestot

it is almost

sea's level,but

our

five times

plateauof Thibet.

that of the eastern

as

of the

elevation

ought here to observe that the results of the earth's

ments
measurecompression,which have been obtained by mere
of the former
of a degree,or by combinations
with
far less* considerable
show
ences
differpendulum measurements,
of the equinoctial bulging than we
in the amount
should have been disposedat first sightto conclude from the
difference of the polar compresfractional numbers.
The
sions
7000
feet in the
to only about
(3-L and ^y) amounts
difference of the major and minor
tion
axes, basing the calculaWe

both

on

Vesuvius

Ul

limits

and

this is not

of the Brocken

mountains

twice
of

and

the difference

which

bulging

being only about one tenth of the

be yielded by a polar compression

would

www

As

soon

It has

the

earth
attain

it had

as

of

to

of the small

elevation

the

numerical

extreme

often

an

ascertained

degree,made
seemed

regarded

was

been

unnecessary

to
as

me

at

as

if the amount

somewhat

degree

very

by

accurate

more

different

of accuracy.

that
latitudes,

of the

doubtful

compression

merely
If

we

urements
meas-

from

take

^nt* ^iat tne

our

the

of

wish
values

difference

we
compression
"2^0"'
-j"Tr
2~irr"
-jj-j-^-,
radii is equal to 10,554, 10,905, 11,281, 11,684 toises, or
fluctuation of 30 units in
67,488, 69,554, 73,137, 74,714 feet. The
the denominator
produces only a fluctuation of 1130 toises,or 7126
compared with the
which, when
feet,in the polar radius,an amount
erable,
visible inequalitiesof the earth's surface,appears
so
very inconsidfind
that
the
cide
often surprisedto
that I am
experiments cointions
observasuch
within
closelyapproximating limits. Individual

of the
of

at

both

scattered

over

wide

surfaces

will indeed

teach

us

little more

than

importance to
already know, but it would be of considerable
that
all
have
been
made
the
the
measurements
over
connect
together
ally
entire surface of Europe, including in this calculation all astronomicdetermined
cember,
to myself,Depoints. (Bessel,in a letter addressed
carried out, we
should
then
1828.) Even if this plan were
be
garded
reonly know the form of that portion of the earth, which
may
as
a
peninsular projection,extending westward, about sixtysix and a half degrees from the great Asiatic Continent.
The steppes
of Northern
considerable
middle
the
Asia, even
Kirghis steppe, a
tion
porof which
I have myself seen, are
often interspersedwith
hills,
and in respect to uninterrupted levels,
be compared with the
can
not
The
latter,
Pampas of Buenos
Ayres, or the Llanos of Venezuela.
from
far removed
ately
which
all mountain
are
chains,and consist immedibelow the surface of secondary and tertiarystrata, having a very
and low degree of density,might, by differences in the results
uniform
of pendulum
yield very decisive conclusions in reference
vibrations,
of the deep internal
the
local
constitution
of the earth.
strata
to
Compare my Views of Nature, p. 2-8, 29-32.
what

wre

"

34

COSMOS.

feet and

at

the level of the

sea

(as,for instance,Carlini's

Hospice of Mont
Cenis,and Biot and
at Bordeaux); and, lastly,
'to the
delicate and
decisive
in 1837
experiments undertaken
thoroughly
by
Reich and Bailey with the ingeniouslyconstructed
torsionobservations

at

the

Mathieu's

which

balance

was

invented

by John

Cavendish

Wollaston.*

given
by
of determiningthe densityof
to

modes

Mitchell,and

quently
subsethree

The

planet(by vicinity
a
mass,
plateau,
and the balance)have
been
tailed
deso
already
circumstantially
in a former part of the Cosmos (vol.i.,p. 157), that it
for us
notice the experiments given in
to
only remains
Reich's new
and prosecutedby that indefatigable
treatise,
observer
the years 1847
and
during the interval between
to

mountain

1850-f

The

of

state

our

elevation

our

of

mountainous

whole

with
the present
may, in accordance
ner
knowledge,be arranged in the followingman-

Shehallien,
accordingto
the
Mont

minimum

4*559,

the
as

Cenis,observations

of the maximum

mean

4*867

and

found

by Playfair
Carlini,with the

of

4*713
correction

Giulio
*

of

of
4*950

Baily,Exper. with the Torsion Rod for determiningthe mean

Density
Earth, 1843, p. 6; John Herschel, Memoir
of Erancis Baily,1845,

the

p. 24.

f Reich, Neue
them.

Versuche

physischenClasse

der

mit

der

Kon.

Drehwage,

Sdchsischen

in the Ahhandl.

der

der
Gesellschaft

Wissen-

ma-

The most
recent
schaftenzu Leipzig,1852, bd. i.,s. 405, 418.
ments
experiof my respected friend Professor
Reich
somewhat
approximate
work.
I have
more
closelyto the results given in JBaily'sadmirable
obtained
the mean
5*5772 from the whole
series of experiments : (a)
with the tin ball and the longer thicker copper wire, the result was
of 0*0113
and with
5*5712, with a probable error
; (b) with the tin ball,
the shorter thinner
well
with
the
tin
ball
and the
as
as
wire,
copper
bi-filar iron wire, 5*5832, with a probable error
of 0*0149.
Taking
this error
into account, the mean
in (a) and (b) is 5*5756.
The
sult
reobtained
by Baily, and which was certainlydeduced from a larger
number
of experiments (5*660),might indeed
give us a somewhat
higher density,as it obviouslyrose in proportion to the greater lightness
used in the experiments, which
of the balls that were
either
were
of glass or ivory. (Reich,in Poggend., Annalen, bd. lxxxv., s. 190.
Compare also Whitehead
Hearn, in the Philos. Transact, for 1847, p.
the torsion-balance
The
motion
of
observed
was
217-229.)
by Baily
of the reflection of a scale obtained
from
a
by means
mirror, which
attached
of the balance, a method
that had been
to the middle
was
first suggested by Reich, and was
employed by Gauss in his magnetic
observations.
The use of such a mirror,which is of great importance,
the scale may be read off,
from the exactness
with which
was
proposed
the
1826.
der
by Poggendorff as early as
{Annalen
Physik.,bd.
year
vii.,s. 121.)

DENSITY

THE

Ttit

OF

Cavendish
torsion-balance.

THE

35

EARTH.

tion)
(accordingto Baily'scalcula5*44:8

Reich,

1838

5-440

Bailv, 1832

Reich,
A

far

5-660

1847-1850

5-577

important result

more

than

in reference

to the

densityof

obtained

that

by Baily (1842) and Reich

brought out by Airy's experiments
(1847-1850) has
conducted
with such exemplary care
with the pendulum,
in
of
in
the
the Mines
Harton,
According to these
year 1854.
is
the
of
density 6*566, with a probable error
experiments
0*182
(Airy,in the Philos. Transact, for 1856, p. 342). A
fessor
slightmodification of this numerical
value,made
by Prothe

earth

been

Stokes

on

account

of
lipticity

the

lies at 54"

48' north

of the effect of the rotation

earth, gives

and

density for Harton,

the

at 6*565,
latitude,

el-

which

for the equator

and

6-489.

at

of the

last results

gives5-62 for the density

of the earth (takingthat of water
as
1),and consequently
much
than the densest
more
finelygranular basalt,which,
accordingto the numerous
experiments of Leonhard, varies
from 2-95 to 3-67,and more
than that of magnetic iron (4-9
and not much
to 5*2),
less than that of the native arsenic of
"We have
Marienbe'rgor Joachimsthal.
already elsewhere
observed (Cosmos,vol. i.,
tion
p. 167) that from the great distribuof secondary and tertiary
formations,and of those upheaved
The

mean

which

strata

of

our

two

constitute

earth's surface

being scattered

in the

the

(the Plutonic
form

oceanic

and

of islands

space),the solid portionof the upper

possesses a
with
assume

visible continental

over

Rio;aud that the relation of

2-4 to 2 -6.
the

of

area

crust

If

we

solid to the fluid

27, and if further we

consider that the latter has been found by experimentswith
the sounding-leadto extend
to a depth of 27,700 feet,
the
whole
densityof the upper strata, which underlie the dry
and oceanic surfaces,
scarcelyequals 1*5. The distinguished
of
observed that the author
geometricianPlana has correctly
the Mecanique Celeste was
in error
when
he ascribed to the
of the earth a densityequal to that of granite,
upper stratum
he estimated
somewhat
which, moreover,
highly at 3, which
would
give him 10*047 for the densityof the centre of the
earth.*
This densitywould, according to Plana, be 16*27
*

our

globe is

upheavals

small

part of the earth's

densityscarcelyreachingfrom

surface of

volcanic

part

as

10

e'd. de 1846,
Laplace, Mecanique Celeste,

t. v.,

p. 57.

The

mean

36
if

cosmos.

we

but

that of the upper

strata
^1*83, which differs
of
from the total density
1-5 or 1"8 of the earth's
slightly
assume

pendulum, no less than the horizontal

certainlybe designatedas a geognostic
geology of the inaccessible parts of the

vertical

The

crust.

torsion-balance,may
but

instrument

interior of

our

ated

globeis,like

celestial
In

the

bodies,to be

portion of

the astrognosy of the unilluminreceived with considerable

tion.
cau-

work, which

my

treats

of

volcanic

wholly pass in silence those problems

have been suggestedby other inquirersin reference to
which
the currents
pervading the general fluid in the interior of
ing
ebbour
planet,or the probable or improbable periodically
filled
and flowingmovement
in individual and imperfectly
basins,or the existence of portionsof space, having a very
phenomena, I

not

can

of

than 2-7, since

granite can not be set down at more
potash-mica, and green uni-axial magnesia-mica
from
2*85
to
of this rock,
3*1, while the other constituents
range
and
and
2-56
Even
2*65.
feldspar,are
namely, quartz
oligoclaseis
If
hornblende
rises
spar
in
as high as
only 2-68.
3-17,syenite, which feldrises above
2*8.
As argillaceous
always predominates, never
schist varies from 2*69 to 2*78, while pure dolomite,lying below limestone,
and rock-salt only 2*3,
equals only 2*88,chalk 2*72, and gypsum

specific
weight
the

bi-axial

I consider
our

than

white

that the

earth,which
24.

at

densityof

those

continental

parts of the

crust

of

be placed at 2*6 rather

us, should
creases
the supposition that the earth's density in-

appreciable to

are

Laplace,

on

in arithmetical

tre,
progression from the surface toward the cenassumption (which is assuredly erroneous) that the
is equal to 3, has found
for the
4-7647
density of the upper stratum
of
the
whole
deviates
which
mean
earth,
density
very considerably
from the results obtained
by Keich (5-577) and by Baily (5-660) ; this
deviation being much
for by the probable
greater than could be accounted
In a recent
discussion
the hypothesis
of observation.
error
on
will soon
form
in Schumacher's
of Laplace, which
a
very interestingpaper
Astr. Nachrichten,Plana
has arrived at the result that,by a
of treatingthis hypothesis,Reich's mean
different method
density of
the
of
the
and
oceanic
the earth,and
density
dry
superficial
strata,
within
the limits
which
I estimated
at 1*6, as well as the ellipticity,
that seem
mated
probable for the latter value, may be very closelyapproxi"If the compressibilityof the substances
of which
the
to.
earth is formed," writes the Turin
geometrician, "has given rise to
in form, and having a density which
regular strata nearly elliptical

and

the

on

the centre, we
be allowed
to
may
have
the
of becoming consolidated,
act
strata, in
suppose
experienced modifications
which, although they are actually very
of our
small, are nevertheless large enough to preclude the possibility
from

increases

that

the

deducing, with
the
made

solid earth
me

the author
upon

toward

surface

these

all the
from

precisionthat
prior state

its

we

of

could

desire,the condition

fluidity. This

reflection

of
has

the greater weight to the first hypothesisadvanced

by
ined
and I have
of the Mecanique Celeste,
consequently determ-

attach

submitting it to

new

investigation."

THE

gravityand
specific

low

chains.*

In

work

question should
have

be overlooked

or
instituted,
analogies.

b. The

THE

Existence

and

of the

which

on

which

actual
to

seem

may

Distribution

of Heat

observations

be elucidated

by

in the interior

of

Globe.

our

(Expansion

37

EARTH.

underlying the upheaved mountain

cosmical
devoted
to
phenomena no

been

close

OF

HEAT

of

Delineation

Nature, Cosmos,

vol.

i.,

p. 168-176.)

Considerations
the

regarding the

importance of which

internal

heat

of

earth,

our

has been

greatlyaugmented by the
tween
now
generallyrecognized to exist beit and phenomena of upheavals and of volcanic action,
based partlyupon
are
direct,and therefore incontrovertible
of temperature in springs,
terranean
measurements
borings,and submines, and partly upon analyticalcombinations
regardingthe gradualcoolingof our planet,and the influence
have exercised in primeval
which
the decrease of heat may
the velocityof rotation and upon
the direction
ages upon
of internal heat.f The
of the currents
pressed
figureof the comterrestrial spheroid is further dependent upon
the
law, according to which densityincreases in concentric superimposed
The
first or experinon-homogeneous strata.
mental,
and therefore the more
certain portionof the investigation
connection

which

to

which

place, throws
earth, which
second

or

is

we

shall

limit

light only

is of very
mathematical

the

method

of

in

accessible

upon
inconsiderable

the

present

crust

of

while
thickness,

part, in accordance

of its applications,
yieldsrather
This

ourselves

with

the

the

the nature

results.
negativethan positive

inquiry,which

of
possesses all the charm
of thought,!leads
combinations

ingenious and intellectual

to problems,which
be wholly overlooked
not
when
can
we
touch
the
of
volcanic
conjecturesregarding
origin
upon
forces,and the reaction of the fused interior upon the solid
earth.
external crust of our
Plato's geognosticmyth of the
the originof all thermic
as
Pyriphlegethon,"
springs,as well
*

See

Petit

sur

la latitude de V Observatoire

de

Toulouse,la

densite

inoyenne de la chaine des Pyrenees, et la probabilityqitilexiste un vide

in the Comptes rendus de I'Acad, des Sc, t. xxix., 1819,
sette chaine,
sous
730.
f Cosmos, vol. i.,p. 176.
p.
in the Report of the British Association
X Hopkins, PhysicalGeology,
for 1838, p. 92; Philos. Transact.,1839, pt. *ii.,
1810, pt.
p. 381, and
Philos. Transact..
in
the
i.,p. 193; Hennessev
{TerrestrialPhysics),
1851, pt. ii.,p. 501-52.").
" Cosmos, vol. i.,p. 237.
.

38

cosmos.

from the earlyand

igneous currents, emanated
some
common
cause
generallyfelt requirement of discovering
for a great and complicatedseries of phenomena.
of relations presentedby the earth's
the multiplicity
Amid
in respect to insolation (solaraction)
and its capacity
surface,
the great differences in the caof radiatingheat, and amid
pacity
for conductingheat, which
varies in accordance
with
the
composition and density of heterogeneous rocks, it is
the observations
have been
worthy of notice,that wherever
of volcanic

as

conducted

care, and' under

with

favorable

of the

circumstances,the

depth has been found

to
closelycoincidingresults,
at very different localities.
For very great depths we
even
obtain the most
certain results from Artesian
wells,especially
when
they are filled with fluids that have been rendered
of clay,and are therefore less favorturbid by the admixture
able
the
of
internal currents, and when
to
they do
passage
receive
into
lateral affluents flowing
them
ent
not
at differmany
On account
of
elevations through transverse
fissures.
of the most
remarkable
will begin with
their depth, we
two
Artesian
wells, namely, that of Grenelle, near
Paris, and
Minden.
Salt-works
that of the New
at Oeynhausen, near
We
will proceed in the followingparagraph to give some
of the most
results which
accurate
they have yielded.
of Walferdin,*
According to the ingeniousmeasurements
cate
indebted for a complete series of very delito whom
we
are
temperature with
present for the most part very

increase

the

of temperature at great
in springs,
the surface of the basin of

apparatus for determinations

depths in

the

and

sea

lies at

the well at Grenelle

of 36*24

elevation

an

metres,

or

The
outlet of
feet,above the level of the sea.
upper
the ascending spring is 33*33 metres, or 109-3 feet,higher.
This total elevation of the ascendingwater
(69-57 metres, or
of the sea, about
level
228*2 feet)
is,when compared with the

119

196*8

feet lower

strata

in the

than

hills

of 547

metres,

510*76

basin, or about
*

and

The

1794-6

or

observations

deviate

very

in

had

left the

See

Cosmos, vol. i.,p.

chalk

and

The

feet,below

metres,

of Walferdin

slightlyfrom

by Arago,

waters

ascribed.

been

of

Lusigny, southeast

rise of the

infiltrations the

Grenelle have

near

of the

outbreak

the

the

in

sandstone

green

Paris,to

the Artesian

boringsextend
the

base

wells
to

at

depth

of the Grenelle

or

1675

feet,below

were

made

in the autumn

results obtained

whose

with

the

the

level

of 1847,
same

paratus
ap-

the borer
1840, at a depth of 1657 feet,when
the
was
gault.
beginning to penetrate through
174, and Comptes rendus,t. xi., 1840, p. 707.

INTERNAL

of the
580*33

F. ;

for about

every

feet above

level of the

1" F.

of heat marks

increase

(above

sea

is situated

Rehme

at

penetrated to

It has

the

water-mark

absolute

an

at

of

depth

the surface of the earth,measuring from

feet below

2281

heightof
the spring

total

temperature of

The

Salt-works

the New

the

Amsterdam).

to

feet.

59

boring at

The

feet.

consequentlythe

is 81"*95

231

consequently,rise

the waters,
metres, or 1904

sea

39

EARTH.

THE

OF

HEAT

the

begun. The salt spring,

it bursts
forth,is impregnated with a large
which, when
2052 feet below the
quantity of carbonic acid,lies,therefore,
is perhaps the greatlevel of the sea
a relative depth which
est
of the
in
the
interior
been reached
that has ever
man
by
works
Saltearth.
The temperature of the salt springat the New
annual
of Oeynhausen is 91" 0-1 F. ; and, as the mean
operationswere

the

point where

"

of the air at

temperature
may
for

that there is

assume

therefore,491
nelle

it sinks

feet.

increase

an

The

49"-3

is about

the

of the sea,
F. higher. The

the temperature of its waters

is 9"*18
increase of the heat at Paris is about 1" F. for 59

scarcelyTLth greater.

attention to the fact that

drawn

de la Rive

similar result

obtained

was

and

although
feet above

situated

was.

the

elevation

an

Mediterranean

If to these three

varying

at

between

of

Geneva,
in

depth,

than

more

1600

Sea.f

springs,which
feet and

725

feet,and

already elsewhere

have

Marcet, at Bregny, near

by Auguste
in investigating
a
boring which was
only 725 feet
it

Gre-

boring at

surface

and

therefore

F., we

of temperature of 1" F.
Salt-works* is,
at these

boring
feet absolutely
deeper than
377 feet deeper below the

54-68

every

these works

possess

absolute

an

depth

add

feet,
another,
Newcastle
near
water
Monkwearmouth,
(the
rising
is worked
through a coal-mine which, accordingto Phillips,
2285

we

of

that

the manuscript results givenby the superintendent

See Cosmos, vol. i.,p. 157, 174; and
Oeynhausen.
der Chem. und Phys. Geologie,
bd. i.,abth. 1, s. 154Bischof,Lehrbuch
163.
In regard to absolute
the
depth
borings at Mondorf, in the
Grand
at
Duchy
Luxemburg (2202 feet),
approach most
nearly to those
*

According

of the

at

mines

the New

to

of

Salt-works

at

Oeynhausen.

de la Socicte tTIIist. Naturelle

f Cosmos, vol. i.,p. 174 ; and Mcmoires
de Geneve, t. vi.,1833, p. 243.
The
sian
of Artecomparison of a number
wells
Geneva
to

the

powers

tiquede

in the neighborhood
would, indeed, lead us
of the

accuracy
of terrestrial

of Lille with
to

numerical

and

assume,

if

of Saint

those
we

data, that the

were

different

rocky strata exert a more

than has generally been supposed (Poisson,
la Clialeur,
p. 421).

Ouen

and

quite certain
considerable
Thcorle

as

conductive
fluence
in-

Mathana-

40
at

COSMOS.

depth

find

of 1496

only

one

and

54

between

results

another

an

58-6

level of the

the

result,that

this remarkable
from

at

four

feet;*

placeswidely separated

of heat

increase

such

the

of the

nature

of 1" F. varies

coincidence

which

means

shall

sea),we

not, however, be always expected to

can

consider

we

feet below

in the
when

occur

employed for
definite depths.

are

determiningthe internal heat of the earth at

that the water
which is infiltrated
Although we may assume
in elevated positions
nected
through hydrostaticpressure, as in contubes,may influence the risingof springsat pointsof
waters
acquire the
great depth, and that the subterranean
which
with
they are
temperature of the terrestrial strata
ings
brought in contact, the water that is obtained through borally
communicating with verticmay, in certain cases, when
obtain some
descendingfissures,
augmentation of heat
from an inaccessible depth. An influence of this kind,which
is very different from that of the varying conductive
power
of different rocks,may occur
at individual
tant
pointswidely disfrom the original
It
the
is
waters
boring.
probablethat
in the interior of

earth

flowingeither

spaces,
account

it

number

of

our

in

in

move

some

cases

within

ed
limit-

through fissures (on which

is not unusual
to find that a few
only of a large
else follow
or
contiguousboringsprove successful),

horizontal

and
direction,

streams

thus

form

extensive

basins

greatlyfavors the labor of boring,and in

betrays,by the presence of eels,muscles, or

which
rare

cases

remains, a
from

connection

the

with

which

the

earth's

"

surface.

lation
re-

some

vegetable
though,
Al-

have

already indicated,
the ascendingsprings are
sometimes
than
the slight
warmer
would
lead
the afflux
to
us
depth of the boring
anticipate,
of colder water
which
flows laterally
sures
fisthrough transverse
leads to an oppositeresult.
that points situated on the
It has already been observed
vertical line,at an inconsiderable
same
depth within the inIn

yards

causes

table of fourteen

in

which

depth, and

we

borings,which
were

situated

"were

more

in various

than

one

hundred

parts of France,
in the Patria,

Bravais, in his very instructive encyclopedic memoir

increase
of temperature
an
1847, p. 145, indicates nine in which
1"

F. is found

give a
value

to

deviation

given in

of

feet of depth, which

for every 50-70
would
of about 10 feet in either direction
from
the mean

the

occur

Magnus, in Poggen., Ann., bd. xxii.,

the whole, that the increase
of
1831,
appear,
is
in
wells
of
Artesian
considerable
most
temperature
rapid
depth,
very
although the very deep wells of Monte Massi, in Tuscany, and ISeurfen,
the northwest
on
ception
exAlps, present a remarkable
part of the Swabian
s.

116.

to

text.

It would

this rule.

See

also

on

42

cosmos.

accidental

an

however,

adjustedby Arago

was

it indicates

whether

or

alteration in the thermometrical

The

undecided.
51"'478

is of

with

of

care,

heat, is still

air at

the

below

which,

his usual

of the

opinion that
stands

scale

increase

temperature

de V Observatoire

Caves

the

actual

an

mean

Bravais

F.

in 1817

Paris

thermometer

is
in

the limit of invariable

temperature, althoughCassini believes that he has founrj

of " degree(Fahr.)between
the winter
a difference of x2inrtns
and summer
temperature, the higher temperature being found

prevailin

to

parallelsof

obtain

of latitude

feet,which

15

south

of the

influence

the

As

conductive

which
these

the

than

12

latitude

or

doubtedly
un-

limits

narrow

of the

power

in which

of temperature
the theory of the

alteration

lies,according to
the

much

soil,and

by
by

nearer

of

consideration

convenient

temperature of

inches

below

spot.

At

in the

surface

different hours

method

which
of the

Nuevo

in the

of

year

heat,so

minima

the

and

those

has

been

buried

or

12

well-protected

some

different months
Hall

Salaza

near

of the year,
the coast
of the

in

Quito, and those of

Boussingaultin la Vega de Zupia, Marmato, and Anserma
tenth

one

Tumaco,

and

of determining

soil in

experiments of Captain

in

whole

serve
ob-

thermometer

the

Choco

the

distribution

to

cease

place within the tropicalregions(especially

degreesnorth and south of the equator)

10

between

by observinga

through

the maxima

the ingenious and

mean

first

we

of
surface,as
temperature approximate to one another, a
this subjecthas led my friend Boussingault
the

annual

mean

as

within

the terrestrial stratum

any

to

Differences

of observation.

errors

the

of

mean

by any regularalteration from

the influence

is masked

exerts

the

temperature of the soil between

marked

is not

north, because

to

take

now

of 1" F. for every 40 feet.

produce a difference of more

not

can

we

(47" 22')and Upsala (59" 51'),we

Zurich

increase

an

If

of the

observations

many
the

winter.*

the

of

Cauca

valley,the temperature scarcelyvaried

limits it
degree; and almost within the same

identical with

was

places in

at

which

It was,

the

mean

it had

been

moreover,

temperature of the air

at

determined

tions.
observa-

very

remarkable

by horary
that this

identity

corrections
The

to

thermometer.
by Gay-Lussac for Lavoisier's subterranean
from
530,95
June
till
F. for
was
readings,
August,
found
when
the
time
at
a
Gay-Lussac
thermometer,
temperature
mean

this

of three

be 53"*32, which
was
Cassini,in the Mem.

those

therefore
de VAcad.

difference
des

of 0o,63.

Sciences,178G,

p. 511.

INVARIABLE

uniform,whether
perfectly

remained

(ofless than one

of Guayaquil
shores
the
Indian village
on
found

from

foot in
and

Payta,

ings
sound-

the thermometric
made

depth) were
on

the

side of the volcano

barometrical

my

43

STRATUM.

the torrid

on

Pacific,or in
of Purace, which
to be

measurements

an

situated

at

the sea.
8671 feet above
The
or
toises,
temperatures differed by fully25" F. at these different

elevation

an
mean

of 1356

stations.*

specialattention

I believe that

which
mines
the
a

I made

lie at

which

Peak

of

mountains

has

12,000 and

ever

are

been

air 25"

two

than

therefore the

placed.

13,000 feet above

the subterranean

to

of Peru

greater elevation

and
Teneriffe,

thermometer

found

the

on

is due

F.

observations

and

Mexico, in

the

summit

highestin which
tween
a
height of be-

At

the level of the

warmer

of

than

the

sea

external

atmosphere. Thus, for instance,the littlePeruvian town of

Micuipampaf lies,accordingto my astronomical and hypso*

Boussingault,Stir

la

on
profondeura laquelle

dans

trouve

la

zone

torride la couche

de temperature invariable,
in the Annales
de Cliimie et
de Physique,
t. liii.,
1833, p. 225-247.
Objections have been advanced
to the Rajah of Travancore, and by
by John Caldecott,the astronomer
in
recommended
in this
Captain Newbold,
India, against the method
it
has
been
in
South
America
in many
employed
memoir, although
found
at Trevandrum
experiments. Caldecott
{Edin.
very accurate
that
the
of the
379-393)
Transact.,vol. xvi.,part iii.,
temperature
p.
below
the surface (and therefore
soil,at a depth of three feet and more
85" and 8G" F., while
was
deeper than Boussingault'scalculation),
the
the mean
of
air
80o-02.
Newbold's
was
temperature
experiments
made
(Ehilos.Transact for the Year 1815, pt. i.,p. 133), which were
increase of temperature of 1" F. bean
at Bellary,lat. 15" 5',showed
tween
sunrise and 2 P.M. for one
foot of depth ; but at Cassargode,
lat.
12" 29', there was
only an increase of l"-30 P., under a cloudy sky.
in this case
Is it quite certain that the thermometer
was
sufficiently
covered
the influence
of the sun's rays ?
to protect it from
Compare
also Forbes, Exper. on the Temp, of the Earth
at different
Depths, in the
Edin.
Colonel
A. Costa, the admirable
Transact.,vol. xvi.,part ii.,p. 189.
historian of New
servations,
a prolonged series of obGranada, has made

which

completed,

fullyconfirm
about

Boussingault'sstatement,
the

and

which

Guadua,
year ago,
annual
perature
templateau of Bogota, where the mean
is 43" -94:F. at the depth of one
foot,and at a carefullyprotected
spot. Boussingault thus refers to these experiments: "The
observations
of Colonel
A, Costa, whose
extreme
precisionin every
with meteorologyis well known
to you, prove
thing which is connected
when
sheltered
all
the
that,
fully
from
disturbinginfluences, temperature
within
the tropicsremains
constant
at a very small
depth below the
were

side

of the

at

on

southwestern

elevated

surface."

f In reference
see

de Chora) and Micuipampa,

to Gualgayoc (or Minas
Humboldt, Recueil d'Observ. Astron., vol. i.,p. 321.

44

cosmos.

observations,in the latitude 6" 43' S.,and at an

elevation of 1857 toises,
or
11,990 feet,at the base of Cerro

metrical

for the richness

Gualgayoc, celebrated

de

of this almost

summit

The

situated mountain

from

rises 240

or
toises,

the external
the Mina

air at

del

tance
dis-

Purgatorio

mine, which

13,154 feet above

toises,or

picturesquely
feet,
higher

1504

in the interior of the

; but

2057

than

more

isolated fortress-like and

Micuipampa ;
of the pit of

the mouth

42" *2 6 F.

was

of

the streets

than

of its silver mines.

the

lies

sea, I

saw

indicated a temperature
every where
The
F., there being thus a difference of 25"-38 F.

the thermometer

that

of 67"*64

rock

limestone

in the

working

were

here

was

mine.

In

the

Mina

very few men

de Guadalupe,

elevation,I found that the temperature

of the internal air was
57"#9 F., showing, therefore,
a
of
15"*64
F. when
difference
compared with the external
which

the

perfectly
dry, and

lies at

air.

The

is

flowed

which

water

F.

at 52"*34

stood

same

The

the very

mine

damp

pampa
temperature of Micui-

45" -8 F.

than

more

of

rich silver mines

the

annual

mean

probably not

from

out

In

Mexico,

in

Guanaxuato,*

found, in the Mina

temperature in the neighborhood

de

Yalenciana, the external

of the Tiro Nuevo
(which is 7590 feet above the sea)70"-16 F.,
for instance,in the Planes
and the air in the deepestmines
"

feet below

de San

Bernardo

of Tiro

Nuevo, fully80"

1630

"

of the littoral

point 147

feet

Bernardo,

in which

the

F.

61"-26
advance

F.

to

it

of

causes

the subterranean

Planes

might
probably an

temperature
than

more

remarkable

be

at mountain

12,000

to

de San

rock,

be 21"

the

0'N.,

60"-44
in

which

and
to

difficult to establish

entirelylocal

rise of

elevations,
varying

feet.

is exhibited

contrast

At

determined

temperature varying between

place
present is not a fitting

The

perature
tem-

mean

the transverse

of Guanaxuato

town

the

the shaft

of Mexico.

of the

mouth

is 84"'74

which
conjectures,

G000

Gulf

the

issues from

temperature

in relation to the
from

the

is about

annual

mean

region of

higher than
springof water

latitude of the mountain

with

F., which

*6

opening of

the

in

the

steppes of

Northern

Asia, by the conditions of the frozen soil,whose

testidoubted, notwithstandingthe earlymony
very existence was
of Gmelin
correct

the
*

views

stratum

Pallas.

It is

only in

recent

of subterranean
sur

le

Roy.

de

ice have
la Nouv.

been

times

that

thickness

of

established

by

in relation to the distribution and

JEssai Polit.

p. 201).

and

Exj"agnc(2ume cd.,t. iii.,

THE

45

SOIL.

FROZEN

of Erman, Baer, and

investigations
In accordance
with the descriptions
Middendorff.
given of
and Phipps,
Greenland by Cranz, of Spitzbergenby Martens
and of the coasts of the sea of Kara
by Sujew, the whole of
described by too hasty
the most
northern
part of Siberia was
devoid of vegetation,always frozen
as
a
entirely
generalization
in
even
the surface,and covered with perpetualsnow,
on
limit of vegetationin Northern
extreme
the plains. The
though
Asia is not, as was
long assumed, in the parallelof 67", aland the neighborhood of the Bay of Obi
sea-winds
for Obdorsk ; for in the valleyof
make
this estimate true
the great River Lena
high trees grow as far north as the
of the admirable

means

latitude

of 71".

Even

in the

desolate

islands

of New

beria,
Si-

largeherds of rein-deer and countless lemmings find an

MiddendorfT's
Siberian expetwo
adequate nourishment.*
ditions,
of
which
tion,
are
distinguished
by a spirit keen observaadventurous
daring,and the greatest perseverance in a
laborious undertaking,were
extended, from the year 1843 to
1846, as far north as the Taymir land in 75" 4a7 lat.,and
and the Sea of Ochotsk.
southeast as far as the Upper Amoor
vestigator
The former of these perilousundertakingsled the learned ininto a hitherto un visited region,whose
exploration
the
of
in
its
more
was
important
being situated
consequence
at

equal distances from

old Continent.
in

the eastern

In addition

to

the

and

western

coasts

distribution

of the

of organisms

ic
climatas depending mainly upon
high northern latitudes,
it was
directed by the St. Petersburg Academy
relations,

of Sciences
of the
frozen

that

the

ground

soil should

determination

accurate

and

of the

be made

of the

of the

thickness

ture
tempera-

subterranean

principalobjectsof the expedition.

in borings and mines, at a
were
than twelve points(near
depth of from 20 to 60 feet,at more
the
tances
a
nd
on
the Lena),at relative disTuruchansk,
on
Jenisei,
of from 1600 to 2000
geographicalmiles.
The most
of
these geothermic observations
seat
important
however, Schergin's shaft at Jakutsk, 62" 2/ X lat.j
was,
Observations

E.

f The

von

Baer,
merchant

made

in Middendorff
Fedor

the

's Rcise

in

Schergin, cashier

Sib.,bd. i.,s.
to

7.

the Russian-American

Trading Company, began, in the year 1828, to dig a well in the courtyard
of a house
As
he had
belonging to the company.
only found
frozen earth and no water
at the depth of 90 feet,
which
he reached
in
1830, he determined
to give up the attempt, until Admiral
Wrangel,
who passed through Jakutsk
his way to Sitcha, in Russian America,
on
and who
how
saw
interestingit would be, in a scientific point of view,
to penetrate through this subterranean
of ice,induced
Scherstratum

46

cosmos.

Here

subterranean

than

more

the

one

scale.

mometric
does

error

fastened

arm

not

was

sunk

was

reached

eleven

at

the surface

in 1837.

standing in

The

bucket,

he read off the

a rope, while
series of observations,whose

The

to

than

more

0o,45

thermean

the

embrace

F.,

The
decrease
April,1844, and June, 1846.
to the depth at individual points,
proportional

interval between
of cold

depth of

to

amount

not

piercedto

shaft,between

was

be let down

obligedto

was

was

thermometer

greatest depth, which

observer

with

The

the lateral walls of the

pointsalong
and

of ice

stratum

feet.

382

followingresults

the

but nevertheless
of

total increase

the

superimposed frozen

temperatures

mean

strata

were

for the

obtained

different

for the

17"'13Fahr.

50 feet
100

"

20"-26

"

150

"

21"-13

"

200

"

23"-27

"

250

"

21"-19

"

382

"

26"-G0

"

of all these observations,

very careful consideration
the general increase of temdetermined
Middendorff
perature

After

52

feet*

gin

to

been

for every
result shows
a

1" F.

be

to

This

continue
made

space
more

varying from
rapid increase

440,5

to

of heat

boring; and up to 1837, although an opening had

depth of 382 feet below the surface,it had not penetrated

the

to

beyond the ice.

"If we
Middendorff, Reise in Sib.,bd. i.,s. 125-133.
exclude,"
"those
which
did
not
depths
quite reach 100 feet,
says Middendorff,
influenced
the ground that they were
perature,
on
by annual deviations of temdetermined
in Siberia,
was
as
by experiments previouslymade
in the partialincrease of
shall still find certain anomalies
we
the depths of 150-200
heat.
feet the
Thus, for instance,between
of
1"
F.
29*3
rises
ratio
for
while
between
a
at
only
feet,
temperature
fore,
We
feet the corresponding increase is 9G*1 feet.
250-300
may, there*

assert

to

venture

that

the results

of observations

that

have

erto
hith-

and

in Shergin's shaft are

sufficient to
by no means
of the increase of temperature,
certaintythe amount
that,notwithstanding the great variations which may depend upon

the

different

been

determine

the

was

with

turbing
of the terrestrial strata, and the dispowers
crease
inair
which
from
an
the
enters
influence of
or
water
above,
is
52
feet
result
of
The
feet.
for every 41-52
of 1" F. occurs
conductive

partialincreases
the depths

of six

mean

of 50
the

obtained

feet between

mean

found

annual

(26"'6)at the
for every

of

temperature
observation

from

to

greatest depth

increase

with
deepest"part

of 1" F.
that

at

of temperature,
100 and 382

of

be

Jakutsk, 13"*71
the

mean

of the mine

measured
feet.

On

F., with

temperature

at

intervals

comparing
that Avhich
of the

feet),I find 29-6

(382
comparison of the- temperature at
depth of 100 feet would give 114 feet
A

ice

feet
the
for

OF

TEMPERATURE

THE

THE

47

EARTH.

Schergin'sshaft than has been obtained from different

boringsin Central Europe, whose results approximate closely
tween
another
to
one
(see p. 39). The difference fluctuates beannual
Jth and Jth. The mean
temperature of Ja-

in

kutsk
the

determined

was

F.

observations,which

Newerow's

oscillation between

The

temperature is

winter

and

summer

13"-7

at

so

great, accordingto
for

continued

were

fifteen

for fourteen days

(from 1829 to 1844), that sometimes
in July and August, the atmospheric temperaconsecutively,
ture

years

rises

hish

as

consecutive

77",

as

or

84" -6 F.

even

days, from

winter

cold falls to between

42"-3

"

November
F. and

of temperature
the frozen soil,
must
we

the increase

through

surface

below

the

of 32"

F., and which

which

which
take

February, the

to

"69"

during 120

F.

In

found

was

ing
estimat-

boring
the depth

on

into account

the ice exhibits

the temperature
is consequentlythe nearest
to the lower

at

limit of the frozen

while

soil ;

according to

Middendorff's

results,

entirely
agree with those that had been obtained much
found in Schergin'sshaft to
earlier by Erman, this pointwas
which

be

652,

however,
this

from

the

increase.

Peters, in
dend., s.
which

do

feet below

684

or

increase
the

From

reference

the

to

the

surface.

It would

of temperature

which

of
investigations
velocityof transmission
acute

appear,
obwas

Middendorff
of

and

changes

of atmospheric

the maxima
of cold and heat (Midtemperature, including
133-157, 168-175), it follows that in the different borings,
exceed

not

the

inconsiderable

depth

of from

8 to

20

feet,

"

the temperature rises from March

falls from November
to October, and
the
the
and
of the
are
to April, because
autumn
seasons
spring
the changes of atmospheric temperature are most
siderable"
conyear in which

(s. 142-145).
shafts

Even

carefullycovered

graduallycooled, in

Siberia become

mines

in Northern

of the walls

of the
consequence
with the air ; this cause, howfor years in contact
ever,
made
the temperature fall about
1"F.
in Schergin's

been

having
only

has

A remarkable
and hitherto unof eighteen vears.
explainedphenomenon, which has also presented itself in the Scher-

shaft,in the

course

gin shaft,is the warmth

occasionallyobserved in the winter,although
out
only at the lowest strata, without any appreciableinfluence from withstill
that
in
the
ings
borIt
to
seems
more
(s.156-178).
striking me,
the Pasina, when
at "Wedensk, on
the atmospheric temperature
is "31"
F., it should be 26"--4 at the inconsiderable
depth of 5 or 10
feet ! The
first pointed out
isogeothermal lines,whose direction was
by Kupffer in his admirable
investigations
{Cosmos, vol. i.,p. 219), will
long continue to present problems that Ave are unable to solve. The
solution of these problems is more
especiallydifficult in those cases
in which
the complete perforationof the frozen soil is a work
of considerable
soil at
time ; we* can, however, no longer regard the frozen
Jakutsk
with
as
a
merely local phenomenon, which, in accordance
Slobin's view, is produced by the terrestrial strata deposited from water
(Middend., s. 167).

48

cosmos.

served

of

in the mines

situated at about

are

of hills

chain

the

on

than

scarcely more

perpetualfrost

of

of the

so

on

shaft into the

and

attaches

obey

at

the

depth, and

make

to

from

would

section of

deepest part of Schergin's

the

distance

crease
in-

at different times?

horizontal

the

does

find in every direction

mine frozen soil,in

should

from

the

indicate

temperature of 4"-5

freezingpoint?

country

of the

In

Samojedes.
fire

Pustojenskoy Gorodok,
sinkino- of wells, and
5 feet below

for

in
frozen soil in 67" 30' N- lat.,

the

has examined

Schrenk

traced

the

in consequence
tion,
determinanumerical

adjoiningcountry, we

below

only

stratum

feet below

320

at

different laws

were

fathoms

which

at

to

inconsiderable

every
the thermometer

the

normal

the

inequalityonly apparent

of temperature
Is it certain that if we
several hundred

be situated

to

seems

uncertaintywhich

based

depth,that

60 feet in

Is this

surface.*

Mangan, Shilow, and Dawydow, which

three or four miles from Irkutsk,in the
of the Lena, and which
left bank
are

nearly 70

is

employed

in the middle
the

of

surface.

feet,when

facilitate the

to

ice

summer

This
the

of

neighborhood

the

could

stratum

works

found

was

be

suddenly

were

the
able to sledge over
were
stopped. The inhabitants
mer
neighboringlake of Usteje throughout the whole of the sumof 1813. f
During my Siberian expeditionwith EhrenRose, we caused a boring to be made in a
berg and Gustav
piece of turfy ground near
Bogoslowsk (59" 4-i7 N. lat.),
the Ural Mountains, on the road to the Turjin mines.}
among
were
found piecesof ice at the depth of 5 feet,which
We
which
below
the
frozen
ground,
imbedded, breccia-like,in
had not penetrated
thick
which
of
we
ice,
b3gan a stratum
the

at

The

depth of

10

feet.

geographicalextension

of the

frozen

ice and
say, the limits within which
in the month
at a certain depth, even

MiddendorfF, bd. i.,s. 160, 1G1, 179.

conjecturesregarding the thickness of
*

ground,that

frozen
of

earth

are

August,

and

In these

numerical

is to
found

conse-

data

and

soil,it is assumed
arithmetical
in
increases
that the temperature
progression with the
in greater depths
this
increase
retardation of
occurs
a
depth. Whether
in
is
use
no
entering upon
is theoretically
uncertain, and hence there
of the
deceptive calculations regarding the temperature of the centre
rents.
which
give rise to curearth in the fused heterogeneous rocky masses
f Schrenk's
s.

Reise

dutch

die

Tundern

the frozen

de?-

Samojeden,1818,

597.

X Gustav

Rose, Reise nack dem

Ural, bd. i.,s.

128.

th.

i.,

50

COSMOS.

of frozen
in the

soil,the phenomenon
the limits of

independent of

island-like form

an

in

but
districts,

southern

more

in

occurs

generalit is entirelyvegetation,or of the growth of

timber.
in our
advance
knowledge, when
very considerable
able graduallyto arrive at generaland sound
cosmical

It is
we

are

of
of temperature
portionsof the old continent,and

of the

views

northern
fact that

relations

soil,as well
of

the

whence

in the northwest

frozen

even

July

low

as

of

of

August

our

at

feet beneath

the

that scientific travelers would

Would

recognizethe
of the

frozen

temperature

and

planet. Franklin
that the ground was
depth of 16 inches ;
eastern
point of the

observed, upon a
lat.,that the ice-stratum

three

as

the

at

more

12/

coast, in 71"

in

tudes
very different latiof
heat
that continuous
currents
situated

part of America

in the middle

Richardson

annual

the interior

generated in

be

to

limits

the

mean

of trees, are
it is obvious

found

while

of the

those

as

growth

must

different meridians

under

earth

our

thawed

Avas

surface.

herb-covered
afford

us

general

more

relations

in

in this part
An
insight

geothermal
hemisphere!
of phenomena is the most
certain means
into the connection
of apparentlyinvolved anomalies,
of leading us to the causes
we
and to the
are
comprehension of that which
apt too
hastilyto regard as at variance with normal laws.
regardingthe

information

of the earth

c.

southern

in the

and

of
MagneticActivity

the Earth

in its three

Manifestations
of
Variation.
Points (called

and
Intensity,
Inclination,
which
Curves
the
Inclination is 90".
Magnetic Poles) in
which
Inclination is observed (Magnetic Equator).
no
on
Maxima
The Four
of Intensity.Curve of weakest
different
Intensity. Extraordinary Disturbances of the Declination
(MagneticStorms). Polar Light.

Force

"

"

the

"

"

"

"

"

(Extension of
The

magnetic
from
force

space

of Nature, Cosmos, vol. i.,p. 176-202;

ii.,p. 333-336; and vol. iv.,p. 82-86.)

the Picture

and

the

in

as

constitution
and

many
far

time.

it

as

These

of

our

various

planet can

only be

manifestations

presents measurable
manifestations

have

vol.

duced
de-

of terrestrial
relations

the

in

peculiar

of phenomena to
perpetualvariability
property of exhibiting
than
the temperature, gaseous
much
a
higher degree even

admixture, and

atmosphere.

electrical tension

Such

constant

of the lower

change

in the

strata

of the

nearly-allied

THE

magnetic
from

of matter, moreover,
sentially
esthe phenomena of electro-magnetism
distinguishes
electrical conditions

and

which

those

that which

is

by

been

discoveryof
of

direction

and

in the

in

laws

differences of the

diamagnetism (by
the axes, whether
they incline
west) that the heterogeneityof
the

attraction

ous
vari-

most

proved by Faraday's
the

distinct from

influence

the attraction

the

excited

be
may
substances,it has nevertheless

brilliant

and

establish

highestobjectof
physical force. Although it has
of Coulomb
and Arago that the

varying is,however,

ever

electro-magneticprocess

east

al
primitivefundamentTo

definite distances.

of a
every investigation
been shown
by the labors

or

the

attraction

its molecular

"

at

masses

influenced

are

force of matter
of

51

NEEDLE.

MAGNETIC

of

north

and

matter

south,

exerts

an

Oxygen

masses.

der
glasstube, will show itself una
magnet to be paramagnetic,inclining
like iron ; and while
north
and
south
nitrogen,hydrogen,
remain
and
carbonic
acid gases
unaffected,phosphorus,
to be diamagnetic,and
leather,and wood show themselves
from
themselves
east to west.
equatorially
arrange
Greeks
and Romans
The
ancient
were
acquainted with
the adhesion
of iron to the magnet, attraction and repulsion,
of the attractingaction through brass
and the transmission

inclosed
gas, when
of
the action

vessels
in

well

as

chain-like

in

thin

through rings, which

as

form, as long as

the magnet
the non-attraction

with

contact

with

iron.

The

force of

one

;* and they
of wood

and

which
polarity,

ringswas
likewise

were

together

strung:

were

of the

of all
the

kept in
ed
acquaint-

metals, excepting
magnet

is able

impart to a movable
body susceptibleof its influence,
nations
to the Western
(Phoenicians,
entirelyunknown

to
was

Tuscans, Greeks, and

meet

with

knowledge
an

influence

on

the

which, from

improvement
its utilitarian
after

the

continuouslyto
inquiry
although previously unobserved
date farther back

first notice

of Western
the nations
among
of this force of polarity,
has
which

navigation,and

historyand

The

Romans).

than

enumeration

The

the

11th

of the

one

and

which

Europe
exerted

we

of the
so

portant
im-

extension

value, has led

of
so

universallydiffused,

force
and

of nature, does not

In the
12th centuries.

principalepochs of

physic-

principalpassage referringto the magnetic chain of rings

made
has been
Ion.,p. 533, D.E, ed. Steph. Mention
of this transmission
of the attracting action not only by Pliny (xxxiv.,
1-t)and Lucretius (vi.,910), but also by Augustine (Ue civitatc Dei,
ojrijicio,
xx., 4) and Philo (De Mundi
p. 32 D, ed. 1691}.
occurs

in Plato's

52
al

cosmos.

universe,it has been found

several sections,and to notice,the

contemplationof
into

divide

to

the

knowledge

which

here

summarily arranged under one common

find that the applicationamong

We

derive

of that

from

we

sources

have

we

point of view.*
the

of the

Chinese

of the north and

of the magnet, or the use
of magnetic needles floatingon
the surface

directive

power
direction

south

our

which

ry
necessa-

of water, dates to an
ancient
epoch which is probably more
of the Heraclidoe
than the Doric migration and the return
into

the
the

that

It

Peloponnesus.

seems,

Asia

first applied in Eastern

been

moreover,

direction of the

of the south

use

not

very

needle

striking

should

have

navigationbut to
the magnetic wagon

to

traveling. In the anterior part of

of a small
and hand
a
freelyfloatingneedle moved the arm
An
figure,which pointed toward the south.
apparatus of

land

fse-nan, indicator
(called

this kind

during the
era, to

dynasty

of the
of

embassadors

the

guide them

the

over

vast

cross

in their homeward

used

as

late

the

as

of the'

ed
present-

Tscheu, 1100 years before our

Tonquin and Cochin-China, to

plainswhich
journey. The

15th

south) was

century of

they would have to

magnetic wagon was

our

era.f

Several

of

carefullypreservedin the imperialpalace,

of
in
the
Buddhist
teries
monasbuilding
employed
the main
sides of
in fixingthe points toward
which
the edifice should be directed.
The frequentapplicationof
of the
intelligent
magnetic apparatus graduallyled the more
of
people to physical considerations regarding the nature
magnetic phenomena. The Chinese eulogistof the magnetic
the
needle,Kuopho (a writer of the age of Constantine

these

wagons
and were

were

Great), compares,
attractive
This

force

as

I have

of the

force,according

magnet
to

him,

with
is

"

elsewhere

like

remarked,

of rubbed

that
a

breath

the

amber.

of

wind

188 ; vol. ii.,

p. 253.
Crit. de
Centrale,t. i.,p. xl.-xlii. ; and Examen
Eduard
35.
I Hist, de la Geographic,
has
ed
extendwho
t. iii.,
Biot,
p.
careful and bibliographical
and confirmed
studies, and
by his own
friend Stanislas Julien, the inveslearned
with the assistance
of my
tigations
reference
made
in
the
to the epoch at which
by Klaproth
in China, adduces
first used
old tradition,
an
magnetic needle was
according to which the magnetic wagon was already in use in the reign
of the Emperor Hoang-ti. No allusion to this tradition can, however,
This celebrated
be found in any writers prior to the earlyChristian
ages.
before
monarch
is presumed to have lived 2G00
our
era
years
from
is
before
the
1000
the
of
to say,
(that
Hyksos
expulsion
years
Egypt). Ed. Biot, sur la direction de t1aiguilleaimantee en Cliine in
the Comptes rendus de VAcad.
des Sciences,t. xix., 1814, p. 822.
*

Cosmos, vol. i.,p.

already

f Humboldt,

Asie

63

NEEDLE.

MAGNETIC

THE

through these two bodies,and

with
the
has the property of thoroughly permeating them
of
The symbolicalexpression
breath
rapidityof an arrow."
of
the equallysymbolicaldesignationof
of wind" reminds
us
appliedby Thales, the
soul,which in Grecian antiquity was
both
these attracting
founder
of the Ionian School, to
stances
subthe
inner
here
of
soul signifying
ing
principle the movbreathes
mysteriously

which

"

"

agent.*

mobility of

the excessive

As

rendered

it difficult to observe

the

and

floatingChinese
down

note

needles

the indications

adopted in
they afforded,another arrangement was
their place as earlyas the 12th century of our
era, in which
the needle that was
freelysuspended in the air was attached
silken thread exactlyin the same
to a fine cotton
or
manner
Coulomb's
as
suspension,which Avas first used by "William
of this more
Gilbert in Western
perfect
Europe. By means
the Chinese as earlyas the beginning of the 12th
apparatus,!
which

century determined
which

the

of the

amount

compass

considerab
only to undergo very inportionof Asia seems
and slow changes. From
its use
on
land, the
finally
adapted to maritime purposes, and under

was

dynasty of Tsin, in the 4th century

vessels under the guidanceof the compass
the

Fully
lius

variation,

in that

the

and

western

eastern

200

coast

years

Antoninus,

era, Chinese

ports

is called

reign of

the

An-tun

by

animation

of the

188.

Aristotle

the

Marcus

Aure-

writers

of the

(De Anima, i.,2) speaks only of

opinion that originated with
Thales.
as
Diogenes Laertius interpretsthis statement
applying also
"
and
for
he
Aristotle
t
o
as
distinctly amber,
Hippias maintain
says,
doctrine
enounced
Thales."
The
of
to the
by
sophistHippias
cupied
Elis,who flattered himself that he possessed universal knowledge, octions
himself with pli3Tsical
science and with the most
ancient tradiof the physiological
school.
"The
cording
breath,"which, acattracting
to the Chinese
physicist,Ivuopho, "permeates both the magnet
and amber," reminds
investigations
us, according to Buschmann's
tkrihiointo the Mexican
of the magnet
language, of the aztec name
anani
tetl,
signifying"the stone which attracts by its breath" (from
iliiotl,
breath, and ana. to draw or attract).
which Klaproth has extracted
from the Penihsaoyan
f The remarks
regarding this singular apparatus are given more
fullyin the Munghere ask why,
365.
We
t
.
khi-pi-than,
Comptes rendtts, xix.,p.
may
in this latter treatise,as well as in a Chinese
book
on
plants,it is
stated that the cypress turns
toward 'the west, and, more
generally,
this imply
that the magnetic needle
points toward the south ? Does
the side nearest
a
more
luxuriant
on
development of the branches
the sun, or in consequence
of the direction of the prevalent winds ?
the

Cosmos, vol. i.,p.

our

visited Indian

of Africa.

under
earlier,

who

of

magnet

as

of

an

54

cosmos.

legatescame
by sea by way of TonThe
applicationof the magnetic needle to
qnin to China.
European navigationwas, however, not owing to so transient

dynasty of Han,

Roman

of intercourse

source

the

throughout

oeneral

of Persia

alon": the shores

in

into the West

the

for it

influence of the Arabs

since

who

the

and

Egypt

true

those

use

had

Indian

come
be-

Ocean,

introduced

century, either directlythrough

through the

or

been

Oriental

of this nature, we
epochs which, must

of the

Arabia, that it was

had

1096

until its

not

whole

and

12th

the

was

can

be

agency

brought

in

of the Crusaders,
contact

with

gations
regions. In historical investionly determine with certainty

considered

as

the

latest limits

quiries.
impossiblefor us to urge our inof Guyot of Provins,
In the politico-satirical
poem
instrument
is spoken of (1199) as an
the mariner's
compass
world ; and this
that had been
to the Christian
long known
of Palestine,which we
in the description
is also the case
owe
of
de
which
and
the
to
was
Ptolemais, Jaques
Vitry,
Bishop
1215.
Guided
and
between
the
1204
by
completed
years
sailed along the northern
the magnetic needle,the Catalans
shores of
well as along the western
islands of Scotland
as
tropicalAfrica,the Basques ventured forth in search of the
it would

which

beyond

be

whale, and the Northmen

Bracir

of

islands

Picigano).

tidas (delsabio Rey Don

half of the 13th
true

Alonso

their way to the Azores

(the
The
Spanish Leyes de las Parel

belongingto
?iono),

century, extolled the magnetic needle

mediatrix

and
piedrci)

made

(medianera) between

the

north

Gilbert

star."

the

magnetic

the first
as

stone

"

the

(la

also,in his celebrated

Magnete PhysiologiaNova, speaks of the mariner's

Chinese invention,although he inconsiderately
a
as
compass
adds that Marco
Polo, " qui apud Chinas artem
pyxidisdiPolo
dicit,"first brought it to Italy. As, however, Marco
began his travels in 1271, and returned in 1295, it is evident,
from the testimony of Guyot of Provins
try,
and Jaques de Viwork

De

that
seas

from

the

60

compass
to

journeyings.

was,

70 years

The

all events, used in European

before Marco
his
Polo set forth on
at

designationszohron and aphron, which

Vincent
of Beauvais
applied,in his Mirror of Nature, to the
southern
and northern
ends of the magnetic needle (1254),
ropeans
to indicate that it was
seem
pilotsthat Euthrough Arabian
These
became
possessedof the Chinese compass.
the
nation
learned and industrious
same
designations
pointto
of the Asiatic peninsulawhose
language too often vainlyappeals
celestial
and
in
to us
our
globes.
maps

alreadymade, there can

of the magdoubt that the generalapplication
a
netic
oceanic
navigationas early as
by Europeans to

the remarks

From

scarcelybe
needle

in its

pilots,the

Moorish

the

to

the

from

essential share

most

earlier in individual

perhaps even

originallyproceeded
The

I have

which

12th century, and

the

55

CHARTS.

VARIATION

of the

basin
use

to

seems

cases,

Mediterranean.

belonged

have

Genoese, Venetians, Majorcans,

people,under the guidance of

rer,
FerDon
Jaime
their celebrated countryman, the navigator,
of the Rio de Ouro
penetrated,in 1346, to the mouth
of Africa; and, accoast
cording
(23" 40' N. lat.),on the western
Lullus (in his nautical
to the testimonyof Raymundus
work, Fenix de las Maravillas del Orbe, 1286), the Barceand compasses,
lonians employed atlases,
fore
astrolabes,
long beFerrer.

Jaime
The
very
Chinese

whose
shores
which

the

of the amount

knowledge

sun

latter

The

Catalans.

and

of magnetic

variation

is of

early date, and was simultaneouslyimparted by the

Arabian
to Indian, Malay, and
through
seamen,
it
have
must
necessarily
spread along the
agency
of the Mediterranean.
of navigation,
This element
is so indispensable
to the correction of a ship'sreckoning,
then determined
less by the risingand settingof
was
than by the polar star,and in both cases
ination
the determfind
was
very uncertain ; notwithstandingwhich, we

it marked

down

charts,as, for instance,upon the very

drawn
in the
out
Bianco, which was
claim than Sebastian
Columbus, who had no more

upon
atlas of Andrea

scarce

1436.

year

Cabot

to be

ation
regarded as the first discoverer of the variof the magnetic needle,had the great merit of determining
astronomicallythe positionof a line of no variation
2^-"east of the island of Corvo, in the Azores, on the 13th
of September, 1492.
He
found, as he penetratedinto the

part of the Atlantic

western

graduallyfrom
led him

to

in later

times, of

of

curves

the

was

northeast

idea, which

uncertain

to

has

method

We

of

declination.
was

longitude which
of

This

ed
passobservation

much

occupiednavigators
longitudeby the positionof the
he still imagined to be parallel
to
from his ship'slog that when
he

learn
his

so

his

position during

(1496), he actuallyendeavored
the

northwest.

findingthe

variation,which

the meridian.

Ocean, that the variation

to

steer

second

The

ing
by observof such
possibility

insightinto the
undoubtedly that uncommunicable
Sebastian

Cabot

voyage

his way

boasted

having acquiredthrough specialdivine

on

secret

his

of

death-bed

manifestation.

56

cosmos.

idea of

The

curve

of

no

declination

in the Atlantic

was

with othfancy of Columbus

er
somewhat
of climate,of an
vague
of
the
anomalous
earth, and of extraordinary
configuration
of the heavenly bodies,in which
motions
he found a motive
for convertinga physicalinto a political
boundary line. Thus
the raya, on which
the agujas de marear
point directlyto the
line
of
the
became
demarkation
between
the kingpolar star,
doms
of Portugal and Castille ; and from the importance of
the geographical
exactness
determining with astronomical
length of such a boundary in both hemispheres,and over every
though
an
part of the earth's surface,
arrogant Papal decree,alit failed in effecting
this aim, nevertheless exerted a
in the easilyexcited

associated

views

beneficial
science

effect

and

the

on

of alterations

of

extension

astronomico-nautical

the

improvement of magnetic instruments.

Crit. de la Geog.,t. iii.,
(Humboldt, Examen
p. 54.) Felipe
of
Guillen, Seville,in 1525, and probably still earlier the
cosmographer Alonso de Santa Cruz, teacher of mathematics
to the young
Emperor Charles V., constructed new variation
The
ter
latby which solar altitudes could be taken.
compasses
in 1530, and therefore fully150 years before Halley,drew
ly
certainup the first generalvariation chart,although it was
on

We
upon
very imperfectmaterials.
idea of the interest that had been excited

based
some

to

of

terrestrial

magnetism in the
Columbus, and during the

16th

form
may
in reference

century, after

the

death

regardingthe line of
demarkation, when we find that Juan Jayme made a voyage
in 1585, with Francisco
Gali, from the Philipinesto Acapulco,for the sole purpose of testingby a long trial in the
Sea

South
Amid

this

contest

of his

Declinatorium

generallydiffused

own

invention.
for

tion
practicalobservathe same
trace
we
tendency to theoretical speculations
which
more
always accompanies or even
frequently
precedes
the former.
old
traditions
current
Indian
and
Many
among
Arabian
sailors speak of rocky islands which
bringdeath and
destruction
to the
hapless mariner, by attracting,
through
their magnetic force,all the iron which
connects
together
the planks of the ship,or even
tire
by immovably fixing the en-

vessel.

The

effect of such

taste

delusions

as

these

was

to

at the poles,of
give rise to a conceptionof the concurrence,
lines of magnetic variation,
representedmateriallyunder the
of
of the poles.
a
one
high magnetic rock lying near
image

On

the

added

remarkable
to

the

Latin

chart

of the New

edition

of 1508

Continent, which
of the

Geography

was

of

58

cosmos.

ship'sspeedmerely by the eye, while they found

the distance they had made
by the running down of the sand
known
the
in
as
ampolletas. For a considerable peglasses
riod
estimated

the

declination from

horizontal

the

the

north

the

pole was

only element of magnetic force that was made use of,but

length (in 1576) the second element, inclination,
began to
first measured,

Norman

llobert

was

the first who

ined
determ-

the inclination of the

he noted

with

magnetic needle in London,

slightdegree of accuracy by means

no

inclinatorium,which

he

had

himself

invented.

that attempts
years afterward
of the
the third element, the intensity

until 200

It

made

were

at

be

which
of

not

was

to

an

ure
meas-

magnetic terrestrial

force.

who

man

merits

of the

the close

About

excited

the

16th

century, William

Gilbert,a

of

admiration

Galileo, although his

wholly unappreciatedby Bacon, first laid down

were

comprehensive views of the magnetic force of the earth.*

He clearly
distinguished
magnetism from electricity
by their
looked
several effects,
although he
upon both as emanations
of one
fundamental
the
and
same
force,pervading all matter.
Like other men
of genius,he had obtained many
sults
happy refrom feeble analogies,
and the clear views which
he had
taken of terrestrial magnetism (de magno
magnete tellure)
led him to ascribe the magnetizationof the vertical iron rods
of old church towers
the steeples
to the effect of this force.
on
showed
the first in Europe who
that iron might
He, too, was
be rendered magnetic by being touched
with the magnet, although
the Chinese
before

more

becoming

In
*

hirn.f

been

Even

of the

aware

fact

nearly 500

then, Gilbert

erence
gave steel the prefsoft iron, because
the former
of
has the power
over
permanently retainingthe force imparted to it,and of

years

thus

had

the

for

course

longer time

of the

Cosmos, vol. i.,p.

17th

century, the

Calamitico

177.

conductor

was

the

of the first needles

in consequence
in the shape of a frog.
made

instruments
been

of

magnetism.
navigation of the
given

name

for the

to

these

compass

ing
hav-

Nova
de Magnete, lib. iii.,
t See Gilbert,Physiologia
p. 124.
cap. viii.,
vol.
remarks
ever,
i.,p. 177)
Pliny (Cosmos,
generally,without, how-

Even

referringto the act

for a long period of

of

touching, that magnetism

time

the

to

iron.

Gilbert

may

expresses

be

ed
impart-

himself

as

:
vulgar opinion of a magnetic mountain
Vulgaris opinio de montibus
magneticis aut rupe aliqua magnetica,
de polo phantastico a polo mundi
distante" (1.c. p. 42-98). The
riation
vaunknown
and advance
of the magnetic lines were
to
entirely
loci
him.
Varietas
est" (1.c. 42, 98, 152,
constans
uniuscujusque
153).

follows

in reference

"

"

to

59

POLES.

MAGNETIC

THE

French, which

Netherlander, British, Spaniards, and

been

widely extended

so

the direction

and

by more
length of

the

knowledge of those lines of no

alreadyremarked, Father Acosta

the

into

Cornelius

system.*

pointslying in

Van

Marquesas Islands in which

there lies in this

which

exhibited

as

I have

to

reduce

in 1616,
indicated,
and

southeast
null.

was

of the internal

of the

Even

closed system
region a singular,

every group
smaller amount

Schouten

the variation

in which
lines,
indicates

which,

endeavored

had

of the Pacific

the midst

increased

ship'scourse,

variation

had

of determining

perfectmethods

of

isogonic

concentric

of variation.!

The

now

curves

emulation

for determining
tryingto find methods
of the variation,but also
not only by means
longitudes,
it was
under
observed
a
by the inclination (which, when
said by Wright to
was
cloudy,starless sky, aere caliginoso,%
of instruments
much
be "worth
gold"),led to the multiplication
for magnetic observations,while it tended,at the same
The
Jesuit
time, to increase the activityof the observers.
of Ferrara, Ridley,Lieutaud
Cabeus
(1668),and Henry Bond
in this manner.
Indeed,
(1676),distinguishedthemselves
the contest
the latter and Beckborrow, together
between
with

was

Acosta's

which

divided
have

had

view

in

that there

influence

no

of the earth,may

the entire surface

some

four lines of

were

the

on

theory advanced

variation

ably
very probin 1683

magnetic polesor points of convergence.

Halley is identified with an important epoch in the history
of terrestrial magnetism.
He
assumed
that there was
in
ity,
each hemisphere a magnetic pole of greater and lesser intensconsequently four points with 90" inclination of the
find among
the four points of
needle, preciselyas we now
greatest intensityan analogous inequalityin the maximum
for each hemisphere,that is to say, in the rapidof intensity
ity
by

Halley, of four

of the oscillations of the

magnetic

meridian.

Historia

Natural

The

de las

needle

in the

direction

of the

was
pole of greatestintensity

Indias,lib.

i., cap.

situ-

17.

f Cosmos, vol. i.,p. 181.

J In the

Pacific,I
with

the

very

amount

in the

careful

demonstrated

observations
the

of the inclination

determination

of inclination

conditions

may
of the latitude

under

which

which

an

I made

on

the

acquaintance

ity
important practicalutilduring the prevalence,on the

be of

of Peru, of the Garua, when

both the sun
and stars are obscured
phic,
{Cosmos, vol. i.,p. 180). The Jesuit Cabeus, author of the PhilosoMagnetica (in qua nova
quaadam pyxis explicatur,qure poll elevationem ubique demonstrat), drew attention
to this fact during the first

coasts

half of the

17th

century.

60

COSMOS.

70"

ated,accordingto Halley,in
therefore almost

and

in New

Sound

which
were

undertaken

must

have

made

its

of

the view

originsolelyto

the

van

King George's

earlier voyage

seven

Cornelius

and

of Greenwich,

elaborating*a
theorywhich

years before to St.

imperfectobservations of variation made
made

had

he

east

of

Halley's three voyages,

and
1698, 1699,
1702,

in the years

with

owed

Int.,120"

(Nuyts Land).*

Holland
were

S.

in the meridian

Schouten.

These

which

Helena, and to the

by Baffin,Hudson,

were

the first expeditions

lishment
equipped by any government for the estabof a great scientific object that of observingone
of
of terrestrial force on which
the safetyof navigation
elements
is especially
dependent. As Halley penetratedto 52"

which

were

"

the

of the equator, he

south

variation
labors

of the

very remote
of variation.
a

curves

the

construct

cumstantial
first cir-

affords to the theoretical

chart, which

of the 19 th century

certainlynot

able to

was

point of comparison,although
one, of the advancing movement

Halley'sattempt to combine graphicallytogetherby lines

different points of equal variation
a
was
very happy one,f
it
and
clear insightinto
since
has given us a comprehensive
of the results already accumulated.
thermal
the connection
My isolines (that is to say, lines of equal heat or mean
nual
anand
winter
which
ceived
summer
were
early retemperature),
favor by physicists,
with much
have been formed
on
similar plan to Halley'sisogoniccurves.
These
pecially
a
lines,essince they have been extended
and greatlyimproved
by Dove,

intended

are

of heat

on

to

afford

the earth's

of this distribution

oceanic

stand

so

on

the form

of the

tion
distribu-

pendence
principalde-

of the solid and

fluid

more

apart from

others,since they

were

fitted out at the expense of

expeditions,
coveries.
government with the objectof making geographicaldisIn addition to the results which
they have yielded

not, like many

the

the

surface,and

of the

the

masses.

much

clear view

reciprocalpositionof continental
Halley's purely scientific expeditions

parts of the earth, and

and

Edmund

later

Halley, in

the

Philos.

Transact,

for 1683,

vol. xii.,No.

148, p. 216.
were
kind, which he called tractus chalyboeliticos,
in Lisbon,
Burrus
chart
Father
a
Christopher
by
upon
of money
and offered by him
to the King of Spain for a large sum
;
of showing and determining
for the purpose
these lines being drawn
The
first variation
See Kircher's Magnes, ed. 2, p. 443.
longitudesat sea.
been
referred
in
to
has
made
already
1530,
chart, which was
in the text (p. ~"C").

t Lines

marked

of this

down

MAGNETIC

THE

61

POLES.

respectto terrestrial magnetism, they were

in

also the

means

affordingus an important catalogueof southern stars as

lena
the fruits of Halley'searlier sojourn in the island of St. HeThis cataloguewas, morein the years 1677 and 1678.
over,
drawn
after
that
been
had
first
the
was
telescopes
up
combined, according to Morin's and Gascoigne's methods,
of

of measurement.*

instruments

with

century had been

the 17th

distinguished
by an advance
in a more
thorough knowledge of the positionof the lines of
variation,and by the first theoretical attempt to determine
their pointsof convergence,
viz.,the magnetic poles,the 18th
characterized
ical
by the discoveryof horary periodcentury was
As

of variation.

alterations
of

merit

being the

Graham

first to observe

and
accuracy
in Upsala,fwho maintained

variations
orter

contributed

with

of

the extension

to

has the incontestable

(London,1722)

these hourly

persistency.Celsius and Hiwith him,

a correspondence
our
knowledge of this phenomenon.

after him

dowed
enCoulomb, who was
Brugmans, and
mathematical
with higher
powers, entered profoundly
of
terrestrial magnetism (1784-1788). Their
into the nature
tion
ingeniousphysicalexperimentsembraced the magnetic attrac-

of all matter, the local distribution

rod of

given form, and

In order to obtain
a

horizontal

needle

law

the

accurate

suspended by

torsion

of the force in

of its action

magnetic
tance.
at a dis-

the vibrations of
results,
tions
thread, as well as deflec-

in turn

balance,were
employed.
by a
difference
of
of
the
intensityof terrestrial
knowledge
magnetism at different pointsof the earth's surface by the
The

of the

measurement

magnetic meridian

vibrations

is due

of

vertical

in

needle

the

lier
ingenuityof the Chevafrom
successful exBorda
not
periments,
any series of specially
but by a process of reasoning,and by the decided
influence which
he exerted
those who
on
were
equipping
for remote
themselves
expeditions. Borda's long-cherished
first confirmed
of observations
conjectureswere
by means

solelyto

the

"

stars

the

years after
at St. Helena

Twenty
sixth

magnitude)
did

Hevelius

boasted, in his Firmamentum

ern
southunder

Sobescia-

employ any telescope,but observed the heavens

in 1679,
Halley, who, during his visit to Dantzic
somewhat
these
their
was
at
exactness
present
observations,praises
too highly.
Cosmos, vol. iii.,
p. 42.
Traces
t
of the diurnal and horary variations of the magnetic force
had been observed
in London
earlv as 1634. by Hellibrand,and in
as
Siam
by Father
Tachard, in 1682.
num,

that he

Halley had draAvn up his catalogue of

none
(which, unfortunately,included

through

fissures.

not

62

cosmos.

from

made

the

of La

unheeded,

1785

year

Perouse.

and

1787, by Lamanon,
results

remained

the

panion
com-

been

nicated
commu-

of the last-named

summer

Secretary of the Academie

Condorcet,
and therefore
first,
the

the

unknown,

unpublished,although they had

early as

as

to

These

year to
Sciences.
The

des

certainlyan imperfectknowledge of the

of intensity
in accordance
important law of the variability
with the magnetic latitude,belongs undoubtedly*to the unfortunate
but scientifically
of
La
Perouse
equippedexpedition
;
but the law itself,
I rejoice
to think, was
first incorporated
as
from
in science by the publicationof my observations,made
1798
to 1804, in the south of France, in Spain, the Canaiy
and
north
both
Islands, the interior of tropicalAmerica
south
The

of the equator, and in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.

successful expeditionsof Le Gentil, Feuillee,and La-

caille; the first attempt

inclination

by Wilke,

made

chart

the

in

1768,

to

struct
con-

memorable

tions
circumnavigaBougainville,Cook, and Vancouver, have all tended,
although by the help of instruments possessingvery unequal
degreesof exactness, to establish the previouslyneglectedbut
very important element of inclination at various intervals of
different points the observations
being
time, and at many
made
at sea, and in the immediate
more
vicinityof the ocean,
an

of

"

than

in the interior of continents.

Toward

the close of the

observations of declination which

stationary
made
were
by Cassini,Gilpin,and Beaufoy (from 1784 to
that
perfectinstruments,showed definitely
1790),with more
of
the
influence at different hours
there is a periodical
day,
the
of
less than
a
at different seasons
no
discovery
year
stimulus to magnetic investigations.
which
imparted a new
In the 19th century, half of which
has now
expired,this
increased activityhas assumed
a
specialcharacter differing
refer to the almost
multaneous
sifrom any that has preceded it. We
18th

century,

the

"

advance
the

of

has

that

been

made

in all branches

of

al
magnetism, comprising the numericof the intensity,
determination
inclination,and variation
tion
the force ; in physicaldiscoveries in respect to the excitaand
the amount
of the distribution of magnetism ; and

theory of

Cosmos,

terrestrial

vol.

i.,p.

185-187.

The

admirable

construction

of the

made
plan, the
by Lenoir, according to Borda's
compass
of having long and free oscillations of the needle, the much
possibility
inclination
diminished

friction of the

provided with
to

measure

pivots,and

the amount

the correct

adjustment

ments
of instru-

of enabling us
of the terrestrial force in different

scales,have

been

the

means

ratelyaccu-

zones.

PROGRESS

in the first and

has

of
suggestions
been
based by

led to these

have

and

results

methods

and

theory of

its

terrestrial

founder, Friedrich

combinations.

The

improvements

are

employed

in number

which

63

MAGNETISM.

mathematical
strictly

Gauss, upon
which

brilliant

which

magnetism,

IN

means

in the instruments

scientific maritime

magnitude

have

ditions,
expe-

exceeded

those

of any other century, and which

have been carefully
equipped
of their respectivegovernments, and favored
at the expense
the

by

choice

happy

both

of the commanders

of the

and

servers
ob-

accompanied them ; and various expeditions

by land, which, having penetrated far into the interior of
continents,have been able to elucidate the phenomena of
terrestrial magnetism, and to establish a large number
of
fixed stations situated in both hemispheres in corresponding
north and south latitudes,and often in almost
gitudes.
oppositelonThese
observatories,which are both magnetic and
form, as it were, a net-work over the earth's
meteorological,
surface.
of the ingeniouscombination
of the observations
By means
been
which
have
publishedat the national expense
in Russia
and England, important and
unexpected results
have

who

have

obtained.

been

the

manifestation

not

the

The

establishment

of force which

is

of

regulating

law

proximate,although
factorily
has been satisinvestigations,
individual phases of the phenomenon.
discovered by means
of physicalexperiments
a

of all

ultimate, end

effected in many
All that has been

concerningthe relations which terrestrial magnetism

bears to excited electricity,
heat and to light,
to radiating
and all that we
in reference to the only lately
assume
may
generalizedphenomena of diamagnetism, and to that specific
property of atmospheric oxygen
polarity opens, at all
to
events, the cheeringprospect that we
are
drawing nearer
"

the

actual

of the

nature

In order to

force.

the praisewhich
justify

in reference
of

magnetic

"

the

to

we

magnetic

have

of the

labors

form

of

information,arranging them
and
in others in groups.^
chronologically,

sources

our

1803-1806.

from

first half

with the nature

century, I will here, in accordance
of the present work, briefly
the principal
enumerate

our

and

pressed
generallyex-

The

dates

Krusenstern's
with

1803-180G)

which

indicate

the

round

some

the world

cases

(1812);

following table begins (as,for instance,

ures
epoch of the observation, while the figparenthesis,and appended to the titles of
which
of their publication,
was
frequently

the

which
marked
in
are
the works, indicate the date
much
later.

voyage

in

64

cosmos.

portion was
magnetic and astronomical
by Horner
(bd.
s. 317).
iii.,
1804.
tensity
Investigationof the law of the increase in the inof terrestrial magnetic force from the magnetic equator
the

and

northward
from

1799

to

southward, based upon

1804.

observations

(Humboldt, Voyage

made

RegionsEqui-

aux

t. iii.,
Continent,
; Lametherie,
p. 615-623
de Physique,
Journal
t. lxix.,1804, p. 433 ; the first sketch
of a chart showing the intensities of the force,Cosmos, vol. i.,

noxiales du Nouveau

have shown
that the minimum
p. 185.) Later observations
of the intensity
does not correspondto the magnetic equator,
and

that

the

of the

increase

intensityin both hemispheres

does not extend to the magnetic pole.
of
1805-1806.
Gay-Lussac and Humboldt, Observations
Intensityin the south of France, Italy,Switzerland, and
Germany. Memoires de la Societe oV Arcueil, t. i.,p. 1"22.
Compare the observations of Quetelet, 1830 and 1839, with
u
Carte de l'intensite magnetique horizontale
Paris
entre
a
et Naples," in the Mem.
de V Acad, de Bruxelles,t. xiv. ; the
of Forbes
observations
in Germany, Flanders, and Italy,in
1832
and 1837 {Transact,
of the Royal Soc. of Edinburgli,\o\.
of Rudberg
observations
xv., p. 27) ; the extremely accurate
in France, Germany, and
Sweden, 1832 ; the observations
of Dr. Bache
(Director of the Coast Survey of the United
ence
both in refer1837 and 1840, at twenty-one stations,
States),
to inclination and intensity.
1806-1807.
A
long series of observations at Berlin on
the recurrence
of
the horary variations of declination and
and Oltmanns,
by Humboldt
magnetic storms (perturbations),
the
of
solstices
and
the
equinoxes for five
periods
mainly at
nine days,and
and six,or even
sometimes
as
nights
many
which
ofProny's magnetic telescope,
consecutively,
by means
,

allowed
1812.

arcs

of

seven

or

ein;htseconds

to

Morichini, of Rome, maintained

steel-needles become

distinguished.

be

that

non-magnetic

the violet rays

excited by this assertion,

with

magnetic by
light. Regarding the long contention
and the ingenious experiments of Mrs. Somerville,
together with the wholly negative results of Riess and Moser,
contact

of

see

Sir David

Brewster, Treatise
^e

1893
von

189T

Kotzebue

C
:

tw0

on

Magnetism, 1837,

circumnavigationvoyages

the first in the Ruric

; the

p. 48.

of Otto

second, five years

later,in the Predprijatie.

1817-1848.

The

series of great scientific maritime

expe-

66

cosmos.

1838-1839

Bay Company,

the

Franklin,
Austin, Penny, Sir John
Sir John

in search of
recently,
Captains Ommanney,
1850 and 1851.
Phillips,

and

more

expeditions of

Ross, and
expeditionof Captain Penny reached
6/ Victoria
of 77"
Channel, into

The

the

itude
lat-

northern

which

Wellington

Channel

opens.
1819-1821.

Bellinghausen'sVoyage

into

the

Antarctic

Ocean.
The

1819.
the

Magnetism

as

early as

the

Brazilian

Maranon

La

and

coasts, between

conductor
exerts

undoubted

and

Givry

of the

the mouths

made

discoveryof
by a closed

definite action

the
upon
accordingto their relative

of this

extension

Roussin

the great
that is being traversed

magnetic needle
long as the current
of metals
kinds

an

rivers

Plata.

Oersted

1819-1820.

current

exercised

of Admirals

observations

The

1819.

has

part of the earth's surface.

considerable

that

work

on

charts

on

This

1813.

the encouragement
and better direction of magnetic
geofollowed by the author's generstudies,and it was
al
for
of the curves
of equal inclination and intensity

influence

of the great work

of Hansteen
On
appearance
completed
of the Earth, which, however, was

of

of the

direction

discovery (together with

the

electric

and as
positions,
uninterrupted. The earliest

continues

from

the fact

alkalies

that

that

and

of the
of the

hibition
ex-

two

brilliant
polarizationof light probably the most
due to Arago's observation,
discoveryof the century)*was
that a wire through which
electrical current
is passing,
an
"

of copper
or
fast iron filings
like a magnet,
even

when

into

the

made

interior

of

platinum,

attracts

and

needles

that

holds

and

introduced

alternately
galvanic helix become
in
accordance
with
charged by
oppositemagnetic poles
the reversed direction of the coils {Ann. cle Chim. et de Phys.,
The
t. xv., p. 93).
discovery of these phenomena, which
a

the

were

exhibited

under

the most

varied

was
modifications,

combinations

by Ampere's ingenious theoretical

the

of

ponderable bodies.

by
and

actions
alternating
electro-magnetic

led to

a
a

series of

new

knowledge

These

and

1820-1824.
*

von

of

of many

cules
of the molewere

firmed
con-

hitherto

ently
appar-

magnetism.

Wrangel's

and

(1808) and Arago's (1811) ordinary and

Light. See Cosmos, vol. ii.,
p. 332.

Malus's
of

Ferdinand

garding
re-

highlyingeniousinstruments,

of the laws

contradictoryphenomena

combinations

lowed
fol-

Anjou's expechromatic

zation
polari-

dition to the north

of Siberia

coasts

of

(Important phenomena
of

magnetic

and

recognizedas

Ocean.

ii.,s. 259.)

ments
Regions ; experi-

unequally

two

and

warmed

thermetals

dhTerences

of temperature
metallic ring,were

homogeneous

production of magneto-electric

of the

sources

th.

ii.,p. 537-554.

copper),or

parts of

in the individual

of

contact

bismuth
(especially

see

the Frozen

of thernio-masmetism

discovery

mo-electricity.The

to

of the Arctic

vol.
intensity,

Seebeck's

1821.

and

polarlight;

Scoresby'sAccount

1820.

67

OBSERVATIONS.

MAGNETIC

currents.

Weddell's

1821-1823.
as

far

Sabine's

1822-1823.

length of

of Africa

coasts
as

far

the

determine

very
under

title of Account

the

of

Figure of the Earth, p. 460-509.

Magnetic Observations

Erikson's

1824.

and

publishedin 1824,

Experimentsto

Greenland

Spitzbergenin lat. 79"

comprehensive operations

23', Norway

results of these

The

first

in

equator, Brazil,Havana,

the

to

lat. 74"

as

50').
were

of

pendulum

the

Ocean

important expeditionsfor the

the
the magnetic intensityand
different latitudes (from the east

two

determination

accurate

into the Antarctic

15'.

lat. 74"

as

Voyage

along the

shores

of the Baltic.

Arago
suggestionthat
his

by
Park

The
first
Magnetism of Rotation.
ed
affordthis unexpected discoverywas

discovers

1825.

led to

observation

of the decrease

inclination-needle
In

substances.
of the needle

side of the hill in Greenwich

in the duration

by

the action

Arago'

were

the

on

of

of the oscillations of

an

neighboring non-magnetic

experimentsthe oscillations
by water, ice,glass,charcoal,and

rotation

affected

mercury.*
1825-1827.

Magnetic

Observations

by Boussingault in

America
different parts of South
of
Observations
1826-1827.

(Marmato, Quito).
Intensityby Keilhau at 20
Spitzbergen,and Bear Island), by

(in Finmark,

stations

Boeck, in Southern
Astr. Nachr., No. 146).
Keilhau

and

Germany

and

Italy(Schum.,

the World;
Voyage Round
most
the magnetic part was
carefullyprepared in 1834 by
Lenz (seePartie Nautique du Voyage, 1836).
1826-1830.
Captain Philip Parker King's Observations
coasts
in the southern
portionsof the eastern and western
1826-1829.

of South

Admiral

America

Liitke's

(Brazil,Montevideo,

Chili,and Valparaiso).
*

Cosmos, vol. i.. p. 179.

the

gellan,
Straits of Ma-

68

cosmos.

1827-1839.

Quetelet,Etat

pendant
elles)

douze

MagnetismeTerrestre (Brux-

Very

annees.

the

Sabine, On

1827.

du

determination

magnetic
analogouscomparison between

made

Hansteen

by

in 1825-1828

Liverpool,1837,
intensitywhich had been
at

of

Scandinavian

and

had

which

Paris

the

and

relative
and

The

connection

with

been

was

the British Association

results

many

French, English,

first admitted

now

tensity
in-

London.

Christiana

{Meetingof

p. 19-23).
obtained
by

travelers

numerical

into

brought

of

terrestrial force in Paris

of the

An

observations.

accurate

of

beino-

oscillating
needles,

the three
abovecompared together
named
cities. These
numbers, which could, therefore,
now
be established as relative values,were
found to be for Paris,
bine;
1*348, as determined
by myself; for London, 1-372, by Saand for Christiana, 1-423, by Hansteen.
They all
refer to the intensity
of the magnetic force at one
point of
of no inclination),
the magnetic equator (the curve
tersects
inwhich
at

Cordilleras

the Peruvian

Caxamarca, in
78" 48', where

latitude

south
the

7"

between

2', and
assumed

intensitywas

Micuipampa and
western
longitude
by myself as=

standard

(Humboldt, Recueil d' Observ.

Astr.,vol. ii.,p. 382-385
Voyage aux RegionsEquin.,
;
for
formed
tions
t. iii.,
the basis,
fortyyears, of the reducp. 622)
given in all tables of intensity(Gay-Lussac, in the
de la Societe d'Arcueil,t. i.,1807, p. 21 ; Hansteen,
Mem.
On the Magnetism of the Earth, 1819, p. 71; Sabine, in the
It
Meport of the British Association at Liverpool,
p. 43-58).
count
has, however, in recent times been justlyobjectedto on ac1-000.

assumed

This

and

of its want
of

no

because
of general applicability,

inclination* does

not

the

line

together the points of

connect

practicewas adopted of determining absolute values,

the most
quently
generallyused scale (and which stillcontinues to be very frefounded
the time of vibration observed
referred to)was
on
by
of the present century, at
the commencement
M. de Humboldt, about
of South
station in the Andes
a
America, where the direction of the
which
for some
time
was
a
dipping-needle was horizontal, condition
indication
of
the
minimum
of
be
an
magnetic
erroneouslysupposed to
of vibraforce at the earth's surface.
tion
From
a comparison of the times
*

the

"Before

of M.

de Humboldt's

ratio of the
minimum

was

with

needle

force

magnetic

at

in South

Paris

to

America

what

was

and

in

Paris, the

supposed to

be

its

bined
(1*348),and from the results so obtained, combetween
Paris
and
made
by myself
comparison

inferred
similar

don
in 1827, with several magnets, the ratio of the force in LonAmerica
Humboldt's
station
in
South
M.
de
that
of
to
original
This is the origin of the numbeen inferred to be 1372
to ] *000.
ber

London
has

1-372, which

has

been

generally employed by

British

observers.

for 1846, pt.

the Phil. Transact,

(Sabine,in
intensity

feeblest

69

OBSERVATIONS.

MAGNETIC

in the Manual
of Scient. Inquiryfor
iii.,
p. 254 ; and
of the British Navy, 1849, -p- 17).

in

observations
far

and

Voyage of Hansteen
European Russia, and

The

1828-1829.

Due

the

Magnetic
Siberia

in Eastern

use

as

Irkutsk.

as

Adolf

1828-1830.
his

with

voyage
Northern

journey through

both

across

identityof

circumnavigation,

Asia, and

his passage
The
frigateKrotkoi.

Russian

the

in

oceans,

employed, the uniformityof

the instruments

the

tions
determina-

of the astronomical

the exactness

methods, and

of

Erman's

will impart a permanent scientific reputation

position,
which
was
to this expedition,
equipped at the expense
privateindividual,and conducted by a thoroughlywell-

of

of

informed

and

skillful observer.

Committee

relative to

Humboldt's

1828-1829.
in

begun

1800

the

Declination

General

Report of the
the Arctic Expedition,
1840, pi.3.

Erman's

Chart, based upon

See

1807,

and

observations

in the

continuation

of the

the time

of the

at

observations
solstices and

epochs of
carried on in a magnetic pavilion
extraordinaryperturbations,
for
and
erected
the
at Berlin,
provided
specially
purpose
of
with one
ments
Corresponding measureGambey's compasses.
and
in the
St.
made
at
were
Petersburg,Nikolajew,
the
mines of Freiberg,by Professor Reich, 227 feet below
equinoxes regarding horary declination

of the soil.

surface

in reference

Dove
to

magnetic force
len,bd.

s.

xv.,

the

Riess

and

variation

continued

bd.

these

ations
observ-

of the horizontal
intensity
1830
(Poggend.,-4w"a-

and

till November,

318-336

and

the

xix.,s. 375-391, with

16 tab.

David

met

bd. xx., s. 545-555).

botanist
1829-1834.
The

Douglas, who

his

into a trap in which

wild
a
Owhyhee by falling
admirable
series of
bull had previouslybeen caught,made
an
west
declination
and intensity
observations
on
along the northdeath

in

coast

far
the

of

of the

the

margin
Meeting of the British
as

By absolute measurements
distant
we

which
future

1849,

Association

at

as

of
Liverpool,
p. 27-32).

ically
numeronly enabled to compare
in
the
most
made
experiments
of
the
with
not
compared,
previously
globe,
parts
apparatus
the intensity
also furnish the means
of comparing hereafter
be found
at
exists at the present epoch with that which
may
British
Navy,
periods." Sabine,in the Manual for the use of the

with
but

the Sandwich
Islands
upon
of Kiraueah
crater
(Sabine,Rep.

America, and

p. 17.

one

another

we

the

are

not

results

of

70

COSMOS.

KupfFer, Voyage

1829.

p. 68-115.
Humboldt's
1829.
with

of

by command

longitudes11"
Dzaisan,
of

as

3' and

well

as

'observations

simultaneous

an

dans

Elbrouz

Mont

magnetic

the

magnetism,
of positionin

au

Caucase,

terrestrial

on

astronomical

tions
determina-

taken
expeditionin Northern Asia, underthe
the Emperor Nicholas, between
80"

12'

between

Birutschicassa,in

east

of

of 45"

latitudes

the
the

58"

to

Lake

the

Paris, near

Caspian Sea)
the northern
near
district,
parts of the Ural
(Asie Centrale,t. iii.,
p. 440-478).
island

le

43'

(the

52', in

Werchoturie

burg
Imperial Academy of Sciences at St. Petersacceded
Humboldt's
ment
to
suggestionfor the establishof magnetic and meteorological
stations in the different
of European and Asiatic Russia, as well as
climatic zones
for the erection of a physicalcentral observatory in the capital
the efficient scientific direction of
of the empire under
Professor
KupfFer,
Kupffer. (See Cosmos, vol. i.,p. 190.
V
Adresse
Acad,
de
St.
a
Pctersbourgrelatifa VObserRapport
vatoire physiquecentral,
fonde aupres da Corps des Alines,in

1829.

The

No. 72G ; and in his Annates

Schum., Astr. JSfachr.,
Magnethe
continued
which
the
tiqnes,
patronage
p. xi.) Through
to
Finance
Minister, Count
Cancrin, has awarded
every
of
the
scientific
a
undertaking, portion
simultaneously
great

correspondingobservations*
*

The

first idea

conducted

of the

between

utility of

the

White

systematic

is due
series of magnetic observations
referringto the discovery and measurement

and
to

Sea

and

the

simultaneously

out
Celsius,and, with-

of the

influence

of

sistant,
magnetic variation, which was, in fact,due to his asthe
that he was
Olav Hiorter
(March, 1741), we may mention
in the summer
of 1711, to join him in his
of inducing Graham,
means
f
or
certain
whether
investigations discovering
extraordinaryperturbations,
had from time to time exerted
which
the
a horary influence
on
had
observed
of the magnetic needle
also been
at Upsala,
at
course
the same
in London.
A simultaneityin the perturbatime by him
tions
afforded a proof,he said,that the cause
of these disturbances
is
and
extended
considerable
of
the
earth's
is
not
over
surface,
portions
accidental
local actions (Celsius,in Svenska
Vetendependent upon
Academicns
skaps
1747,
Handlingar for 1740, p. 44; Hiorter, op. cit.,
recognized that the magnetic perturbations,
p. 27). As Arago had
districts in which
the phenomowing to polar light,are diffused over
ena
of light which
been
have
not
storms
magnetic
seen,
accompany
he devised a plan by which
simultaneous
he was
enabled
to carry on
friend
common
horary observations
Kupffer at
(in 1823) with our
simultaneous
47"
which
of
Paris.
Similar
servations
oblies
almost
east
Kasan,
in
in
1828
of declination
were
begun
by myself, conjunction
with Arago and Reich, at Berlin,Paris, and Freiberg (seePoggend.,
Annaleiiybd. xix.,s. 337).

polar lighton

71

OBSERVATIONS.

MAGNETIC

Crimea, and between the Gulf of Finland and the shores of

the
Pacific,in Russian
America, were
begun as early as
A

the

permanent magnetic station

from
old monastery at Pekin, which

the

reign of

1832.

of the
took

Greek

the

the

Peter

Church.

principalpart

was

established

time

to

time, since
Great, has been inhabited by monks
learned astronomer, Fuss, who
The

in the

for the

measurements

difference of level between

of the

in

ination
determ-

the

Caspian and
chosen to arrange
the first magnetic esthe Black
tablishments
Sea, was
At a subsequent period,
in China.
Kupffer,in
his Voyage of Circumnavigation,compared togetherall the
that had been
instruments
employed in the magnetic and
in 119"
meteorologicalstations as far east as Nertschinsk
36/ longitude,
and with
The
the fundamental,
standards.
in
Siberia,which are no
magnetic observations of Fedorow,
still unpublished.
doubt highly valuable, are
Colonel
1830-1845.
Graham, of the topographicalengineers
of the

States,made

United
the

observations

on

the

netic
mag-

of Canada

southern

boundary
{Phil.
for 1846, pt. iii.,
p. 242).
1830.
Fuss, Magnetic, Astronomical, and Hypsometrical
the
Observations
of Baikal,
on
journey from the Lake
through Ergi-Oude, Durma, and the Gobi, which lies at an
elevation of only 2525
feet,to Pekin, in order to establish
the magnetic and meteorologicalobservatoryin that city,
intensityat

Transact,

where

Kovanko

continued
the

for ten

years

to

prosecute

his

servations
ob-

Seventh

Meeting of the Brit. Assoc,

Humboldt, Asie Centrale,t. i.,p. 8 ;
1837, p. 497-499
; and
141
t, ii.,
; t. iii.,
p. 468, 477).
p.

{Rep. of

Captain Fitzroy, in

1831-1836.
world

in the

of the most

Beagle, as

southern

inclinatorium
1831.

Dunlop,

portionsof

Director
a

on

as

round

voyage

in the

survey
America, with

of the
a

oscillation needles

and

Observations

well

his

of the

voyage

to

the
coasts

Gambey's

suppliedby
Observatory of Paramatta,
Hansteen.

Australia

{Phil.Transact, for

1840, pt. i.,p. 133-140).

1831.

whose
Faraday's induction-currents,
theory has
been extended
The
ery
by Nobili and Antinori.
great discovof the development of lightby magnets.
1833 and 1839
the two
are
important epochs of the first
enunciation
vis

1833

of the theoretical views

magnetics
;

tempora

(p.

terrestris ad
"

(1)Intensitas

absolutam

revocata,

tertium, intensitas,usque ad
penitusneglectum mansit"); (2) the im-

elementum

recentiora

mensuram

of Gauss

72

cosmos.

work

mortal

of the

(seeResults
in

1839,

p.

1833.

the

by

Gauss

ism"
magnet-

Magnetic
and

sociation
As-

Weber,

1-57).
of Barlow

Observations
the

the
in

of the

Observations

1838, edited

year

ship'siron, and
on

terrestrial

generaltheory of

"the

on

compass
Terrellas

on

the

attraction

of

the

of

action
determining its deflecting
of electro-magnetic
currents
; Investigation
Barlow's
Isogonic atlases. (Compare
means

Magnetic Attraction,1833, p. 89, with Poisson, sur

les deviations cle la boussole produitepar le fer des vaisseaux,in
t. xvi.,p. 481-555
de VInstitut,
the Mem.
; Airy, in the Phil.

Essay

on

for 1839, pt. i.,p. 167 ; and for 1843, pt. ii.,p.
Sir James
Ross, in the Phil. Transact, for 1849, pt.

Transact,
146

ii.,p. 177-195).
1833.
force

ascertainingthe positionand
magnetic pole (Poggend.,Annalen, bd.
of

methods

Moser's

of the variable

xxviii.,s. 49-296).
1833.

Christie

Phil. Transact,

on

the Arctic

observations

for 1836, pt. ii.,p. 377.

of

Captain Back,
(Compare also his

important treatise in the Phil. Transact, for 1825,

pt. i.,p. 23.)
bd. ii.,
Parrot's expeditionto Ararat
1834.
(Magnetisnius,
s. 53-64).
1836.
Major Estcourt,in the expeditionof Colonel Cheson
the Euphrates. A portion of the observations
ney on
is
the
the steamer
lost with
.were
Tigris,which
intensity
rate
since we
are
to be regretted,
entirelydeficient in accumore
of
Western
interior
of
of this portion
the
observations
Asia, and of the regionslying south of the Caspian Sea.
to his Royal HighLetter from M. A. de Humboldt
ness
1836.
of Sussex, President
of the Royal Society of
Duke
of improving our
knowledge
London, on the proper means
of magnetic
of terrestrial magnetism by the establishment
stations and correspondingobservations
(April,1836). On
the
its influence on
the happy results of this appeal, and
Ross, see Cosmos,
expedition of Sir James
great Antarctic
earlier and

i.,p. 192, and Sir James Ross's Voyage to the Southern

and Antarctic Regions, 1847, vol. i.,pt. xii.
1837.
Sabine, On the Variations of 'the Magnetic Intensity
ish
of the Earth, in the Report of the Seventh Meeting of the Britvol.

Association at

Liverpool,
p.

1-85

the

most

completework

of the kind.
1837-1838.

Erection

by Professor

of

Humphrey

lin,
magnetic observatory at DubLloyd. On the observations

74

cosmos.

139

(2) Observations

made
and

Toronto, 1840, 1841,

at

1842

the

Magnetical Observatoryat
(43" 39' N. lat.,and 81" 41'

tion
long.),vol. i.,p. xiv.-xxviii. ; (3) The very variable Direcin
Declination
the
Year
one
at Longof Magnetic
half of
55'
St.
8"
wood
Helena
S.'lat,
3'
W.
House,
(15"
long.),
T
ransactions
Obsei-v1847,
Philosophical
for
pt. i.,p. 54; (4)
W.

Magneticaland Meteorological
Observatory
at the Cape of Good Hope, 1841-1846
Observations
made
; (5)
at the Magnetical and
at Hobarton
MeteorologicalObservatory
(42" 52' S. lat.,145" 7' E. long.),in Van Diemerfs Land
and the Antarctic Expedition,
vol. i. and ii.(1841-1848); On
the Separation of the Eastern
and
Western
see
Disturbances,
ations made

at

the

vol.

within the
ii.,p. ix.-xxxvi. ; (6) Magnetic Phenomena
Antarctic Polar Circle,
in Kergueleris
and Van Diemeris Land
(Phil. Transact, for 1843, pt. ii.,p. 145-231); (7) On the
Isoclinal and IsodynamicLines in the Atlantic Ocean, their Condition
1837
in
(Phil.Transact, for 1840, pt. i.,p. 129-155);
Basis
of
chart of the Atlantic Ocean, which
exhibits
a
(8)
the lines of

magnetic

variation

between

60"

N.

lat. and

60"

S. lat. for the year 1840

173-233); (9) Methods

(Phil.Transact, for 1849, pt. ii.,

p.
absolute
the
Values,
of determining
Variation of the Magnetic Force
secular Change, and annual
(Phil Transact, for 1850, pt. i.,p. 201-219); Coincidence
with
epochs of the greatest vicinityof the sun
greatest intensityof the force in both hemispheres,and
of the

the

increase

of

(10) On

inclination,p. 216;

the

of

the Amount

of
tinent,
Conthe
Neio
of
parts
and upon the Point of greatestMagneticForce found by
Captain Lefroy in 52" 19/ lat. (Phil.Transact, for 1846, pt.
iii.,
p. 237-336); (11) The periodic Alterations of the three
and
Elements of terrestrial Magnetism, Variation,Inclination,
and
and
the
Connection
at Toronto
on
Hobarton,
of the
Intensity
decennial Period
of Magnetic Alterations with the decennial
Period of the frequency of Solar Spots,discovered by Schicabe
at Dessau
(Phil.Transact, for 1852, pt. i.,p. 121-124). The
in
MagneticIntensity

observations
as

the most

Northern

of variation

for 1846

continuation

of those

to the

years

and

1851

indicated

are

to

in ISo.

be

sidered
con-

longing
1, as be-

1840-1845.

ic
Representationof magnetic isoclinal and isodynamof Humphrey
lines,from observations
Lloyd, John Phil-,
"Were Fox, James
Sabine.
Ross, and Edward
lips,Robert
the
it was
As early as 1833
determined, at
meeting of the
in Cambridge, that the magnetic inclination
British Association
should be determined
at several parts of
and intensity
1839.

/O

OBSERVATIONS.

MAGNETIC

of 1834 this suggestionwas

empire, and in the summer
Sabine,
fully carried out by Professor Lloyd and General
then extended
and 1836 were
to
and the operationsof 1835
the

(Report of the Meeting of the Brit. Assoc,

isoclinal and
held at Newcastle, 1838, p. 49-196), with an
British
the
of
the
islands,
intensityat
isodynamic chart
=1.
taken
London
as
being
of Sir James
1838-1843.
The
great exploring voyage
for the
Ross to the South
Pole, which is alike remarkable
Wales

Scotland

and

it afforded

knowledge by proving the

of hitherto doubtful polar regions,as well as for
existence
the new
dition
lightwhich it has diffused over the magnetic conof largeportionsof the earth's surface.
It embraces
of terrestrial magnetism numerically
all the three elements
of all the high
thirds of the area
for almost
determined
two
latitudes of the southern
hemisphere.
additions

which

Kreil's

1839-1851.
for twelve
reference

to

our

observations,which

continued

were

years, at the Imperial Observatory at Prague, in

of all the elements
of terrestrial
to the variation

magnetism, and of the conjecturedsoli-lunar influence.

of Gam1840.
Horary magnetic observations with one
during a ten years'residence in
bey'sdeclination compasses
de
Chili, by Claudio
Gay (seehis Historia Jisicay iiolitica
Chile,1847).
nich.
1840-1851.
Lamont, Director of the Observatory at MuThe
results of his magnetic observations,compared
with

of

those

Gottingen,

of
Investigation

the

date

which

important law

of

back
a

as

far

decennial

as

1835.

period*in

Arago lias left behind him a treasury of magnetical observations

(upward of 52,600 in number) carried on from 1818 to 1835, which
have been carefullyedited by M. Fedor
Thoman, and published in the
(Euvres
ations,
Completesde Francois Arago (t.iv.,p. 498). In these observfor the series of years from
1821
to 1830, General
Sabine
has
of
the most
confirmation
the
decennial
complete
period of

discovered

and its correspondence with the same

magnetic declination,
period,in
the alternate frequency and rarityof the solar spots (Meteorological
says,
EsLondon, 1855, p. 350). So early as the year 1850, when Schwabe
his notices of the periodicalreturn
of the solar
published at Dessau
vol.
showed
before
Sabine
first
(Cosmos,
spots
iv.,p. 83), two years
the decennial
period of magnetic declination to be dependent on the
solar spots (in March, 1852, Phil
mos,
Tr. for 1852, pt. i.,
; Cosp. 116-121
vol. v., p. 76, note),the latter had already discovered
the important
result that the sun
operates on the earth's magnetism by the magnetic
power

proper

pt. i.,p. 216;

to

its

mass.

He

had

greatest, and
when
the earth

is nearest

to

the

sun.

(Phil. Tr. for 1850,

discovered

Cosmos, vol. v., p. 136) that the

that the needle approaches nearest
The

magnetic intensityis
to

the

vertical direction,

knowledge

of such

76

cosmos.

the alterations of declination

(seeLamont

Poggend.,Ann.

hi

and
Relshuber, 1852,
Phys.,1851, bd. 84, s. 572-582;
bd. 85, s. 179-184). The already-indicated
connection
conjectural
increase
and
the periodical
decrease in the
between
for the daily variation of declination in the
annual
mean
magnetic needle, and the periodicalfrequency of the solar

der

known

first made

spots, was

by General

in the Phil.

later,without
the same
sult
reany knowledge of the previous observations,
enunciated
was
by Rudolf Wolf, the learned Director
of terresmanual
Lamont's
trial
of the Observatory at Berne.*
Transact,

for 1852;

and

magnetism, 1848,
of

four

Sabine

observation,as

five months

or

notice of the newest

contains

well

of the

as

ods
meth-

development of these

methods.

Bache, Director

1840-1845.

of the

Coast

Survey of

the

servatory
States,Observ. made at the Magn. and MeteoroL Obat Girard
College,
(publishedin 1847).
Philadelphia
teorological
Lieutenant
U. S.,Magneticaland Me1840-1842.
Gilliss,
Observations made at Washington, published1847,
Magnetic Storms, p. 33G.
p. 2-319;

United

Sir

1841-1843.

Robert

Schomburgk's

observations

of

district of

the
Guiana, between
the
Roraima
and the village
mountain
Pirara, between
allels
par39'
3"
of 4" 57/ and
(Phil. Transact, for 1849, pt. ii.,

declination

p.

in

the

woody

217).
1841-1845.

Magnet,

and

MeteoroL

Observations

made

at

Madras.
magnetical operation of the central body of

our

planetarysystem,

not

well

its heat-producingquality,but by its own

magnetic power, as
by changes in the Photosphere (thesize and frequency of funnelshaped openings),gives a higher cosmical interest to the study of the
earth's magnetism, and to the numerous
mos,
magnetic observatories (Cosand
ern
NorthRussia
vol. i.,p. 190 ; vol. v., p. 72) now
over
planted
Asia, since the resolutions of 1829, and over the colonies of Great
Britain since 1810-1850.
(Sabine,in the Proceedingsof the Roy. Soc,
vol. viii.,
No. 25, p. 400; and in the Phil. Trans, jov 1856, p. 362.)
*
The
treatise of Rudolf
Wolf, referred to in the text, contains
observation
the
sun's spots (from January 1 to June
of
specialdaily
tion,
and
of
table
Lamont's
a
30, 1852)
periodicalvariations of declinasolar
with Schwabe's
results on
the frequency of
spots (1835laid before the meeting of the Physical
1850). These results were
hensive
compreSociety of Berne on the 31st of July, 1852, while the more
treatise of Sabine
1852, p. 116-121) had
(Phil, transact.,
in the beginning of
been presented to the Royal Society of London
the most
From
cent
reof
1852.
read
in
the
and
beginning
May,
March,
finds
that
Wolf
solar
of
the
observations
of
spots,
investigations
11-11
between
the years 1600 and 1852 the mean
period was
years.

by
as

1843-1844.

7/

OBSERVATIONS.

MAGNETIC

in

observations

Magnetic

Sir Thomas

bane's
Bris-

Makerston, Roxburghshire, 55" 347

N. lat. (seeTransact, of the Royal Society
of Edinb., vol. xvii.,
pt. ii.,
p. 46).
p. 188 ; and vol. xviii.,
the
On
1843-1849.
Kreil,
Influenceof the Alps upon the
Manifestationsof the Magnetic Force (see Schum., Astr.
Kachr., No. 602).
observatory

at

Expedition of

1844-1845.

far
as
latitudes,

already served

of terrestrial magof Lieutenant

Moore, who had

three

command

the

tic
Pagoda into high antarc67", and from 4" to 117" E.

and

all the

lomr., embracing

netism, under

C4"

as

the

elements

Terror, in the polar expedition; and

in the

Clerk, of the Royal Artillery,and formerly

of the Magnetic Observatory at the Cape.
A

of Lieutenant
Director

worthy completion of
South

the

labors

of Sir James

Ross

at

the

Pole.

1845.
held at

Proceedingsof
Cambridge.

the

Observations made

1845.

Bombay,

at

Orlebar.

and

Magn.

at

the

Metcorol.

Conference

Magn. and Mdeorol.

atory
Observ-

ford
Bedsuperintendenceof Arthur
erected in 1841, on the
observatorywas
the

under

This

littleisland of Colaba.
Six

1845-1850.
Meteorol.

volumes

Observations

Greenwich.

The

made

of the
at

magnetic house

Results

the
was

of the Magn. and

Royal Observatory

at

erected in 1838.

Simonoff,Professor at Kazan, Recherches sur V action

magnetiquede la Terre.
1846-1849.
Captain Elliot,Madras
Engineers,Magnetic
Sixteen
the
Eastern
at each
Archipelago.
stations,
Survey of
1845.

of which

observations

continued

were

for several months

in

ands,
Borneo, Celebes, Sumatra, the Nicobars, and Keeling isl16" N. lat. and 12^
compared with Madras, between
S. lat.,arid 78" and 123" E. long.(Phil.Transact for 1851,
clination
pt. i.,p. 287-331, and also p. i.-clvii.).Charts of equal inand

also expressedthe horizontal

which
declination,
and total force,were
appended to these observations,
which
also give the positionof the magnetic equator and of
the line of no variation,and belong to the most
ed
distinguishin modern
and comprehensive that had been
drawn
up
times.

Faraday's brilliant physicaldiscoveries:

1845-1850.
In

relation
*

See

to

the

axial

Cosmos, vol. iv.,p.

that

is to say,

an

east

or

84.

and

(1)

direcequatorial (diamagnetic*)

Diamagnetic repulsionand
west
positionin respect to

fin
a

torial,
equapower-

78

cosmos.

bodies under external magby freely-oscillating

netic
Phil.
"
Transact,
and
influences
{Phil.
2420,
for 1846,
Transact, for 1851, pt. i.," 2718-2796); (2) Regarding the
and
relation of electro-magnetism to a ray of polarizedlight,
of the altered molecular
the rotation of the latter by means
the ray of polarized
condition of the bodies through which
have
both
been
transmitted
light and the magnetic current
{Phil Transact, for 1846, pt. i.," 2195 and " 2215-2221);
(the
property which
(3) Regarding the remarkable
oxygen

tion assumed

paramagnetic) exerts on the elements of

terrestrial magnetism, namely, that like soft iron, although
conditions of polarity
weaker
in a much
degree,it assumes
through the diffused action of the body of the earth, which
represents a permanently present magnet* (Phil.Transact,
for 1851, pt. i.," 2297-2967).
only gas

is

which

ful magnet,

exhibited

are

by bismuth, antimony, silver,phosphorus,

leather.
Oxygen gas, either

and
rock-salt,ivory,wood, apple-shavings,

when
stices
mixed with other gases, or when
condensed
in the interof charcoal, is paramagnetic.
See, in reference to crystallized
made
bodies, the ingenious observations
concerning the
by Plucker
pure

or

s.
178; and
(Poggend., Annul., bd. lxxiii.,
The
for 1851, " 2836-2842).
repulsion by bismuth
first
in
was
1788, next
recognized by Brugmans
by Le Bailiff in 1827,
more
in 1828.
and, finally,
thoroughly tested by Seebeck
Faraday
himself
("'2429-2131),
Reich, and Wilhelm
Weber, who, from the

position of
Phil.

vear

certain

axes

Transact,

1836, has shown

himself

promote the progress

exhibit the connection

so

incessantlv

of terrestrial

active in his endeavors

have

to

all endeavored

to
magnetism,
tion
inducof
with
those
diamagneticphenomena
Weber
over,
(Poggend., Annalen, bd. lxxiii.,
s. 241-253).
has, moretried to prove that diamagnetism derives its source
from
pere's
Ammolecular
currents.
(Willi.Weber, Abhandlunjen iiber electrodynamische Maassbestimmunjen,1852, s. 545-570.)
*
In order to excite this polarity,
the magnetic fluids in every particle
of oxygen
must
be separated,to a certain extent, by the actio in
distans of the earth in a definite direction,
and with a definite force.
Every particleof oxygen thus represents a small magnet, and all these
small magnets
another
react
as well as
upon one
upon the earth,and,
in connection
with the latter,
finally,
ic
they further act upon a magnetto be in or beyond the atmosphere.
needle,which may be assumed
The
be
that encircles our
terrestrial sphere may
envelope of oxygen
of
soft
iron
natural
or
a
to
armature
an
compared
a
magnet
upon
of
be
steel
be
assumed
further
to
piece
magnetized
; the magnet
may
like the earth,while the armature
to be a hollow
is assumed
spherical,
The
of atmospheric oxygen.
shell,similar to the investment
ic
magnetwhich
each
of
constant
the
by
particle
acquire
power
may
oxygen

force of the earth

of the

oxygen

of

diminishes

gas.

When

expansion follows the sun

must
proportionallyalter the

with
a

around

an

and

of the

oxygen

the temperature
alteration

constant

the

results of the

investment;

and

earth

and

the rarefaction

and
of temperature
from east to west, it

magnetic force of the earth,

this,according to Faraday's opin-

1849.

79

OBSERVATIONS.

MAGNETIC

observations

Emory, Magnetic

made

the Isthmus

at

of Panama.
1849.

matical
Thomson, of Glasgow, A MatheTheory of Magnetism, in the Phil. Transact, for 1851,
Professor

William

pt. i.,p. 243-285.

(On

the

problem

" 42

magnetic force,compare

and

Poisson, in
pt. ii.,p. 163.)

cle Vlnstitut.,
1811, pt. i.,p. 1 ;
the present state
1850. Airy, On
of Terrestrial

promises to

be

admirable

most

Prague

in the years

of this accurate
Osservazioni suW

1852.

and

Prague,,vol.
On

Faraday,

of

what

Magnetic

on

On

the

1836

and

tion
Declina-

bors
earlier la-

1838, see
direzione della forza magnetaW

1836-1838
his

the

prospects of the

fragment

1839-1849.

also

of

treatise.

intensiia e sulla

the

"

observer, between

ica instituiteneglianni

Milano, p. 171
Observations at

and

of the Moon

Kreil, Influence

1852.
at

Magnetism

distribution

with

56,

Mem.

science

of the

I. R.

Magneticaland

Osservatorio

di

Meteorological

i.,p. 59.

Lines

of

Magnetic Force,

and

their

definite character.

proof deduced from observations at

Toronto, Hobarton, St. Helena, and the Cape of Good Hope
(from 1841 to 1851),that everywhere between the hours of
and eightin the morning the magnetic declination exseven
hibits
northern
which
solstice
annual
the
in
an
period;
sents
prethe greatest eastern
and
the
southern
stice
solelongation,
the greatestwestern
without the temperature
elongation,
of the atmosphere or the earth's crust
evincinga maximum
minimum
or
at these turning periods. Compare the second
1852.

Sabine's

new

of the Observations

volume

the two

made

at

Toronto, p. xvii.,with

treatises of

InfluSabine, already referred to, on the ence

sun's vicinity(Phil.Transact, for 1850, pt. i.,
p. 216), and of the solar spots (Phil. Transact, for 1852,
pt. i.,p. 121).
of the

The

of the progress
of our
chronologicalenumeration
knowledge of terrestrial magnetism during half a century,
I have uninterruptedly
which
watched
with the keenest interest,
exhibits a successful strivingtoward
the attainment

ion, is

the

origin of
magnetism.

one

part of the variations

in the

elements

of terrestrial

the
finds that, as the force with which
of
this
is proportionalto the density
magnet acts upon the oxygen
gas,
the magnet
of recognizing the
means
presents a simple eudiometric
Plucker

of free
presence
oxvgen
200th
part.

gas

in

gaseous

mixture

even

to

the 100th

or

80

COSMOS.

of

two-fold

devoted

been

have
of

our

smaller

manifestation

of

labors

magnetic

ty
activi-

and

experiments,and

which
of

magnetic

promise to lead us
this activity,
and of

force.

Both

space,
to

the

to

the

the

ternal
in-

these methods

of the manifestation

observation

numerical

of these

relations to time

belongs to

phenomena

of the

nature

of the

observation

its numerical

part

number

greater

of the character

knowledge
the

The

the

to

planetin

the

while

object.

"

of terrestrial

magnetism, both in respect to its direction and intensity

the magnetic force generally,
and physical experiments on
of our
to the advancement
have tended reciprocally
physical
alone, independentlyof every hypothesis
knowledge. Observations
regarding the causal connection of phenomena, or
and unattainable
rocal
recipregardingthe hitherto immeasurable
"

in the interior of

of molecules

action

substances,have

Experimental physicists
important numerical laws.
of
wondrous
the
the
most
have succeeded, by
nuity,
ingedisplay
bodies polarizing
in discoveringin solid and gaseous
before been suspected,
whose
properties,
presence had never
stands in specialrelation to the temperature and
and which
of the atmosphere. However
doubted
important and unpressure
these discoveries may
be, they can
not, in the present
be
as
condition of our
satisfactory
regarded
knowledge,
have
the
for
which
laws
of
alreadybeen
explanation
grounds
The
of the magnetic needle.
in the movements
recognized
of enabling us thoroughlyto comprehend
certain means
most
led

to

the

variable
and

magnetism

complete
which

pointsof

observations

continuous

and

of the

elements

by Gauss,

nobly sketched

so

was

simultaneous
three

relations of space, as well as to extend

that mathematical
theory of terrestrial

numerical

magnetic

force

the earth's surface.

at

is to ecute
prosof all the

lected
well-se-

numerous

I have,

where
however, else-

illustrated,
by example, the sanguine hopes which I
entertained of the great advantages that may be derived from
the

be

of

combination

experimental and

our
Nothing that occurs
planet can
upon
independentot cosmical influences. The

leads

body, and
of very

of

us

to

the idea of
with

connection

different masses,
which
the
sun's
of
The influence

of the

magnetic force
*

probably have
positionupon

p. 10.

central

of celestial bodies

group

of the earth
See

supposed to
stinctively
word
planetinbe

dependence upon
a

gation.*
investi-

mathematical

was

the

similar

igin.
or-

ation
manifest-

recognized

at

82

cosmos.

of temperature
accessible to us.
and

parts of the

Neither

alterations

annual

day

in those

night,nor

the

of declination
the

of the

minima

the

different hours

and

of the

of
intensity

mean

the

periods of the maxima

temperature of the atmosphere,or of the
"We

remark

may

the annual

that

from

first accuratelyrepresentedby Sabine

were

are

with, the

of the earth.

upper crust
alterations

at the

periods of

terrestrial force* coincide

and

atmosphere which
principal
epochs of diurnal

of observations.
The
turningpointsin
largenumber
the most
important magnetic phenomena are the solstices
the intensity
of the
and the equinoxes. The epoch at which
terrestrial force is the greatest, and that at which
the dipping-need
most
in
the
vertical
assumes
position
nearly
a

very

"

these

stations

St.

Helena,
Cape), so widely separated from each other and so diversely
that
arrive at the conclusion
we
situated,justifya generalization,
may
is every where
the magnetic declination
of 7 to 8 A.M.
at the hour
subjectto a variation of which the period is a year, and which is every
of
and amount,
where
similar in character
consistingof a movement
*

So

far

as

and

the

the

north

and

the southern

end

four

(Toronto, Hobarton,

the northern
magnet from east to west between
between
the
from west
to east
solstice,and a return

of the

utes
the amplitude being about 5 minsolstice,
might
turningperiods of the year are not, as many
in which
the temperature at the
those months
be disposed to anticipate,
the
the
subsoil,or of
atmosphere (as far as
surfaceof our planet,or of
the
of the atmosphere)
of judging of
we
temperature
possess the means
situated would,
and minimum.
attains its maximum
Stations so diversely
indeed, present in these respects thermic conditions of great variety;
whereas
uniformity in the epoch of the turningperiods is a not less
acter
conspicuous feature in the annual variation than similarityof charsouthern
of

and

the northern

The

arc.

and

value.

numerical

At

all the

stations

the

solstices

are

the

of which

are
we
turning periods of the annual variation at the hour
treating. The only periodsof the year in which the diurnal or horary
does actuallydisappear are
at the equinoxes,
variation
at that hour
the other, and
when
the one
to
the sun
is passing from
hemisphere
of its annual
variation
when
the magnetic direction,in the course

from
the

east
mean

west,

or

declination

is
vice versa, coincides with the direction which
The
and of all the hours.
of all the months

with, and dependent on, the

obviously connected
which
around
it reto
volves
relatively the sun
diurnal
connected
and
the
variation
is
as
dependent on,
with,
;
its axis, by which
rotation of the earth on
each meridian
ively
successin the round
passes through every angle of inclination to the sun

annual

variation

earth's
the

to

of 24

second

is

positionin its orbit

hours."
volume

Sabine, On

made

at

and

Diurnal

the

Magnetic

Variations,in
and

the

Meteorological

nual
xvii.-xx.
See also his memoir, On the AnDeclination
the
at
different
periods
of
of the
Magnetic
duction
in the Philos. Transact, for 1851, pt. ii.,p. 635, and the Intromade at the Observatory
at Hobarton, vol. i.,
of his Observations

Observatoryat Toronto,p.
Variation

Day,

the Annual

of Observations

p. xxxiv.-xxxvi.

83

INTENSITY.

MAGNETIC

period at which the

earth is nearest
to the sun,* and
locity
consequentlywhen its vethis
of translation is the greatest. At
period,however,
to the sun, namely, in December,
when
the earth is nearest
January, and February ; as well as in May, June, and July,
hemispheres,is

both

identical with

the

it is farthest from

when
of the

on

zones

the

the sun, the relations

either side of the equator are

turning points of the

declination
intensity,
ascribed

to

the

annual

The

and

in connection

means

deduced

temperature

versed,
completelyreincreasing
be
not, therefore,

decreasingand

inclination

sun

of

can

with

from

its thermic

observations

influence.
at

Munich

Gottingen have enabled the active director of the Eoyal

Bavarian
markable
Observatory,Professor Lamont, to deduce the relaw of a period of 10^ years in the alterations of
1841
and
declination-!In the period between
1850, the
of the monthly alterations of declination attained
mean
very
in
in 1843^, and their maximum
uniformlytheir minimum
sults,
1848^. Without
being acquainted with these European reGeneral
led
Sabine was
to the discoveryof a periodically
of disturbance
from
active cause
a
comparison of the
of the same
monthly means
years, namely from 1843 to 1848,
from observations
which
deduced
made
at placeswhich
were
lie almost as far distant from one
another as possible
to
(Toronin Canada, and Hobarton
in Van
Diemen's
Land). This
of disturbance was
found by him to be of a purely coscause
mical nature, being also manifested
in the decennial periodic
and

alterations in the sun's

than

who

has observed

the sun
with more
the spots upon
attention
constant
discovered
ready
(as I have alany other livingastronomer,
elsewhere

atmosphere.^ Schwabe,

long

series of }rears

(from

adopted for determiningthe Absolute Values,

Variation
of the Terrestrial Magnetic Force,
In his address
to the
for 1850, pt. i.,p. 216.
wise
{Meeting of the Brit. Assoc, in 1852), he like-

the Means

Sabine, On

Secular

observed),"in

Change,and Annual

in the Phil. Transact,

Association

Belfast

at

fact which
has been
lished
estabobserves,"that it is a remarkable
and
that the magnetic force is greater, in both the northern
southern
of
in
the
months
December, January, and
hemispheres,
in those of May,
to the earth, than
February,when the sun is nearest
fects
distant from
it ; whereas, if the efJune, and July, when he is most
due to temperature,
the two
were
hemispheres should be oppositely,
ferred
instead
of similarly,affected in each
of the two
periodsreto."

f Lamont,

in

Poggend., Annalen, bd. Ixxxiv.,s. 579.

X Sabine,
Fffects of the
periodicalLaws discoverable in the mean
largerMagnetic Disturbances,in the Phil. Ti'ansact. for 1852, pt. i.,p.
On

121.

Vide

supra,

p. 75.

" Cosmos,

vol.

iv.,]-. 85.

84

cosmos.

1826

1850),

to

of the

frequencyin the
periodically-varying
solar spots, showing that their maxima
a

currence
oc-

fell

in the
in the years 1828, 1837, and 1848, and their minima
and 1843.
"I have not had the opportunity,"
years 1833
servations,
series of older obcontinuous
a
investigating
but I willinglysubscribe to the opinionthat this
analogous kind
period may itself be variable." A somewhat
able
of variabilityperiodswithin periods is undoubtedly observI
suns.
in the processes of lightof other self-luminous
ty
need here only refer to those complicatedchanges of intensihave
been shown
which
by Goodricke and Argelander to
exist in the lightof (3 Lyrre and Mira Ceti.*
is
If, as Sabine has shown, the magnetism of the sun
the
manifested by an increase in the terrestrial force when
to that luminary, it is the more
is nearest
earth
striking
of the
that, accordingto Kreil's very thorough investigations

writes,

he

of

"

"

influence

magnetic

phases, or

in relation to the earth.

when

appear,

the

f Though
does

not

seem

of

the

lunar

Report

bart Town

to

has

care,

from

by the satellite

assumed
the

does not

moon

sun,f to compensate in this

moon

in

smallness

the

alteration

day,

comparison
of her

with

mass,

yet

the
the

declination

of the

in

sun

ready
al-

the

magnetic
magnetic variation (Sabine, in
for Hoat Liverpool, 1854, p. 11, and
to
a per1857, Art. i.,p. 6), stimulates
severing

the lunar -diurnal

the Brit,

in the Phil.
observation

Kreil

of the

compensate

to

the

the different lunar

228.

nearness

well-ascertained
course

with

hitherto

latter should

vicinityof

The

compared

vol. iii.,
Op. cit.,
p.

the

moon,

different distances

the

at

of the

either during
perceptible,

been

have

not

"

Assoc,
Tr. for

of the earth's satellite.

of the magnetic influence
of having pursued this occupation with great
1852 (see his treatise Ueber den Einflussdes Mondes

the great merit

1839

to

horizontale

Component
aufdie
Akademie
der Wiener
scfiriften

Magnetischen Erdkraft, in

der

der

the Dcnlc-

Naturiciss.

Mathem.

Wiss.

Classe,

servations,
Phil. Trans,
for 1856, Art. xxii.). "His obvol. v., 1853, p. 45, and
of many
conducted
for the space
which
were
years, both
and Prague, having given support to the opinion that both
at Milan
nation,
decennial
a
and the solar spots occasioned
period of declithe moon
led General

Sabine

to

undertake

very

important

work.

He

that the exclusive influence

a
period,
of the sun
on
ployment
in relation"
by the emto Toronto, in Canada,
previouslyexamined
be
of calculation, may
of a peculiar and very exact
form
of terrestrial magnetism (Phil.
recognized in all the three elements
ly
abundant
the
Trans, for 185G, p. 3G1), as shown
testimony of hourby
Town,
for a course
observations
carried on
of eightyears at Hobart
nished
both hemispheres furThus
from
January, 1841, to December, 1848.
the
well
as
the
result as to the operation of
the same
sun, as
"
different
variation corresponding to
certainty that the lunar-diurnal
in those of
the inequalitymanifested
to
shows
no
conformity
years

decennial

found

the

solar-diurnal

variation.

The

earth's

inductive

action, reflected

of its

respect for the smallness

85

VARIATION.

MAGNETIC

result of

main

The

mass.

in relation to the magnetic influence of the

investigation,
earth's satellite,
which, accordingto Melloni, exhibits only a
in
of calorification,*
is that the magnetic declination
trace
of a
our
planetundergoes a regular alteration in the course
it exhibits a two-fold maximum
and
lunar day, during which
Kreil very correctly
two-fold minimum.
a
observes," that

the

if the

exerts

moon

surface

of
of

means

effect any

no

earth

our

measuring
alteration

by

thing that
force

means
can

foreignelements
its true

that

Although
of

the

ordinary

not

of this kind

alteration

be considered

nature

as

is

heat."

moon's

product of

the

be

perienced,
actuallyexis produced

it

that

of the

case

should

of disturbance

moon,

ery
Eva

that

eliminated,in

be recognized.
may
decisive and considerable
the most

in the manifestations
admit

the

on

in this way
obviouslycan
in the magnetic force of the earth ; but

not

hitherto

temperature

heat),it

require,as in the

must

the

conclude
necessarily
than through the

must

other

some

on

(which is appreciableby

if,notwithstanding,an
we

influence

of terrestrial

magnetism

explained by
being satisfactorily

the

maxima

gle
sinall
der
or-

riations
va-

do not

and

be no
of temperature, there can
doubt that the great discoveryof the polar property of gen
oxyof
earth
the
more
in
our
will,by a
envelope
gaseous

minima

in the

variations

profound and comprehensive view of the process of the magnetic

assistance
valuable
afford
most
us
a
activity,
speedily
It would
of originof this process.
the mode
in elucidating
be inconceivable
co-operationof all
if,amid the harmonious
the forces of nature, this property of oxygen
by an increase of temperature should

and
not

cation
its modifi-

participate

productionand manifestation of magnetic phenomena.

view, it is very probable that
If,according to Newton's
the substances which
belong to a group of celestial bodies (to
and the same
one
planetarysystem) are for the most part
from inductive
we
identical,!
reasoning,conclude that
may,
in the

(Sabine,in the
in the Proceedings of the Royal
Phil. Tr.
No. 20, p. 404.) The
magnetic portion of this volume
Soc, vol. viii.,
essary,
especiallynechaving been printed almost three years ago, it seemed
has so long been a favorite
with reference
to a subjectwhich
tional
addiwith me, that I should
one
wanting by some
supply what was
from

the

little amount."

be of a very
must
moon,
for 1857, Art. i.,p. 7, and

remarks.
*
s.

Kreil,Einflussdes

Mondes

avf

die

Declination,1852,
Magnetisclie

27, 29, 46.

t Cosmos, vol. i.,p. 133, 134

; also

vol.

iv.,p. 206.

86

cosmos.

would

limited

the

gravitating
adopt a
hypothesis
with
views
limit
cosmical
to
arbitrarydogmatism.
the
influence
of the maghypothesisregarding
netic
is
earth
not
variance
with
the
ogies
analat
on
magnetic

is
activity
electro-magnetic
matter
on
own
our
planet. To

the

be

Coulomb's
sun

based

the

upon

not

to

different

of facts.

observation

proceed to the purely objectiverepresentation

of the magnetic phenomena which
exhibited
are
by our
planet on different parts of its surface,and in its different
positionsin relation to the central body, we must accurately
results of our
in the numerical
measurements,
distinguish,
the alterations
which
are
comprised within short or very
long periods. All are dependent on one another, and in this
ize
or
partiallyneutralintensify,
dependence they reciprocally
If

now

we

and

disturb

fluids intersect
themselves

most

each
one

wave-circles

the

other, as

Twelve

another.

prominently to

in

objectshere

moving
present

consideration.

our

magneticpoles,which are unequally distant frcm the

in each
poles of rotation of the earth, and are situated one
Two

hemisphere ; these are points of our terrestrial spheroid at

which the magnetic inclination is equal to 90", and at which,
the horizontal force vanishes.
therefore,
The

magnetic equator, the

of the needle
The

curve

on

which

the inclination

=0".

lination
the decand those on which
equaldeclination,
lines and lines of no variation).
0 (isogonic
lines of equal inclination {isoclinal
lines).
of the magnetic force,
four pointsof greatest intensity
unequal intensityin each hemisphere.
lines of
"

The
The
of

two

The

lines of

equal terrestrialforce {isodynamiclines).

ridian
together on each meundulatingline which connects
the points of the weakest
intensityof the terrestrial
force,and which has sometimes been designatedas a dynamic
equator* This undulatingline does not coincide cither with
the geographicalor the magnetic equator.
The
of the zone
limitation
is generally
where
the intensity
the horary alterations of the magvery weak, and in which

The

description of terrestrial
vol. ii.,
magnetism, based' upon Sabine's works {Physical"'eogra/"hy,
p.
of lowest intensity
102). Sir James
Ross, who intersected the curve
in his great Antarctic
expedition,December, 1839, in 19" S. lat. and
ined
29"
has the great merit of having first determ13' W. long.,and who
"
the
calls
it
its positionin the southern
hemisphere,
equator of
the
Antarctic
Southern
and
less intensitv."
See his Voyage to
Regions,
vol. i.,p. 22*
*

See

Mrs.

Somerville's

short

but

lucid

netic needle
of the
observed

in

87

INTENSITY.

MAGNETIC

with the different seain accordance

sons
participate,
year, in producing the alternatingphenomena
both
hemispheres.*

In this enumeration

restricted

I have

the

of the word

use

points of the earth's surface at which the

force disappears,
horizontal
marked,
because, as I have
already rethe
true
which
but
these points,
are
magnetic poles,
maxima
of intensity,
coincide
with
the
which
by no means
'pole to

the two

frequentlybeen

have

confounded

in recent

times

with

the

pointsof greatest intensity.! Gauss has also

be inappropriateto attempt to distinguish
that it would
shown
the two
the chord which
connects
pointsat which the
dip of the needle -=90", by the designationof magnetic axis
of the earth. %
connection
The
intimate
which
prevailsbe~
renders
it posthe objectshere enumerated
tween
fortunately
sible
under three points of view, the complito concentrate,
cated
phenomena of terrestrial magnetism in accordance with
the three manifestations
of one
nation,
Incliactive force
Intensity,
four terrestrial

"

and

Declination.

Intensity.
trial
knowledge of the most important element of terresof
of the intensity
magnetism, the direct measurement
terrestrial force,followed
edge
somewhat
tardilythe knowl-

The

the

of the relations of the direction of this force in horizontal

and

planes (declinationand inclination).

vertical

from

the 18th

of which

Graham,

them

"

1723,

in

with
and
constant,"

the

intensityis deduced,

an

investigation during
ry.

the

objectof experiment
for
century, and yieldedmatter

first made

were

duration

the

in order
to

intensityof

Stations

of

of

the

an

the

gravity.
magnetism

The
at

close
and

earnest

19th

ratio which
first

widely

tinuous
con-

ping-needl
dip-

they were
force directing

the

attempt

of

centu-

oscillations of his

whether
ascertaining

to find the

intermediate

toward

first half of the

measured

the view

bore

the

lations,
Oscil-

to

different

ine
determ-

pointsof

the
character, situated between
magnetic hemispheres, partaking,although in
opposite seasons, of those contrary features which separatelyprevail
(in the two hemispheres) throughout the year." Sabine, in the Phil.
Transact, for 1847, pt. i.,p. 53-57.
f The pole of intensityis not the pole of verticity. Phil. Transact.
for 1846, pt. iii.,
p. 255.
% Gauss, Allgem. Theorie des Erdmagnetismus, " 31.
" Phil. Transact.,vol. xxxiii.,"r 1724-1725, p. 332 ("to try if the
and regular",).
dip and vibrations wers
constant

northern

and

an

southern

88

cosmos.

of oscillations in

surface,by counting the number

equal times, was made by Mallet in 1769.
the earth's

very imperfectapparatus, that the

at St. Petersburg (59" 56' N.

preciselyequal ;* and

4/) were

opinion,which
of
intensity

was

the

same

terrestrial force

the

was

at

the

arose

to

the

Ponoi

(67"

erroneous

Cavendish, that the

under

same

all latitudes.

himself

often told me, was

ed,
preventtheoretical grounds, from
fallinginto this error, and
been the case with Le Monnier
had previously
; but

Borda,

on

transmitted

even

of the oscillations

lat.)and

hence

found, with

He

number

he has

as

the frictionwhich
isted
exdipping-needle,
it and the pivot,preventedBorda
between
(inhis expedition
from
in
to the Canary Islands
1776)
discoveringany
difference in the magnetic force between Paris,Toulon, Santa
Cruz de Teneriffe,and Goree, in Senegambia, over
a
space
of 35" of latitude.
La
t.
de
Perouse,
i.,p. 162.)
{Voyage

imperfectionof

the

the

for

first time

detected,with

proved
im-

This

difference

rouse

instruments, in the disastrous expeditionof La Pein the years 1785 and 1787, by Lamanon, who
municated
com-

was

the

Secretary of the French

This
communication, as I have already stated
Academy.
others,lay
(see p. 62), remained unheeded, and, like many
buried in the archives of the Academy.
of intensity,
The first publishedobservations
over,
which, moreinstituted at the suggestionof Borda, are those
were
I made
which
during my voyage to the tropicalregionsof
it from

the New

Continent

results obtained

Macao

The
years 1798 and 1804.
earlier date (from 1791 to 1794), regarding
the

between

at

the

to

an

magnetic force,by my friend De Rossel, in the

Indian Ocean, were
not
turn
printedtill four years after my refrom Mexico.
age
In the year 1829 I enjoyed the advantof being able to prosecute my observations
of the magnetic
of
of
188"
a
nd
inclination
a
over
fully
intensity
space
the

longitude

from

the

Pacific

eastward

as

far

Dzungarei, two thirds of this portion of

The
being in the interior of continents.
latitudes amounted
to 72" (namely, from

the

as

the

Chinese

earth's surface

differences in the
60"

N.

to

12"

S.

lat.).
When

we

carefullyfollow

dynamic

lines

external

and

Novi

2, p. 33.

direction

of the closed iso-

and pass from

(curves of equal intensity),
weaker

Comment.
See

the

Acad.

also Le

Observations,
1776,

to

the

Scient.

interior

and

the

graduallystronger

t. xiv.,pro anno
17G9, pars
Petropol,
du
Lois
Monnier,
Magnetisme comparees mix

p. 50.

90

cosmos.

say, where

to

the

upon

the

trace

earliest

the

of

inclination =90".
a

When

great physicallaw, we

we

first strike

generallyfind

opinionsadopted require subsequent

Sabine,* by

his

observations,which

own

were

revision.

1822

to

able

with
which

of late years

shown

that

modified

the

around

Hudson's

in 70"

lat. and

instead

vertical

and

by the

tion-experiment
oscilla-

horizontal

graduallybecome

intensityand

more

inclination

are

needles,
general,has
very variously

of the terrestrial force at

many
and
the
that
in
magnetic equator ;

minimum

far from

northern

most

have

that the

pointslies

the

from

made

in very different zones

of latitude,
and
of
and
the
numerous
comparison
arrangement

1818

that

the

parts of Canada

in the Arctic

from

52"

20/ lat.

about

92"

to

Bay,
from

and

93"

regions
magnetic pole
ty,
long.,the intensi-

to the

W.

of

diminishes.
In the Canadian
focus
increasing,
in the northern
intensity,
hemisphere, found by
of
the needle in 1845
was
dip
only 73" 7', and
in both hemispheres we
find the maxima
of the terrestrial
force coinciding
with
a
j
comparativelysmall dip.
of greatest
Lefroy,the

However

admirable

which
intensity

we

and

Clerk,

much

in reference

in the

focus in the

weaker

the

to

owe

Moore, and
doubt

abundant

are

the observations

expeditionsof Sir James

of

Ross,

Antarctic
to

the

polar seas, there is still

positionof the stronger and

hemisphere. The first of these

of
navigatorshas frequentlycrossed the isodynamic curves
of his
and, from a careful consideration
greatest intensity,
southern

observations,Sabine
64"

S. lat. and

has

137"

30'

of his great voyage,

*

Fifth Report of

Gt-68.

Contributions

been

to refer

one

of the foci to

count
long. Ross himself,in the acJ conjecturesthat the focus lies in

E.

the British

72 ; Seventh
Report, p.
Magnetism, No. vii.,in the Phil.

Association, p.

to Terrestrial

Transact,

led

for 1816, pt. iii.,

p. 251.
Report of the Brit. Assoc, p. 77.
X Sir James
Ross, Voyage in the Southern and Antarctic Regions,vol.
This great navigator,in sailingbetween
i.,p. 322.
Kerguelen's Land
and Van
the
crossed
of
Diemen's
twice
curve
Land,
greatest intensity,
first in 46" 41' S. lat. 128"
the intensityincreased
28' E. long.,where
to 2*031, and
Hobarton, to 1*824
again diminished, farther east, near
(Voy., vol. i.,p. 103-101); then again, a year later,from January
1st to April 3d, 1811, during which
the
time it would
appear, from
log of the Erebus, that they had gone from 77" 47' S. lat. 175" 41'
E. long,to 51" 16' S. lat. 13G" 50' E. long.,where
the intensities were
found to be uninterruptedlymore
much
than 2*00, and even
2*07
as
as
for
the
Transact,
Sabine's
result
{Phil.
for 1813, pt. ii.,p. 211-215).
30"
E.
lat.
focus
southern
S.
137"
of
the
one
long.),
hemisphere (Gl"
deduced
which
from observations
I have
alreadygiven in the text, was
made
Ross between
the 19th and 27th of March, 1811
by Sir James
f Sabine, in the Seventh

neighborhood of

the

67"

in about

by D'Ur-

discovered
d'Ade'lie,

the Terre

therefore

ville,and

91

INTENSITY.

MAGNETIC

140"

S. lat. and

E.

long.

focus in 60"

approached the other

S. lat. and 125" W.
disposedto place it
long.; but he was
further south, not far from the magnetic pole,and
somewhat
therefore in a more
easterlymeridian.*
Having thus established the positionof the four maxima
He

thought

of

have

intensity,we

forces.

had

he

that

data

These

next

to

obtained

be

can

the

consider

from

relation

of the

much

earlier

alreadyfrequentlyreferred ; that is
I found at
which
to say, by a comparison with the intensity
chain of the
a
pointof the magnetic equator in the Peruvian
Andes, which it intersects in 7" 2/ lat. and 78" 487 W. long.,
of Poisson and Gauss,
or, accordingto the earliest suggestions
the Intensity
at
f If we assume
by absolute measurement.
1-000 in
the above-indicated
pointof the magnetic equator
tween
the relative
find,from the comparison made bescale,we
of
London
in the year
of Paris and that
the intensity
these
of
two
cities
1827 (seepage 68), that the intensities
to

source,

I have

which

"

1-348

are

If

1-372.

and

the

with

these numbers
express
scale they will stand

we

absolute

in
as

cordance
ac-

about

assumed
10-38,
for Peru, would, according to Sabine, be 7-57
to be 1-000
in the absolute scale,and therefore even
greater than the
absolute scale,
intensityat St. Helena, which, in the same
10*20

and

and

the

which
intensity,

was

subjectedto a revision
the comparisons
of the different years in which
account
on
made.
were
They can
only be regarded as provisional,
scale
whether
they are reckoned in the relative (or arbitrary)
is
the
mer
forin the absolute scale,which
to be preferredto
or
of
in their present imperfectdegree
; but even
accuracy
of
the
the
throw
considerable
distribution
they
lighton
netic
maghalf
within
the
force
till
last
a
tury,
censubjectwhich,
the
afford
shrouded
in
was
greatest obscurity. They
All

6*4.

these

numbers

must

be

"

southern

isodynnmic ellipseof 200, about midway

the extremities
of its principalaxis),between
the southern
58" and 64" 26', and the eastern
longitudesof 128" 40' and
(Contrib.to Terr. Maya., in the Phil Transact, for 184G, pt.

(while crossingthe
between
latitudes
148"

20'

iii.,
p. 252).
*
Ross, Voyage,vol. ii.,
p. 224.
drawn
of

up

for the

S. lat. 235

E.

with
foci

instructions

the

of the

S. lat. 140"

E.

maximum

long.,and

in

long. (vol.i.,p. xxxvi.).

for 1850, pt. i.,p. 20 L; Admiralty Manual, 1840,
Erman, Magnet. Beob., s. 437-451.

t Phil
p. 1G ;

southern

conjecturedto be in 47"

intensitywere

G0"

In accordance

expedition,the two

Transact,

92

cosmos.

what
of

cosmicallyof

is

departure

in the

force which

in future

manifested
earth

of the

importance,historical points

very great
alterations

for those

years, probablythrough
the magnetic force of the sun,

upon

the

will be

dependence
by which it

is influenced.
In

northern

the

19' N.

focus, in 52"

being 1*372, while

found

the

weaker
it

northern
found

was

scale.

not

is

pressed
ex-

less

For

(1-803).

in the relative

E.

the

long.,

scale,and

probably

of the two

intensitv.

much

focus,70" lat.,120"

of the two

that the difference

us

be

York, lat. 40" 427, Sabine

be 1 74

to

scale it would

13-3
in the absolute
that is to say, about
Antarctic
Ross
has
expedition of Sir James

hemisphere
each

force

Erman

1*76

The

shown

Canadian

or

W.

absolute

in New

Siberian

or

by

Hansteen

by

in the

Even

magnetic

stronger

long.,has been most

pressed
by Lefroy. This intensityis exscale by 1-878, the intensity
of London

relative

by 14*21.*

92"

lat, and

determined
satisfactorily
in the

the

hemisphere

less than

intensityin the

30/ E.

in the

foci exceeds

southern

The

foci in the southern

the

both

northern

in

focus,64"

stronger southern

least 2-06

that

northern, but

in the relative

or
bitrary
arlat.,137"
in
it
is
the
absolute
in
the
scale
while
15-GO
f
scale,
;
weaker
southern focus,60" lat.,129" 407 W.
long.,we find
bitrary
also,according to Sir James Ross, that it is 1-96 in the ar-

scale and

hemisphere has

recognizedas
and of
intensity,

force.

and

The

another

one

in the

true

number,

1-4-88

is

f I follow the value

namely,

15*60.

scale)than

absolute

instead

given at
given in

find

We

from

(Phil'Transact, for 1843,

observations,taken
S. lat. and
15*60

172"
in

the

on

of

ern
although the foci of the southstrikinglygreater intensity(namely,

in the

14-90

mistake, the value

of

distribution

entire

the

absolute

252

page
Sabine's
the

although

of the

on

the

8th

of

the

occurs

find,by

latter,which

of this memoir.

text

lead

that

several

February, 1841,

long.,yielded 2-124.
scale would

we
vii.,

No. vii.,
Contributions,
p. 252,
the
Erebus
Journal
of
Magnetic

pt. ii.,
p. 169-172)

the ice

42' W.

of 14-21,

foci of

the

which

On

is the

same

important element

an

the map
of isodynamic lines for North
America,
Terrestrial
in Sabine's
Contributions to
Magnetism, No.
*

greater or

"Even

hemisphere exhibit
15-60

foci from

two

scale.

absolute

been

their individual

magnetic

in the

14-90

of the

lesser distance

the

long.,is at

The
us

to

value
assume

individual
in 77"

of the

47'

ity
intens-

provisionally

13-51 (Magn. and Meteor oh Observ.

was
intensityat Hobarton
made
value
at Hobarton, vol. i.,p. 75). This
has, however, lately
been slightlyaugmented (to 13*56) (vol.ii.,xlvi.).In the Admiralty
Manual, p. 17, I find the southern focus of greatest intensitv changed
that

to

the

15*8.

hemisphere (which
total magnetic force

the northern

13-30),the

be esteemed

not

terrestrial sphere into

the

reckoning from

as

Baikal

east

to

in such

and

manner

rate
sepa-

part,

280"

E.

that

the eastern

long.,

sphere shall inclose South America,

Ocean, Europe, Africa,and Asia, almost as far

Atlantic

the

west

of 100"

we

western

continental

more

or

other."

and

eastern

an

meridians

the

with

in accordance

of

14*21
and
respectively
the one
hemisphere can

is,however, totallydifferent when

result

"The

are

that of the

greater than

as

93

INTENSITY.

MAGNETIC

while

insular,includes

is the

the western, which

the whole
almost

oceanic

more

of North

and

America,

of the Pacific,New
Holland, and
expanse
lie the one
meridians
of Eastern
Asia."
These

broad

the

portion

about

4"

Singapore,the other 13" west of Cape Horn, in the

of
of Guayaquil. All four foci of the maximum
meridian
the two
the magnetic force,and
even
magnetic poles,fall
within the western
hemisphere.^
important observation of least intensity
Adolph ErmaiVs
in the Atlantic
Ocean, east of the Brazilian province of Eshas been already
pirituSanto (20" S. lat.,35" 02' W. long.),
in our
of Nature.f Pie found in the
mentioned
Delineation
relative scale 0*7062
gion
(in the absolute scale 5-35). This reof weakest intensity
twice
Sir
also
crossed
James
was
by
in
his
Antarctic
b
etween
19"
and 21" S.
expedition,^
lioss,
and
Sulivan
lat.,as well as by Lieutenant
Dunlop in their
to the Falkland
Islands. "
In his isodynamic chart
voyage
of

west

of the entire

Atlantic

Ocean, Sabine

least

which
intensity,

Ross

from

coast

It

to

coast.

of

Benguela,near

S.

lat.); its summits

in 18"

W.

high as

20"

are

long.,and
S. lat.

calls the equator

intersects the West

Portuguese colony of

the

the

has drawn

of

curve

less

of

intensity,

African

shore

(15"

Mossamedes

of the ocean,
the Brazilian coast as

situated in the middle

it rises
Whether

again on

there may

not

be another

zone

See the interesting

Map of the World, divided into hemispheres
by
icith the meridians
00
280
and
\
plane coinciding
east
of
of Greenwich,
the unequal distribution of the magnetic intensity
in the two
exhibiting
in
the
the
Brit. Assoc, at Liverpool,
hemispheres,plate v.,
Proceedings of
that the intensityof the terresErman
found
1837, p. 72-71.
trial
force was
almost
constantlybelow 0-76, and consequently very
*

small

in the

between

southern

the western

zone

between

latitudes

longitudes of 34"

50'

24"

and

25'

32"

and

13"

18',and

44'.

f Cosmos, vol. i.,p. 187.

X Voyage in the Southern Seas, vol. i.,p. 22, 27 ; vide supra, p. 96.
and
of Sulivan
" See the Journal
Dunlop, in the Phil. Transact,
only 0*800.
for 1840, pt. L, p. 143.
They found as the minimum

94

cosmos.

of

tolerablylow intensity(0-97)lying north of the equator

and
about
20" east of the Philipines,
is a
(10" to 12" lat.),
left
that
be
for
future
must
to elucidate.
question
investigations
I do not

think

formerlygave of the
force
terrestrial
ification
modrequiresmuch
strongest
in consequence
of later investigations.This
ratio

weakest

to

the

falls between
latter

that the ratio which

and

number,

circumstance
others

the minima

3, being somewhat

to

the

the difference of the data* arises from

the

in

that

and

1:2^

some

and

cases

maxima

the

nearer

minima

alone, and

together,have

been

in

altered

somewhat

arbitrarily.Sabinef has the great merit of having

first drawn
attention to the importance of the dynamic equator,
the
of least intensity. " This curve
connects
or
curve
pointsof each geographicalmeridian at which the terrestrial
It describes numerous
undulations
intensityis the smallest.
the force
in passinground the earth, on both sides of which
the higher latitudes of each hemisphere. It
increases with
in this

the two

indicates the limits between

manner

magnetic

than the magnetic equator, on

definitely
the direction of the magnetic force is vertical to the
which
direction of gravity. In respect to the theoryof magnetism,
that which
refers directly
to the force itself is of even
greater
refers
the
of
direction
that
to
which
importance than
merely
vertical position. The
the needle, its horizontal
curves
or
of their
in consequence
of the dynamic equator are numerous,
depending upon forces which produce four points(foci)of
the greatest terrestrial force,which
are
unsymmetrical and
struck in these
of unequal intensity.We
more
are
especially

hemispheres more

inflections with
toward

Cape

the South
of Good

great convexity in

the

Pole, between

Atlantic

the

the coasts

of Brazil

Ocean
and

the

Hope."

scale St. Helena,

intensityat the south pole,
with the
which
1 : 2-47 by a
is 15-60, and
comparison of St. Helena
in
the
maximum
of
southern
as
15*8,
AdmiraltyManual,
higher
given
of Erman's
servation
obscale
relative
and
in
the
1:2-91
by a comparison
p. 17,
southern
focus
in the Atlantic Ocean
with
the
(2*06);
(0-706),
1 : 2-95, when
we
indeed, even
together in the absolute scale
compare
With the
the lowest value given by this distinguishedtraveler (5*35),
focus (15-8). The
mean
resultingratio
highestvalue f r the southern
would
be 1 : 2*69.
(6-1in the
Compare for the intensityof St. Helena
observations
of
the
earliest
in
the
0-845
scale)
arbitrary
absolute,or
and
Phil.
Transact,
for 1847, pt. i.,p. 52,
Proceedings
Fitzroy(0-836),
of the Meeting at Liverpool,
p. 56.
*

which

We

obtain

is

f See

1 : 2-44 on

6'4,with

the

Contributions

comparing

focus

to

in the absolute

of greatest

Terrestrial

Magnetism

Xo.

vii.,p. 256.

MAGNETIC

the

Does

intensityof
such
heightsas

at

is

which

the

upon

earth,since

heights
the

are

accessible

to

earth

questions is
which

stations

The

made

it perceptibly

problem

either in

or

effect of considerable

seldom

are

does

or

extremely complicated

are

comparison
journeysis rendered

lower

crease
perceptiblyde-

us,

of the

mountain

and

upper

force

of observations

case

on

magnetic

these

suggestedby

in the

the

interior of the

in the

increase

95

INTENSITY.

because
difficult,
near
sufficiently

of the mountain
another, owing to the great mass
; and
of the rock and the penetration of
since,further,the nature
veins of minerals,which
not accessible
to our
are
observation,
one

togetherwith
alterations

in

imperfectlyunderstood
horary and accidental
the intensity,
where the observations
modify the results,
simultaneous.
perfectly

not

are
we

often ascribe to the

by

no

means

and
me

any

taken, in

have

giving the

the
of

or

mean

Then,

depths,not
below

surface

which

which
of

mines

siderable
con-

co,
Europe, Peru, Mexilocalities which
inspired

moreover,

should

care

neglectthe

to

manner

in

be

perpendicular

the level of the sea, which

constitutes
of the earth.
The
borings at the

Joachirnsthal,in Bohemia,

feet in absolute
of rock

never

this

conditions

numerous

afforded

confidence.*

differences above

mines

height or depth alone

belong to either. The

depth which I have visited

Siberia

with

In

depth, and

yet they only

lies between

and

200

of the sea.f Very different and

afforded by balloon ascents.
are

reach

to

feet above

300

favorable

more

of

upward

are

2000

stratum

the level

conditions

vation
Gay-Lussac rose to an eleof 23,020 feet above
Paris ; consequently,therefore,
the greatest relative depth that has been reached
by borings
in Europe scarcelyamounts
to xyth of this height. My

mountain

own

1806, led
decreases
causes

with

believe

the

that

the

years

terrestrial force

1799

note

with

of
elevation,although,in consequence
already indicated,several results

this

individual

intensitymade

and

gradually

of disturbance

at variance

in

to

me

the

observations,between

conjecturaldecrease.
data, taken

in the

Andes,

from

125

in the Swiss

I have

the
are

collected

measurements

of

Alps, Italy,and

We
ask what kind of error
have led,in the coal-mines
can
may
Flenu, to the result that in the interior of the earth, at the depth
of 87 feet,the horizontal
Journal de
had increased
0*001 ?
intensity
is
950 feet
rinstitut,
In
146.
which
1845, Avril,p.
an
English mine,
of

helow

the level of the

sea,

Henwood

intensity
(Brewster, Treatise
t Cosmos, vol. i.,p.

159.

on

did

Magn.,

not

p.

find any

275).

increase

in the

96

cosmos.

These

Germany.*
the

to

sea

afford

not

of

coasts

of La

on

which
feet),

Guayra;

extended

the

from

15,944 feet,and
but

reliable

most

obtained

(8638

of

perpetualsnow,
the

me

were

Caracas

elevation

an

limits

very

observations

the

the

steep

The

to

the

heights did
most

factory
satis-

of the Silla de
declivity

inclines toward
Santuario

therefore

greatest

results.

the level of

de

the
Nostra

neighboring
Senora

de

Guadalupe, which rises immediately over the town of Bogota,

of a steep wall of limestone rock, with
a
upon the declivity
*

diminution

in my
intensitywith the height is shown
comparisons of the Silla de Caracas (8638 feet
above the sea, intensity1*188) with the harbor
of Guayra (height 0
and
the
of
Caracas
tensity
town
feet,intensity1-262)
(height 26-48 feet,infrom
a
P209) ;
comparison of the town of Santa Fe de Bogota
nora
(elevation8735 feet,intensity1*147) with the chapel of Neustra Seda Guadalupe (elevation 10,794 feet,intensity1*127), which
like a swallow's
to hang over
the town
a
seems
nest, perched upon
of
the
volcano
of
Purace
of
rock
from
a
vation
(elesteep ledge
comparison
;
race
14,548 feet,intensity1*077) with the mountain
villageof Pu(elevation8671 feet,intensity 1*087) and with the neighboring
of Popayan (elevation5825
town
parison
feet,intensity1*117); from a comof the town
of Quito (elevation9541
feet,intensity1*067)
with the villageof San Antonio
de Lulumbamba
(elevation 8131 feet,
fissure
in
a
intensity1*087),lying
directlyunder
neighboring rocky
the geographicalequator.
I made
The
oscillation experiments, which
instituted observations
of the kind,
I ever
at the highest point at which
namely, at an elevation of 15,944 feet,on the declivityof the longsince extinct volcano
of Antisana, opposite the Chussulongo, were
this obvariance
with
result.
servation
at
this
It was
to make
quite
necessary
in a large cavei*n, and the great increase in the intensity
doubt the consequence
of a magnetic local attraction
of the
was
no
trachyticrock, as has been shown
by the experiments which I made
with Gay-Lussac within,and on
of Vesuvius.
the margin of,the crater
increased
I found
to 1*188,
the intensityin the Cave
of Antisana
while in the neighboring lower
1*068.
The
it
was
scarcely
plateau
Gotthard
than
that
the
of
at
St.
was
intensity
Hospice
(1*313)
greater
at Airolo
(1*309),but less than that at Altorf (1*322). Airolo,on the
other hand, exceeded
Lake
the intensityof the Ursern
(1*307). In
the same
manner
Gay-Lussac and myself found that the intensitywas
1*344
at the Hospice of Mont
Cenis, while at the foot of the same
The
le
Lans
at
it
was
mountain,
1*323, and at Turin 1*336.
Bourg,
cano
contradictions
the
wrere
greatest
burning volnecessarilypresentedby
of Vesuvius, as we
in
the
1805
While
have already remarked.
terrestrial force at Naples was
1*274, and at Portici 1*288, it rose in
of
the Monastery of St. Salvador
it fell in the crater
to 1*302; while
Vesuvius
the
whole
lower
than
else
where
district,
throughout
any
in the lava, the vicinityof
The
iron contained
namely, to 1*193.
and
of
which
the
heat
the
soil,
probably has the effect
magnetic poles,
to produce the most
of diminishing this force,combined
oppositelocal
disturbances.
See my
Voyage mix Regions Equinoxiales,t. iii.,
p. 619de la Societc d'Ar^ueil,
t. i.,1807, p. 17-19.
626, and Mem.
observations

from

of the

the

98

cosmos.

converselythe experiment showed

of the shorteningof the
account
decrease in the force on
a
cold region.f Faraday's
needle
in the upper
oscillating
brilliant discoveryof the paramagnetic force of oxygen
must
be disregardedin the discussion of this subject. This
not
phere
great physicistshows that in the upper strata of the atmosnot be sought merely
the decrease in the intensity
can
of the force,namely, the solid earth,
in the originalsource
but that it may
rarefied
equally arise from the excessively
in a cubic
condition of the air,since the quantity of oxygen
differ in the upper
foot of atmospheric air must
and lower
It seems
to me,
strata.
however, that we are not justified
in assuming more
than this
that the decrease of the paramagnetic
property of the oxygenous
parts of the atmosphere,
22,000 feet,*while

than

"

of

with

diminish

which
the

be

air,must

Alterations

cause.

the

elevation

regarded

as

and
a

with

same

as

manner

of the earth.

different kinds

With

having made in
of our planet and

in

game

time

learn

to

rarefaction

co-operatingmodifying

of temperature and densitythrough the

of air may
further alter the amount
of

ascending currents
disturbances
this influence^ Such
assume
local character,and they operate
specially
in the

the

know

every
our

of

in the

of rocks

advance

variable

which

atmosphere

upon
we

the
may

knowledge of the gaseous

its physicalproperties,
at
we

new

causes

and

cf disturbance

in

face
surjoice
revelope
en-

the

the

mutual
action of forces,which
should teach us
alternating
yiow
cautiouslywe ought to draw our conclusions.
The
measured
at
intensityof the terrestrial force,when
definite pointsof the surface of our
the
like
all
planet,has,
of
terrestrial
its
its
well
as
phenomena
magnetism,
horary as
secular variations.
The
horary variations were
distinctly
third
his
and
jointly
recognizedby Parry during
also,convoyage,
with
Port
Foster
at
him, by Lieutenant
(1825),
Bowen.
from morning till evening
The increase of intensity
in the mean
latitudes has been made
an
objectof the most
careful investigation
by Christie,"
Arago, Hansteen, Gauss,
and
KupfFer. As horizontal oscillations,
notwithstanding
the great improvements which
have been made
in the presAnnates de Cliimic,
t. lii.,
1805, p. 86, 87.
du Bureau
des Longitudes pour
f Arago, in the Annuaire
1836, p.
287; Forbes, in the Edin. Transact.,vol. xiv., 1840, p. 22.
% Faraday, Exper. Researches in Electricity,
1851, p. 53, 77, " 2881,
*

2961.

" Christie, in

the Phil.

Transact,

for

1 825, p. 49.

MAGNETIC

day

in

99

OBSERVATIONS.

the

are
dipping-needle,
preferableto oscillations
of the latter kind, it is not possibleto ascertain the horaryvariation of the total intensity
without a very accurate
edge
knowlof the horary variation of the dip. The
establishment
of magnetic stations in the northern
and the southern hemisphere
has afforded the great advantage of yieldingthe most
results.
It
abundant, and comparativelythe most accurate
will be sufficient here
to instance
two
pointsof the earth's
and almost
surface,which are both situated without the tropics,
in equal latitudes on either side of the equator
ly,
nameToronto, in Canada, 43" 39/ N. lat.,and Hobarton, in

ent

"

Van

Land, in 42" 537 S. lat.,with

Diemen's

longitudeof about

15

observations

months,

while

summer

months.

at the

The

While

variation
;

north, and

former

at

total

intensityis

13*5G

at

winter

made

the

at

the
one

simultaneouslycarried

part, during the night.

33' West;
it is
at Hobarton
most

and

the

intensity

is,at Toronto,

Hobarton

the

periodof

the

are

being

is 1"

inclination

the

the

Toronto, and

they

horary magnetic

station to

one

fall within

measurements

Toronto

the

another;
the

at

day, they are

at

one

while

the

station,for the

other

9" 57' East

belong

simultaneous

The

at the other

place during the

on

hours.

difference of

about
13-90

Hobarton.*

34y

in

the

to

the

absolute

to

lo' to

75"

about

70"

similar

are

south,
scale at

appear, from
stations exhibit!

It would

Sabine's

that these
well-chosen
investigation,
for the intensity
in Canada, and
turning-points
for
Van
Diemen's
Land.
At Toronto
only two such points
the variation in intensity
reaches its principalmaximum
at
6 P.M., and its principalminimum
at 2 A.M.
; a weaker
maximum
8
at
and
weaker
secondary
a
A.M.,
secondary
minimum
at 10 A.M.
The
intensityat Hobarton, on the
tween
becontrary, exhibits a simple progressionfrom a maximum
four

and

6 P.M.

although the
four
*

Sabine,

to

inclination

minimum

there,

no

turning-points.J
By
On

Periodical

between

less than

at

and

9 A.M.

Toronto,

comparison of

the

hibits
ex-

varia-

of the largerMagnetic Disturbances,

riation
Vafor 1851, pt. i.,p. 126; and on the Annual
in the Phil. Transact, for 1851, pt. ii.,
of the Magn. Declih.,
p.

in the Phil.

Laivs

Transact,

636.

t Observations made

ronto,
at the Magn. and Metcorol.
Observatory at Tovol. i. (1840-1812), p. Ixii.
% Sabine, in Magn. and Meteor. Observations at Hobarton, vol. i.,p.
lxviii.
and turning
"There
is also a correspondence in the range
hours
of the diurnal variation
and at
Hobarton
of the total force at

Toronto, although

the

progression is

double

one

at

Toronto

and

lOG*

COSMOS.

tions of inclination
established

been

the

when

with
in

that

terrestrial force has

months,

the

than

force

annual

mean

from

"

the

southern

in Van

while

Canada, during

force,it has
winter
months,
total
the
zodiac,

signsof the
greater intensitythan in the summer
Land
the intensity
is greatDiemen's
er

is in the

sun

of the horizontal

those

is to say, the total terrestrial

constitutes
to February, which

value

October

that

"

hemisphere,while it is less fromApril to August. According to Sabine,* this intensityof

differences
the terrestrial magnetic force is not dependent on
the

of the southern

summer

of temperature, but
solar body from
the
the

has

hitherto

At

variation
small

only a

it appears to have
and 1849, and the

1845

observations

and

scale,while

1832, give a

with

those

of

Rudberg,

result for

similar

of

during
intensity
servations.
of ob-

number

suffered

Toronto

between
own

from

deduced

been

secular

The

magnetic

ing
durintensity

the

in the absolute

it is 13-543.

the winter

Hobarton

At

earth.

is 13*574

summer

of the

lesser distance

the

on

crease
de-

some

comparison of
in the years

my

180G

Berlin.f

Inclination.
The

knowledge
well

as

inclination
the

by

which

force

and

has
vanishes),

be deduced
be

measured

where

singleone

at

(reckoning from

determined

inclination

the

=0,

to

the

magnetic pole,where the horizontal

ern
acquired additional importance in modof the total magnetic force can
element

the

from
with

horizontal

the

excessive

acquainted

well
of the

are

southern

times, since
to

they

magnetic equator,

northern

not

as

of the isoclinal curves, or lines of equalinclination,

the more
rapid or slower increase of the

with

which
intensity,

accuracy, unless we
The
the inclination.

geographicalpositionof
The

Hobarton."

time

requires
are

viously
preknowledge

magnetic poles is

both

of the maximum

intensityfalls
secondary or lesser
crease
consequently the inof

the
8 and 9 A.M.
between
; while
10 A.M., and
about
falls at Toronto
hours in
the same
of the intensityfall within
and diminution
accordance
with the time of the place, and not at opposite hours, as

at

Hobarton

minimum

is the

case

with

respect

to

the

inclination

and

of this phenomenon, p.
regarding the causes
Atmospheric Magnetism, " 3027-3034).

the declination.

lxix.

(compare

See,

aday,
also Far-

*
Phil. Transact, for 1850, pt. i.,p. 215-217;
Magnet. Observ. at
See also p. 26 of the present volume.
Hobarton, vol. ii.,1852, p. xlvi.

Cape of Good Hope the intensitypresents less difference at

opposite periods of the year than the inclination {Magnet. Observ.
made
at the Cape of Good
Hope, vol. i.,1851, p. lv.).
t. iii.,
t See the magnetic part of my work on Asie Centrale,
p. 4-12.

At

the

MAGNETIC

due

and

observations

the

to

navigator, Sir James

northern

101

INCLINATION.

scientific energy of the

His
observations
Ross.

during the

made

magnetic pole were

of his uncle, Sir John

turous
advenof the

second

dition
expeof the

(1829-1833),*and

Ross

expedition under his own

during the Antarctic
northern
command
magnetic pole in
(1839-1843). The
70" 5' lat.,96" 43' W.
long.,is 5" of latitude farther from
the southern
than
the ordinary pole of the earth
magnetic
10'
is
151"
while
35/
E.
it
also
situated
75"
lat,,
long.,
pole,
than
Greenwich
from
the northern
farther west
magnetic
the
of
island
Boothia
lix,
Felatter
to
The
belongs
pole.
great
southern

is situated

which
is

portion of

the

North

named
the

extends

Adelaide, which
Victoria

in the

directlyreached
On

17th

the

far

only
magnetic polewas
here

wras

King
magnetic pole has

about

E.

Erebus

the

As

long.

assumed

was

1G0

of

viously
pre-

from

nautical

been

not

the northern

as

manner

same

40/, it

observations

accurate

into

February, 1841,

88"

had

of
the promontory
William's
Sound
and

12' S. lat.,and"164"

76"

as

of

Parry

Felix, near

southern

The

Strait. f

continent,and
far distant

It is not

Somerset.

of Boothia

coast

western

the American
very near
district which
Captain

that

pole.

penetrated

as

the inclination
the

southern

miles distant. $

Many

declination,determiningthe

section
inter-

the south

magnetic meridian, render it very probablethat

magnetic pole is situated in the interior of the great

antarctic

region of South

of the

Albert

west

south

of the

Prince

pole,and

which
Erebus,"

is

are

12,400

height.
of form

positionand change

The

the

of

the active volcano

with

Land,

approach

mountains, which

connected
feet in

Victoria

of the

magnetic equator,,

the dip is null,were

very
say, the line on which
fullyconsidered in the Picture of Nature, Cosmos, vol. i.,p.

that is to

183.

The

intersection

Sir John

f The
Siberian
River

of the African

earliest determination
of the geographicaland

strongest

continent

is 82"

Taimyr,

in 74"

which

16',which

17' N.

(the

magnetic equators) was

Voyages of Discovery,1846,

Barrow, Arctic
inclination

node

lat.,and

ber. Reise, th. i.,s. 194).

Ross, Voyage to
X Sir James

has

as

vet

found

was

95"

40'

been
bv

p. 521-529.
observed
in ihe

Middendorf,

on

the

E/long.(Middend., Si-

Regions, vol. i.,p. 246.

hope," says this navigator,
long
both
"to
the magnetic poles of oui
the
of
on
plant
flag
country
my
surmountable
themselves
obstacles
which
being of so inglobe; but the
presented
left
it
of
as
us
character
consolation,
some
was
a
degree
no
grounds for self-repi'oach"
(p. 247).
"I

had

so

cherished

the

the Antarctic

ambitions

102

COSMOS.

tion
beginning of his pendulum expediserver
learned obSubsequently,in 1840, the same
the results obtained
down
by Duperrey, Allen,

by Sabine*

made

in 1822.
noted

Sulivan, and constructed

and

Dunlop,

the

at

equatortfrom

the

west

of Africa

coast

of the ic
magnetBiafra (4" N.

chart

at

zil
through the Atlantic Ocean, and Bralat.,9" 30' E. long.),
Porto
Seguro and Kio Grande), to
(16" S. lat, between
in the neighborhood
the Cordilleras,
the point where, upon
ern
a souththe northern inclination assume
of the Pacific,I saw
The African node, as the point of intersection
direction.
of both equators, was
situated,in 1837, in 3" E. long.,while
it had

in 1825

in 6" 57/ E.

been

node, turning from

of the

rises

which

to

of

toward

year

north

the

the

on

it is inclined

coast

1C"

from

African

Atlantic
the

no

in the

inclination turned

The

ian
the Brazil-

on

convexity of
toward

turned
persistently

is

Thomas,
feet,was,

degree westward

coast, while

southward.

magnetic equatorialcurve
south
pole,while in the
of about

the line of

after which

7000

than

more

half

less than

therefore,somewhat
course

of

motion

secular

the basaltic island of St.

elevation

an

The

long.

it passes

Ocean

at

the
tance
dis-

the

For

equator.
geographical

the

America, the terra incognitaof Matto Grosso

large rivers of Xingu, Madera, and Ucayle, we

interior of South
between

the

have

observations

no

of the

Andes, where, 68
of the Pacific,between

the

I determined

marca,

equator,
78"

lat.,and

dip until we
geographicalmiles
Montan,

reach
east

the

of the

Micuipampa,

and

astronomicallythe positionof

which

46' W.

rises toward

the

chain

northwest

of

shores
Caxa-

the

netic
mag-

(7" 2' S.

long.j.J

Sabine, Pendul. Exper., 1825, p. 47G.

f Sabine, in the Phil. Transact, for 1840, pt, i.,p. 136, 139, 146.
I follow,for the progression of the African
node, the map which is
this
treatise.
appended to
the elements
usual pi-actice,
with my
X I here give,in accordance
of this not wholly unimportant determination
vian
Perua
: Micuipampa,
for
mountain
de Guelgavoc, celebrated
town
at the foot of Cerro
its rich silver mines, 6" 44' 25" S. lat.,
78" 33' 3" W. long.,elevation
above
the Pacific 11,872 feet,magnetic inclination 0o,42 north (according
*

to

situated

the

centesimal

division

of the

circle); Caxamarca,

town

plateau at an elevation of 9362 feet, 7" 8' 38" S. lat,

5h. 23' 42" long.,inclination
0*15
(or
south; Montan, a farm-house
surrounded
ains,
hacienda),
flocks,situated in the midst of mountby Llama
clination
6" 33' 9" S. lat.,
5h. 26' 51" W. long.,elevation 8571
feet,inof the Chinchipe, on
0-70 north ; Tomependa, on the mouth
the River Amazon,
in the province of Jaen
de Bracamoros, 5" 31' 28"
S. lat.,78" 37' 30" W.
long.,elevation 1324 feet, inclination 3"'55
north
the Pacific,8" 5' 40" S. lat.,
town
on
; Truxillo, a Peruvian
on

MAGNETIC

103

INCLINATION.

complete series of observations which we possess

in reference to the positionof the magnetic equator was
made
by my old friend Duperrey during the years 18231825.
He crossed the equator six times during his voyages
of circumnavigation,
and
he was
enabled
this
to determine
The

line

most

by

his

observations

own

Duperrey's

over

of 220".*

space

ing
Accord-

of the

chart

magnetic equator, the two

nodes
situated in long.5" 50/ E. in the Atlantic Ocean,
are
and in long.177" 20/ E. in the Pacific,between
ians
the meridto

of the

and

Fejee

equator leaves

the

Gilbert
western

constantlydrawing
equator,

in

the

that

so

farther

10"
the

through

western

lying
Archipelago),
found

that

1840

the

nodes; that is

as

20/ E.

177"

3' 37"

79"

d'Observ.

W.

the

to

and

Payta,
ical
geograph-

the

of 2" from

distance
the

American

Aguja

west

ic
magnet-

Mendana

meridian

it,

Islands.!

which

passes
the
of
Islands
Paumotu
(Low
part
in 153" 50/ E. long.,Captain Wilkes
from
The

much

as

of the

geographical
equator

the

intersection

180"
not

from

occur

in

of the nodes

in

that of the Atlantic

in 174"

10' W.

long.,

Fejee Islands,situated in about

we
long. If,therefore,

Astron.

group
west, in the

to say, it does

in the meridian

at

of

distance

the Pacific is not

but

only

still fully2".J

was

in the

of the

meridian

About

it is

de la

Punta

nearer

While

of the South

coasts

continent,probably between
it is

islands.

pass from

the

west

coast

Humboldt, Recueil
long., inclination 2"*15 south.
et
(Nivellement Barometrique
Geode'sique),vol. i.,

For the basis of astronomical

tions,
determinap. 316, No. 242, 244-254:.
obtained
altitudes
of
the
and
by
the chronometer, see
stars
by
the

vol. ii.,
The
result of my
observations
p. 379-391.
in 1802, in 7" 2' S. lat.,and 78" 48' W.long.,accords
ular
pretty closelyby a singularcoincidence,and notwithstanding the secw
ith
the
which
based
of
Le
was
alteration,
conjecture
Monnier,
same

work,

of inclination

upon theoretical calculation.

be in 7" 45' north of Lima, or

"
the magnetic equator
says,
in 6" 30' S. lat.,in 1776"
at most

He

must

{Lois
Magnetisme comparees aux
Observations,
pt. ii.,p. 59).
*
V EquatetirMagnetique d'apres les Observ. du
sur
Saigey, Mem.
et Coloniales,
CapitaineDuperrey,in the Annales Maritimes
Dec, 1833,
t. iv.,p. 5.
Here
it is observed
that the magnetic equator is not a
of equal intensity,
but that the intensity
varies in different parts
curve

du

of this equator from

1 to 0*867.
confirmed
f This positionof the magnetic equator was
for the year
On
his return
Kamtschatka
to
1830.
from
found

the inclination

in

52'

1"

S.

long.; in 2"
s.

536).
t Wilkes,

almost

lat.,135"
V

S.

United

132"
null at 1" 30' S. lat.,
in
1"
54'
lat.,in
long.;

10' TV.

lat.,139"
States

8'

by

Erman

Europe, he
37' W.
long. ;
133"

45'

W.

W. long.(Erman, Magnet. Beob., 1841,

ExploringExpedition,vol. iv.,p.

263.

104
of
in

COSMOS.

America

westward,

the distance

of the nodes

Africa, through South

that

this direction

too
8jjr"

is about

of which

here

are

we

According to
which

made

the

coincide

in

Blosseville

one

proofthat the

other
an-

curve

of the great circles.

one
tions
comprehensive determina-

and

by Captain Elliot from

meridians

of Batavia

remarkable

is

from

speaking is not

the admirable

were

between

great, which

shall find

we

Ceylon,

and
with

manner

1846

1849,

to

and

which

of Jules

those

de

appear that the magnetic

the northern
point of Borneo, and

(see page 65), it would

through

equator passes

point of Ceylon, in 9" 45'

of minimum
almost
total intensity
N. lat. The curve
runs
parallelto this part of the magnetic equator,*which enters
the western
part of the continent of Africa,south of the Cape
This important re-entering
of Gardafui.
point of the curve
with great accuracy
has been determined
by Eochet d'Herihis second
court
on
Abyssinian expedition,from 1842 to
his magnetdiscussion to which
1845, and by the interesting
ic
of
south
Gauobservations
lies
This
point
gave rise.f
bade, between
Angolola and Angobar, the capitalof the
kingdom of Schoa, in 10" V N. lat, and in 41" 13' E. long.
of the magnetic equator in the interior of Africa,
The course
from Angobar to the Gulf of Biafra, is as thoroughly unexplored
due

almost

as

into the northern

west

of the

America,

in the interior of South

that

east

of the

of the

geographicalequator.
these continental
districts are
Both
nearly of equal extent,
from east to west, each extending over
measured
a
space of
that we
still entirely
about
80" of longitude,
so
are
ignorant
of the magnetic condition of nearlyone
quarter of the earth's
tensity
of
inclination and incircumference.
observations
My own
chain

Andes, and

for the whole

south

of the interior of South

America, from

Negro, as well as from Cartagena de Innorth

of the
dias to Quito, refer only to the tropicalzone
ern
geographicalequator, while those which I made in the southlimited to
hemisphere,from Quito as far as Lima, were
the district lying near
coast.
the western
Cumana

The

the

to

Rio

translation

1825

to

of the African

1837, which

confirmed

on

the

we

eastern

have
coasts

of the

inclination-observations

1776,

with

found
*

those

the

of

Eochet

node

toward

from

the west

already indicated,has been

of Africa by a comparison
made

by Panton,

d'He'ricourt.

magnetic equator

much

The
nearer

Elliot,in the Phil. Transact, for 1851, pt. i.,p.

Duperrey, in the Comptes rendus,t. xxii.,1846,

in the
latter
the

year
server
ob-

Straits

287-331.
p. 804-806.

106

COSMOS.

of the horary vaoppositionand the periodicity

riation
been
the dip have
established
firmly
by several
which
have all
regularlyprosecutedobservations,

stations this
in

thousand
been

submitted

present would
that

to

obtained

generaltheory of
which

magnetism,
hours

at

must,

variations,which
and

it were,
character.

variation

The

is

more

seem

which

are

for the

sensible to be
sufficiently
the fact that changes

needle.

most

An

of

observed

however,

of terrestrial
the turning

occur,

two

and

other

be intercalated

recurringmovements

explain the change

horizontal

minima

tions
periodicalvaria-

the three elements

or

base

to

It must,

the

The

notice the facts

which

on

important,extremes,
to

1840.

in
Sabine,distinguish,

the maxima

still insist upon

to

consider

we

we

which

since

magnetism.

in
recognized

therefore

as

materials

as

are

with

discussion

fitting
place to

terrestrial

observed, that if

first be

and

careful

the most

seem

been

have

among
part of

the
an

er,
great-

slight
others,

irregular

of the horizontal
with

cf inclination

are

lens.
not

and

I would
sufficient

from the observation

intensity,deduced
augmentation of temperature, all other

of

cumstances
cir-

dles.
remaining the same, retards the oscillations of the neeways
evening the temperature of my horizontal needle is althan
hence
the
needle
in
the
that
must
account
on
higher
morning ;
oscillations in a given time
in the evening than in the
make
fewer
frequently than we can account
morning ; in fact, it oscillates more
and hence
there must
for by the change of inclination,
be a real augmentation
from morning till evening in the terrestrial magof intensity
netic
and more
Later
force."
observations
at Greenwich,
numerous
and
St.
have
confirmed
AraToronto,
Berlin,
Petersburg,
Hobarton,
that
horizontal
the
assertion
(in 1827)
intensitywas
go's
greater in
the evening than toward
the principalmaxmorning. At Greenwich
imum
of the horizontal force was
about 6 P.M., the principalminimum
10 A.M., or at noon
about
mum
Berlin, the maxi; at Schulzendorf,near
falls at 8 P.M., the minimum
at 9 A.M.
at
St.
Petersburg the
;
maximum
falls at 8 P.M., the minimum
A.M.
at llh. 20m.
ronto
; at Tothe maximum
falls at 4 P.M., the minimum
11
A.M.
The
at
time is always reckoned
accordingto the true time of the respective
places (Airy,Magn. Observ. at Greenwich for 1845, p. 13; for 1846,
p. 102; for 1847, p. 241; Kiess and Moser, in ~Poggend.,Annalen,bd.
xix., 1830, s. 175 ; Kupffer,Compte rendu Annuel de TObservatoire Centrale Magn. de St. Peter sb.,1852,
p. 28 ; and Sabine, Magn. Observ.
at
vol.
Toronto,
i.,1840-1842, p. xlii.). The
turning hours at the
of
Good
Cape
Hope and at St. Helena, where the horizontal force is
the weakest
in the evening, seem
to be singularlyat variance, and
almost the very opposite of one
another
(Sabine,Magn. Observ. at the
Cape of Good Hope, p. xl.,at St. Helena, p. 40). Such, however, is
the case
farther eastward, in other
not
parts of the great southern
in
feature
"The
the diurnal
principal
hemisphere.
change of the
is the decrease
of force in the forenoon,
horizontal force at Hobarton
and its subsequent increase in the afternoon"
(Sabine, Magn. Obs. at
vol. ii.,
Hobarton, vol. i.,p. liv.,
p. xliii.).

In the

107

INCLINATION.

MAGNETIC

needles,as well as the variation in the intensityof

tfipping
and secondary
the total force,consequentlypresent principal
of either type, which
maxima
or
minima, and generallysome
therefore constitutes a double progressionwith four turning
and a simpleprogressionwith two
hours (the ordinarycase),
and a
turning hours, that is to say, with a singlemaximum
Thus, for instance,in Van Diemen's Land,
singleminimum.
total force exhibits a simpleprogression,
the intensity
or
bined
comwith a double progressionof the inclination,
while at
one
actly
part of"the northern hemisphere,which correspondsexwith
the positionof Hobarton,
namely, Toronto, in
hibit
Canada, both the elements of intensityand inclination exdouble
a
progression.*At the Cape of Good Hope
of inclination.
there is only one
maximum
minimum
and one
The horary periodical
variations of the magnetic dip are as
follows

I. Northern

Greenwich

9 A.M.

Maxim.

in

1845, p. 21;

in

sew,

Inclin. in the last-named

08"

59' 3";

monthly

but

at

variation

June, and

St.

1846, p. 113; in
year, about 9 A.M.,

and

an

and

is

Greenwich

In

the

April

and

December.

P.M.

average

G".

This

simple

repeated at

the

of Good

Hope.
Petersburg: Maxim.

Pekin

8 A.M.
the

less in the cold

same

minim.

as

10 P.M.

riation
Va-

Paris, Greenwich,

at

months, and

the maxima

more

the minima.
A.M.

principalminim.
P.M. ; secondary minim.
(Sabine, Tor., 1840-1842, vol. i.,p. lxi.)

A.M.

II. Southern
Diemen's

Hobarton, Van

11*30

secondary maxim.

10 P.M.

inclination
southern
when

annual

is

the

sun

taken

mean
*

Principalminim.
secondary minim.

from

6 A.M.
5

P.M.;

(Sabine,Hob., vol. i.,p. lxvii.).

the

summer,

signs,70" 3C-74;

is in the

Hemisphere.

A.M.;

greater in

zodiacal

10

Land

principalmaxim.

the

on

58'

October

minim.

A.M.;

(Airy, Ob1847, p. 247).

falls between

closelydependent on time than

Toronto
:
Principalmaxim.
4 P.M. ; secondary maxim.
10

The

68"

was

between

of the inclination
and

it

maximum

Paris

3 P.M.

minim.

P.M.

the minimum

progressionfrom
Cape

the

Maxim.

Paris:

Hemisphere.

northern

the

Sabine, Hobarton.

the

it is smaller

sun

of six years

i.,p. lxvii.,lxix.

is in

in winter,

signs,70" 34/#66.

observations
vol.

when

The

gives

108

COSMOS.

36'-01. (Sabine, Hob., vol. ii.,

p. xliv.). Moreover,

70"

the

is greater from
August, p. xlvi.

Hobarton

October
to February
intensityat
than from April to
Cape of Good
Hope: Simple progression,the minim,
8h. 34m.
ceedingly
P.M., with an exbeing Oh. 34m. P.M.; maxim.
small

variation

intermediate

between

7 and

9 A.M.

(Sabine,Cape Obs.,1841-1850, p. liii.).

of
The phenomena of the turning hours of the maximum
the inclinations expressedin the time of the place fall with
remarkable
regularitybetween 8 and 10 A.M. for placesin
the northern
wich,
hemisphere, such as Toronto, Paris, Greenand St. Petersburg,while in like manner
the minima
of the turning hours all fall in the afternoon
though
or
evening,alwithin
limits (at 4, 6, and
not
10
equally narrow
the more
remarkable, that in the
P.M.). It is so much
of

course

there

five

during
epochs of

observations

accurate

very

years
the maxima

was

and

one

mean

year,

minima

of the inclinations

made

were

1845,

in which

reversed.

for 9 A.M.

was

Greenwich

at

the

The
68"

nual
an-

5Q'-8,

58f-:l.
and
we
togetherthe stations of Toronto
compare
Hobarton, which exhibit a correspondinggeographicalposition
for 3 P.M.

and

68"

When

either side of the equator, we

find that there is at
of the prinHobarton
a great difference in the turninghours
cipal
on

of inclination

minimum
and

(at

o'clock in the afternoon

morning),although such is not the case

in the turning hours
of the principalmaximum
(10 and
1 1.30 A.M.). The periodof the principal
minimum
(6 A.M.)
coincides with that of the secondary minimum
at Hobarton
at
The principaland secondary maxima
at Toronto.
occur
both places at the same
10 and 11.30 A.M.
hours, between
four
hours
of
the inclination occur
and 10 P.M.
The
turning
almost
at Toronto
at Hobarton, only
as
preciselythe same
in

6 o'clock in the

reversed

order

force is very
Hobarton
compare
the

which

occur,

southern

minimum

and

while
of

we

hours

10

P.M., 6 A.M.,

and

10

or

If, on

the

other

hand,

we

in respect to the order in

of the alterations of intensityand

Toronto

shall find that

the

after the

at

minimum

the

former

of the

lows
intensityfol-

principalminimum

of the inclination,
six

hemisphere,at Toronto,
intensityprecedesthe principalmaximum

the

in

the
the

delay in
northern

the

maximum

place in

to

while
;

P.M.,

remarkable.

hemisphere

only two
hours

turning hours

inclination
the

or

trial
complicatedeffect of the internal terres-

This

A.M.).

11.30

(4

amounts

of

by eight hours, while

inclination
differs
The
does

the minimum
only by two hours
of
inclination
at the Cape
periodicity
with

coincide

not

that

hemisphere, nor
hemisphere. The minimum
same

have

Hope

lies in the

point of the northern

any one
of inclination is indeed reached
at

of the

the determination

Hobarton

secular

it is necessary to have
only been conducted

not

which

of Good

has very

nearly

the maximum.

reached
For

intensity

of inclination.*

which

Hobarton,

at

the needle

at which

hour

an

of

the maximum

from

with

at

109

INCLINATION.

MAGNETIC

likewise

have

of the inclination

series of observations

with

extended

variation

that

accuracy, but
intervals of time.

extreme

long
far back
not go with certainty
as
we
can
Thus, for instance,
the time of Cook's
pedition
as
voyages, for although in his third exthe poles were
observe
always reversed,we frequently
differences

of 40'

to

over

55/

in the

observations

of this

of

crepancy
Bayley on the Pacific Ocean, a diswhich
fect
may very probably be referred to the imperneedle
of
that
the
construction
at
time, and to
magnetic
then prevented its free motion.
For
the obstacles which
London
we
scarcelylike to go further back than Sabine's
of August, 1821, which, compared with the admirable
observation
made
determination
by himself,Sir James Ross and
of 2/-73,
annual
decrease
Fox
in May, 1838, yielded an
while
instruments, but in a
Lloyd with equally accurate

great navigatorand

interval of time, obtained

shorter

result of

2/-38.f

at

ant
the very accorddiminution
the annual

Dublin

Paris,where
of inclination is likewise on the decrease,this diminution

by
their

Coulomb

inventor

which

was

The

in London.

than

greater

At

made

for

ingeniousmethods
gested
sugdetermining the dip had, indeed, led

incorrect

to

with

is

very

results.
of Le

one

The

Noir's

first observation

perfectinstruments

Observatorybelongs to the year 1798. At that

ly
found, after often repeatingthe experimentsconjoint-

the Paris

at

time

the Chevalier

with

conjunctionwith
1826, with
found

67"

Borda, 69" 51'

Arago,

I found

Mathieu, 67" 56'-7.

9', and

in the

year

68"
In
1851

in the year 1810, in

50/-2; and in the year
;

the

year

Laugier

1841

and

Arago
Mauvais

5h. 30m.
P.M., min. Sh. 30m.
intensityat Hobarton, max.
6
max.
A.M.;
Toronto, principal
P.M., principal min. 2 A.M.,
ronto,
10 A.M.
See Sabine, To8
min.
secondary max.
A.M., secondary
lxviii.
vol. i.,p. lxi.,
vol.
and Hobarton,
i.,p.
Ixii.,
t Sabine,Report on the Isoclinal and Isodynamic Lines in the British
Islands,1839, p. 61-63.
*

Total

at

110

COSMOS.

and

35'

66"

found

instruments.

using similar

extends

over

gives a

mean

"

1798

to

1810

at

1810

to

182G

"

5'-08

made

extreme

care

expedition,
gave

Italian

1798.

The

he

from

east

in half
before

my

of Berlin

Academy
togetherthe
I believe

different

I may

equal care*

affords

has been

3'-13
3-10

strikingly

which

Gay-

return

after

in
our

of 4/-S7 since

magnetic equator approaches

progression

in its secular,
be the

to

5/-08

to

decrease,ranging
3/,40.

April, 1829,

Shortly

I laid before

memoir, in which I had compared

points observed by myself,and which,
say, had

to

venture

inclination

Havana, which, in

at the

"

Paris

Sabine, more

the

measured

at

1851

diminution

seems

a
century from about
Siberian expeditionin

the

1811

to

after his
(69" 12'),
had accompanied me

of Paris

west, the slower

to

to

1811

observation

an

at

follows

as

1826

of the

node

to the meridian

inclination

1826

annual

an

the

nearer

and

for

Berlin,whither

from

1806

with

"

1810

though graduallyretarded
Lussac

From

3-37

between

decrease

The

of the

periodsstood

intermediate

The

From

diminution

annual

of 3/,69.

half

than

more

adopting similar methods

This
entire period,which
century (from 1798 to 1851),

observers

all these

"

all been

obtained

with

twenty-fiveyears after me,

of the magnetic force
and intensity
regions,
respect to these equinoctial
than

termined
very considerable interval of time, while he also deof two
Hanthe variation
important elements.

steen, in 1831, gave

variation

of the
investigations
hemispheres,!in a very

the result of his

of the

both

dip in

nual
an-

ad-

Poggend., Annahn, bd. xv., s. 319-336, bd. xix.,s.

Voyage aux Regions Equinox., t. iii.,p. 616-625.
in PogUeber
jahrlicheVeranderung der Inclination,
f Hansteen,
the
influence
of
bd.
on
403-129.
s.
Compare also,
xxi.,
gend.,Ann.,
David
Sir
ster,
Brewnodes
the
the
of
of
the progression
magnetic equator,
tions
of observaAs the great number
Treatise on Magnetism, p. 217.
made
at different stations have
opened an almost inexhaustible
we
field of inquiry in this department of special investigation,
are
the
laws
search
for
in
with
our
new
complications
constantlymeeting
Thus, for instance, in the course
by which these forces are controlled.
of the
that
the dip passes in one
of a series of successive years we
see
absolute
from
decrease
to an
that of the maximum
a
turning hours
the progressive
increase, while in the turning hour of the minimum
*

in

Humboldt,

357-391

in the

; and

"

annual

decrease
inclination

years

1811

and

in

the

turning

1816

at

at

hour

the

same

decreased
hour

of the minimum

(Airy,Magn.

the

Greenwich,

(9 A.M.)

hour

it increased

in the
to

Thus,

same.

maximum

1815, while

continued
to 1816, and
from
to decrease
1811

1816, p. 113).

the

continued

Obscrv.

at

from

netic
magin the
1815

(3 P.M.)
Greenwich,

mirable
than

Ill

OBSERVATIONS.

MAGNETIC

is of

work, which

comprehensive nature

more

own.

my

Although
1838, when

Sir Edward

Belcher's
with

compared

along the western

and

I made

those

of

coast

America,

in 1803

between

considerable

indicate

for the year

observations

(see p. 73),

Lima, Guayaquil,

in the
Acapulco,
inclination (and the longerthe intermediate
period the greater
the secular variation of the dip
is the value of the results),
found to be strikingly
at other pointsof the Pacific has been
slow.
At Otaheite, Bayley found, in 1773, 29" 43'; and
Fitzroy,in 1835, 30" 14'; while Captain Belcher, in 1840,
annual
variation
again found 30" 17'; and hence the mean
of sixty-sevenyears, to
scarcelyamounted, in the course

Q'-51.*

very

careful

ern
observer,Sawelieff,found in Northafter my
visit to those regions,
from Casan
to the shores of the*

Asia, twenty-two
in

journey which
Caspian Sea, that
the parallel
of 50"

years
he made

the inclination
varied

had

alterations

the north

to

and

south

irregularly.!

very

Humboldt.
1829.

Sawelieffi
1S51.

Casan

68"

Saratow

64D 40-9

26'*7

68=

30'-8

Sarepta

62"

15-9

64" 48-7
U2" 39 -6

Astrachan

59"

58 -3

60"

For

Cape of Good Hope we

which, if we
observations,

the

series of
from

than

Sir James

Vancouver

Eoss

(1791),may

and

be

half
The

possess

27 -9

extended

an

go further back
Petit Thouars
(1840) to
do

regarded

not

of

very satisfactory
of the inclination for nearly
as

century.J
of the

solution

soil does

now

Du

in respect to the variation

nature

of

question whether

in itself exert

the elevation

perceptibleinfluence on
made
the subjectof very

magnetic

was
dip and intensity,!
during my mountain
in
the Ural, and Altai.
Andes,

journeysin
I have

of the

careful investigation

the chain

of the

alreadyobserved, in

Phil. Transact, for 1841, pt. i.,

p. 35.
i
n
Bulletin
the
de I Acad.
t Compare Sawelieff,
Physico-Mathematiqiie
*

Imp.

de St. Peter

sb.,t.

x., No.

219, with

Humboldt,

A sie

Cent?:,t. hi.,

p. 440.

Obsei~v.

X Sabine, Magn.
If

we

may

trust

to

an

needle

increase

Cape of Good Hope, vol. i.,p. lxv.

made
by Lacaille for the year 1751
but
who
made
his observations
poles,

who, indeed, always reversed

with

the

at

the observations

which

in the

did not

the
move

inclination

eighty-nineyears !
" Arago, in the Annuaire

at

freelv,it follows
the

du Bureau

Cape
des

of Good

Long,

pour

that

there

Hope

of

has

been

3o,08

in

1825, p. 285-288.

112
the
were

the
must

COSMOS.

Magnetic Intensity,how very few localities

able to afford any certainty
to this question,because
as
the points to be compared
distance between
together
for
be so small as to leave no
ground
suspectingthat

section

on

the difference found

of the elevation

in the inclination

of the

soil,instead

be a consequence
may
of the result of the curvature

isodynamic and isoclinal lines,or of some

great
of
the
in
the
rocks.
I
will
limit
peculiarity
composition
myselfto the four results which I thought,at the time they
than
could be done
more
were
obtained, showed
decisively
tion
by observations of intensitythe influence exerted by elevain diminishingthe dip of the needle.
The Silla de Caracas, which
rises almost
above
vertically
feet
above
the
La Guayra, and 8638
level of the sea, south
of the coast, but in its immediate
and north of the
vicinity,
Htown of Caracas, yielded the inclination of 41"-90; La
of
Guayra elevation 10 feet,inclination 42o,20; the town
Caracas,height above the shores of the Rio Guayre, 2648
feet,inclination 42"-95.
(Humboldt, Voy. aux Reg. Equinox.,
t. i.,p. 612.)
de Bogota : elevation
Santa
Fe
8735
feet,inclination
27"*15 ; the chapel of Nuestra
Sefiora de Guadalupe, built
the projectingedge of a rock, elevation 10,794 feet,
upon
of the

inclination

26o,80.

ainous
Popayan: elevation 5825 feet,inclination 23"-25 ; mountof the volcano, elevation
villageof Purace on the declivity
8671
of the volcano
feet,inclination 21"-80; summit
of Purace, elevation 14,548 feet,inclination 20"*30.
Quito: elevation 9541, inclination 140,85 ; San Antonio
de Lulumbamba,
where
the geographicalequator intersects
of the valley8153
the torrid valley,elevation of the bottom
inclinations
feet,inclination 16o,02.
(All the above-named
have been expressedin decimal
parts of a degree.)
It might, perhaps, be deemed
considering
unnecessary,

the extent

of the relative distances

neighboring kinds
details

of the

of

rock, for

and
to

me

followingobservations

the influence

fullyinto the
: the
Hospice of St.
12'; compared with
enter

Gotthard, 7087 feet, inclination GG"

Airolo, elevation 3727 feet,inclination G6" 54'
inclination

66"

55y

of the

and

Altorf,

ory
apparentlycontradictdata yieldedby Lans
Bourg, inclination 6G" 9', the
of
Mont
Cenis, 6676 feet,inclination 66" 22', and
Hospice
Turin
754
inclination
66" 3'; or by Naples, Portici,
feet,
and the margin of the crater
of Vesuvius;
or
by the summit
;

or

to

notice

le

the

i!4

COSMOS.

vestigation
poles; when I found, after very careful inthat the neighboringrock, which
was
composed
the
action
The
exerted
needle.
of gneiss,
on
no
magnetic
tween
depth below the surface was 854 feet,and the difference be-

inversion of the

and

of the subterranean

inclination

the

parts of

mine

the

pointswhich lay immediately above it,and even

with the surface,
was
only 2/#06 ; but, consideringthe care
with
inclined to
which
made, I am
experiments were
my
think,from the results given for each needle,as recorded in
the accompanying note,*that the inclination is greater in
the Churprinz mine
than
the surface of the mountain.
on
It would
be very desirable if opportunities
to present
were
those

themselves, in
has

exerted

not

Valenciana,

depth is 1686
feet deep ; or
3778
After

on

in

Guanaxuato,

near

feet; or

magnet, for

the

fully
care-

like those

Mexico, the vertical

coal

English

shaft at

now-closed

in the
feet in

in

rock

the

that

experimentsin mines, in which,

violent

is evidence

there

local influence

any

repeatingmy
of

where

cases

mines

nearly 1900
hemia,
Kuttenberg,in Bo-

depth."]"
earthquake

Cumana,

at

on

the

4th

of

ished
diminNovember, 1799, I found that the inclination was
0o,90, or nearly a whole degree. The circumstances
of Saxony,
Churprinz mine at Freiberg, in the mountains
and
observed
fathoms
with
was
deep,
point was 133^
Freiesleben
and Keich
at 2 \ P.M.
(temperature of the mine being
60"-08
67" 37'4, the needle
B
P.). The
dipping-needle A showed
of both needles
in the mine
In
67" 32'-7,the mean
67" 35'*05.
was
lies immediately above
the open air,at a point of the surface which
the
needle
A stood at 11 A.M.
ihe point of subterranean
observation,
*

In the

the subterranean

It 67"
needles
air

33'*87, and
in

being

result

the

me

upper

G0o,14
with

needle

station

F., and

The

2'-06.

the

the

needle

most

B
was

at

A, which,

The

mean

32/-99, the temperature

67"

difference

confidence, gave

32'-12.

67"

as

the

of

both
the

and lower
upper
of
spired
the
two, instronger

between

even

of

the

3'-53,while

inappreciablewhen

the

the influence
needle

B only
depth
bd.
used (Humboldt, in Poggend., Anna!.,
was
xv., s. 32G). I have
elucidated
in detail,and
by examples, in Asie
already described
method
which
I have
uniform
the
always
Centr.,t. iii.,
465-4G7,
p.
find
the
order
in
circle
in
to
the
azimuth
magnetic
employed
reading
meridian
or
position
by corresponding inclinations,
by the pei'pendicular
the vertical
of the needle; as also to find the inclination itself on
ings
circle by reversing the beai-ings
of the needle and by taking the readThe
reversed.
before and after the poles had been
at both points,
positionof the two needles has, in each case, been read off sixteen
small an amount
result.
Where
so
times, in order to obtain a mean
into
the individual
to enter
has to be determined, it is necessary
fully
of the

remained

almost

details of the observation.

"{"Cosmos, vol. i.,p. 157.

I obtained

which

under

this

fullydescribed,*afford
of

an

115

OBSERVATIONS.

MAGNETIC

result,and

I found

at Cumana

that

I have

where
else-

sufficient

no

ground for the

Shortly after my

in the observation.

error

which

the inclination

picion
susrival
ar-

43"*53.

was

induced
to
begin a
days before the earthquake I was
in the harbor
observations
long series of carefully-conducted
of having accidentally
of Cumana, in consequence
noticed a
valuable Spanish work, Mendoza's
in an otherwise
statement
it
de Navegacion, t. ii.,p. 72, according to which
Tratado
ations
was
erroneouslyasserted that the hourly and monthly alterfew

of inclination

found, between

2d

the 1st and

exhibited

very
remained

instrument

greater than

were

of

steadilythe

value

and

on

of variation.
that the

of

of 43"-65.

therefore
the

tion
inclina-

properly leveled

November, and
days after the great earthquake, and when
spot, and

same

the 7th

November,

mean

untouched

those

The
the

on

three

instrument

The
intensity
adjusted,it yielded 420,75.
vertical
of the force, measured
not
was
oscillations,
by
changed. I expected that the inclination would, perhaps,
tionary.
stagraduallyreturn to its former position,but it remained
In September, 1800, in an expeditionof more
than
and along the shores
2000
geographicalmiles on the waters
and
of the Orinoco
the Rio Negro, the same
instrument,
of
I
which
had
which
one
was
Borda's,
constantlycarried
with me, yielded42"-80, showing, therefore,the same
dip as
before my journey. As
mechanical
disturbances
and electrical
shocks
excite
lecular
polarityin soft iron by alteringits mobetween
connection
the
we
a
condition,
might suspect
and
influences of the direction of magnetic currents
the direction
of earthquakes; but carefullyas I observed this phenomenon,
of whose
I
did
entertain
not
a
objectivereality
doubt in 1799, I have
other
the
in
never
on
occasion,
any
which
in
the
I
of three
earthquakes
course
experienced
many
America, noticed any
years at a subsequent period in South
sudden
I could
ascribe to
change of the inclination which
had

again

these

been

terrestrial
in which
A

convulsions, however
the undulations

likewise

very
found that

the

of

8th

declination
*

and

accurate

March,

j"and

its

after

an

1828,

different

of the

strata

were
were

aux

die

rections
di-

gated.
propa-

experienced observer, Erman,

earthquake

there

wras

no

at

Lake

Baikal,

disturbance

periodicchanges.

Humboldt, Yoy.
t Erman, Reise urn

the

Regions Equinox., t. i.,p.

Erde, bd. ii.,s. 180.

515-517.

on

in the

116

COSMOS.

Declination.
have

We

recognitionof those

earliest
the

third

Chinese,

only

not

of

well

how

with

our

fact of the

the

era,

tion
varia-

of this variation.

carried

the latter with

the west

with

on

Arab

and

the

The

Malays
pilots,

Moorish

of the mariner's

the
compass
among
MedCatalans,in the basin of the iterranean,

use

of Africa, and

coast

in hi^h

northern

the maps, which

were
publishedas earlyas
give the variation for different parts cf the sea.*

geographicalpositionof

the needle

to

turns

line

north

true

determined

was

"

the

by

of

from

the Admiral's

Columbus

loo;,that

the axis of

pole of

the

"

which

on
variation,

no

the

on

September, 1492, and it did not escape his

knowledge of the magnetic declination might
of geographical longitudes. I
shown,

of

centurv

while

even

earth

12th

amount

the Chinese

which

on

the

the

as

the

Genoese, Majorcans, and

The

which

depend upon
tion.
magnetism, namely, declina-

acquainted

led to the extensive

1436,

facts of the

ton
magnetic needle (suspendedby a cotthe geographicalmeridian, but they also

Indians, and

latitudes

phenomena

earlv

determine

to

intercourse

and

as

historical

horizontal

thread) from
knew

the

to

of terrestrial

element

The
were

referred

already

when

13th

of

notice .that the

termination
de-

serve

in the

have

elsewhere

he

uncertain

was

of the

ship'sreckoning,he endeavored, on his second voyage,

lination.!
of decApril,1496, to ascertain his positionby observations
The horary changes of variation,
ply
simwhich were

recognized as
Tachard,

facts

certain

Louvo,

by

Hellibrand

and

Father

most
aland
Siam, were
circumstantially
in 1722.
Celsius
conclusivelyobserved
by Graham
at

the first who

was

simultaneous
*

in

made

use

of these

measurements

See

page 53; Petrus

the variation in Italywas

at

two

Peregrine
5"

east

observations

widely remote

informs

friend

to

institute

points.J
that he

found

in 1269.

Crit. de lllist. de la GLogr.,t. hi.,p. 29, 36,

f Humboldt, Examen.
had
38, 44-51.
Although Hen-era {Dec, i.,p. 23) says that Columbus
remarked

that the

magnetic variation was not the same

by day and by
in
justifyus
ascribing to this great discoverer a
The actual journal of the admiral,
knowledge of the horary variation.
which
has been published by Navarre te',
the 17th
informs us that from
to the 30th of September, 1492, Columbus
had
reduced
every thing to
so-called "unequal movement"
of the polar star and
the pointers
a
56-59.
Crit.,t. iii.,
(Guardas), Examen
p.
for London
The
observations
X See pages 61, 70.
are
first-printed
those by Graham, in the Philos. Transact, for 1724
and 1725, vol.
xxxiii.,p. 96-107 {An Account of Observations made of the Horizontal

night, it does

not

Passing to
in the

the

in respect

and

different

day,

annual

values

phenomena

magnetic needle,we

its alterations
the

of the

consideration

variation* of the

117

VARIATION.

MAGNETIC

to

seasons

; next, in

of the

respect

to

the

first notice

must

different hours

the

observed

of the

and

year,
influence

night

the

mean

which

the

recurringdisturbances,
extraordinary,although periodically
north
south of the equator,
the magnetic position,
or
ferent
these alterations; and, finally,
in respect to the difexert
on
lines passingthrough the terrestrial pointsat which
the variation is equal, or even
null.
These
linear relations
are
certainlymost
important in respect to the direct practical
of
their
results
and
to
the
reckoning,
application
ship's
to navigationgenerally
phenomena of
; but all the cosmical
magnetism, among which we must placethose extraordinary
and most
ously
mysteriousdisturbances which often act simultanetimately
distances (magnetic storms), are so inat very remote
connected
with one
another, that no singleone of
them
be neglectedin our
can
attempt graduallyto complete
the mathematical
theory of terrestrial magnetism.
In the middle
northern
latitudes,throughout the whole
magnetic hemisphere (the terrestrial spheroidbeing assumed
to be divided through the magnetic equator),the north
end
of the magnetic needle
that is to say, the end which
points
toward
in
the north pole is most
of
the
direction
closely
that pole about
81i. 15m.
The
A.M.
from east
needle moves
and

"

"

from

this hour

till about

P.M., at which
it attains its most
time
westerly position. This motion
is general,
westward
and occurs
at all places in the northern
variation
the
as
hemisphere, whether
they have a western
whole
of Europe, Pekin, Nertschinsk, and Toronto
or
an
eastern
ca),
Amerivariation, like Kasan, Sitka (in Russian
Washington, Marmato
(New Granada), and Payta, on

to

west

lh. 45m.

"

"

the

coast.*

Peruvian

Needle

at

From

The

Proofs

Fuss

and

moist

or

is greatest between
12 and 1 in the afternoon, and
7 in the evening." These, however, are
the true
not

of this

are

afforded

; at

the

observations
of George
by numerous
at Pekin
observatoryin the Greek convent
;
Nertschinsk
Buchanan
in CanaPuddell
da
at
Toronto,
by
;
being places of western
variation); by Kupffer and Si-

Kowanko

by Anikin at
(allthese
monoff

change
or

variation

the least at 6
turning;hours.
*

westerly point, at

The
London, 1722-1723, by Mr. George Graham).
heat
nor
depends "neither
dry
cold,
upon

of the variation
air.

this most

disturbnotwithstanding the manv

of
coast
the
northwest
Borealis at Sitka, on
America
in
; by Gilliss at Washington ; by Boussingault at Marmato,
South
America
shores
by Duperrey at Payta, on the Peruvian
; and
ances

at

from

Kasan

bv

the Aurora

Wrangle,

118

COSMOS.

lh. 45m.

the

toward
a

the

P.M.,

continues

throughout the whole

night tillmidnight,or

east

portionof the

makes

needle

magnetic

short

about

pause

to retrograde

of the afternoon
1

6 P.M.

and

A.M., while it often

In

the

night there

is

again a slightmovement
eastern
or
positionis reached
period,which was
formerlyentirelyoverlooked,since
and
a
toward
the east
gradual
uninterruptedretrogression
toward

lh. 45m.

between
had

alreadybeen

P.M.

and

the west, until the minimum

A.M,
at 8h. 15m.
This nocturnal

8h.

A.M.

15m.

carefullystudied

by

me

assumed,

was

when

Pome,

at

engaged with Gay-Lussac in observing the horary

of Prony's magnetic telescopes.
changes of variation with one
As the needle is generallyunsteady as long as the
was

sun

is below
is

those

the

horizon, the

seldom

more

occasions

and

when

small

less

this motion

nocturnal

motion

ward
west-

manifested.
At
distinctly
I
was
clearlydiscernible,

it

accompanied by any restlessness of the needle.

The needle, during this small western
period,passes quietly
from point to point of the dial,exactlyin the same
manner
in the reliable diurnal period,between
8h. 15m.
A.M.
as
45m.
from the manner
and lh.
in
P.M., and very differently
which
it moves
of
the phenomenon
during the occurrence
never

saw

which

I have
that

motion

named

when

into

an

the
eastern

magnetic

needle

storm.

changes

movement,

or

It is very
its continuous

able
remarkwestern

it does
conversely,

not

unchanged for any length of time, but it turns

round
almost suddenly,more
especially
by day, at the abovenamed
8h. 15m. A.M.
and lh. 45m. P.M.
The slight
periods,
motion
westward
night
does not commonly occur
until after midand toward
the earlymorning. On the other hand, it
has been observed
at Berlin, and
during the subterranean
observations
at Freiberg,as well as at Greenwich, Makerscontinue

of the

Pacific

would

here

Pekin

(allthese heing places with

observe

(Dec,

that the

mean

an

declination

1831) (Poggend., Annalen,

eastern
was

2"

bd.

variation). I
15' 42"

west

54); 4"

at

44"

xxxiv., s.
(Sept.,1832) (Poggend., Op. cit.,s. 61); 1" 33'
west
at Toronto
(November, 1847) (see Observ. at the Magneticaland
Meteorological
Observatoryat Toronto,vol. i.,p. 11 ; and Sabine, in the
west

at

Nertschinsk

Phil. Transact,

for 1851, pt. ii.,p. 636), 2"

21/

east

at

Kasan

(August,

Simonoff, and Erman, Reise urn die Erde, bd. ii.,s.

1828) (Kupflfer,
532); 28" 16' east at Sitka (November, 1829) (Erman, Op. cit.,s.
546); 6" 33' east at Marmato
(August, 1828) (Humboldt, in Poggend.,
bd.
8"
56' east
at
s.
Annalen,
331);
xv.,
Payta (August, 1823) (Duin
the
Connaissance
des
Temps pour 1828, p. 252). At Tiflis
perrey,
the declination
till 2 P.M.
was
westerly from 7 A.M.
(Parrot,Rciee
zum
s. 58).
Ararat, 1834, th. ii.,

Scotland, Washington, and Toronto,

in

ton

119

VARIATION.

MAGNETIC

after 10

soon

or

11 P.M.
four

The

of the

movements

1805,* have

recognizedin
collection of

the admirable

representedin

been

needle, which
the

years 1845, 1846,

tions
of
thousand
results
1847, as
horary observamany
in the followingfour turningpoints,!
namely, the first

observations

made

and

the

See

from

extracts

Karsten, from
magnetic needle,
magnetic ebbing and flowing,

motions

four

to

the

of

periodsof
periods."

barometrical

the

to

I addressed

letter,which.

Rome, June 22, 1S05, "On

four
it were,
as
constituting,
analogous
printed in

in

Greenwich

at

communication

This

was

On
der JErde, 1811),s. 459.
the
alterations of variation,see Faraday, On

Magnetismus

Hansteen's

nocturnal
long-disregarded
the

Night Episode, " 3012-3021.

Observations
f Airy, Magnetic and Meteorological
1815, p. 6; 1846, p. 91; 1817, p. 236). The
(Results,
hours, and

which

those

obtained

were

at Greenwich
investigation made

bv the

guished

director

observations
11th
the

of

inflection

there

can

be

observations

once

attract

minimum.

or

turning hours

reference

to

correspondence
turning

diurnal

rable
later,in the admi-

Canada,
Enke,
the

He

wrote

the

nocturnal

as

horary variation, I do

is

the

clearly
distin-

ing
correspond-

follows

the

on

maximum,
not

think

or

that

berg
indeed, Dove has also shown from the Freiical
(Poggend., Ann., bd. xix., s. 373). Graphtables for affordinga
preferableto numerical
In the former
ities
phenomenon.
great irregular-

as,
for 1830

representationsare
correct
insightinto this
at

mv

years

Toronto, in
old friend

Breslau.

of

curve

doubt,

line of average
individual and

and

"In

1836:

of the

bv

at

Greenwich

at

close

and

observatory at Berlin,between

of the

of Berlin

October,

four

and

observatories
shown

nocturnal

the earliest results of the

between

made

the

; while

attention, and
in

the

enable

latter the

eye

is

the

observer

to

draw

frequentlydeceived,and

for a true maximum

mistaken
are
stickingirregularities
The
to fall regularlyat the following
periods seem
:

The

The
Tie

The

greatest eastern
greatest western

secondary
secondary

The

or
or

declination
declination

lesser
lesser

eastern
vrestern

falls at

falls at
maximum

minimum

falls at
falls at

10
4

1 maximum

E.

minimum

E.

P.M., 11 maximum
A.M., 11 minimum

E.

A.M.,
P.M.,

E.

secondary or lesser minimum

(the nocturnal elongationwestward)
nearer
correctlyspeaking, between 3 and 5 A.M., sometimes
the one
serve
I need scarcelyobthe other."
hour, and sometimes
nearer
that the periods which
and myself designate as the eastern
Enke
minima
at 4 A.M.) are
(the principal and the secondary minimum
named
maxima
in the registersof the English and American
western
established
eastern
in 1810, and consequently our
stations,which were
maxima
with
the same
and
10 P.M.) would, in accordance
(8 A.M.
fore,
form of expression,be converted
minima.
In order, thereinto western
of the needle in its
to give a representationof the horary motion
ploy
general character and analogy in the northern hemisphere, I will emof
the
with
the
the terms
period
adopted by Sabine, beginning
of
the
time
reckoned
greatest western
elongation,
according to the mean
place:
more
falls,

120

COSMOS.

minimum

8 A.M.

at

minimum

second

maximum

at

with

at

2 A.M.

merely

12

first maximum

P.M.

giving the
the

here

10

P. M.

A. M.

A.M.

A.M.

Toronto,
1

10 P.M.
2h. 15m. A.M.
7h. 15m. A.M.

the year

minimum

exhibited

seasons

1847

some

there

was

second

the
content

self
mytion
atten-

A.M.

Makerston, 1842-43.
Oh. 40m.

the

of 8h"

Breslau, 1835.
1 P.M.

1829.

P.M.

principalminimum

1 A. M.

different

and

P.M.

conditions,drawing

In
one

I must

Minimum

Maximum
Minimum

at

2 A.M.

Maximum
Minimum

Maximum
Minimum

The

mean

morning

Freiberg,
Maximum

or

A.M.

or

the fact that

to

the

Greenwich, 1346-47.
2 P.M.
12

P.M.
4 A.M.
8 A.M.

1845-47.

Washington,
2

P. M.

1840-42.

P. M.

P.M.

10

2 A.M.

P.M.
A.M.

8 A. M.

A. M.

10

wich.
striking differences at Greenonly one maximum
(2 P.M.) and

(12 night) during the winter

in the

summer

there

was

occurred
at 2 A.M.
progression,but the secondary minimum
instead of 4 A.M.
The
western
elongation(principal
(p. 236).
greatest
remained
maximum)
stationaryat 2 P.M. in winter as well as in
in 1846, as usual
but the smaller or secondary minimum
fell,
summer,
in the summer,
and in winter
about 12 at
(p. 94), at about 8 A.M.
winter western
mission,
night. The mean
elongationcontinued, without intermidnight and 2 P.M. (sec
throughout the whole year between
also for 1845, p. 5). We
the erection of the "observatoryat Makerston,
owe
scientific
zeal
in
the
of
to
Scotland,
Roxburghshire,
generous
in
Obs.
and
Sir Thomas
Brisbane
Allan
Magnetism
(see John
Broun,
in 1843, p. 221-227).
On the horary
Meteorologymade at Makerston
diurnal
and
nocturnal
observations
of St. Petersburg, see
Kupffer,
Compte-rendu Meteor, et Mag. a Mr. de Brock en 1851, p. 17. Sabine,
in his admirable
and ingeniouslycombined
graphic representationof
the curve
at Toronto
of horary declination
{Phil.Transact, for 1851,
is
a singularperiod of rest
(from 9
plate 27), shows that there
pt. ii.,
the small nocturnal western
to 11 P.M.) occurring before
motion, which
"We
begins about 11 P.M. and continues till about 3 A.M.
find,"he
observes, alternate progressionand retrogressionat Toronto twice in
a

double

"

the 24 hours.

In two

of the

eightquarters (1841
the

occasions

and

rior
1842) the infe-

the

of
occurrence
night
the
maximum
a
remaining quarters
turning
triple
;
hours
of the two
the same
those of the mean
as
are
years." (Obs.
made at the Magn. and Meteor.
at Toronto,in Canada, vol.
Observatory
i.,p. xiv.,xxiv., 183-191, and 228 ; and Unusual Magn. Disturbances,
made
at Washington,
pt. i.,p. vi.) For the very complete observations
Observations
made
and
Meteor.
see
at
Gilliss,Magn.
Washington,
(General Law). Compare with these Bache, Observ. at the
p. 325
made
at the Girard
Philadelphia,
Magn. and Meteor. Observatory
College,
in the years 1840
to 1845
(3 volumes, containing 3212 quarto pages),
vol. i.,p. 709; vol. ii.,p. 1285; vol. iii.,
standing
Notwithp. 2167, 2702.
of these two places(Philadelphialying only 1" 4'
the vicinity
north, and 0" T 33" east of Washington), I find a difference in tho
and secondary minimum.
lesser periodsof the western
secondary maximum

degree

of

regularityduring
and minimum

The
earlier at

former

falls about

Philadelphia.

in the

lh. 30m., and

the latter about

2h. 15m.

122

cosmos.

north,

the

as

being
P.M.

30m.

of

south

in the

A.M.

at 6 and

the

the

imum
min-

western

maximum

lh.

at

Spitzbergen,
turning hours fell
to the Arctic polar

above-named
In reference

A.M.

7h. 30m.

at

Germany,*
the western

and

50' lat.,where

in 79"

tolerablyregular,

was

it,however, different

he found

and

Norway

at

Finmark, 70" 40' lat.,Sabine

in

of the needle

motion

the

that

found

Hammerfest,

at

at

series of observations,
Archipelago we possess an admirable
tenants
made
during Captain Parry's third voyage in 1825, by Lieuand

Foster

ern
Ross, at Port Bowen, on the eastwhich
Regent's Inlet,73" 14' N. lat,

James

of Prince

coast

Although the
of twenty-fourhours through
needle passedtwice in the course
that meridian, which
was
magnetic
regarded as the mean
Aurora
Borealis
the
of
was
meridian
place,and although no
of
the
whole
for
months
visible
April and
(during
fullytwo
May), the periods of the principalelongationsvaried from
of
four to six hours, and from January to May the means
extended

were

and

maxima

the

over

only one

differed

variation

quantity of the declination

The

1" 30' to

from

days

five months.

of the western

minima

hour

period of

6"

or

7", while

the

at

by

dividual
in in-

rose

ing
turn-

Not only
minutes.f
periods it hardly reaches as many
but also in the equatorial
within the Arctic circle,
regions
56/
for
lat.
18"
at
a
instance,
Bombay,
tion
as,
great complicain the horary periods of magnetic variais observable
tion.
"

"

These

periods may

classes,which
October
on

present great differences

the

on

the

hand, and

one

other, and

periods,which
J
*

grouped

be

are

these

very

into

two

between

October

between

principal
April and
ber
Decem-

and

again divided into two subined.

from
being accurately determare

far

of the Pendulum

Sabine, Account

Experiments, 1825, p. 500.

at Port
Report of the Observations
Bowen," in
New
Philos. Journal,vol. ii.,1827, p. 347.
the Edinb.
% Professor Orlebar, of Oxford, former superintendent of the Magnetic
Observatory of the Island of Colaba, erected at the expense of
the East India Company, has endeavored
the complicato elucidate
ted
laws of the changes of declination
in the Bub-periods(Observations
made at the Magn. and Meteor. Observatory
in 1815, Results,
at Bombay
p. 2-7). It is singularto find that the positionof the needle during
the first period from
April to October (western min. 7h. 30m. A.M.,
t See

max.

Barlow's

Oh. 30m.
with

P.M.

; min.

that of Central
the

period,as
minutes

"

amount

in November

is situated

8" from

5h.

30m.,

Europe.
of

and
the

The

diurnal

December.

max.

month

P.M.)

coincides

of October

is

variation

scarcelyamounts
Notwithstanding that

magnetic equator, there

is

no

ly
close-

so

transition
to

two

this station

obvious

reg-

could

Europeans

learned,from

have

not

direction

rience,the

of

the

magnetic

have

own
expe*
in the southern

needle

century, when

imperfectknowledge of it
expeditionsof Diego Cam with Martin

obtained

adventurous

the

their

half of the 15th

hemisphere before the second

they may

123

VARIATION.

MAGNETIC

an

from
Be-

de Gama.
The
haim, and Bartholomew
Diaz, and Vasco
Chinese, who, as earlyas the 3d century of our era, as well
of Corea
and the Japanese Islands,had
the inhabitants
as
guided their course
by the compass at sea, no less than by
land, are said,according to the testimony of their earliest
rection
writers,to have ascribed great importance to the south diof the magnetic needle,and this was
ly
probably mainthe

dependent-on
entirelydirected
southern

the south

to

voyages,

that

circumstance

it had

and

their

navigationwas
During these

southwest.

escaped their

not

notice

that

the

direction they steered

magnetic needle,according to whose
their course, did not point accuratelyto the south pole. We

know, from

even

of the variation
the 12 th
of such
the

Chinese

toward

century.

nautical
and

of their determinations, the

one

the

aids favored
Indians

the

of the Malay
the voyages
of the island of Madagascar.!
the

very

farther diffusion

ancient

Java, and

with

extent

Although, judging from

ing
prevaileddur-

southeast,which

applicationand

The

races

and

amount*

to

intercourse
a

of

still greater

their colonization

present very northern

position

of
magnetic equator, it is probable that the town
the extremity of the northern
Louvo, in Siam, was
very near
the missionaryfather,Guy Tamagnetic hemisphere,when
chard, first observed the horary alterations of the magnetic
variation
at that placein the year
bered
1682, it must be rememdeclination
in
of
the
that accurate
observations
horary
for fullya
the southern
not made
magnetic hemisphere were
of the

century later.

John

Macdonald

watched

the

course

of the

Every where in nature, where various

of motion
at recurring
of disturbances
causes
a phenomenon
act
upon
to us),the law by
periods (whose duration, however, is still unknown
for a long
which
these disturbances
are
brought about often remains
either reciprocally
of the perturbing causes
time unexplained, in consequence
another.
neutralizingor intensifyingone
*
See" my Examen
Crit. de tHist. de la G'cogr.,t. iii.,
p. 34-37.
The
notice
of the variation
ancient
given by Keutsungchy, a
most
east
writer belonging to the beginning of the 12th century, was
|
68.
la
de
Vinveniicm
Boussole,
south.
Lettre
sur
p.
Klaproth's
with Java, according to
intercourse
of the Chinese
t On the ancient
Humboldt,
of Fahian
in the Fo-kue-si, see YVilhelm von
statements
Ueber die Kaici Sprache, bd. i.,s. 16.
ularityin

the

turning hours.

124

cosmos.

on

results which

The

Helena.*

of

coast

southwestern

the

in Fort

1795

and

during the years 1794

needle

Sumatra,
then

were

Marlborough,
well

as

at

as

obtained

drew

St.
the

in the quantity
to the great decrease
physicists
of the daily alterations of variation in the lower latitudes.
four minutes.
to three
or
The
elongationscarcelyamounted
A more
nomenon
comprehensive and a deeper insightinto this pheobtained
through the scientific expeditionsof
was
tions
Freycinet and Duperrey, but the erection of magnetic staof
the
southern
three
at
magnetic
important points
of

attention

hemisphere
Helena, and

in

Hobarton

at

"

the

at

Cape

of

Good

years horary observations

registration of the alterations
ten

trial

afforded

the

us

first

in

moves

it follows

with

northern

carried

west

to

of terres-

elements
uniform

for the

on

method)

"

systematic results. In
magnetic hemisphere the
from

from

east

point of

to

which

that

the needle

in the south

for while

turns
pointed southward
morning and noon, the northern

direction from

been

one

general and

that is

en's

totallyoppositedirection

in the

Diem

of the three

latitudes of the southern

the middle
needle

have

in accordance

magnetism

Land, at St.
Hope (where for the last

Tan

between

west

the needle

exhibits

east.

indebted for an elaborate revision

are
we
Sabine, to whom
of all these variations,has arranged the horary observations
for five years at Hobarton
carried on
(42" 53' S.
that were
variation
lat.,variation 9" 57' east) and Toronto (43" 39" N. lat,,
1"

33' west),

the

periodsfrom

that

so

October

draw

can

we

to

distinction

February, and

from

tween
be-

April

The
sult
refor 1795, p. 340-349, for 1798, p. 397.
at Fort
Macdon'ald himself draws from his observations
which
3"
in
of
the
Sumatra,
above
town
Bencoolen,
Marlborough (situated
the
on
was
which
the
eastern
a
nd
to
elongation
S.
47'
according
lat.),
to me
to be entirely
not
from 7 A.M.
increase
to 5 P.M., does
appear
and 3, 4,
noon
made
between
justified. No regular observation was
observations
scattered
it seems
5 P.M.
or
probable, from some
; and
made
from the normal
hours, that the turning hours
at different times
between
and western
the eastern
elongation fall as early as 2 P.M.,
tion
of declinain possession
We
the
Hobarton.
are
same
as at
precisely
June,
months
23
Macdonald
observations
made
(from
during
by
ation
varithe
eastern
that
and
these
I perceive
from
1794, to June, 1796),
*

Phil

Transact,

increases
noon,

the needle

at

all times

of the

year

moving steadilyfrom

between

west

to

east

7h. 30m.

during

A.M.
that

till

period.

of the type of the northern

hemisphere (Toronto),
observable
at Singapore from
which
was
May till September ; and yet
the same
meridian, although to the
Fort Marlborough lies in almost
and
south of the geographical
pore.
only 5" 4' distant from Singaequator,

There

is here

no

trace

MAGNETIC

August, since

to

125

VARIATION.

the intermediate

of March

months

of

it were, phenomena
extremity of the needle,which

present, as
the

Hobarton

exhibits

that

so

February

it

11

and

fall

in the

phere, where
is

winter
the

Picture

northern

year
or

again

from

turns

at

while

A.M.

10

in the
an

sun

the

west;

eastward, and from

periodbetween
curring
later,oc-

are

the western
and

at

11

turning
P.M.

In

of the needle

the motion

oppositedirection

turning hours,
the

the

to

to

till 2

A.M.

is greater in the
southern
magnetic

till 1 P.M.

has

October

9 o'clock

somewhat

P.M.,

A.M.

while

summer

hemisbetween

quantity of the elongation

is in the southern

than

when

it

signs.

question which
of

it

motion

greater when

is in the
The

and

8 A.M.

above-named

the

3 A.M.

magnetic hemisphere

from

westward

2 till 11

earlier,namely,

the northern

than

to

3 P.M.

at

hours

from

eastward
from

of the

period

At

of elongation,*

maxima

western

two

tember
Sep-

ward,
points north-

In the
it goes back to the west.
turning hours
August the eastern

3 to 8 A.M.

April

the

moves

P.M.

and

eastern

in

then

P.M., and
from

two

and

transition.

I discussed

Nature,!whether

there

seven

may

years
not

be

ago
a

in the

region of
magnetic

geographicaland
there is no
horary variation (before tliG
equators, in which
of the northern
return
extremity of the needle to an opposite
direction of variation in the same
hours),is one which,
from recent
it would
experiments, and more
especially
seem,
since Sabine's ingeniousdiscussions of the observations
made
56'
at Singapore (1" 17' N. lat.),
S. lat.),
at St. Helena
(15"
56'
be anand at the Cape of Good
S. lat.),
must
swered
Hope (33"
in the negative. No
ered
discovhas
hitherto
been
point
at which
the needle does not exhibit a horary motion,
and since the erection of magnetic stations the important and
places
very unexpected fact has been evolved that there are
in the southern
the
which
at
magnetic hemisphere
horary
in the
variations of the dipping-needle
alternately
participate
phenomena (types)of both hemispheres. The island of St.
Helena
lies very near
the line of weakest
magnetic intensity,
in a region where
this line divaricates very widely from the
geographicalequator and from the line of no inclination.
the

earth, probably between

the

Palso
"

pt. i.,55, pi. iv.,and

Phil.

t Cosmos, vol. i.,p.

183.

Transact,

for 1851, pt. ii.,p. 36, pi.xxvii.

126

cosmos.

points to
May to September, from

the direction which

from

hours

of the

entirelyopposite,in the

north, is

the

analogous

of the end

the movement

St. Helena

At

October

needle,which

it follows

February.

to

from

months

in the

It has

been

years'horary observations,that during the

of the southern
winter
hemisphere,in the above-named
ods
periis in the northern'
of the year, while the sun
signs,the
northern
tion
variapoint of the needle has the greatest eastern
after five

found

of

and

Europe

North

A.M., and remains

other

which

A.M., from

at

very

February (which
therefore

signs,and

elongation

moves

middle

latitudes

westward

till 10

nearlystationaryuntil 2 P.M.
the other hand, namely, from
on

hemisphere,and

southern

in the

as

it

America,

parts of the year,

till

hour,

constitutes

when

nearest

to

the
the

the

southern

the
earth),

falls about

of the needle

tober
Oc-

of the

summer

is in the

sun

At

ern
greatest westA.M., showing a

until noon,
in accordance
precisely
and of other
with the type of Hobarton
(42" 53/ S. lat.),
districts of the middle
parts of the southern hemisphere.
from

movement

At

the

time

of the

in March

the

course

to

west

east

and

April,as

of the needle

showing periodsof

stance,
afterward,as, for inwell as in September and October,
fluctuates on individual days,

equinoxes, or

transition from

soon

one

type

to

another,from

of the southern

hemisphere.*
Singapore lies a little to the north of the geographical
the latter and the magnetic equator, which,
equator, between
accordingto Elliot,coincides almost exactlywith the curve
which
of lowest intensity. According to the observations
that

of the northern

Sabine, Observations

to

that

mad?

at

the

Magn.

and

Meteor.

at
Observatory

in 1840-18-45, vol. i.,p. 30 ; and in the Phil. Transact, for

1847, pt. i.,p. 51-56, pi.iii. The regularityof this oppositionin the
divisions of the year, the first occurring between
two
May and September
St. Helena

(type of

the middle

latitudes

in the northern

hemisphere), and

the

latitudes in
and February (type of the middle
hemisphere), is graphicallyand strikinglymanifested
the form and inflections of the curve
of
when
we
separatelycompare
between
2
of
the
P.M.
variation
in
the
intervening
day
horary
portions
and
4 P.M.
and 4 P.M., and between
and 10 A.M., between
10 A.M.
nation
declithe
line
indicates
the
A.M.
which
2
above
mean
Every curve
has an
almost similar
one
corresponding to it below it (vol.i.,
A A and BB).
This oppositionis perceptibleeven
pi. iv.,the curves
remai'kable
in the nocturnal
that, while the
periods,and it is stillmore
is
found
that
of
to be
and
the
Good
Helena
of
of
St.
Hope
Cape
type
the
earlier
of
northern
occurrence
same
the
to
hemisphere,
belonging
in Canada
is observed
(Toronto) is noticed in
the turning hours which
southern
two
months
at these
the same
points. Sabine, Observ. at
Hobarton, vol. i.,p, xxxvi.
next

between

the

southern

October

127

VARIATION.

MAGNETIC

Singapore every two hours during the years

1841
and 1842, Sabine again finds the St. Helena
types in
and
from
from
the motion
of the needle
May to August,
the
November
at
to February ; the same
occurs
Cape of
Good
Hope, which is 34" distant from the geographicaland
made

were

still more

at

inclination

the

from

remote

south

is 53"

and

magnetic equator,
the

and

sun

where

reaches

never

the

the

nith.*
ze-

made
possess the publishedhorary observations
to September,according
at the Cape for six years, from May
at St. Helena, the needle moves
to which, almost
as
precisely
We

till llh.

westward

A.M.),

(7h. 30m.

from

eastward

moves

from

A.M.

30m.

8k.

from

while
30m.

its

A.M.

eastern

extreme

October
to

to

Ik. 30m.

March
and

position
it

2 P.M.

but still unexplained and

discoveryof this well-attested,
obscure phenomenon, has more
especially
proved the importance
from
hour
of observations
continued
to
uninterruptedly
The

for many
occasion

hour
have

years.

would

By

render

means

show, have

to

either to the

Disturbances

eastward

the

or

isolated

of extended

shall

soon

divertingthe

dle
nee-

which,
of

the

power
westward

for

observations

navigationand

as

we

length of

of travelers

the

time,

tain.
uncer-

applicationof

to geodeticsurveys, it was
compass
very early noticed
that at certain times the magnetic needle
exhibited
exan

the

Phil.

tions
for 1847, pt. i.,p. 52, 57; and Sabine, Observathe
Meteor.
at
Observatory
Cajteof Good
iii.
vol.
genious
See also Faraday's inHope, 1841-1846,
i.,p. xii.-xxiii.,
pi.
views regarding the causes
of those phenomena, which
depend
the alternations
of the seasons, in his Experiments on Atmospheric
upon
Magnetism, " 3027-3068, and on the analogies with St. Petersburg,"
It would
3017.
appear that the singulartype of magnetic declination,
which
with
the
varying
prevails at the Cape of Good Hope,
seasons,
has
St. Helena, and
noticed
been
the southern
shores
on
Singapore,
of the Red Sea by the careful observer D'Abbadie
the
Present
(Airy, On
State of the Science of Terrestrial Magnetism, 1850, p. 2).
It results
from the present positionof the four points of maximum
of intensity
surface
of the earth,"observes
at the
Sabine, "that the important
of the relatively,
but not
curve
absolutely,weakest
intensityin the
Southern
Atlantic Ocean
should incline away
from the vicinityof St.
The
asHelena, in the direction of the southern extremity of Africa.
tronomico-geographicalpositionof this southern
extremity, where the
remains
sun
throughout the whole year north of the zenith,affords a
principalground of objectionagainstDe la Rive's thermal explanation
(Annates de Chimie et de Physique,t. xxv., 1849, p. 310) of the phenomenon
at first
of St. Helena
here referred to, which, although it seems
with
accordance
in
is
nevertheless
sightapparentlyabnormal,
entirely
Sec
established
at other points."
Sabine,
law, and is found to occur
in the Proceedingsof the Royal Society,1849, p. 821.
made

Transact,
at

tlve Magn. and

"

128

cosmos.

in its

traordinarydisturbance
with

connected

to

customary

ascribe

frequently
fluctuating
phenomenon

was

vibratory,trembling,and

It became

motion.

which
direction,
this

and
this was
specialcondition of the needle itself,
characteristically
designatedby French sailors Taffolementde
to

some

it

and
aiguille,

should

again

be

that

recommended

was

aiguilleaffolee

une

tainly
cerstronglymagnetized. Halley was
inferred that polarlightwas
a
magnetic

more

the first who

statement* which
he made
the occasion
a
on
phenomenon
of his being invited by the Royal Society of London
to explain
of the 6th of March, 171G, which
the great meteor
was
"
in every part of England.
He
that the meteor
seen
says
is analogous with the phenomenon which
Gassendi
ignated
first desof Aurora
in 1621 by the name
Borealis"
Although,
"

for the

in his voyages

he advanced

far south

as

that he
confession,
polar lightbefore

had
the

as

52", yet

never

year
in the

is visible
testify,

can

seen

to
or

which

have

of the

been

aware

we

line of

learn,from
northern

1716, although
middle

does
Halley,therefore,

Peru.

of the

determination

of the

at

the

or

his

of

tropicalzone

and

visible

or

latter,as

appear, from his own

of the restlessness of the

periodsof

own

southern

not

extraordinarydisturbances

it exhibits

the

variation,

servation,
obdle,
nee-

fluctuations

invisible north-

of the late surprisingAppearance of-Lights in the

vol. xxix., 1714-1716, Xo. 347, p. 422Transact.,
Air,
of
the Aurora
Borealis
is unfortunately
428.
Halley's explanation
had been enounced
with the fantastic hypothesis which
connected
by
him
twenty-five years earlier,in the Phil. Transact, for 1693, vol.
luminous
fluid
a
xvii.,Xo. 195, p. 563, according to which there was
the outer
shell which we
in the hollow terrestrial sphere lying between
man
inhabit and the inner denser
nucleus, which is also inhabited by huorder
his
words:
"In
These
make
that
to
inner
are
beings.
tained
globe capable of being inhabited,there might not improbably be conmedium
the balls,
between
luminous
to make
so
as
a persome
petual
shell of the earth's crust
Since the outer
is far
day below."
less thick in the region of the poles of rotation (owing to the compression
produced at those parts)than at the equator, the inner luminous
seeks at certain periods,more
fluid (thatis,the magnetic fluid),
cially
espein the less
at the times
of the equinoxes, to find itself a passage
thick polar regions through the fissures of rocks.
The
emanation
of
this fluid is,according to Halley, the phenomenon
of the northern
iron filings
strewn
are
over
a
light. When
spheroidalmagnet (a tethe direction of the luminous
colored rays of
to show
rella),
they serve
*

Halley, Account
in the

the Aurora.
appears

to

Phil.

"As
every

each

observer

one

to

sees

geognosticdreams
such profound knowledge in
Cosmos, vol. i.,p. 171.
see
the

his

own

rainbow,

be at a different
of an intellectual
all his

so

also the

corona

ing
point" (p. 424). Regardwho
ed
displayinvestigator,
bors,
lamagnetic and astronomical

130

COSMOS.

at
importance of such observations
We
these times being admitted
soon
by all recent observers.
in
order
acter
charthe
to
peculiarphysical
study
perceivedthat,
of these anomalous
sufficient
not
disturbances,it was
of the alteration of the variation,
the amount
to determine

solstitial

"

degree of

numerical

the

that

but

the

periods

measured

horary

of the

course

observation

each

appended to
elongation of

be

must

needle,it

found

was

dle
nee-

by obtainingthe
In the ordinary

oscillations.

the

of the

disturbance

be

to

quiet that

so

from 6000
deduced
observations,made from
results,
middle of May, 1806, to the end of June, 1807, the oscillation

in 1500
the

ted
generallyfluctuated only from one half of a graduatherefore
other
interval to the
half,amounting
only to V
12" '; in individual
very stormy
to be either

of

and

cases,

much

often when

and

rain

was

the weather

the
falling,

or
stationary,
perfectly

needle

vary
say, about

graduated interval,that is to
of a magnetic storm,
the occurrence
on

But

24//

0*3

or

28//.

or

final and

whose

tions
Borealis,the oscilla-

is the Aurora

strongest manifestation

appeared

only 0*2

to

was

only 14/ and in others 38'

the arc, each one
being completed in from 1 J to 3 seconds
equality
of the magnitude and intime.
Frequently,on account
either

were

in
of

of

in

cases

some

parts of the tablet in the direction of

it

make

possibleto

not

was

any

the

far exceeded

which
oscillations,

the

or

one

scale

both of its

observation.*

This,

sides,

for in-

were
occasionallyrelieved by very
for
instance, by Mampel, the geographer
trustworthy observers; as,
Nathan
mechanician
Mendelssohn, and our great
Priesen, the skillful
Buch.
It has always afforded me
pleasure
Leopold von

and

Oltmanns

Professor

myself

geognosist,
record

to

the

kindly assisted

have

who

of those

names

in

me

my

labors.
*

disturbances.
from

extracts

September, 1806, was singularlyrich

By way of illustration,I will give
journal:

my

|i Sept., 180G,

4h. 36m.

from

22

"

"

"

23

"

'"

*"

24
24
25

"'

""

ti

25.

il

"

"

"

"

"

((

tt

tt

26
26

in great magnetic

of

month

The

4h.

A.M.

40m.

till oh. 43m.

"

"

the

7h.

following

A.M.

2i
;m.

2T
27

The

by
and

disturbance
the

last referred

greatest quiet,which

until the following

f" Sept.,1806,

to

was

very

continued

small, and

throughout

was

succeeded

the

whole

32m.

P.M.

noon.

from

lOh.

20m.

P.M.

till llh.

night

MAGNETIC

stance,

the

was

the

night

57m.

ing
long and uninterruptedperiodsdur24th
September, 1806, lastingon the

2h. Ora.

general,during

unusual

(magnetic storms),
exhibited
with

the

the

of the

mean

in

irregularrapidity,but

3h.

ances
disturb-

of the

arc

eastward,

or

few

tions
oscillathough
al-

dinary
extraor-

cases

also

when
the variation
observed, even
irregularlyincreased or decreased,and when

not

were

of the oscillations did not

mean

from

next

larger magnetic

or

either westward

increase

an

fluctuations
was

32m., and

3h.

to

A.M.

51i. 4m.

to

In

for

case

of the
from

first occasion

131

DISTURBANCES.

the limits taining

apperneedle at the given

exceed

positionof the
time.
after a relatively
We
long rest, sudden motions
saw,
of very unequal intensity,
describingarcs of from 6' to 15',
either alternatingwith
another
mixed,
or
one
abnormally interafter which
the needle would
become
tionary.
suddenly staof total quiescenceand vioAt night this mixture
lent
perturbation,without any progressionto either side,was
of the motion,which
very striking.*One specialmodification
This

was

until 5h.

normal

the

to

small

disturbance,which

A.M.

Gm.

succeeded

was

SctN180G" abont

2h-

calm

by great

A-M-

46m-

"reat but

short

Another
magnetic storm, followed by perfect calm.
equallydisturbance
about
4h.
A.M.
30m.
magnetic
great
The
of |^| September had
been
great storm
preceded by a still
from 7h. 8m. till9h. 11m.
P.M.
In the following
greater disturbance
winter
there was
months
of storms, and
only a very small number
these could not be compared with
the
disturbances
tumnal
during the auI
the
condition
in
term
which
storm
to
a
equinox.
apply
great
the needle

makes

all the

oscillations

scale

of from

parts of the

20

to

segment,

In small storms
any observation.
oscillations of from five to eight minutes.

Arago, during
observations

without

the ten

at

changein

the

in which

years

Paris

(till1829),

he

minutes,

when

or

make
*

38

needle

passes

continued

yond
be-

impossible to

makes

noticed

never

or

it is

irregular
make

to

ful
care-

oscillations

any

the variation.

He
to me
wrote
as
follows,in the
of that year : " I have communicated
to the Academy
the results
of our
simultaneous
observations.
I am
surprisedto notice the
oscillations which
the dipping-needle
occasionallv exhibited
at Berlin
a

course

during the
the

when
then

even

of 1806,
not

was

by

its absolute

1807, and

changed.

any thing of the kind.

violent oscillations is on

exhibits
and

observations

declination

mean

direction

The
the
has

the

disturbances

any

movement."
oscillatory

of 1828-1829,
Here (atParis) we

only

time
of

occurrence

been

of direction

which

at
an

when

even
never

the

Aurora

perience
ex-

needle

Borealis,

considerablydisturbed,and
most
unaccompanied
frequently

are

The

condition

described

here

is,however, entirelyopposite to the phenomena which were

observed
"t Toronto
(43"91' N. lat.)during the years 1810 and 1841, and which

.^"respondaccuratelywith
at

Toronto

have

paid

so

those

manifested

much

attention

at
to

Berlin.
the

nature

The

ers
observ-

of the

mo-

132

cosmos.

I must

notice,consisted in the very rare

pass without
of a vertical motion, a kind of tilting
motion, an

not

occurrence

of the

alteration

needle, which

of the

inclination

for

continued

was

twenty minutes, accompanied by

of horizontal

vibration

conditions

which

period of from

either

are

gree
devery moderate
the entire absence of this

by

recorded

the

fifteen to

careful enumeration

In the

movement.

or

point of

northern

of all the

secondary
English

of the
registers

in the

I have only met with three references to " constant

observatories,
vertical motion, the needle oscillating
and
vertically,"*
these three instances
The

three

Berlin,about
5 A.M.

daytime, as,

We
for

the

hours

Die men's

in Van
of

periods of the occurrence

fell,
according to the

storms

about

occurred

the

Land.

greater magnetic

of my
after midnight,and

observations

mean

generallyceased

lesser disturbances

observed

instance,between

and

in

during the

P.M., and

quently
fre-

of

lent
September, during which viooccurred
storms
midnight,when, owing to the
of
it was
and
the
oscillations,
magnitude
rapidity
impossible
of their elongato read them
off or to estimate the means
tion.
on

days

same

after

became

soon

so.

in groups

storms

convinced

during

of the

several

of magnetic

occurrence

nights consecutively,

tion that

they indicate whether the vibrations and shocks are "strong"

with definite
"slight,"and characterize the disturbances in accordance
and uniform
subdivisions
of the scale, following a fixed and
form
uniUnusual
nomenclature.
Disturbances,
Days
Magn.
Sabine,
of
vol. i.,pt. i.,p. 46.
Six groups
of successive
days (146 in all) are
above-named
marked
in
Canada, which were
given from the two
years
by very strong shocks, without any perceptiblechange in the horary
declination.
Such
(see Op. cit.,p. 47, 54, 74, 88, 95, 101) are
groups
Times of Observations at Toronto,at which the magnetomdesignated as
eters
not materially
were
readings were
changed?'
disturbed,but the mean
also
The
of
variation
were
nearly always accompanied by
changes
during the frequent Aurora; Boreales; in
strong vibrations at Toronto
these vibrations were
cases
so
some
strong as entirelyto prevent the
observations
from
learn,therefore,from these
being read off. We
not
too
whose
further
can
ommend,
we
stronglyrecphenomena,
investigation
turb
disthat although momentary
of
declination
which
changes
the needle
and
definite
often
be
followed
changes
by great
may
of variation
(Younghusband, Unusual Disturbances,pt. ii.,p. x.), the
or

"

size of the

arc

the alteration
of variation
motion

of vibration

the vibrations

of the needle
and

in

in the declination
toward

may
a

no

that these

the

amount

of

changes
; that in very inconsiderable
be very strong, while the progressive
western

or

declination

eastern

of any

considerable,independently
assume
processes of magnetic activity
character at different
places.
*
Unusual
Disturb.,vol. i.,pt. i.,p. 69, 101.

rapid

with

respect agrees

; and
and
special

vibration
a

may

be

further,

different

MAGNETIC

133

DISTURBANCES.

acquainted the Academy at Berlin with the peculiar

of these extraordinarydisturbances,and even
invited
nature
friends to visit me
I
at predetermined hours, at which
my
hoped they might have an opportunity of witnessing this
ticipations.*
phenomenon ; and, in general,I was not deceived in my anin
his
travels
the
Caucasus
in
Kupffer,during
of the valuable
1829, and at a later period,Kreil,in the course
he made
at Prague, were
both
which
observations
abled
enof magnetic storms
the recurrence
at the
to confirm
hours, f
same
enabled to make
I was
The observations which
during the
solstitial periods,
ence
in referyear 1806 at the equinoctialand
in the variation,
have
to the extraordinarydisturbances
of the most
become
one
important acquisitionsto the theory
of terrestrial magnetism, since the erection of magnetic stations
colonies
in the different British
(from 1838 to 1840),
that I

through

the

of

accumulation

rich

harvest

of materials,

elaborated
bine.
skillfully
by General Saer
In the results of both hemispheres this talented observhas separatedmagnetic disturbances,accordingto diurnal
of the year,
and nocturnal hours,accordingto different seasons
At
and accordingto their deviations eastward
or westward.
which

and

Toronto
and
case

been

have

in

This

the disturbances

Hobarton

strong by night as

the

oldest

of what
*

most

was

was

at

the

end

at

in from

found
of

der

Berlin

2600

September,

Annalen

published in

by day,Jand

observations

180G.

twice

were

to

the
;

same

as
was

exactly the

3000

quent
frethe
verse
re-

disturbances

This

fact,which was
xv.
(April, 1829),
older horary observations,

Physik,hd.

Poggendorffs
"
The
in the following terms
:
which
I made
conjointlywith Oltmanns, had the advantage
of a similar kind had been
that at that period (1806 and
1807) none
in
either
in
France
or
England.
They gave the nocturnal
prosecuted
showed
how
also
maxima
and
remarkable
minima; they
magnetic
which
often
it
is
could
be recognized,
storms
impossible to record,
for many
occur
owing to the intensityof the vibrations,and which
orological
time, althoughno influence of metenights consecutivelyat the same
relations has hitherto been recognizedas the inducing cause
of the phenomena."
The
earliest record of a certain periodicityof
for the first
was
extraordinary disturbances
not, therefore,noticed
time in the year 1839.
Report of the FifteenthMeeting of the British
Association at Cambridge, 184:5,pt. ii.,
p. 12.
t Kupffer, Voyage au Mont Elbruz dans le Caucase, 1829, p. 108.
for several
at the same
hour
and
"Irregular deviations often recur
days consecutively."
X Sabine, Unusual Disturb.,vol. i.,pt. i.,p. xxi. ; and Younghusband, On Periodical Laws in the largerMagnetic Disturbances,in the
s.

330,

Phil.

was

noticed

Transact,

for 1853, pt. i.,p. 173.

134

cosmos.

at the island
especially
of Capof St. Helena, according
investigation
tain
At
the
Toronto
disturbances
Younghusband.
principal
the
from
in
occurred
midnight to 5 A.M.;
period
generally
that they were
observed as early as
it was
only occasionally
from 10 P.M.
to midnight,and
consequentlythey predominated
Hobarton.
After
well
at
at
as
as
Toronto,
by night
of
having made a very careful and ingenious investigation

the

at

of Good

Cape

Hope,

the

disturbances

3940

which

Hobarton,

at

(from

1843

to

and

included

were

that

"

the 3470

in the

six years
variations constituted

parts, Sabine
the

disturbances

cycle of

the disturbed

tenth

and

conclusion*

the

draw

more

Toronto,

at

1848), of which

ninth

the

and

the elaborate

to

was

disturbances

enabled

belong

to

to

low
fol-

recurring variations,which
specialkind of periodically
recognizablelaws, depend upon the positionof the sun
and upon the dailyrotation of the earth round
in the ecliptic
its axis,and, further,
ular
ought no longerto be designatedas irregaddition
in
in
to
motions, since we may distinguish them,
a
speciallocal type, processes which affect the whole earth."
the disturbances
In those years in which
were
more
frequent
in the
in
occurred
numbers
almost
at Toronto, they
equal
of
At the first-named
southern
hemisphere at Hobarton.
the whole,doubly as
these placesthese disturbances
were, on
namely, from April to September
frequentin the summer
"

in

as

"

the winter

greatestnumber
as

manner

at

months, from

October
of

fell in the month

rare
1806.| They are more
they occur
places; at Toronto

of

in

Berlin

the winter

less

The

March.

September, in

equinox in my

the autumn

to

the

same

observations
months

frequentlyfrom

in all

Novem-

The
for 1851, pt.i.,p. 125-127.
variations
constituted
diurnal variation observed
in
two
by
fact,
is,
ent
superposedupon each other,having different laws, and bearing differAt
of
the
each
other
different
in
globe.
ical
tropparts
proportionsto
stations the influence of what have been hitherto called the irregular
disturbances
(magneticstorms) is comparatively feeble ; but it is
Toronto
otherwise
as
are
at stations situated
(Canada) and Hobarton
is both reallyand protheir
influence
Diemen's
where
portionally
(Van
Island),
and
amounts
to a clearlyrecognizable part of the
greater,
whole
diurnal variation."
find here, in the complicated effect of
We
*

Sabine, in the Phil. Transact,

"

condition which
of motion, the same
has been so admirably demonstrated
by Poisson in his theory of waves
of
(Annalesde Chimie et de Physique, t. vii.,1817, p. 293). ''Waves
in the air,where
each other in the water
as
different kinds may
cross
simultaneous

but different

causes

See
superposed upon each other."
and
of
the
effect
a
polar
compound
conjecturesregarding
bd.
583.
s.
in Poggend., Annalen,
lxxxiv.,
equatorial
wave,

the

smaller

movements

mont's

t See

p. 130.

are

La~
an

till February, and

ber

St. Helena

At

which

the

and

at

crosses

sun

of Good

the

Cape

the

equator
a

May till August.

Hope the periodsat

from

Hobarton

at

Younghusband, by

to

135

DISTURBANCES.

MAGNETIC

very

ing
characterized,accord-

are

frequency in

decided

the

disturbances.
The

important point,and

most

which

one

also first

was

by Sabine in reference to this phenomenon, is the

with which, in both hemispheres,the disturbances
regularity
tion.
variawestern
or
occasion
an
augmentation in the eastern
is slightly
the declination
westward
At
Toronto, where
that
(1" 33'),the progressioneastward in the summer,
the prois,from June till September, preponderated over
gression
till
westward
during the winter (from December
in Van
In like manner,
April),the ratio being 411: 290.
of the
the local seasons
Diemen's
Land, taking into account
terized
(from May till August) are characyear, the winter months
of
frequency
magnetic
by a strikinglydiminished
noticed

storms.*

co-ordination

The

obtained

in

of six years at the two

oppositestations,Toronto
result that,
the remarkable
to
Hobarton, led Sabine

the

course

and
from

1843

to

1848, there

the

amount

the normal

to

not

10/#58.

only in

the inclination

This
the
and

only

annual

of the

mean

excluded

from

lation)
the calcu-

of total variation

from

this

were

graduallyprogressedduring the
7/,65

hemispheres not

but also (even

of the disturbances,

when, in order to determine

dailyvariation,3469 storms
that

in both

was

increase in the number

an

of the observations

increase

above-named

from

simultaneouslyperceptible,

was

amplitude of

five years

mean

the

declination,but also in

in the total terrestrial force.

This

result

and
acquired additional importance from the confirmation
afforded to it by Lamont's
complete treatise
generalization
(September, 1851) "regarding a decennial period,which is
of the magnetic needle."
perceptiblein the daily motion
According to the observations made at Gottingen,Munich,
and Kremsmiinster,! the mean
amplitude of the daily dec-

band,
Sabine, in the Phil. Transact, for 1852, pt. ii.,p. 110 (YounghusOp. cit.,
p. 169).
and Relshuber, the magnetic period is ten
f According to Lamont
of the mean
of the diurnal motion
years four months, so that the amount
for
of the needle increases regularlyfor five years, and decreases
motion
winter
which
of
the
the same
account
(the
on
time;
length
tion
moamplitudeof declination)is always twice as small as the summer
*

(see Lamont,
54-60).
finds,by a

s.

The

much

Jahresbericht
director
more

der

Sternwarte

of the Observatory
comprehensive series

at

zu

Munchen

fur 1852,

Berne, Rudolph Wolf,

of

operations,that

the

136

cosmos.

and

1843

between

After

to 1849.

1848

from

its maximum

1844, and

declination

the

has

for a period
for five years, it again diminishes
servations,
length,as is proved by a series of exact horary ob-

increased

thus

of

its minimum

attained

lination

equal

1786^.*
in
periodicity
are
disposedto

go back as far as to a maximum

for such a
to discover a general cause
which

In order

of telluric

all three elements

refer it

to

magnetism, we
Such

influences.

cosmical

in

is indeed

connection

in the alterations
according to Sabine's conjecture,
appreciable,
take place in the photosphere,that is to say, in
which
the luminous
gaseous envelopesof the dark body of the sun.j
made
which
were
throughout
According to the investigations
a
long series of years by Schwabe, the period of the greatest
and smallest frequencyof the solar spots entirelycoincides
with that wrhich has been discovered in magnetic variations.

Sabine

first drew

attention

1852.

"

There

with
of the

be

can

which

enriched

maxima
of the sun's spots, whose
in
1837, and 1848, and the minima

the appearance

March,
marks
re-

portion

the astronomical

least from

at

memoir

in the

the year
"that,
a recurring
period of about ten

present work,

1828,

in

doubt," says Schwabe,

no

he has

1850, there has been

years
1833

Royal Societyof London,

he laid before the

which

in

this coincidence

to

1826

to

years in
fell in the
the

years

the
1843."J
important
firmed
sun's
body, as a mass, upon terrestrial magnetism is conby Sabine in the ingeniousobservation that the period
of the magnetic force is greatest, and
the intensity
at which

the

direction

needle

of the

exerted

influence

The

and

most

vertical line,

the

to

near

by

the months
of October
in both hemispheres,between
falls,
the
at the time when
and February ; that is to say, precisely

earth

is nearest

to

the

and

sun,

in its orbit with

moves

the

greatest velocity."
I have

already treated,in

period of magnetic

declination

the solar spots must

*
See page 74.

the Picture

which

be estimated

at

coincides
11*1

of

Nature, ||of the

with

the

frequency

years.

t Sabine, in the Phil. Transact, for 1852, pt. i.,p. 103, 121.
the observations
to

in page

made

76 of the

of Gautier, which

in

July, 1852, by Rudolph Wolf,

; also the very similar

published very nearly at the same

BibliothequeUniverselk
J Cosmos, vol. iv.,p.

cle

Geneve,t.

xx.,

p.

See

referred

above

present volume

wrere

of

conjectures
time

in the

189.

85-87.

Faraday,
" Sabine, in the Phil. Transact, for 1850, pt. i.,p. 216.
Researches
1851, p. 5(5,73, 76, " 2891, 2949,
on
Electricity,
Exper.
2958.

|| Cosmos, vol. i.,p.

191

Poggend., Annalen,

bd.

xv.,

s.

334, 335;

138

COSMOS.

of the

magnetic meridian,in which the needle has vibrated

parison
equallyto either side,from one solstice to another,the comof the angleswhich
the magnetic meridian
describes
different
w
ith
the
at
has led,
parallels
geographicalmeridian
in the first place,to the knowledge of lines of variation
of
value
Bianco
in
heterogeneous
strikingly
(Andrea
143G, and
de Santa Cruz, cosmographer to the Emperor Charles
Alonzo
these lines upon
V., even
attempted to lay down
charts);
to the successful generalization
of isogonic
and, more
recently,
which
British seamen
have
curves, lines of equal variation,
torical
long been in the habit of gratefully
designatingby the hisof Halley'slines. Among
the variouslycurved
name
and
differently
arranged ,closed systems of isogoniclines,
sometimes
which
almost parallel,
and more
are
ter
rarelyre-enthemselves

attention,in
lines
which

which

on

as

so
a

the

variations of

the 13th
Atlantic

how

oval

closed

physical point
variation

is

of

systems, the greatest

view, is

null,and

oppositedenominations

unequally with
shown

form

to

the

the

distance.*

first discoverymade

September, 1492, of a
Ocean, gave an impetus

of

line of
to

the

due
both

on

those

to

sides of

which increase
prevail,
have
where
already elseby Columbus, on
no

variation

study

in the

of terrestrial

magnetism, which, however, continued for two centuries and

half to be directed solelyto the discovery of better methods
a
for

obtainingthe ship'sreckoning.
of mariners
However
the higher scientific education
much
in recent
and
times, and the improvement of instruments
of observation,have extended
methods
dividual
our
knowledge of inAsia,
portionsof lines of no variation in Northern
in the Indian Archipelago,and the Atlantic Ocean, we
have
still to regret that in this department of our
knowledge,
the necessityof cosmical
where
elucidation is stronglyfelt,
the progress has been tardy and the results deficient in gen*
eralization.
servations
been

which

can

objector

am

not

of accidental
down

noted
in

in the

ignorant that

large number

of ob

crossingsof lines of no variation

logs of various ships,but we are

have
ficient
de-

of the materials,
comparison and co-ordination
not
acquire any importance in reference to this
in respect to the position of the magnetic equator,
a

until individual

ships shall be dispatchedto different seas

of uninterruptedly
for the sole purpose
following these lines
Without
a
simultaneityin the obthroughouttheir course.
*

the

Op. cJt,vol. L,
present volume.

p. 187-3

89; vol. ii.,

p. 657-G59,

and

p. 54-60

of

LINES

servations,we

merely

I here

have

can

reiterate

historyof

no
a

139

VARIATION.

NO

OF

regret which

terrestrial

magnetism.

often

I have

previous'

ly expressed.*
At

in 1809, in my
very different periods,once
vol.
Astron.,
i.,p. 368, and again in 1839, when, in
*

the

Recu-il
a

cfObscrv.

letter addressed

First Lord
of the Admiralty, a few days
of Minto, then
Ross on his Antarctic
I
departure of Sir James
expedition,"
endeavored
more
fullyto develop the importance of the proposition
advanced
in the text (see Report of the Committee
teor,
of Physicsand Methe
Soc.
the
relative
Antarctic
to
Royal
of
Exped., 1840, p. 88-91).
u
In order to follow the indications
of the magnetic equator or those
of the lines of no variation,
the ship'scourse
be made
must
the
to cross
lines 0 at very small distances,the bearings being changed each time
that observations
of inclination
of declination
show
that the ship
or
has deviated from these points. I am
well aware
in
that, accordance
with the comprehensive views of the true basis for a generaltheoryof
terrestrial magnetism, which
to Gauss, a thorough knowledge
Ave
owe
of the horizontal intensity,
and the choice
of the points at which
the
three elements
of declination,
and total intensityhave all
inclination,
to

Earl

before

been

"

the

measured, suffice
simultaneously

4 and

for

findingthe

value

of-

(Gauss,

27), and

that these are

the essential points for future investigations
small
the
local
but
the
total
of
the
sum
attractions, require;
ments
of steeringships,the ordinarycorrections
of the compass,
and

the

safetyof navigation,continue to impart specialimportance to the

of the periodictranslation
knowledge of the position,and to the movements
of lines of no variation.
I here plead the cause
of these various
with the interests of
requirements,which are intimately connected
still pass before seamen
can
physicalgeography." Many years must
be enabled
of
charts
to guide the ship'scourse
c
ed
onstructby
variation,
in accordance
with the theory of terrestrial magnetism
(Sabine,in
the Phil. Transact, for 1849, pt. ii.,
and
the wholly objective
p. 204),
view
directed
actual observation, which
to
I would
here
advocate,
would, if it led to periodically-repeateddeterminations,and consequently
to expeditionsprosecuted simultaneous^ by land
and sea, in
accordance
with some
preconcerted plan, give the double advantage
and affording
of, in the first place,yieldinga direct practicalapplication,
of
the
annual
us
a
correct
of
knowledge
progressivemovement
these lines ; and, secondly,of supplying many
data for the further
new
development of the theory enounced
by Gauss (Gauss, " 25).
It would, moreover,
determination
of
greatly facilitate the accurate
the progressionof the two
lines of no
inclination and no
if
variation,
landmarks
could be established
those points where
the lines enter
at
or

leave

continents

1850, 1875, 1900

similar

to

systems

would
and

those

no

and
that several

which

I have

stated intervals ; as, for instance, in the years

In expeditions of this kind, which
would
be
undertaken
isoclinal and isogonic
by Halley, many
at

necessarilybe
inclination

total intensities

objectswould
here

intersected

could

be

the lines of

might be measured

thus be

expressed

before

reached, and by

are,

this

alonf

means

the

simultaneouslyattained.
I

am

happy

to

no

nation
decli-

the horizontal

coasts, so
The views

find, supported by

Ross.
viz.,Sir James
very great authorityin nautical questions,
(See
his Voyage in the Southern and Antarctic Rcg'ons, vol. i.,
p. 105.)

140

COSMOS.

According

the facts which

to

concerning
that, instead of
believed

pole,*there

to

kind,

this

by

systems which

designatethose

we

does

stand

not

with

connection

systems, which

three

these

will

we

separatelydescribe,the

Atlantic,is limited to a single line

incliningfrom SS.E. to NN.W., between

middle, or
of 65"
which

fully150"

all,if

we

line of

the

which

latitude.

north

farther

This

equator.

extended

take

into

variation

no

it is

inward.

without

easterlyportionsof

most

the space
SS.E. to
which

the

between
NN.W.

has

least

been

to
lyingentirely

the

almost

oval

closed

oppositeto

that

of the Asiatic
we

base
on

our

The

Caspian
third

system,

the

remarkable

southward

ner,
man-

and
at

er
anoth-

its northeastern

forms

of

curve

south
and

Sea

lipse,
el-

an

ation
varithe

variation

no

north, and

to

Lapland
of

system, that

of

whole

rapidlyincrease in
most
westerly and

line,from

The

account

parallels

complicated
the points at
geographical

variation

no

this Asiatic

incline,like the Atlantic

the

most

stronglycurved

so

extremitythat the line of

surrounding those lines which
from

and

falls in

tion,
varia-

no

second

intersects

directed

curvature

indeed

of

east, occupying the

system rises and

exhibitingone
northward

merely

The

most

Australia,is the

and
of

67"

and

south
lies

Asia

in any

kind, or
any other line of the same
the
accordance
with
in
of
state
edge,
knowlour
not,
present
of any other line.
be regarded as the continuation
Of

can

If

pole

formed
differently

very

name

were

from

extend

to

century

three

the line of variation

in which

groups
direct

if

no

meridian

16th

probably

are

of this

systems

of the

end

the

at

four

the

alreadygenerallyknow
it would
variation,
pear
ap-

we

positionof lines of

the

in

from

even

the

Pacific,
smallest of all,and,

is the
investigated,
south of the geographicalequator, forms
of concentric

which

we

observe

system, and

in the

decreases

opinion upon

the coast, we

lines,whose

the

from

without

magnetic

find that the African

variation

northeastern

is

part
inward.

declination

served
ob-

continent!only

Acosta, llistoria de las Indicts,

1590, lib. i.,cap. 17.

I have

ready
al-

considered
the questionwhether
the opinion of Dutch
tors
navigaregarding the existence of four lines of no variation may
not,
through the differences between Bond and Beckborrow, have had some
influence
on
Halley's theorv of four magnetic poles {[Cosmos,vol. ii.,
p. 280).
f In the interior of Africa, the isogonicline of 22" 15' W. is especially
mediate
as
being the interdeserving of careful cosmical investigation,
line between
cording
very different systems, and as proceeding (acto

the

theoretical

views

of Gauss) from

the

Eastern

Indian

LINES

NO

OF

141

VARIATION.

variation of from 6"

presents lines which exhibit a western
line of no
to 29"; for,according to Purchas, the Atlantic
variation left the southern
point of Africa (theCape of Good
Hope) in the year 1605, incliningfarther from east to west.
The
that we
discover in some
tral
possibility
part of Cenmay

Africa

0", and

to

neither

can

is similar

which

asserted

be

lines of variation

of concentric

oval group

an

denied

nor

that

to

on

sure

any

creasing
de-

of the

Pacific,
grounds.

of no variation
curve
portionof the American
in both hemispheres for the
was
accuratelydetermined
of General
bine,
Sainvestigations
year 1840, by the admirable
who
employed 1480 observations,and duly took into
the
secular changes. It passes in the meridian
account
of
70" S. lat.,
W.
in
and about 19"
long.,* a NN.W.
direction,
3" east of Cook's Sandwich
to about
Land, and to about 9"
30' east of South Georgia ; it then approaches the Brazilian
coast, which it enters at Cape Frio 2" east of Rio Janeiro,
Atlantic

The

Continent
no
part of the New
farther than 0" 36/ S. lat.,where
it again leaves it somewhat
to the east of Gran
the
on
near
Para,
Cape Tigioca,
Rio do Para, one
of the secondary outlets of the Amazon,
and

the

traverses

southern

crossingthe geographicalequator
skirtingalong the coast of Guiana
eightgeographicalmiles as far as
the
following

of the small

arc

44'

in 47"
at

long.,then
of eighty-

distance

and afterward
lat.,
far as the parallel

5" Is.

Antilles

W.

as

of

18", and, finally,

touching the shore of North Carolina
near
Cape Lookout, southeast of Cape Hatteras, in 34" 50'
N. lat.,
74" 87 W. long. In the interior of North
America,
the

follows

curve

northwestern

lat.,77" 38' W.

N.

Lake

Erie.

nearly half
The

Kasan

to

may

Asiatic

consider

we

as

Archangel

Ocean, straightacross
Barth, and

probably lead

to

of

curve

the

and

variation

no

which

part

Russian

rises

Lapland

as

Africa, on to Newfoundland.
expedition,conducted

Sir James
Ross
lat. and
27" 10' W.

357).
70"

43'

Captain
no

the orders
of such

intersected

the

long. ( Voyage

Crozier

S. lat. and

the line of

under

the solution

as

41"

30'

since 1840.

west

of the African

plan
Overweg,

far

Pittsburgh,Meadville, and
conjecturethat it has advanced
very

degree farther

Australo-

Erman,

to

We

direction

long.,toward

21"

variation.

found

of the British

(if,according
suddenly from
identical with
The

very

prehensive
com-

by Richardson,
government, may

magnetic problems.
of

curve

to

variation

no

in 61" 30' S.

Seas, vol. ii.,p.

March, 1843, 1" 38' in

the Southern

the variation

in

28' W.

long.,and

he

was

therefore

See

Sabine, On

the

Magn.

very near
Declination in the

Atlantic Ocean for 1840, in the Phil. Transact, for 1849, pt. ii.,
p. 233.

142

cosmos.

the part in the

far
as

of Molucca

sea

followed

62"

as

in

lies farther
starting-point
been

hitherto

had

than

and

Japan) can scarcelybe

southern
hemisphere. This

the

from

west

Van

and
conjectured,

Diemen's

Land

the three

points at
no
curve
variation,on
of
his Antarctic
in
1840
and
discovery
1841,* are
voyage
all situated in the parallelsof 62", 54" -30, and
tween
46", bewhich

Sir James

Ross

crossed

and

135"

40' E. Ions:.,and

133"
a

meridian-like

direction

its further

course, the
of
the southern
coast
the

to

running

from

Nuyts' Land,

northern

coast,
whence

therefore
south

Western

crosses

curve

Cockburn, from

Mount

of

the

about

Australia
W.

Vansittart

near

it enters

the

In

north.

to

10"

in

mostlv

of Adelaide,

River

sea

from

and

of the Indian

clination,
region of the world in which the inand the maximum
and
declination,total intensity,
of the horizontal force were
investigated
by Captain

Archipelago in
minimum

Elliot,from

1846

1848, with

to

more

than

care

has

been done in any other portionof the globe. Here the line
of Flores and through the interior of the small
passes south
in
Island,"]"

Sandal-wood
from

120"

about

30'

direct

demonstrated
the

last-named

sixteen years
it ascends
meridian

307 S. lat.,judging by the

9"

the

of

curve

1"

east

and

direction,

west

307 E.

93"

to

east

had

been
curately
aclong.,as
before by Barlow.
From

toward

positionin

variation

to

the northwest
which

in

Elliot followed

Madras.

We

are

whether, crossing the

definitely
of Ceylon, it enters
the continent
equator in about the meridian
the Gulf of Cambay and Guzurat, or
of Asia between
farther west
in the Bay of Muscat,! and whether, therefore,
of no variation,which
it is identical^
with the curve
appears
not

able

here

to

decide

vol. i.,p. 104, 310, 317.

Eoss, Op. cit.,
Transact,
Phil.
in the
f Elliot,
for 1851, pt. i.,p. 331, pi.xiii.
*

Sir James

The

small island from which we

long and narrow
{tschendana,Malay and Java; tschandana,Sanscrit;fsandel,Arab).
tions
X According to Barlow, and the chartof Lines of Magnetic DeclinaMr.
in
the
the
to
of
Gauss,
Report
of
theory
computed according
low,
Bar1810.
the Committee for the Antarctic Expedition,
to
According
the
the line of no
variation
proceeding from Australia enters
the
to
Asiatic Continent
at the Bay of Cambay, but turns
immediately
from
Thibet
Thaiwan
and China, near
(Formosa),
northeast,across
tralian
it enters
whence
the Sea of Japan.
According to Gauss, the Ausline ascends
merely through Persia, past Nishnei-Novgorod to
Lapland. This great geometrician regards the Japan and Philippine
obtain

line of
as

no

variation, as

entirelyindependent

well

as

the closed

of the line

oval group

belonging

to

the sandal-wood

in Eastern

Asia,

Australia,the Indian

Asia, and Lapland.

Ocean, Western
I have already elsewhere
spoken of this identity,which
"$"

is based

from

southward

advance

to

143

VARIATION.

MAGNETIC

of the

the basin

Caspian

Sea

the

to
whether, as Erman
maintains, it may not curve
Borneo
and Malacca, reach
eastward, and, risingbetween
or

of

Sea

the

Gulf

the

penetrate into Eastern

Japan,* and

of Ochotsk.

It is much

frequentvoyages
and the
Philippines,

the

Australia, the
a

of materials

accumulation

vast

to

be

made

lamented
to

and

northeast

should

Asia

withstanding
that,notIndia,
of Asia,

from

coasts

remain

through

buried

and

ships'logs,which might otherwise lead

to generalviews, by which
we
might be enabled to connect
Asia with the more
Southern
thoroughly explored parts of
Northern
ed
startAsia, and thus to solve questionswhich were
In order, therefore,
to blend
not
gether
toas
early as 1840.
facts with uncertain
known
hypotheses,I will limit
myself to the consideration of the Siberian portion of the
Asiatic continent,as far as it has been exploredin a southerly
of 45" by Erman, Hansteen, Due,
direction to the parallel
KupfFer, Fuss, and myself. In no other part of the earth
has so extended
a
range of magnetic lines been accessible to
in continental regions; and the importance which
pean
Eurous
Asiatic
in
and
Russia
this respect was
iously
ingenpresents
before
of
the time
conjecturedeven
Leibnitz.f
in various

unheeded

declination
observations
in the
upon
my own
the Jaik, and in the Steppe of Elton Lake
on

Caspian Sea, at Uralsk

(Asie Centrale,t. hi.,p.

45S-461).
*

Adolf

Erman's

Map

the

Magnetic Declination,1S27-1830.
that the Australian
curve
distinctly
but
and
runs
at
Java,
parallelwith,
from the southern
ing
coast.
Since, accordline
according to Gauss, the Australian

of

Elliot's chart shows, however, most

of no
variation does not intersect
a

distance
to

of

no

of 1" 30' latitude

Erman,
variation

through

the

although
between

not

Malacca

and

Borneo

enters

the

Continent

Japanese Sea, proceeding to the closed oval group of

Eastern
of the Sea of Ochotsk
coast
Asia, on the northern
(59" 30'
and again descends
N. lat.),
the
through Malacca,
ascending line can
11"
distant
be
from
the
and according to this
only
descending curve;
Asiatic
line of no
variation
graphical representation,the Western
(from the Caspian Sea to Russian Lapland) would be the shortest and
direct prolongationof the part descending from north to south.
most
f I drew attention as early as 1843 to the fact,which I had ascertained
from
documents
of Moscow
and
preserved in the Archives
Hanover
{Asie Centrale,t. iii.,
structed
conp. 469-476), that Leibnitz,who
the first plan of a French
also the
expedition to Egypt, was
first who
endeavored
to profitby the relations which
the czar, Peter
the Great, had established
ence
with Germany in 1712, by using his influto secure
the prosecution of observations
for '"determining the
position of the lines of variation and inclination,and for insuringthat
these observations
should be repeated at certain
definite epochs" in
different parts of the Russian
empire, whose superficiesexceed those

144

cosmos.

In order
from

the

begin with

island of

the small
in

43' and

45"

E.

west.*

Farther

somewhat

more

Lake

Uralsk,

at

on

the

ton,
El-

tween
Jaik, be-

lat.,and 4G" 37' and 51" 24'

fluctuates from

10'

0"

0" 37

to

east

'

northward, this line of no variation inclines

Nishneitoward
the northwest, passingnear

Osablikowo
In the year 1828 it passed between
of 56" N. lat. and 43" east long.
in the parallel

Novgorod.f
Doskino

and

12' N.

51"

variation

long.,the

we

Birutschikassa,in Astracan, on

Kirghis steppe, and

the

will
Europe,
Here, in
Caspian Sea.

part of the

northern

tions
expedi-

startingfrom

east, and

to

west

of Siberian

direction

the usual

follow

to

tween
elongatedin the direction of Russian Lapland beaccordingto
accurately,
Archangel and Kola, or more
and Ponoi.J: It is not until
Hansteen
(1830),between Umba
have
we
nearly two thirds of the greatest
passed over
tudes
the latito
of Northern
breadth
Asia, advancing eastward
It becomes

of from
variation

point west

portions of

the

moon

of

present

the line of

part of the Lake

reaches

Wiluisk, which

visible to

at

reach

we

in the northeastern

variation,which

of the

(a district in which

60"

that
entirelyeasterly),

is

rises to

and

50"

In

us.

the
no

of Baikal
the lati-

letter .addressed

to

the

by Pertz, Leibnitz describes a small hand-globe, or

czar, discovered
he had repwhich
is still preserved at Hanover, and on which
resented
terrella,
linea
the variation is null (his
the curve
magnetica,
at which
line of no variation,
that there is only one
jyrimaria). Leibnitz maintains
almost
into two
equal parts,
the curves
where
sinuosities,
flexus contrarii,
de
Verd
it
the
From
from
to concave.
Cape
are
convex
changed
after
North
shores of
the eastern
America,
passes in lat. 36" toward
it directs its course
which
through the South Pacific to Eastern Asia
both
Holland.
This line is a closed one, and, passing near
and New
northern
the
at
the
than
southern
closer
to
it
pole;
poles, approaches
which

has

the

latter the
the north
have

of the

Atlantic

or

declination

motion

must

must

will be

ba able

to

be

25"

important curve
the beginning of

pole at
0"
ranged between
whole
the
Ocean,

must

at

have

the#formeronly
been

directed

The
the 18th century.
a
15" east over
great

of the

disposed to administer very little medicine, but who

give sound scientific advice regarding determinations

declination

ward
to-

tion
varia-

portion
Pacific,Japan, a part of
the czar's privatephysician,Donelli,
else,
one
to supply his place by some
and

and

inclination."

letters of Leibnitz

certainlydo

magnetic

west, and

of this

"As
China, and New Holland.
is dead, it would
be advisable
who

sphere

four puncta

The

5".

the terrestrial

divides

and

These
not

express

any

hitherto

may
of
noticed
un-

retical
special theo-

views.
*

See

my

t Erman,
abth.

Magnetic Observations, in Asia Ccntrale,t. iii.,

p. 460.
die Erde,
und Magnet. Beohachtungen (Reise urn
Astron.

ii.,bd. 2, s.

532.

X Hansteen, in Poggend.,Ann., bd. xxi., s. 371.

146

cosmos.

of

declination

in

say, east or west

rections
contractingin very different di-

enlargingand
Asia

to

of the earth.

contiguous parts

in Western

variation
from

denomination, that is

one

declination,is

and

lines of

The

in the Atlantic

no

advancing

are

in
west, the former line having crossed Tobolsk
while in 1761, in Chappe's time, it crossed Jekatherto

east

1716;

inenburg and subsequentlyKasan ; and in 1829 it was found

Osablikowo
and Doskino, not far
to have
passed between
from Nishnei-Novgorod,and consequentlyhad advanced
24^
'

45

in the

Azores, which
of

of 113

Is the line of the

years.
determined
the 13th
on
ChristopherColumbus

westward

course

of Davis

the

servations
which, according to the oband Keeling,in 1607, passed through tho

September, 1492,

same

Cape of Good Hope?* and

we
designateas the Western
of the River

mouth

the

Carolina

If it be, we

the line of

variation

is it identical with the

Atlantic,and

Amazon
led to

are

the

to

which

one

passes from
of North
sea-coast
which

ask, What

of

has become

which

passed in 1600 through Kon(?)through Copenhagen, from 1657 to 1662

through London, and which did not, according to Picard,
reach Paris, notwithstandingits more
eastern
until
longitude,
before
1668
Lisbon
somewhat
?f
1666, passing through
Those
of
earth
the
secular
which
at
no
progression
points
for long periods of time
has been
observed
are
especially
of
has
notice.
Sir
Herschel
John
our
worthy
alreadydrawn
attention
maica,!
to a correspondinglong period of cessation in Jano

in 1620
igsberg,

while

Euler" and

in Southern

Barlow||refer

"

similar

tion
condi-

Australia.
Polar

We

to

Light.

trial
fullyof the three elements of terrestion
magnetism in the three principaltypes of its manifestaand Declination
in refInclination,
namely,Intensity,

have

now

treated

"

Sabine, Magn.

and

Meteor.

Ohserv.

at

the

Cape of

Good

Hope,

vol.

i.,p. lx.
t In judging of the approximate epochs of the crossingof the line of
no
variation,and in endeavoring to decide upon the claim of no priority
in this respect, we
bear in mind
must
have been made
with the instruments
may
X Cosmos, vol. i.,p. 181.

how

readilyan

and

methods

de VAcad.
de Berlin,1757, p. 17G.
" Euler, in the Mem.
||Barlow, in the Phil. Transact, for 1833, pt. ii.,p. 671.

regarding the older

prevails
during the firsthalf of
been
to have
always 3" 15' or
Magnetismus der Erde, s. 7, p.

magnetic

the 18th century.

3" 30' from
1726
143.

The

in use.

Great

observations

to

of 1"

error

then

variation

1772

certainty
un-

of St. Petersburg
seems

Ilansteen,

to

erence

the

diurnal

relations of place,and

as

Halley
in part

the

and

which

disturbances
are,

depend

which

movements

147

LIGHT.

POLAR

were

and
conjectured,

as

forerunners,and

in

magnetic polar light.

geographical
traordinary
periods. The exin the dip
first observed

Dufay
part

rather

amounting
activity,
the

on

other

by

on

The

polarlightappears,
of silent

kind

the

of

ance
disturb-

phenomenon,

with

in accordance

much

very
disturbed

or

in the

has

terrestrial netism,
magmanifestation of telluric

luminous

shock

cent
re-

the views

ited
exhib-

the restless oscillation of the

discharge

magnetic storm,
electric shock

by

more

Borealis

the polar luminosityof the

and

the

to

even

hand

one

increased

an

as

brilliant display

accompanied ; and
general,accorded with

Aurora
formerly expressed. "The
been described merely as an external cause
in the equilibriumof the distribution of
but

for the

which
not

recognized,
accompaniments of

it is

have, in

observations

Hiorter

already fullytreated,in
of this luminous
peculiarities

of Nature, of the
is often so remarkable
which
which

and

I have

the Picture

process,
of colors with

upon

annual

the

as
same

this

needle,

heavens."

view,

manner

equilibriumof the

as

be

to

of

termination

in the

is
electricity

accompanied
by a development of lightby lightning,
of
reiteration
definite
The
thunder.
a
pothesis
hyby pealing
of a complicatedand mysteriousphenomin the case
enon
of
rise
with a
the
all
at
advantage
giving
has,
events,
and careful observaview to its refutation to more
tions
persistent
of the individual processes.*
of these
Dwelling only on the purely objectivedescription
are
mainly based upon the materials yielded
processes, which
by the beautiful and unique series of observations,which
continued without
intermission for eight months
were
(1838,
1839) during the sojourn of the distinguishedphysicists,
Lottin,Bravais, and Siljestrom in the most northern
parts

renewed

"

"

of

Scandinavia,! we
*

Cosmos, vol. i.,p.

xix.,s. 388.
t The

observed

401-435.

narrative

193-203

the

of

; and

our

Dove,

in

attention

to

the

so-

Poggend.,Annalen,bd.

Lottin,Bravais,Lilliehook, and Siljestrom,

phenomena of the northern lightfrom the 19th of
September, 1838, till the 8th of April, 1839, at Bossekop (69" 58' N.
in Finmark, and at Jupvig (70" 6' N. lat.),
lat.),
was
publishedin the
fourth section of Voyages en Scandinavie,en Laponie, cm Spitzberget
aux
Feroes,sur la Corvette,la Recherche (Aurores Boreales). To these
observations
are
appended important results obtained by the English
of
the copper
superintendent
mines
at Kalfiord
(69" 56' N. lat.),
p.
who

able

will first direct

148

cosmos.

called black segment of the aurora,

which
of
clouds.*
the horizon
like a dark wall

rises

graduallyon

The

blackness

is

result of contrast, since

not, as Argelander observes,a mere
visible before it is bounded
it is occasionally
by the brightlyilluminated

process effected within some

that
part of the atmosphere,for nothing has hitherto shown
the obscuration
is owing to any material
blending. The
smallest

arch.

stars

segment,

visible

are

well

as

It must

as

in the

be

through the telescopein this black

colored illuminated
portionsof the
In northern

aurora.
fully-developed

latitudes the black

ment
seg-

far less

southern
gions.
refrequentlythan in more
It has even
been found entirely
absent in these lastof
latitudes in the months
named
February and March, when
in
the aurora
was
frequent bright clear weather ; and Keilhau
did not once
observe
it during the whole
of a winter
which
he spent at Talwig, in Lapland. Argelander has
determination
of the altitudes of stars,
shown, by accurate
that no part of the polarlightexerts
these
any influence on
altitudes.
ly,
Beyond the segment there appear, although rareis

seen

black, rays, which

during their ascent

Hansteen
;

blended

and
with

I have
these

often

watchedf

round

appear

black

latter
The
patches,or spots,inclosed by luminous
spaces.
phenomena have been made a specialsubjectof investigation
of the aurora
by Siljestrom.JThe central portion of the corona
sponds
corre(which, owing to the effect of linear perspective,
the
at its highestpoint with
magnetic inclination of
the place)is also usuallyof a very deep black color.
Braand the black rays as the effect
vais regards this blackness
of optical
Several luminous
illusions of contrast.
arches are
referred to (p. 437-414) for a description
of
Borcale.
Segment obscure
der Chemie wid Physik,1826, bd. xvi.,s.
t Schweigger's Jahrbuch
*

See

the work

above

the

tie VAurore

dark segment
and the incontestable
The
s. 364.
198, and bd. xviii.,
lated
risingof black rays or bands, in which the luminous
process is annihiRecherches
VElectroreminds
of
sar
us
interference?)
Quet's
(by
chimie dans le vide,and of RuhmkorfFs
delicate experiments, in which
in a vacuum
balls glowed with red light,while
the positivemetallic
the negativeballs showed
the strongly luminous
violet light,and
a
parallelstrata of rays were
regularlyseparated from one another by
"The
the
is diffused
between
perfectly dark strata.
light which
terminal

knobs

the

of

two

electric conductors

divides

into

parallelbands, which are separatedby alternate obscure

distinct strata."
Covrptesrendus de I Acad, des Sc, t.

numerous

and

perfectly

xxxv.,

1852,

p. 949.

X Voyages
and

bands

Bravais,p.

en

Scandinavie

of the

northern

502-514.

(Aurorcs Z?o?\),
p.
see
light,

the

558.

admirable

On

the

corona

of
investigations

POLAR

149

LIGHT.

rare
as
cases
frequentlysimultaneouslypresent; in some
the
zenith
nine
toward
or
seven
are
seen
as
advancing
many
gether
in
another
to
while
other cases
parallel one
they are alto;
of lightasabsent.
The bundles of rays and columns
sume
varied forms, appearing either in the shape of
the most
festoons and hooks, or resemblingwaving
wreathed
curves,

pennants

sails.*

or

higher latitudes " the prevailingcolor of the polar

light is usuallywhite, while it presents a milky hue when
the colors brighten,
the aurora
is of faint intensity. When
comes
a
yellowtinge; the middle of the broad ray bethey assume
by
golden yellow,while both the edges are marked
In the

of red and

separate bands
in
When

bands,

narrow

the

the radiation
the

above

seen

tends
ex-

green.
right,or from

left to

red appears
ward
invariablyin the direction toand
is
the
remains
hind
bethe ray
advancing,
green

the
left,

rightto

which
it."

It is

only in

cases

rare

very

complementary colors,green

or

seen, while dark

the reflection of a great fire,
is so
is

Blue

is

sideways from

moves

aurora

When

green.
the red

never

that either

red, has
red, such

been
as

is

of the

one

alone.

seen

presentedby

rarelyobserved in the north

minous
Siljestromnoticed it only on one occasion.! The luof the aurora
in Finmark
never
even
quite
intensity
full
the
of
that
moon.
equals
The
probable connection which, accordingto my views,
the polar light and
exists between
the formation
of very
small and delicate fleecyclouds (whose paralleland equivalent
follow
the direction of the magnetic meridian),
has
rows

that

with

met
a

advocates

many

doubtful

in recent

times.

question,however,}:whether,
and

Thienemann

elers,
trav-

Admiral

Wrangel believe,these allel

parof the polar light,
substratum
or

fleecyclouds are the

whether
they are not rather, as has
Franklin, Richardson, and myself,the
*

as

It stillremains
the northern

Op. cit.,
p. 35, 37, 45, 67,

481

been

conjecturedby

effect of

meteoro-

("Draperie ondulante,
famine

cVun

de guerre deployeehorizontcdement
le vent, ci'ochets,
et agiteepar
d'arcs
M.
the
et de guirlandes)."
fragments
Bevalet,
distinguished
navire

artist to

the

given an interestingcollection of the

this phenomenon.
by
many
f See Voy. en Scandinavie
(Aur. Boreal.),p. 523-528, 557.
{ Cosmos, vol. i.,p. 200; see also Franklin, Narrative of a Journey
to the Shores
of the Polar Sea in 1819-1822, p. 597; and Kamtz, Lehrbuch der Meteorologie,
earliest conjectures
bd. iii. (183G), s. 488-490.
The
varied

expedition,has

forms

advanced

lightand
Auroral

assumed

in relation

the

connection

between

the

northern

of Frobesius.

of clouds are probably those

spectacula,
Ilelmst, 1739, p. 139.)

the formation
Borealis

to

(See

150

COSMOS.

and

logicalprocess generatedby
storm.

fine cirrous

the very

the Mexican

on

When

in 1829.
the two

the

magnetic

direction between

(polarbands) and the magnetic

of
the
turning
points of
careful obthe subjectsof my most
servation
plateau in 1803, and in Northern

made

were

convergence,

in respect to

clouds

declination,togetherwith

Asia

accompanying

regular coincidence

The

the

the

last-named

phenomenon

apparent pointsof convergence

is

do not

plete,
com-

remain

west
the one in the northeast and the other in the southstationary,
(inthe direction of the line which connects
togetherthe
which is luminous
highestpointsof the arch of the polar light,
but move
at night),
by degreestoward the east and west.*
A precisely
similar turning,or translation of the line,which
the highestpointsof the luminin the true aurora
ous
connects
of
arch, while its bases (the points
support by which it
the
from
in
the horizon)change
azimuth
and move
rests on

toward

east-west

with

much

north-south,has
in Finmark.*

accuracy

several times observed

been

These

clouds,arranged

I will give a singleexample from my ISIS, journal of my Siberian

journey: "I spent the whole of the night of the 5-Gth of August
(1829), separated from my travelingcompanions, in the open air,at
the Cossack
station on the
eastern
outpost of Krasnajazarki,the most
the boundary of the Chinese
on
Irtisch,
Dzungarei, and hence a place
of considerable
astronomical
determination
whose
was
importance.
The
night was
extremely clear. In the eastern
sky polar bands of
before midnight (which I have
cirrous clouds were
suddenly formed
* de
recorded
as
moutons
egalementespaces, distribues en bandes
petits
altitude 35".
northern
Greatest
The
alleles
et polaires).'
point of
par
is
toward
out
the east.
moving slowly
They disappear withconvergence
lar
reaching the zenith ; and a few minutes afterward preciselysimiin the northeast, which
formed
cirrous bands
are
move
during a
70" E.
part of the night,and almost till sunrise, regularlynorthward
colored
and
number
of
round
An
stars
rings
falling
unusually large
of
No
Some
trace
true
the moon
the
a
aurora.
throughout
night.
clouds.
of
At
the
rain falling
from speckled feathery masses
on
noon
bands
6th of August the sky was
were
again formed, passclear,polar
ing;
*

from

N.N.E.

to

S.S.W.,

where

remained

thev

immovable,

without

alteringthe azimuth, as I had so often seen in Quito and Mexico."

(The magnetic variation in the Altai is easterly.)
f Bravais,who, contraiy to my own
experience, almost invariably
observed
that the masses
of cirrous clouds at Bossekop were
directed,
like the Aurora
Borealis,at right angles to the magnetic meridian
de Tare
de translation dans les ]"ieds
( Voyagesen Scandinavie,Phenomene
des Aurores
actitude
exBoreales,p. 534-537), describes with his accustomed
of the true arch of the Aurora
lis,
Boreathe turningsor rotations
p.

27, 92, 122, 487.

Sir James

similar

southern

hemisphere
aurora
(a progressionin the
N.N.E.
S.S.W.), Voyage in
"

Ross

has

likewise

progressivealterations
southern

lightsfrom

the Southern

and

observed

of the arch

W.N.

Antartic

W.

"

in the

of the

E.S.E.

to

Regions, vol. i.,

in the form

151

LIGHT.

POLAR

of

polarbands, correspond,accordingto
developed views, in respect to position,with the
columns
toward
in

the zenith
and

east

an

be confounded

; and

they can

of which

those arches

with

by Parry

seen

direction

wrest

in

luminous

of rays which
ascend in the true aurora
is generallyinclined
from the arch, which

bundles

or

the above

not, therefore,

one

bright daylight after the

distinctly

was

of

occurrence

light. This phenomenon occurred in England on

of lightwere
columns
the 3d of September, 1827, when
seen
shootingup from the luminous arch even by day.*
been asserted that a continuous
evolution
It has frequently
of lightprevailsin the sky immediately around the northern
servations
magnetic pole. Bravais, who continued to prosecute his obuninterruptedlyfor 200 nights,during which he
that nights
asserts
accuratelydescribed 152 aurora, certainly
northern
in which
are
no
altogetherexceplightsare seen
tional
northern

he has sometimes

found, even

perfectlyclear,and

the view

but

wras

when

the

phere
atmos-

of the horizon
of

wras

polar light could

that not a trace

wholly uninterrupted,
be observed
throughout the whole night,or else
magnetic storm did not begin to be apparent until a

that

the

very late

of northern

number

lightsappears
September ;
occur
with
and
when
February and April,
as
March,
compared
of the pheto exhibit a relatively
nomenon,
seems
frequentoccurrence
of other magnetic
here led, as in the case
are
we
with the period
connection
phenomena, to conjecturesome
of the equinoxes. To the northern
lightswhich have been
ible
which
have been visin Peru, and to the southern lights
seen
The

hour.

greatestabsolute
toward

to

in
observed

the close of the month

of

which
add a colored aurora,
may
hours continuouslyby Lafond
than two

Scotland, we
for

more

Candid*, on the 14th of January, 1831, south

Holland, in latitude 45".f

the

The

accompaniment
denied by the
definitely
An
p. 311.
of southern

absence

of the

Op. tit.,p.
*

Cosmos,

immediate

of all color

in the

to

seems

vol.

be

has

aurora

physicistsand

French

lights,vol. i.,p. 266;

northern
light in some

in

of New

been

as

Siljestromat

frequent characteristic
sence
Regarding the abLapland, see Bravais,

ii.,p. 209.

nights in

545.
vol. i.,p. 197.
us, by the

daylight reminds
tails of the

of sound

was

comets

The

arch

of the

intensityof

its

aurora

light,of

seen

in

bright

the nuclei

and

recognized in the
1847, which were
in North
America, Parma, and London.

of 1843- and

vicinityof the sun

Op. tit.,vol. i.,p. 85 ; vol. iii.,
p. 543.
f Comptes rendus de V Acad, des Sciences,t. iv.,1837,

p. 589.

152

cosmos.

Bossekop* as by Thienemann, Parry, Franklin,Kichardson,

Wrangel, and Anjou. Bravais estimated the altitude of the
phenomenon to be fully51,307 toises (or 52 geographical
miles),while an otherwise very careful observer,Farquharfeet.
The
to 4000
son, considers that it scarcelyamounts
data

which

on

uncertain, and
well

as

determinations

all these

rendered

are

by

as

based

are

are

very
sions,
opticalillu-

less

trustworthyby
conjecturesregardingthe positive
arch seen
at
simultaneously two

erroneous

identityof the luminous

of the
is,however, no doubt whatever
influence of the northern
light on declination,inclination,
and consequentlyon
all the
horizontal
and total intensity,
of terrestrial magnetism, although this influence is
elements
exerted very unequally in the different phases of this great
phenomenon, and on the different elements of the force. The
of the subjectwere
those made
most
complete investigations
in Lapland by the able physicists
Siljestromand Bravaisf
(in 1838-1839), and the Canadian observations at Toronto
bine.
(1840-1841), which have been most ably discussed by Saobservations which
:{:In the preconcertedsimultaneous
made
were
tholdy
by us at Berlin (in the Mendelssohn-Bar
of
below
the
surface
the
at Stat
earth,
Garden),
Freiberg
Petersburg,Kasan, and Nikolajew, we found that the magnetic
affected at all these placesby the Aurora
variation was
There

points.

remote

Borealis,which

Alford, in Aberdeenshire
(57"
the night of the 19-20th
15' N. lat.),
of December, 1829.
on
of these stations,at which
of
the
At some
other elements
terrestrial magnetism could be noted, the magnetic intensity
and

inclination

During
*

and

Voyages

visible at

were

affected

beautiful

the

Martin's

was

aurora

less than

no

variation."

the

Professor

which

Forbes

ob-

Scandinavie,

en

de

Trad,

la

en Laponie, etc. (AuroresBoreales),

p. 559 ;
In reference
Meteorologiede Kaemtz, p. 4G0.

conjectured elevation of the northern light,see Bravais,

Op. cit.,
p. 519, 559.
t Op. cit.,
p. 462.
X Sabine, Unusual
Magnet. Disturbances,pt. i.,p. xviii.,
xxii.,3,
to

the

54.

" Dove,

in

which
earth's
cases

an

Poggend., Ann., bd.

on

xx.,
the

s.

333-341.

lead

to

the

The

dipping-needle

surface,which

manifestation

at

ence
unequal influof
the
points

lie in very differeiit meridians, may

local determination
of the active cause,

in

many
since the

of the luminous

always originatein
gelander

maintained

luminous

arch

ridian.

exerts

aurora

is in

does not by any

magnetic storm
magnetic pole itself;while, moreover,
and as Bravais
has confirmed,the summit

the

some

cases

as

much

as

11"

from

the magnetic

means
as

Ar-

of the
me-

154

cosmos.

mountain

chains

and

of stratified mountain

is

masses

sidered
con-

direction of
dependence upon
the isoclinal and isodynamic
especially
magnetic lines,more
far from denying the influence of all cosmical
systems. I am
well as of
as
primary forces" dynamic and chemical forces
the formation
of crystalon
magnetic and electrical currents
line
of
veins
but
rocks and the filling
;*
owing to the
up
of all magnetic lines and their consequent
progressivemovement
teach us
change of form, their present positioncan
nothing in reference to the' direction in primeval ages of
ent
mountain
chains,which have been upheaved at very differepochs,or to the consolidation of the earth's crust, from
heat was
which
being radiated during the process of its
hardening.
Of a different order,not referring
generallyto" terrestrial
magnetism, but merely to very partiallocal relations,are
have been designatedby
those geognosticphenomena which
These
of the magnetism! of mountain
the name
masses.
ican
phenomena engaged much of my attention before my Amering
expedition,at a time when I was occupied in examinthe magnetic serpentinerock of the Haidberg mountain,
in Franconia, in 1796, and then gave occasion in Germany
of literary
amount
to a considerable
dissension,
which, how-,
of a very harmless
nature.
ber
They present a numever, was
tion,
of problems,which
are
incapableof soluby no means
have been much
but which
neglectedin recent times,
both
servation
and only very imperfectly
as
regardsobinvestigated
force of this magnetism of
and experiment. The
in

relation to

its

the

"

rocks

be tested for the

may

determination

of the increase of

of pendulum experiments,and
magnetic intensity
by means
by the deflection of the needle in broken-off fragments of
hornblende
and chloritic schists,
dolerite,
serpentine,
syenite,
this
We
in
manner
basalt,melaphyre, and trachyte.
may
ing
gravity,by the rinsdecide,by a comparison of the specific
of finely
pulverizedmasses, and by the applicationof the
not
the intensityof the polaritymay
microscope,whether
rather
depend in various ways upon the relative position,
the quantity, of the granules of magnetic iron
than upon
dans
Delesse, Sur l'association des mineraux
rendus
in
the
magnetique
eleve,
Comptes
pouvoir
Annates
des Mines,
t. xxxi., 1850, p. 80G ; and
130.
(1849),p.
*

im

t Keich,

Ann.,

bd.

Ueber

s.
lxvii.,

les roclies
de V Acad,
4eme

qui
des

Serie,t.

ont

Sc,
xv.

in Poggend.,
Gebirgs-und G esteins-Magnelismus,
35.

and

of iron

protoxyd

however,
I

which

long

mountain,
which

in

since

intermixed

near

whether

exist

there

An

found

view, is the question

the

to

mountain

to

occur

Haidberg
in

ranges

clivities
opposite de-

on

astronomical

accurate

portant,
im-

determin-

subjectof livelydiscussion when, in

duties of superintendent
year
in Franconia, I disin
the
covered
of the mining operations
Fichtelgebirge,
the remarkable
magnetic serpentinemountain
(the Haidberg)
had the property at some
points of causing the
Gefress,which
question was

1796, at the

to

be deflected

Allgem. Jenaer

made

entire

More

mass.

suggested in reference

are
oppositepolarities

This

needle
der

in the

point of

cosmical

of the mass.*

the

155

MAGNETISM.

TERRESTRIAL

at

the

that

time

I fulfilled the

distance

of

23 feet

even

Dec,
Litteratur-Zeitung,

(Intelligenz-Blatt

1796, No. 169,

Neues Journal der

1117,

s.

Physik,
MarZj 1797, No. 38, s. 323-326 ; Gren's
bd. iv.,1797, s. 136 ; Annales de Chimie,t. xxii.,p. 47). I had thought
that the magnetic axes
of the mountain
were
diametricallyopposed to

and

accordingto the investigationsof Bischoff

bd. i.,s. 176),
des Fichtelgebirges,
(Beschreibung
which
it would
discovered
that
penetrated
they
magnetic poles,
appear
through the Haidberg and presented opposite poleson the opposite

the

terrestrial

and

poles;

declivities of the
the

same

as

I had

which
serpentine,
At
the

but

Goldfuss,in 1816

the

villageof

needle

ascent

mountain, while the directions

The
Haidberg
given them.

partially
merges
in the

Voysaco,
by fragments

deflected

to Chimborazo

the motion

into chloride
chain

groups
of the needle at

of

of columnar
a

distance

of the

axes

and

of the Andes

of

Pasto,we

porphyriticclay,while
masses

of three

were

not

of dull green
hornblende
schists.

consists

on

saw

the

of trachytedisturbed
feet.

It struck

me

as

fact that I should

have found
in the black and red
very remarkable
obsidians of Quinche, north of Quito, as well as in the gray obsidian of
the Cerro de la Navajas of Mexico, largefragments with distinct poles.
The

in the Ural chain, as Blagolarge collective magnetic mountains

dat, near Kuschwa, Wyssokaja Gora, at Nishne Tagilsk,and KatschNishne
forth from
kanar, near
Turinsk, have all broken
augitic or
rather uralitic porphyry. In the great magnetic mountain
of Blagodat, which I investigatedwith Gustav Rose, in our Siberian expedition
in 1829, the combined
individual
of
the
of
the
effect
polarity
parts
did not, indeed, appear
and recogto have
produced any determined
nizable
In close vicinity
another
lie irregularto one
ly
magnetic axes.
mixed
opposite poles. A similar observation had previouslybeen
made
by Erman
(Reise um die Erde, bd. i.,s. 362). On the degree of
of the polar force in serpentine,basaltic,
and trachyticrock,
intensity
with
the
and
of
iron
compared
quantity
magnetic
protoxyd of iron,
intermixed
with these rocks,as well as on the influence of the contact
of the air in developingpolarity,
which
had already been maintained
and Gibbs, see the numerous
and very admirable
by Gmelin
ments
experiof Zaddach, in his Beobachtungen
ilber die MagnetischePolaritat
des Basaltes und der Trachytischen
Gesteine,1851, s. 56, 65-78, 95. A
ing
basaltic
with a view of ascertainof
comparison
quarries,made
many
have stood isolated for a
the polarityof individual columns
which
which
of the sides of these columns
long period,and an examination
air
the
in
with
outer
have been
quence
conserecently brought in contact
of a certain depth of
of the removal
from
individual
masses

156

COSMOS.

ation

of

would

the

be

after

position

of the

elements
either
small

the

the

led

have

earth,

in

without

inward,
himself

and

Ulu-utasse-Tau,
sides

which

exposed

are

while

force,

to

be

ascertained,

mountain

three

variable

that

or

axes,

least

at

caused
such

apparently

74, 80)

s.

fissures, " diffuses itself from

open
from
above
downward."
Gmelin
presses
ex-

the

the

to

of the

country

those

conjecture (see

be manifested
to
with
appears
the air has been
admitfreely ted,

which

in respect

to

the

by

generally

in the

magnetism

were

hazard

always

rocks

follows

as

of

the

of the

forces

to

intersected

are

that

terrestrial

direction

which

polar property,
greatest intensity in
which

axes

influences.

the

and

the

Zaddach

Dr.

time,

of

magnetic

of these

independent

that

force

total

of

systems

magnetic

of

periods

alteration

an

such

greatest interest, if it could

considerable
of

of

air exhibit

the

near

the

open
lie under

which

magnetic

great

Baschkiri,

mountain,

Jaik

The

"

intense

most

netic
mag-

much
weaker"
ground are
bd. iv., s. 345).
(Reise durch Siberien, 1740-1743,
My distinguished
in describing the magnetic
iron of Sweden,
in his
teacher, Werner,
"
the influence
which
with
the atmoscontact
lectures, also spoke of
phere
of an
increased
might have, although not by means
oxydation,
in rendering the polar and
intense."
It is asattracting force more
serted
Colonel
reference
in
the
to
at
Gibbs,
by
magnetic iron mines
in New

Succassuny,

Jersev,

that

"

the

raised

ore

from

first,but

the

bottom

of

been
magnetism
no
acquires
of the atmosphere"
{On the connecexposed to the influence
tion
Journal
of Magnetism and Light, in Silliman's American
of Science,
assertion
this ought assuredly to stimvol. i.,1819, p. 89). Such
ulate
an
as
careful
and
make
When
I
exact
observers
!
to
investigations
drew
in the text
attention
not
(see page
154) to the fact that it was
small
of
the
of
iron
intermixed
which
the
particles
were
quantity
only
distribution
in the stone, but also their relative
(their position), which
the
of
the
ered
acted
the resultant
intensity
polar force, I considas
upon
the

mine

some

has

at

it after

it has

time

small
See
the new
particlesto be so many
magnets.
in
treatise
that
this
read
tinguished
disviews
a
subject
by
Melloni,
by
regarding
before
the
in
the
month
at
Royal Academy
Naples,
physicist
of January,
1853
(JEsperienzeintorno alMagnetismo delle Rocche, Mem.
which
has
been
so
rent,
popular notion
long curi.,Sulla Polarita). The
more
especially on the shores of the Mediterranean, that if a
the

small

rod

magnetic

be

of the

emanations

thus

compass
Prodi
Diadochi

1635,

p.

20

popular

error.

with

an

onion,

the

directive

would

mislead

plant,

treated

Paraphrasis Ptolem.,

(Delambre,

It is difficult to
a

rubbed

conceive

Hist,
what

de

brought

or

force
the
libri

have

be

is mentioned

iv.,de SiderumAncienne,

given

with

diminished,

steersman,

V Astronomic

could

will

in contact

occasion

the

while
in

ajfectionibus,
ii.,p. 545).
to so singular

t.

157

VULCANICITY.

II.
REACTION

OF

THE

MANIFESTING

INTERIOR
ITSELF:"

MINERAL

THE

OUTBREAK
PHENOMENA

BY

AND

(WHEN

THEY

ELASTIC

OF

SPONTANEOUS

THE

FORM

OF

LONG,

(THERMAL

FLUIDS,

SOMETIMES

IGNITION

AND

DEPTHS

BUT

CRYSTALLINE

NARROW

OF
;

AND

MUD
d.

THE

FUSED

IN
TO

FORMATION,

MOSPHERE
AT-

EARTH

ONLY

SUBMITTED

THE
WHICH

WITH
UP

CANOES,
VOL-

BY

VOLCANOES,

PARTLY

BY

c.

ACCOMPANIED

PARTLY

ROCK

PERATURE
TEM-

SPRINGS)

THROW

INTERIOR,

LOUS
TREMU-

HIGH

DIFFERENCE

SALSES)

TRUE

CRATERS)

CINDERS,

THE

CONNECTION

THE

OF

OF

OF

SURFACE;
BY

(GAS

SPRINGS,

PERMANENT

FISSURES

RED-HOT

PROCESSES
IN

ITS

THE

GASES

ACTIONS

HAVE

BY

BY

AND

NAPHTHA

MIGHTY

BY
FROM

AND

OF

BURNING
GRAND

b.

SPRINGS,

SALTS

UPON

DYNAMICALLY,

(EARTHQUAKES);

OF
INTERMIXED

EARTH

THE

MERELY

a.

UNDULATIONS

THE

OF

THE
ING
VARY-

POURED

OUT

STREAMS.

maintain, in accordance with the fundamental

plan of this work, the co-ordination of telluric phenomena
the co-operationof a singlesystem of impellingforces
in
In order

to

"

"

here
remind
the
must
we
descriptiverepresentation,
from
the general propertiesof matter,
reader how, starting
of its activity
directions
the
and
three principal
(attraction,
and
and
vibrations producing light
heat,
electro-magnetic
cesses),
prothe

we

have

in the first section

taken

into consideration-

of our
planet,its internal diffusion
size,
form, and density
dip,
of heat and of magnetism, in their effects of intensity,
with
and variation, changing in accordance
definite laws.
The
directions of the activity
are
of matter just mentioned
the

nearly allied*
force.
They

manifestations

of

one

and

the

same

primitive

of the greatest independoccur

ence
of all differences of matter, in gravitation
and molecular
We
time represented our
attraction.
have at the same
planet
in

condition

cause
body of its system, bethe internal primitive
heat,which is probably produced
of a rotatingnebular
by the condensation
ring,is modified
the same
With
view,
by the action of the sun (insolation).
the periodical
action of the solar spots (that is to say, the
frequencyor rarityof the apertures in the solar envelopes)
referred to, in accordterrestrial magnetism has been
ance
upon
recent
with the most
hypotheses.

in its cosmical relation

The

second

of those
the

to

the

central

section of this volume

telluric

phenomena

constantlyactive
*

reaction

of

which

is devoted
are

the interior

Cosmos, vol. iii.,p. 34.

to

of

to

be

the

ty
entire-

ascribed

to

the earth upon

158

cosmos.

of
entiretyI give the general name
I regard it as advantageous
Vulcanism or Vulcanicity
; and
is causallyconnected,
to avoid the separationof that which
of force
and differs only in the strengthof the manifestation
and the complicationof physicalprocesses.
By taking this
generalview, small and apparentlyunimportant phenomena
unscientific observer
acquire a greater significance.The
its

who

for the

comes

spring and
in

sees

volcanoes
that in

dreams

of fire to
taken

first time

place;

and

colossal

the

upon
capable of

that

and

one

craters

the

same

of elevation

the
the

of the reaction

is

"

force duces
prothe mighty,

even

and

of

the Peak

of the interior of the earth

upon its external

of
the essential character

purely dynamical,namely,

tremulous

thermal

Cotopaxi and Tunguragua.

cinder-erupting
multifarious,
phenomena
mutually intensifying

crust, I first of all separate those

which

internal

nay,
of JEtna

lava-pouringvolcanoes
desolating,
Teyde, and
Among

of

basin

extinguishinglightrising
of changeable cones
of
rows
among
scarcelyexceeding himself in height,never
the calm
tions
space occupied by the latter erupfeet
often
have
the height of many
thousand

gases
wanders

it,or who

mud

this

To

surface*

undulations

in the

that

of movement

solid strata

of the

or

earth

is not necessarily
which
accompanied by any
activity
chemical
tion
changes of matter, or by the expulsionor producof any thing of a material
In the other phenature.
nomena

volcanic

the exterior of
of the interior upon
and salses,
the earth
in gas and mud volcanoes,
burning springs
cano
of volthe
in
the
and
name
largeburningmountains to which

of the reaction
"

and
first,

was

for

long

exclusivelyapplied,the

time

(gaseous or
production of something of a material nature
of
and
and
decomposition
solid),
gas evolution,
processes
such as the formation
of rocks from particles
arranged in a
most
fullygenform, are never
wanting. When
crystalline
eralized,
these

are

the

distinctive

characters

of the

volcanic

is to be
of our
activity
planet. In so far as this activity
to the high temperature of the
ascribed,in great measure,
of the earth,it becomes
innermost
strata
probable that all

vital

cosmical

bodies

evolution

enormous

to

The

which

solid

to

conglomerated with an
passed from a state of vapor

become

of

heat,and
condition,must
present analogous phenomena.

little that

appears

have

we

know

of the

indicate this.f

form

of the

moon's

surface

Upheaval and plasticactivityin

Cosmos, vol. i.,p. 202-204.

f Cosmos, vol. iii..p. 44; iv.,p. 104, 151,

154"156.

159

VULCANICITY.

of

production

the

in

even

air and

both
The

from

crystallinerock
a
sphere which

is

fused

regarded

mass

are

ceivable
con-

destitute

as

of

water.

of the

genetic connection

of volcanic

classes

ena
phenom-

of
traces
by the numerous
with
of the simpler and
weaker
the simultaneousness
stronger
and
the
transitions
and more
accompanying
complex effects,
here

of

the

referred

into

one

to

the

is indicated

other.

The

of

arrangement

the

rials
mate-

justifiedby such
increased
The
consideration.
a
magnetic activity of our
planet, the seat of which, however, is not to be sought in
fused
of the interior
the
mass
(even though, according to
be capable of
Lenz
and
Riess, iron in the fused state may
tion
conductingan electrical or galvanic current), produces evoluof light in the magnetic poles of the earth, or at least
of
the first section
concluded
usually in their vicinity. We
with
the luminosityof the
the volume
telluric phenomena
on
of the
of a luminous
vibration
earth.
This
phenomenon
ether by magneticforces is immediately followed
by that class
of volcanic agencies which, in their essential nature, act purely
force
the
magnetic
causing
dynamically, exactly like
neither
vibrations
in the solid ground, but
and
movement
nature.
producing nor
changing any thing of a material
of flames
phenomena (the ascent
Secondary and unessential
and
tions
evoluduring the earthquake, and eruptions of water
of the action
of therof gas* following it)remind
mal
one
tance
Eruptions of flame, visible at a dissprings and salses.
in the

representation selected

by

is

me

"

of

deep
which

distant

many

miles,

and

of

masses

rock,

from

torn

their

presented by the salses,

for the magnificent pheus
nomena
thus, as it were, prepare
of the
their
true
again, between
volcanoes; which
epochs of eruption, like the salses,only exhale aqueous

seats

vapor
instructive

and

and
are

hurled

about,f

are

their fissures
gases from
the analogies which
are

so

remarkable

presented

in

and
various

stages by the gradations of Vulcanism.

Cosmos,
f Cosmos,
*

vol.

i.,p.

217.

vol. i.. p. 225.

Compare

Bertrand-Geslin,

Zibio pres
lancees par
le Jrolcan de bone du Monte
du
in Humboldt,
Regions Equinoxiales du
Voyage aux
t. iii.,
(Relation Historique),
p. 566.

"

Sur

bourg de
Nouveau

les roches

Sassiiolo,"
Continent

160

COSMOS.

a.

of
(Amplification

Since

the

the Picture

Earthquakes.
of

Nature, Cosmos, vol. i.,p. 204-217.)

the

in

appearance

of this work

of the
generalrepresentation

(1845) of the

earthquakes,the obscurityin
these phenomena are
involved
the excellent

first volume

which
has

of Mallet

works*

phenomena

the seat

and

of

causes

littlediminished

but

(1846)

and

the nature

of

but

Hopkins (1847)

of

lightupon
concussions,the
of apparently distinct effects,
connection
and the separation
of chemical
and physicalprocesses, which
may
accompany
it or
with
it.
occur
Here, as elsewhere, a
simultaneously
of treatment, such as that adopted by
mathematical
mode
Poisson, may have a beneficial effect. The analogiesbetween
have

thrown

some

the oscillations of solid bodies and

which

the sound-waves

in the

dinary
or-

Thomas

Young f had already

called attention,are
peculiarlyadapted to lead to simpler
views in theoretical considerations
and more
satisfactory
upon
the dynamics of earthquakes.
and formation of fissures
commotion,elevation,
Displacement,
We
of the phenomenon.
indicate the essential character
have to distinguish
the efficient force which, as the impulse,
crease,
givesrise to the vibration ; and the nature, propagation,inatmosphere, to

or

Nature

diminution

described

I have

senses

what

of the commotion.

I had

what

is

many

of the craters

the

on

margin
graniteand

of

miles
certain

from

mica

Mallet, in

the

of the

sea-bottom

eightto

fifteen thousand

of active

volcanoes, and

schist,twelve

of

to the

hundred

plains
feet
in

the

take

notice

more

no

gions
re-

ical
geograph-

eruptionsof fire ; in districts where

any
inhabitants
the
periods

Robert

the Picture

manifested
especially

myselfthe opportunityof observingfor

the sea, on
years on
{Llanos),and at elevations of
so

In

at

of the

of the Royal Irish Academy,

quake
the Facts of EarthFirst Report on

Transactions

vol. xxi. (1848), p. 51-113, and

Phenomena, in the Report

of

the

Meeting of

the British

tion,
Associa-

Inquiryfor the Use of the

of Scientific
p. 1-89; also Manual
British Navy, 1849, p. 196-223.
William
Hopkins, On the Geological
Theories of Flevation and Earthquakes, in the Report of the British Association
33-92.
which
Mr.
let
MalThe rigorouscriticism to
for 1847, p.
has subjectedmy previouswork, in his very valuable memoirs
{Irish
and
the
British
Association
burgh,
Edinat
99-101,
Meeting
of
Transactions,
p.
1850,

p.

209), has been repeatedly made

Young, Lectures on Natural

f Thomas
717.

use

of

by

me.

Philosophy,
1807, vol.

i.. p.

162

cosmos.

explanationsof earthquakes in trachyticregions

of
result
geognosticsuppositionsregardingthe
cohesion
in rocky masses
raised by volcanic action.

the most

recent

is the

of

want

followingsummary

The

brief indication

furnishes

of the

the first impulseto the commotion

The

as
igneous fluidity,

process
of heat
The

external

were

the first to become

occasioned

strata

by

of

terrestrial
into

sea-water

of the
the

moon
*
"

Hopkins

sun*
has

to

"

the

the

on

confined

for

it,"at the
also,with whom

The

commotion

is

1847

lava

penetration

to the surrock, nearer

face
of
and by
fissures,
opening

as

to

internal

(p. 57),

the

of

fluid,fused

into

subterraneous

above

planetary
tion
material,by evoluto solidity.
fluidity
by radiation,and

produced
depths. The

elastic

expresseddoubts

Association

of

every

from

or

of vapors

ascent

subjacent fluid

British

alone

mass

higher strata

consequentlymore

state

ascent

earth, the sudden

sudden

and

consolidated.

of elastic vapors, formed

the fluid and solid parts) either from

(at the limit between

the fused

first cooled

unequal

an

of

transition from

were

very
of

the nature

be in

supposed to

consequence
from
a
gaseous

during the

to

as

the

of formation

but

exact

more

of the earth is

nucleus

varietyof views

as

in the hotter
attraction

surface of the

the

Mallet

of the
nucleus

action

lakes ," at

tidal wave,

and

has

the fused
upon
the Meeting of the

also done

moving

the

with

gard
re-

solid crust

British Association

Meeting for 1850 (p.20). Poisson

spoken regarding the hypothesis of the
ebb and flow caused
subterranean
considers the
by the sun and moon,
which
he
does
be
"as
in the open
not
to
impulse,
deny,
inconsiderable,
14
inches."
the effect scarcelyamounts
to
sea
Ampere, on the other
who
admit
the fluidity
of the internal nucleus
of
hand, says: "Those
the earth do not appear to have sufficiently
considered
the action which
this enormous
would be exercised
an
by the moon
liquidmass
upon
action from which
would
result tides analogous to those of our
seas,
but far more
and from the densityof
both from their extent
terrible,
how
the liquid. It is difficult to conceive
the envelope of the earth
should
be able to resist the incessant
action of a sort of hydraulic
ram(?) of 1400 leaguesin length" (Ampere, Thcorie de la Terre, in
Revue
des deux Mondes, July, 1833, p. 148). If the interior of the
earth
be fluid,
which
be doubted, as, notwithstanding
in general can
not
the enormous
then the
the
still
particlesare
displaceable,
pressure,
conditions
interior
earth
fulfilled in the
of the
that give rise
same
are
the surface to the ocean
tides ; and the tide-producing force will
on
weaker
in approaching the centre, as the difference
constantlybecome
of the distances of every two oppositepoints,considered
tion
in their relaless in receding from
to the attracting
bodies,constantlybecomes
the surface, and the force depends exclusivelyupon the difference of
I have

often

"

the distances.
this

the
effort,

its crust

at

If the solid crust

of the

interior of the earth

these

points;

as

my

will

earth

opposes

resistance

to

only exert a pressure against

friend, Dr. Brunnow,

astronomical

163

EARTHQUAKES.

*f tile oarth may

also be

action
regarded as the subsidiary
of a hon-telluric cause, by which
increased
an
pressure
be produced,either immediately against a solid,sumust
perimposed
arch
when
or
the
solid
rocky
indirectly,
;
mass
in subterranean
from
the
is separated,
basins,
fused,fluid

by

mass

eiastic vapors.

of

nucleus

The

planetis supposed to

our

the metalloids

oxydizedmasses,
is
activity

Volcanic
of water

and

air.

excited

of the

in the

consist of

alkalies and

nucleus

by

un-

earths.

the

access

Volcanoes

certainlypour forth a great

quantity of aqueous vapor into the atmosphere ; but the
assumption of the penetrationof water into the volcanic
focus is attended with much
difficulty,
consideringthe opposing

pressure*of

the external

tide will be
expresses himself,no more
o/
indestructible
ice. The
an
covering
of the earth

crust

kinds

is calculated

from

column

produced
thickness

the

of water
than

if the

of the

of

and

had

ocean

solid, unfused

fusing points of

the

different

rock, and the law of the increase of heat from the surface
into the depths of the earth.
I have
already(Cosmos, vol. i.,p. 45)
the assumption that at somewhat
than twenty geographjustified
more
ical
miles (21-^j,
25 English) below
the surface a heat capable of melting
number
24
granite prevails. Nearly the same
(-45,000metres
geographicalmiles)was named
by Elie de Beaumont
(Geologie,edited
by Vogt, 184:6,vol. i.,p. 32) as the thickness of the solid crust of the
earth.
Moreover, according to the ingenious experiments of Bischof
the fusion of various minerals,of which
on
the importance to the progress
of

of

geology is

earth is between

so

great, the thickness

of the unfused

strata

of the

122,590 and

136,448 feet,or, on the average, 21^ geographical

des Innern
(24i- English) miles; see Bischof, Wdrmelehre

vnsers

This renders it the more

able
remarkErdkbrpers, p. 286 and 271.
to rind that,with the assumption cf a definite limit between
me
solid and fused parts, and
of a gradual transition,Hopkins,
not
the fundamental
principlesof his speculativegeology,establishes
to

the
from

the result that ''the thickness

about

one

fourth

or

of the

solid

shell

can

not

be less than

one-fifth

(?) of the radius of its external surface"

Association, 1847, p. 51). Cordier's earliest supposition

{Meetingof British
was
only 56 geographical (72 English) miles,without
which

is

dependent upon the increased

great depths, and the hypsometrical form of
of the solid part of the
*

crust

of

the

tion,
correc-

at
pressure of the strata
the surface.
The
ness
thick-

earth

is

probablyvery

equal.
un-

Gay-Lussac, Reflexionssur les Yolcans,in the Annales de Clude Physique, tome

The
xxii.,1823, p. 418 and 426.
author,
in
with Leopold von
the
Buch
and
who,
company
myself, observed
Vesuvius
in September, 1805, has the
great eruption of lava from
merit
of having submitted
cism.
the chemical
hypotheses t"\ a strict critiHe seeks for the cause
of volcanic phenomena
in a "very energetic
and still unsatisfied affinity
a
between
the substances, which
fortuitous contact
in
favors
them
he
the
to obey ;"
permits
general,
hypothesis of Davy and Ampere, which is now
given up, "supposing
mie

et

164

cosmos.

the

lava; and

internal

deficiency,
or, at all events,
occurrence
burning hydrogen gas during the
very rare
formation
of hydrochloric acid,*amthe
monia,
eruption(which
does not suffiand sulphuretedhydrogen certainly
ciently
the
h
as
led
celebrated
of
replace),
originator this
it of his own
accord, f
hypothesisto abandon
According to a third view, that of the highly-endowed
of coSouth American
traveler,
herence
Boussingault,a deficiency
form
in the trachyticand
doleritic masses
which
the elevated volcanoes of the chain of the Andes, is regarded
of many
as
a primary cause
earthquakes of very great
the

of

colossal

The

extent.

and

cones

dome-like

Cordilleras,
accordingto this view, have by
elevated in
up

and

the

form

soft and

piled on

of the

summits

been

means

no

semi-fluid state, but have been thrown

another when
hardened, in
perfectly

one

of enormous,
elesharp-edgedfragments. In an vation
and pilingof this description,
largeinterstices and

cavities have

been produced ;
necessarily
fall
of solid masses
sinking,and by the
weakly supported,shocks are produced.t

that

so

which

by

den
sud-

are

too

with
silica,alumina, lime, and iron are combined
of the earth," and the penetration of sea-water
does not appear
certain conditions
to him
to be improbable under
of a theory founded
(p.419, 420, 423, and 426). Upon the difficulty
of
Brit.
the
Assoc.
see
water,
Rqj., 1847, p. 38.
penetration
Hopkins,
upon
*
According to the beautiful analyses made by Boussingault on the
margins of five craters (Tolima, Purace, Pasto, Tuqueras, and Cumbal),hydrochloric acid is entirelywanting in the vapors poured forth
volcanoes, but not in those of Italy (Annales
by the South American
de Chimie, tome
1833, p. 7 and 23).
lii.,
distinct manWhile
ner,
f Cosmos, vol. i.,p. 236.
Davy, in the most
the
volcanic
that
of
are
a
opinion
eruptions
consequence
gave up
of the metalloid
bases with water
and air,he still assertthe contact
ed
that the presence
of oxydizable metalloids
in the interior of the
be
in
volcanic
earth might
a
menced.
co-operatingcause
processes already comthat the radicals
chlorine

of

in the interior

X Boussingault says:

"I

attribute

Cordillera

of

the

mountains

by

the subsidence

Andes

which

of their elevation.

ridgeshas
place until
that

the

heaped
not

be

not

been

elevated
upon
so

settlements
movements

Tremblemens
tome

each

The

raised

after the

falls

to

in

of the

most

mass

which

soft state

other.

of

the

The

ai*e

is

these
did

of
a

the

these
quence
conse-

gigantic
not

take

I assume,

therefore,
composed of fragments
of the fragments could

beginning as that there should be no

rior
inteelevation,or that there should be no
Su?"
les
in the fragmentary masses"
(Boussingault,
des Andes, in Annales
de Chimie
de Terre
de
et
sique,
Phylviii.,
1835, p. 84-86). In the descriptionof his mem-

stable

after

from
the

the

Andes

which

elevation

; the

consolidation

interior

constitutes

solidification of the rocks.

masses

earthquakesin

produced in the
takes place,and

165

EARTHQUAKES.

The

effects
of the impulse,and

reduced
than

to simple mechanical

is furnished

by

first impulse,which

the

of commotion, may

waves

theories with

consideration

be

distinctness

more

of the nature

of the

indeed

be regarded as heterogeneous.
may
of
this
our
alreadyobserved,
knowledge has
part

As
advanced

in very recent
times.
The earth-waves
essentially
have been representedin their progress and their propagation
of
different
and
rocks
;* the
density
elasticity
through
of the rapidityof propagation,and its diminution
causes
by
of the oscillations,
the refraction,
and interference^
reflection,
have been mathematicallyinvestigated.Attempts have been
standard
made
the apparently
to reduce
to
a
rectilinear^
orable

of Chimborazo

(Ascensionau

le 16

Chimborazo

Dec,
again:
Cotopaxi, Antisana, Tungeneral which projectfrom the plateaux
guragua,
of the Andes, the mass
of Chimborazo
is formed
by the accumulation
of trachyticdebris,heaped togetherwithout
These
ments,
fragany order.
ascent

1831, he.

often
state

least

of

elastic

volume, have

enormous

fluids which

have

indicated

here

produced by the
"Analytical Theorv

1847,

p.

elevated

been

broken

out

solid

82).

Mallet, Dynamics of Earthquakes, p. 74, 80,

Brit. Assoc. Report, 18-17,
All that we
p. 74-82.
of commotion
of the

in the
the

through
points of
The
of earthquakes
cause
always sharp."
that which
is the same
as
Hopkins calls "a
fallingof the roof of a subterranean
cavity,"in
of Volcanic
Phenomena"
Assoc.
(Brit.
Report,

by
resistance;their angles are

shock
his

"Like

cit.,
p. 176),he says
and the volcanoes
in

and

older

oscillations

theories

as

to

in solid bodies

the facilitation

of

and
know

shows

82 ; Hopkins,
of the waves

the

untenability

the

propagation of the
only act a secondary

by a series of cavities. Cavities can

in
the
of vapors
part
and
earthquake, as spaces for the accumulation
condensed
"The
centuries
earth, so many
old," says Gaygases.
Lussac, very beautifully(Ann. de Chimie ct de Phys.,tome
xxii.,1823,
movement

internal force,which
an
raises mountains
p. 428), "still preserves
(in
the oxydized crust),overturns
and
cities,
agitates the entire mass.
Most
have
mountains, in issuingfrom the bosom of the earth,must
left vast
have been

which
cavities,

have

remained

least unless

they
incorrect
(and gaseous fluids). It is certainly
for Deluc
and
of these empty
use
geologiststo make
many
for the propaspaces, which they imagine produced into long galleries,
gation
of earthquakes to a distance.
These
phenomena, so grand and
excited
in the solid mass
are
terrible,
very powerful sonorous
waves,
of the earth by some
which
itself
therein with
commotion,
propagates
the same
The
of a carriage over
the
movement
velocityas sound.
and communicates
itself through
pavement shakes the vastest edifices,
considerable
the cityof Paris."
as in the deep quarriesbelow
masses,
f Upon phenomena of interference in the earth-waves, analogous to
those of the waves
of sound, see
boldt,
Cosmos, vol. i.,p. 215; and HumKleinere Schriften,
bd. i.,p. 379.
of twisting,in Brit. Assoc.
X Mallet on vorticose shocks and cases
and
Report, 1850, p. 33
49, and in the AdmiraltyManual, 1849, p. 213
(see Cosmos, vol. i.,p. 204).
filled with

water

empty,

at

166

cosmos.

of which

circling(rotatory)shocks
of San

monastery

Bruno, in the small

1783), furnished

Bosco

(Calabria,

which

Air,
are
recognizedby
water, and

in space

but

the

the

which

remain

del
ample.
ex-

laws

same

all events

at

accompanied, in

are

action,by phenomena

the

motion,

the

Stephano

well-known

follow

theory of

earth-waves

the

of

town

such

earth-waves

before

obelisks

their destructive
obscure

more

in their nature, and belong to the class of physical

processes.
As such we
have to mention
of
elastic
discharges
vapors,
"

of gases

and

or,

as

in the

mixtures
ileo,grit-like
animalcules
have

cones

In the

small,moving Moyacones of Pelof pyroxene

fusorial
crystals,
carbon, and in-

with

overthrown

silicious shields.

great number
generalDelineation of Nature
a

These

of Indian

wandering
huts.*

facts are narrated

many
concerningthe great catastropheof Biobamba
(4th of
collected on the spot from the
February, 1797), which were

lipsof

the

survivors,with

historic truth.
in the
others

Some

the most

of them

are

analogous to

great earthquake of Calabria

after

endeavors

earnest

the

in the year

rences
occur-

1783;

characterized
especially
by the mine-like
manifestation of force from below upward. The
earthquake
itself was
announced
neither accompanied nor
ranean
by any subterstillindicated
A
noise.
prodigiousexplosion,
by the
of el gran ruido,was
not perceiveduntil 18 or
simple name
20 minutes
afterward,and only under the two cities of Quito
and

are

new,

Ibarra, far removed

principalscene
in

and

the

from

Tacunga, Hambato,

of the destruction.
destinies of the

There

no

other

the

event

by which in a
few minutes, and in sparingly-peopledmountain
lands, so
be overtaken
thousands
at once
by death, as by
many
may
of a few earth-waves, accomthe production and passage
panied
troubled

human

is

and

race

by phenomena of cleavage!
In the earthquake of Riobamba, of which
the celebrated
Valencian
the earliest
Jose Cavanilles,
botanist,Don
gave
deservingof special
account, the followingphenomena are
attention
Fissures
which
:
alternatelyopened and closed
saved themselves
again, so that men
by extendingboth arms
in order to prevent their sinking; the disappearanceof entire
of
of
riders
loaded
mules
caravans
some
or
(recuas),
which disappearedthrough transverse
fissures suddenlyopen*

saw

the

seen
by Boussingault nineteen years after I
Moyacones were
of the earthquake, like
Muddy eruptions,consequences
which
have
buried
of
lages"
entire vilPelileo,
eruptions of the Moya
(Ann. de Chim. et de Phys.,t. lviii.,
p. 81).

The

them.

"

167

EARTHQUAKES.

ing in

their
such

path, while others,flyingback,escaped the

violent

oscillations

ger
dan-

(non-simultaneous elevation

depression)of neighboringportionsof the ground, that

people standing upon the choir of a church at a height of
and

than

more

12

falling
;

from

the
such

whole
days,
open inner doors, and for two
released by excavations, passed uninjured

could

inhabitants
before

of the street out

feet got upon the pavement
withthe sinking of massive
in
which
the
houses,*

they

were

fed
procuredlights,

dentally
suppliesaccidiscovered,and disputedwith each other regarding
and
the disappearanceof
probabilityof their rescue;
of stones
and building materials.
Old
great masses
room

to

room,

Riobamba

contained

of several

stories

and

churches
and

yet, when

upon

monasteries
I took

houses
among
stroyed
the plan of the de-

city,I only found in the ruins heaps of stone of eight

bamba
to ten feet in height. In the southwestern
part of Old Rioplosion,
(the former Barrio de Sigchuguaicu)a mine-like exthe effect of a force from below
tinctly
disupward, was
perceptible. On the Cerro de la Cidca,a hill of some
feet in height,which
hundred
rises above the Cerro de Cuinbicarca,situated
mixed

with

human

to

the north

of

it,there lies stony rubbish

zontal
Translator?/
movements, in a hori-

bones.

of trees become
direction,
displaced
by which avenues
without
being uprooted, or fragments of cultivated ground
of very different kinds mutually displaceeach other, have
occurred
A
repeatedlyin Quito, as well as in Calabria.
still more
remarkable
and complicated phenomenon
is the
of
utensils
in
house
the
ruins
of
discovery
belonging to one
another at a great distance
circumstance
which has given
a
rise to lawsuits.
Is it,as the natives believe,a sinkingfollowed
by an eruption? or, notwithstanding the distance,a
mere
projection? As, in nature, every thing is repeated
when
similar conditions again occur, we
cealing
must, by not conwhat
the
is stillimperfectly
call
tion
atteneven
observed,
of future observers to specialphenomena.
be forgotten
not
According to my observations,it must
"

Upon the 'displacement of buildingsfind plantationsduring the

earthquake of Calahria, see LyelPs Principlesof Geology,vol. i.,p.
484-491.
Upon escapes in fissures during the great earthquake of
As
markable
rea
Riobamba, see my Relation Historique,
tome
ii.,p. 642.
be mentioned
it must
example of the closing of a fissure,
that,according to Scacchi's report, during the celebrated earthquake
of 1851) in the Neapolitan province of Basilicata, a
(in the summer
hen was
found
caught by both feet in the street pavement in Bariie,
near

Melfi.

168

COSMOS.

of solid

that, besides the commotion

parts

as

earth-waves,

emanations
as, for instance,physicalforces,
very different forces
in
also
assist
in
the
of gas and vapor
most
cases
duction
prothe
in
When
the
undulatory movement
of fissures.
"

"

limit

extreme

of matter
of the elasticity

the difference of the rocks

to

or

set in motion

the looser

ing
(accord-

strata)is

ceeded,
ex-

separationtakes place,tense elastic fluid may

break out through the fissures,
bringingsubstances of various
and giving rise again,
kinds from the interior to the surface,
Among these
by their eruption,to translatorymovements.
the primitivecommotion
phenomena which only accompany
dering
(the earthquake)are the elevation of the undoubtedly wanof the Moya, and probably also the transportacone
tion
of objectsupon
the surface of the earth.*
When
large
clefts are formed, and these only close again at their upper
cavities may
parts,the productionof permanent subterranean
of new
the cause
not only become
earthquakes,as, according
to Boussingault's
masses
supposition,
imperfectly-supported
of time and fall,
detached
in course
become
motions,
producing combut we
also imagine it possiblethat the circles
may
quake
earthof commotion are enlargedthereby,and that in the new
enable elastic
the clefts opened in the previous one
fluids to act in places to which
they could not otherwise
It is, therefore,
have
obtained
an
access.
accompanying
of
and
the
the
not
wave
commotion,
phenomenon,
strength
has once
the
of
which
solid
the earth,
passed through
parts
that gives rise to the gradual and very important,but too
and

enlargementof the circle of commotion.^

of the
the earthquake is one
of which
activities,

little considered
Volcanic
lower

water

time movement
grades,almost always include at the same
and the physicalproduction of matter.
In the Delineation
of Nature
have alreadyrepeatedlyindicated that
we
and hot vapors, carbonic acid gas and other mofettes,

shown
retically
theoHopkins has very correctly
ive
produced by earthquakes are very instructof dislocation,
of veins and
the phenomenon
as
regards the formation
the more
vein
the
older
formations.
But
recent
displacing
der Gange,"' 1791), Werner
long before Phillips (in his "Theorie
showed
the comparative ages of the displacingpenetrating vein and
of the disrupted penetrated rock (see British
Assoc. Report, 1847,
*

Cosmos,

vol.

that the

i.,p.

206.

fissures

p. 62).

t Upon
the

14th

p. 314
p. 28.

the
and

Cumana

simultaneous

Maniquarez
December, 1796,
Cosmos, vol. i.,p.

tertiarylimestone of
great earthquake of Cumana, on
Humboldt's
Relation Ilistorique,
tome
i.,
and
Mallet, Brit. Assoc. Rejiort,1850,
;

commotion
since
see

212

the

of the

170

COSMOS.

of

chain

side of the

parallel of 45" N., in the

Thianschan
(Mountains of Heaven), there appears
directed from
east
to west,
of volcanic activity
other

the

south, on

the
zone

"with every kind of manifestation.

the fire district (Ho-tscheu) in
of Asferah

chain

of the Mediterranean

basin

I have

Azores.

thence

be

elsewhere*

treated

the

small

into

Asia

traced, oscillating

N., through

far

as

Ararat

over

that it may
of 38"
and 40"
parallels

the

between

and

Baku,

only from

not

Turfan, through

it is believed

but

Minor;

to

It extends

as

Lisbon

in detail of this

the volcanic
and

the

ant
import-

subject of volcanic geography. In Greece also,which

than any other part of
has suffered from earthquakes more
Europe (Curtius,Peloponnesos,i.,s. 42-4G), it appears that
number

immense

an

of thermal

springs,some

still

flowing,

See Asie Cent rale,tome

i.,p. 324-329, and tome
ii.,p. 108-120;
especiallymy Carte des Montagues et Volcans de VAsie. compared
with the geognostic maps
of the Caucasus, and of the plateau of Armenia
Minor
and
of
Asia
Peter
the
(Argaeus) by
by Abich,
map
Tschichatschef,1853 (Rose, Reise nach dem Ural,Altai,iind Kaspischem
Meere, bd. ii.,p. 576 and 597). In Asie Cent rale we find: "From
the southern
Tourfan, situated upon
slope of the Thianchan, to the
120
of
the
there
are
Archipelago
degrees of longitude. This
Azores,
is probably the longestand most
band
cillating
regular
of volcanic reactions,oswhich
exists
between
38"
and
40"
of latitude,
slightly
upon
the face of the earth ; it greatlysurpasses
the volcanic band
in extent
of the Cordillera
of the Andes, in South
America.
I insist the more
this
of
of
and
of
line
of
elevation.?,
singular
ridges,
fissures,
upon
which
of
third
of
ference
circumthe
a
propagations
commotions,
comprises
of a parallelof latitude,because
small accidents of surface,
some
the unequal elevation
and
the breadth
of the ridges,or linear
elevations,as well as the interruptioncaused by the sea-basins (AraloCaspian, Mediterranean, and Atlantic basins),tend to mark the great
features of the geologicalconstitution of the globe. (This bold sketch
excludes
of a regularlyprolonged line of commotion
by no means
*

and

other

lines

in

the

direction

As

the

propagated.)"
Thianschan

has

been

of which

city of
the

most

Khotan
ancient

also be
may
district south of the

the

movements

and

the

and

celebrated

seat

of

dhism,
Bud-

occupied very earlyand earnestly

Relation des Roywith the causes
of earthquakes (see Foe-kone-ki,
ou
Abel
translated
M.
aumes
Kemusat,
Bouddiques,
by
p. 217). By the
of Sakhyamuni
followers
these
of
are
causes
adduced, among
eight
which
a revolvingwheel
of steel,hung with reliques('sarira,
ing
signifytion
explanabody in Sanscrit),plays a principalpart a mechanical
of
than
of a dynamic phenomenon, scarcelymore
absurd
many
our
geologicaland magnetic myths, which have but recentlybecome
and esof Klaproth's,priests,
pecially
antiquated! According to a statement
the
have
of
monks
the
causing
(Bhikchous),
begging
power
in motion.
wheel
of setting the subterranean
and
earth to tremble
the
date
about tho
the
author
of
The
of
travels
Foe-koue-ki,
Fahian,
the Buddhistic

literature

was

"

commencement

of the fifth century.

171

EARTHQUAKES.

thermic

similar
book

broken

alreadylost,have

others

of Helice

Bura, in Achaia

and

rise in

causal

regardingthe

remarkable

upon

iv.jp. 188), gave

vol.

earthquakes{De O"tentis,
cap.
of
the
great natural phenomenon

Lydus
liv.j
p. 189, Hase). The
destruction

in the

is indicated

connection

of Johannes

earth-shocks.

with

out

(373 B.C.

especialmanner

an

to

of volcanic

connection

mos,
Cos-

potheses
hy-

ity.
activ-

originatedthe curious theory of the

in the cavities of the depths of
force of the winds collecting
the earth
(Meteor.,ii.. p. 368). By the part which
they
of the
have taken in the earlydestruction of the monuments
most
flourishing
period of the arts, the unhappy frequency
of earthquakes in Greece
and Southern
Italyhas exercised
the most
perniciousinfluence upon all the studies which have
Aristotle

With

been

directed

various

at

from

suffered
have

been
of

of

that

example

Egyptian

epochs.
colossal

means

no

Nile

(Les

rare

so

Statues

as

and

Roman

ilization
civ-

also,for

monuments

(27 years

Memnon

earthquakes,which,

by

the

of the Greek

the evolution

to

B.C.),have
Letronne
has proved,
ley
supposed in the val-

as
was

Vocales

de

Memnon,

183", p.

23-27, 255).
The
quakes
physicalchanges here referred to, as induced by earthrender it the more
markable
reby the productionof fissures,
that so many
mineral
their
retain
warm
springs
and
composition
temperature unchanged for centuries,and
therefore

establishment

fissures which

either

diminution, and

to

appear
higher

with

that

have

dergone
un-

laterally.The

verticallyor

of communications

produced

increase

from

alteration

no

have

flow

must

strata

lower

with

would
ones

an

of heat.

When

the great eruptionof the volcano

ofConseguina(in
the
23d of January, 1835, the
Nicaragua) took place,on
noise*

subterranean
same

time

on

8740

the

was
(losruidos subterraneos)

island

feet above

of Jamaica

and

any

sensible

on

at

the

plateau of

the sea, at a greater distance than

I have also elsewhere
observed,

Bogota,
Algiers to London.
that in the eruptionsof the volcano
on
Vincent, on the 30th of April, 1812, at
morning, a noise like the report of cannons
from

heard

the

concussion

160,000 geographicalsquare

of the

the island

earth

miles.f

two

of Saint

o'clock in the

was
over

It is very

heard

out
with-

space of
remarkable
a

los Andes
Acosta, Yiajescientificos
u
ecvatoriaks,1849, p. oG.
t. iv.,
f Cosmos, vol. i.,p. 208-210; Humboldt, Relation Historiqae,
Some
chap. It, p. 31-38.
sagacious theoretical observatious by Mai*

172

cosmos.

earthquakes

when

that

with

combined

are

noises,which

is

constantlythe case, the strength of the latter

does not at all increase in proportionto that of the former.
ranean
most
The
singular and mysteriousphenomenon of subteris undoubtedly that of the bramidos
sound
cle Gualasted from the 9th of January to the middle
naxuato, which
the first to colI was
lect
of February, 1784, regarding which
trustworthy details from the lips of livingwitnesses,
by

means

no

from

and

official records

rapidityof

The

the surface

the

(Cosmos, vol. i.,p. 209).

propagation of the earthquake upon
must, from

of the earth

its nature, be modified in

densities of the solid rocky strata

ways by the variable

(graniteand gneiss,basalt
many

gypsum),

and

limestone

and
well

as

It is

velocities vary.

by
The

the

are

means

no

measurements,

same

Exact
it is

with

the

alluvial

which
violent

more

the
motions
com-

the'greatestvelocity.
always relate to the
much

are

period that

have

wanted, and

result has

from

care

followed.

the

been

tained
ob-

Rhenish

of

July, 1846, by Julius Schmidt,

In the earthquake
Observatory of Bonn.
the velocityof propagation was
14,956 geographical

miles in

29th

between

the

not

and

the

It
passes.
for all with

once

of commotion

exactitude

assistant

justmentioned

do

waves

recent

great

of the

at

probable that
always possess

determinations

very

earthquake

limits

extreme

the

mathematical

only at

ascertain

to

moreover,

direction which

by that of

as

of commotion

the
wave
soil,through which
would, however, be desirable

certaintywhat

trachyticporphyry,Jurassic

that

mmute,

feet in the second.

is,1466

of sound in
exceeds that of the waves
certainly
velocity
in water
is at the
the air; but if the propagation of sound
of 5016
rate
feet,as stated by Colladon and Sturm, and in
cast-iron tubes
11,393 feet,according to Biot, the result
For
the
found
weak.
for the
earthquake appears
very
This

earthquake of Lisbon, on the

(working
the

from
of

coasts

times

as

July,

1846.

great

Portugal and
that

observed

-waves

Assoc.

in the

asses,

earth

and
and

the
to

the

on

Report, 1850,

Manual, 18t9, p. 201 and

are
disquietedby

1755, Schmidt

between
velocity

be

Rhine,

more

than

five

on

the 29th

of

Gliickstadt
sonorous

p. 41"

t6, and

waves

(a distance
in the

air

ty
in the Admiral-

in tropical
The
animals
which
of the earth
slightestcommotions
than
man
experience,fowls,pigs,dogs,
are, according to my
and crocodiles (Caymans) ; the latter suddenly quit the bottom

countries
Kuoner

Holstein

Thus, for Lisbon

let upon
sonorous
in the Brit.
occur

November,

data) found

less accurate

as

1st of

of the rivers.

217.

the

173

EARTHQUAKES.

of 1348
in

miles

velocityobtained

English miles),the
minute,

or

7953

feet in

feet less than

is still 3438

of the earth and

Concussions

second

89*26

was

which,

ever,
how-

iron.*

in cast

eruptionsof

sudden

fire from

these
repose, whether
merely emit cinders, or, like intermittent springs,pour forth
of lava,have certainly
a single,
fused,fluid earths in streams

which

volcanoes

have

been

causal connection

common

of

our

manifested
chain

long

in the

in

high temperature
these phenomena

planet; but one of

quite independentlyof

of the

Andes

in

its linear

the other.

terior
of the in-

is

usually

Thus, in the

extension, violent

quakes
earth-

often indeed
unextinguished,
active,volcanoes exist without the latter being perceptibly
excited.
During the great catastropheof Riobamba, the
the former
of Tungurahua and Cotopaxi
in the
volcanoes
immediate
mained
vicinity,and the latter rather farther off reperfectlyquiet. On the other hand, volcanoes have
presentedviolent and long-continuederuptionswithout any
either previousearthquake beingperceivedin their vicinity,
ly
destructive earthquakes
or
simultaneously. In fact,the most
have
recorded
in history,
and which
passed through
districts in which

shake

"

"

thousand
many
square miles, if
observable
at the surface,stand
*

we

in

may

judge from
connection

no

what
with

is
the

29 Juli,
Nuggerath, Ueber das Erdbehen vom
With
the velocitystated in the text, the earthquake
1846, s. 28-37.
of Lisbon
would
have
of
passed round the equatorialcircumference
the earth in about 45 hours.
Michell
(Phil. Transact, vol. i.,pt. ii.,
for the same
earthquake of the 1st November, 1755, a
p. 572) found
of
50
miles
in a minute
that is,instead of 7956,
velocity only
English
feet
in
second.
4444
The
inexactitude
of the older observations
a
only
and
difference in the direction of propagation may
conduce
to
this result.
of Neptune with earthquakes, at
Upon the connection
which
I have glanced in the text (p. 181),a passage
of Proclus,in the
Plato's
remarkable
throws
to
a
light. " The
Cratylus,
commentary
middle
of the three deities,
is
the
of
one
movement
cause
Poseidon,
in all things,even
in the immovable.
As the originatorof movement
he is called 'Evvooiyaiog; to him, of those who
shared the empire of
Saturn, fell the middle lot, the easily-moved sea" (Creuzer, Symbolilc
und Mythologie,
th. iii.,
1842, s. 260). As the Atlantis of Solon and
the Lyctonia,which, according to my idea,was
nearly allied to it,are
both
the
lands
geologicalmyths,
destroyed by earthquakes are regarded
as
of Neptune, and set in opposition
standing under the dominion
continents.
to the Saturnian
According to Herodotus
(lib.ii.,c. 43
in Egypt.
et 50), Neptune
was
a
Upon
Libyan deity,and unknown
these circumstances
the disappearance of the Libyan lake Tritonis
by earthquake and the idea of the great rarityof earthquakes in th"a
vallev of the Nile, see
t. i.,
Examen
mv
Critiquede la Gcographie,
p.
Julius

Schmidt,

in

"

"

"

171

and

179.

174

cosmos.

tonic,
They have latelybeen called Plaactivityof volcanoes.
the
in oppositionto
true
Volcanic earthquakes,
which
limited
smaller
districts.
In respect of the
to
are
usually
views
this
of
nomenclature
more
general
Vulcanicity,
is,
the
inadmissible.
far
of
the
quakes
earthhowever,
By
greater part
be
called
Plutonic.
must
planet
upon our
That
which
is capable of excitingearth-shocks
is every
under
where
feet ; and the consideration
that nearly
our
three

fourths

(with

the

of the

exceptionof

permanent

any

erroneous

surface

by the

covered

are

scattered

some

communication

atmosphere,that
the

earth's

and
islands),

between

sea

without

the interior and

the

is to say, without
active volcanoes,contradicts
but widely disseminated
belief that all
be ascribed

tant
diseruptionof some
volcano.
Earthquakes on continents are certainly
propagated
along the sea-bottom from the shores,and give rise to
the terrible sea-waves,
of which
such memorable
examples
of
furnished
were
by the earthquakes Lisbon, Callao de Lima,
and
Chili.
When, on the contrary, the earthquakes start
from the sea-bottom
from the realm
of Poseidon, the
itself,
earth-shaker
and are not accompa(oeiolxOov,kiv?jocx^"^v),
nied
of
the
islands
in
(as
by upheaval
ephemeral existence
of the island of Sabrina
or
Julia),an unusual rollingand
still be observed
at pointswhere
swellingof the waves
may
feel no shock.
the navigatorwould
The
of the
inhabitants

earthquakes are

to

desert Peruvian

coasts

phenomenon
the

near

often

have

of this kind.

to

Even

opposite island of San

the

called

my
in the harbor

attention
of

Lorenzo, I have

to

Callao,and
seen

wave

of a few hours
suddenlyrisingup in the course
15
than 10 or
to more
feet,in perfectlystill nights,and in
this otherwise so thoroughlypeacefulpart of the South
Sea.
That such a phenomenon might have been the consequence
of a storm
the open sea, was
had raged far off upon
which
to be supposed in these latitudes.
by no means
upon

To
to

the

wave

from

commence

those

smallest

space, and
volcano, I may

commotions

evidentlyowe

which
their

are

limited

originto

the

mention, in the first place,how,

activityof a
when
at night in the
of Vesuvius, at the foot
crater
sitting
of a small cone
of eruption,with my
in my
chronometer
hand

(thiswas

after the

great earthquake of Naples,

on

the

July, 1805, and the eruption of lava which took

I felt a concussion
of the
place seventeen
days subsequently),
mediately
soil of the crater very regularlyevery 20 or 25 seconds, imThe
cinbeforeeach eruptionof red-hot cinders.
2Gth

of

175

EARTHQUAKES.

fell back partly

60 feet,
up to a heightof 50
while a part of them
covered the
into the orifice of eruption,
walls of the cone.
The
regularityof such a phenomenon

ders, thrown

renders

"

repeated small
the

crater

"

Del

earthquake
in

even

the

tension which

vapors
the fused

danger. The constantlyquite imperceptiblebeyond

del

Cavallo

and

periodicityof

dependent

was

the

through

was

Atrio

The

Salvatore.

that it

shows

break

free from

its observation

upon

the

determinate

attain, to

must

in the

degree of

enable

them

to

cone

of

in the interior of the

mass

mitage
Her-

concussion

felt
just described no concussions were
of the ashy cone
of Vesuvius, and in an exthe declivity
actly
on
analogous but far grander phenomenon, on the ashrises to a height of
of Sangai, which
of the volcano
cone
bling
17,006 feet to the southeast of the city of Quito, no tremfelt by a very distinguished
of the earth* was
observer,
M. Wisse, when
(inDecember, 1849) he approached within a
feet of the summit
and crater, although no less than
thousand
of cinders)
counted in an hour.
267 explosions
were
(eruptions
quake,
A
more
second, and infinitely
important kind of earthwhich
is the very frequentone
usuallyaccompanies
the volwhether
canoes,
or
precedesgreat eruptionsof volcanoes
forth
in Europe, pour
like ours
of lava ; or,
streams
like Cotopaxi, Pichincha, and Tunguragua of the Andes,
For
ashes and
only throw out calcined masses,
vapors.
are
earthquakes of this kind the volcanoes
especiallyto be
cinders.

In the

case

"

regarded

as

indicated
as
safety-valves,

concerning the
lante, in Euboea.

eruptionhas
Most

taken

fissure

pouring
earthquakes cease
place.

out

The

widely!distributed,however,

by Strabo's

even

are

lava
when

near

the

the ravages

pression
ex-

Le-

great
of the

Sangai, or Yolcan de Macas, took place on

13"*4; see Wisse, Comptes reudus de VAcad. des
average
every
As an
Sciences,tome
xxxvi., 1853, p. 720.
example of commotions
confined
within the narrowest
limits,I might also have cited the reLarderel
The
the lagoons in Tuscany.
j)ort of Count
upon
vapors
containing boron or boracic acid give notice of their existence,and of
their approaching eruption at fissures,
by shaking the surrounding
rocks
Sur
les
ctablissements
industries de la production
(Larderel,
d'acide boraciqueen
Toscane, 1852, p. 15).
able to cite an
firmation
f I am
glad that I am
important authority in conof the views that I have endeavored
to develop in the text.
"In
the Andes
the oscillation of the soil,due to a volcanic eruption,
in apis,so to speak, local,while an earthquake, which, at all events
pearance,
is
with
is not connected
volcanic
propagated
eruption,
any
*

The

explosionsof

the

an

to

incredible

distances.

In

this

case

it has

been

remarked

that the

176

cosmos.

of

commotion, which

pass
n
on-volcanic
non-trachytic,

waves

sometimes

through

countries,and

pletely
com-

sometimes

exerting any
through trachytic,volcanic regions, without
This is a third
the neighboring volcanoes.
influence upon
most
of phenomena, and is that which
convincingly
group
mic
indicates the existence of a general cause, lyingin the therof the interior of our
nature
planet. To this third
ly,
group also belongs the phenomenon sometimes, though rarewith in non-volcanic
met
lands, but little disturbed by
row
earthquakes,of a tremblingof the soil within the most nartogether,
uninterruptedlyfor months
limits,continued
mation
elevation and forto give rise to apprehensions of an
so
as
of

an

active volcano.

This

was

the

case

in the Pied-

cinity
valleysof Pelis and Clusson, as well as in the viof Pignerol,in April and May, 1805, and also in the
Orihuela and the seashore,
spring of 1829 in Murcia, between
miles.
When
upon a space of scarcelysixteen square
the western
the cultivated surface of Jorullo,upon
declivity
of the plateauof Mechoacan, in the interior of Mexico, was
shaken
uninterruptedlyfor 90 days, the \olcano rose with
of 5
rounding
surthousand
7 feet in height(loshornitos)
cones
many
of
it,and poured forth a short but vast stream
and Spain, on the contrary, the concuslava.
In Piedmont
sions
the production
of the earth graduallyceased, without
of any other phenomenon.
the perfectly
I have considered it expedientto enumerate
of the same
volcanic activity
distinct kinds of manifestation
in
(the reaction of the interior of the earth upon its surface),
order to guide the observer, and bring together materials
which
lead to fruitful results with regard to the causal
may
of the phenomena.
Sometimes
the volcanic acconnection
tivity
time or within short periodsso large
embraces
at one
of the soil excited
of
the earth,that the commotions
a portion
related to
be ascribed simultaneouslyto many
causes
may
each
other.
The years 1796
and 1811
present particularly
of
memorable
such
a
examples*
grouping of the phenomena.

montese

"

shocks

followed

in preference the direction of the chains of mountains,

principallyfelt in Alpine districts. The frequency of the
in the soil of the Andes, and
served
obthe
movements
little coincidence
between
these movements
and volcanic
must
sarily
neceseruptions,
lead us to suppose
that in most
cases
by a
they are occasioned
cause
independentof volcanoes" (Boussingault,Annates de Chimie et de
1835, p. 83).
Physique,t. lviii.,
*
The
curred
great phenomena of 1796 and 1797, and 1811 and 1812, oc-

and

were

in the following order:

178

cosmos.

its essential nature

only

commotion

and

dynamically,
producing

acts

when

but

it is favored

ment
move-

particular

at

fulfillment of

the

it is
subsidiaryconditions,
pointsby
ble
capaof bringingto the surface material products,although not
of generatingthem
like true volcanoes.
Just as water, vapors,
of
mixtures
or
petroleum,
(mud and
pasty masses
gases,
thrown
fissures
are
out, through
suddenly opened in
moya)
of
sometimes
short
duration, so do liquidand
earthquakes
the bosom
aerial fluids flow permanentlyfrom
of the earth
diffused net-work
of communicating
through the universally
fissures. The brief and impetuous eruptivephenomena are
here placed beside the great peaceful sp"ring
-system of the
of the earth, which
refreshes and supports
crust
beneficently
organiclife. For thousands of years it returns to organized

the moisture

nature

which

by fallingrain.

has

Analogous phenomena

of that

concatenation
must

remain

not

phere
atmos-

mutually

are

wherever
; and
economy
the
of ideas, the intiat
mate
generalization

is made

attempt

the

of nature

illustrative in the eternal

an

from

drawn

been

which

is

allied

recognized as

unnoticed.

and

classification of springsinto cold

widely-disseminated
hot,which appears so natural in ordinaiy conversation,

has

but

The

be

very indefinite foundation

If the
data of temperature.

compared

with

"

fluid is called

cold, warm,

with

parts of the human

body, is

individual

sensations.

be established above

can

The

warm.

when

zone,

the average annual

at least presents a

call

annual

the

considerations

ascertained

springcold

in contact

climatic

not

exceed

of the air in the

same

zone,

exactitude,by affordinga
It has

the

upon

in any
does

temperature

temperature
scientific

of definite numbers.
to

at

ver.y different accordingto

No
absolute
degree of temperature
which a springshould be designated

to
proposition

its average

thermometer

hot, when

or

merical
nu-

springs
(found,with therF., according to

man

nio-electrical apparatus, to be 98"

98"-G
Brechet
and Becquerel),the degree of the
which

to

of

temperature

of

the internal heat

reduced

when

the

different

parison
com-

of leading

advantage
originof springs,as

of their temperature with

the annual
temperature of the air is recognizeddirectlyin unchangeable
springs; and in changeableones, as has been shown by

Wahlenberg
and
here

agreement

and

winter

Erman
months.

the

indicated,a springin

wrarm,

which

the averages
of the summer
in accordance
the
with
criterion

elder,in

But

one

hardly attains

the

zone

be

must

seventh

or

ated
denomin-

eighthpart

THERMAL

179

SPRINGS.

in another zone, near

the equaof temperature of one which
tor,
I may
differences
will be called cold.
mention
the
tween
bethe average temperature of St. Petersburg (38"-12 F.)
of the

Orinoco.

and

of the shores

which

of Atures*
vicinityof the cataracts
Maypures (81"-14 F.) or in the forest of Atabapo, had

and

I drank

in

The

purest springwater

the

79" F. ; even
than
the temperature
temperature of more
America
of the great rivers in tropicalSouth
corresponds
with the high degrees of heat of such coldf springs.
a

t. ii.,
Voyage aux Regions Equinoxiales,
p. 376.
of comparing the temperature of springswhere
they
the earth, with that of large rivers flowing
break forth directlyfrom
through open channels, I here bring together the following average
numbers
from my journals:
Rio Apure, lat. 7|" ; temperature, 81".
85"-3.
4=" and 8" of latitude;8l"-5"
Orinoco, between
of Maypures, breaking forth
Springs in the forest,near the cataract
from the granite,82".
Cassiquiare,the branch of the Upper Orinoco, which forms the union
with the Amazon;
only 750,7.
Carlos
San
Rio Negro, above
(scarcely1" 53' to the north of the
equator); only 740,8.
Rio Atabapo, 79" -2 (lat.3" 50').
the entrance
of the Atabapo, 82".
Orinoco, near
Rio Grande
de la Magdalena
(lat.5" 12' to 9" 56'), 79" 9'.
31'
5"
S. latitude,opposite to the Pongo of Rentema
Amazon,
de Bracamoros),scarcely 1300
feet above
the
(Provincia Jaen
South
Sea, only 72" -5.
The
of water
of the Orinoco
consequently approaches
great mass
die average
of
the
air
of
the
undations
vicinity. During great intemperature
*

Humboldt,

f For

the sake

of the

of
to

smell
yellowish-brown waters, which
this
of
92"
found
I
-8 ;
sulphuretedhydrogen, acquire a temperature
be the temperature in the Lagartero,to the east of Guayaquil, which

swarmed

crocodiles.

with

rivers,by the
With
regard

savannas,

warmth

the

soil there becomes

The

in it

produced

the multifarious

to

of the Rio

which

by

causes

is of

the sun's
of the low

heated,as in shallow
rays fallingupon it.
temperature

color
coffee-brown

of the

reflected

a
by
Negro,
of the Cassiquiare(a constantlyclouded
light,and of the white waters
and
sky, the quantity of rain,the evaporation from the dense forests,
the want
in
of hot sandy tracts upon
the banks), see my river voyage,
the Relation Historique,
the
Rio
Guancaand
In
t. ii.,
463
509.
p.
bamba
the Pongo de
or
Chamaya, which falls into the Amazon, near
I
found
the
be
to
Rentema,
only 67"*6, as its
temperature of the water
Simiwith prodigious swiftness from the elevated Lake
waters
come
On my voyage
of 52 days up the River Magcocha, on the Cordillera.
dalena,
from
from
Mahates
to Honda,
I perceived most
distinctly,
cated
indithat
the
was
rise
in
the
level
of
numerous
a
water
observations,
of the
for hours previouslyby a diminution
of the temperature
the cold mountriver. The refrigeration
ain
before
of the stream
occurred

water

waters
water

move,

from
so

the Paramos,
to

near

the

source,

speak, in opposite directions

came

Heat

down.

anil with

very

and

unequal

180

COSMOS.

breaking

The

of pressure

causes

out

of

and

by

water, is such
of the
the

most

bottom

sea.

results

were

flow forth at

waters

In

phenomenon

strata, and

of the

face
sur-

pointsfrom

some

others

at

taining
con-

from

the

the

first quarter of this century numerous

collected by Leopold von
Buch, Wahlen-

myself,with regard to
diffusion

the

universal

multifarious

of fissures

communication

mountain

of the

berg, and
and

the

earth,that

elevated

springs,effected by

of heat

the temperature of springs

the interior of the earth in

in

The
hemispheres,from 12" S. latitude to 71" N*
fully
carespringswhich have an unchangeable temperature were
from
the
those
which
with
seasons
separated
;
vary
and Leopold von
Buch
ascertained the powerful influence of
both

the

distribution

of rain

in the

to say, the

influence

of the

abundance

of winter

and

of the

variable

velocities.

When

recently!some

temperature
very

are

the

ingen-

suddenly, the temperature

As, during the night,when
low sandy islet,
the bank, with bag
one
or
upon
and baggage, a rapid rise of the river may
ery
be dangerous, the discovof a prognostic of the approaching rise (the avenida)is of some
importance.
Beschreibungtier canarischen InBuch, Physicalische
Leopold von
seln,s. 8 ; Poggendorf, Annalen, bd. xii.,s. 403 ; BibliothequeBritannique,Sciences et Arts, t. xix., 1802, p. 263 ; Wahlenberg, I)e Veget.et
Clbn. in Helvetia
SeptentrionaliObservatis,p. lxxviii. and Ixxxiv. ;
Flora
Carpathica,p. xciv.,and in Gilbert's Annalen, bd.
Wahlenberg,
xli.,s. 115 ; Humboldt, in the Mem. de la Soc. d' Arcueil,t. iii.(1817),
fell long before from
is established
a
upon

near

Badillas

is

that

relative

regards number,

as

More

the

the

rain upon

springs,which,

the water

year

proportionbetween

summer

widely distributed.

most

of the

course

rose

80" *6 to 74" '3.

p. 599.
f De

Gasparin, in the BibliothequeUniv. Sciences ct Arts, t. xxxviii.,

de la Soc.
Centrale tl Agriculture,
1828, p. 54, 113, and 264; Mem
la
Tableau
de
du
Climat
et
178
Vegetationde I'ltalie,
1826, p.
; Schouw,
la
Sur
dt,
vol. i.,1839, p. 133-195
temperature des sources
; Thurmann,
la
celle
de
des
des
la chaine du Jura, comparee
sources
plaine Suisse,
a
de la France, 1850,
Alpes et ties Vosges,in the Annuaire Meteorologique
and
autumn
As
regards the frequency of the summer
p. 258-268.
into
two
De
divides
strongly-contrasted
regions.
Europe
rains, Gasparin
Valuable

materials

bd. i.,s. 448-506.

"

376) in Italy,
is situated,the
fall in March

are

contained

in

at

According
places to the

maxima

and

of the

September

north
curves

and

Lehrbuch

der

Meteorologie,
(Poggend.,Annalen,bd. xxxv., s.

Kamtz,

to Dove

of which
of

where

chain

of mountains

monthly quantitiesof
the

mountains

lie to

rain
the

totalityof the proportionsof rain

the following
under
be
in the temperate zones
comprehended
may
borders of
rain
in
the
The
winter
of
of
view
:
period
general point
from
farther
the
we
these, into
the tropicsconstantlydivides,
depart
into r.
and
unite
these again
united
maxima
two
by slighterfalls,
south, in

April

and

October."
"

The

THERMAL

comparativeobservations

ious

have

Thurmann

by

hypsometricalpointof view, in

and
and

Gasparin, Schouw, and

light,in a geographical

De

considerable

thrown

accordance

this influence.

elevation, upon

latitudes

181

SPRINGS.

with

AVahlenberg

latitude
asserted

the

able
high
temperature of variaverage
of
that
than
is
rather
the
higher
atmosphere ;
springs
of
in
not
the
of
the
he sought
cause
this,
dryness a very cold
winter
rain caused
atmosphere and in the less abundant
thereby,but in the snowy coveringdiminishingthe radiation
ern
of heat from the soil. In those parts of the plain of NorthAsia
in which
a
perpetual icy stratum, or at least a
that in very

frozen

alluvial

soil,mixed

with

fragmentsof ice,is

found

at

only
depth of a" few feet,*the temperature of springs can
for
the
caution
be employed with
investigationof
great
Kupffer'simportant theory of the isogeothermallines. A
of heat
is then
two-fold
radiation
produced in the upper
of the earth : one
stratum
upward toward the atmosphere,
the icy stratum.
A long setoward
and another downward
ries
made
observations
of valuable
panion,
by my friend and comGustav
Rose, during our Siberian expeditionin the
between
heat of summer
(oftenin springs-stillsurrounded
by ice),
the Irtysch,the Obi, and the Caspian Sea, revealed a
Those which
great complicationof local disturbances.
sent
prefrom perfectly
different causes
in the tropicthemselves
al
mountain
springsburst forth upon
zone, in placeswhere
the
feet above
vast elevated plateaux,eightor ten thousand
isolated
sea
(Micuipampa, Quito, Bogota), or in narrow,
feet
thousand
mountain
higher,not only include
peaks many
a

far greater part of the surface of the earth, but also lead
conditions in the
of analogous thermic
to the consideration
a

mountainous
In

of the temperate
subjectit is above

countries

this

important
separate the cycleof

to

conclusions

which

actual observations
are

seek, expressedin the most

"

the distribution

of heat

founded

earth,the liquid and gaseous,

maximum

of rain

ceases

in

41-73.
Sec

the

What

them.
is of

ical
theoretwe

triplenature
which

is

covering(the ocean) and in

envelopesof the body of the
an
oppositealteration of tem-

Germany ; where, therefore, a temporary want

in the
altogether." See the section "Geothermik,"
bd. i. (1850), s.
Lehrbuch
der Geognosie,by Naumann,

summer

upon

thingsnecessary

from

general way,
in the crust of the earth

accessible to us, in the aqueous

the atmosphere.
In the two

excellent

zones.

all

above,

p. 47.

182

cosmos.

perature (diminutionand

prevailsin
the

of the

body

vertical

In

superposedstrata)

the

parts of the

solid

the temperature increases with the

is in the same
direction,although in
as

of which

formed

are

depth ;

a
very
aerial ocean, the shallows and
the elevated plateauxand tiform
mul-

in the

proportion,

different

in the

earth

alteration

rocks

increase

direction.

by
We

most
are
exactly acquainted
peaks.
the
of heat in the
with
distribution
direct
experiments
by
in latitude
atmosphere geographicallyby local determination
and in accordance
with hypsometricreand longitude,
lations
in proportionto the vertical elevation above
the surface
of the sea ; but in both cases
almost exclusively
in close

mountain

"

with

contact

the solid and

fluid parts of the surface

of

our

planet. Scientific and systematically

arrangedinvestigations
by aerostatic voyages in the free aerial ocean, beyond the
of the

action

near

furnish

but little adapted to

conditions
heat

which

in the

but

still very rare, and therefore

the numerical
data of average

earth, are

Upon the decrease of

necessary.
of the ocean
observations
ing;
not wantare

are

depths

so

currents, which

of

in water

bring

depths,and densities,prevent

different

of eral
genin the

the attainment

results,almost to a greater extent than currents

atmosphere. We have here touched preliminarily
upon
thermic

of the

conditions

of in detail

be treated

envelopesof

planet,which

our

hereafter,in order

of the vertical distribution

consider

to

tudes,
lati-

the

will

the influence

of heat in the solid crust

of the

lines,not
earth, and the system of the geo-isothermic
in too isolated a condition,but as a part of the all-penetrating
of heat, a trulycosmical activity.
motion
in many
respects, observations
upon
of temperature of springswhich
do
diminution

Instructive
the
not

as

unequal

with

vary

are,

the

seasons

increases

emergence

as

stillthe

"

local law

temperature of springscan

done,
that

as

waters

extent,

we

temperature

net- work

may

lower
be

the

ones.

be

in

of the

that

solid

and

Our

depth to

more

ing
diminish-

is often

regarded,as
If

of great

stratum

they

gradually

have

ground,

in

but

this

masses

elevated

certain

were

we

case

mix

waters

mining operations,inconsiderable

which

they attain, are

the
can

with
as

very instructive
edge
direct knowl-

should only obtain

a
respect ; but we
lines if thermometers
of the isogeothermal

in this

point of

their

of such

horizontal

of fissures of elevated
Colder

rarelyoccur.
the

unmixed

might certainly
suppose

acquired the
great

not

geothermic law.

universal
flowed

height of

the

were

buried.

183

SPRINGS.

THERMAL

accordingto Boussingault'smethod,* to a depth below that

affected by the influences of the changes of temperature of
the neighboringatmosphere, and at very different elevations
From
the forty-fifth
above the sea.
degreeof latitude to the
parts of the tropicalregionsin the vicinityof the equator,
the stratum
of invariable temperature
the depth at which
from
60
to
diminishes
commences
ljror 2 feet. Burying
the geothermometer at a small depth,in order to obtain
a
of
the
is
of
fore
therethe
earth,
knowledge
average temperature
the
between
tropicsor in the
readilypracticableonly
excellent
The
expedient of Artesian
sub-tropicalzone.
wells, which
54

every

feet,has
sea.f

58

to

much

of heat

depths of

from

afforded

only been

of the equator, at an
the temperature
found
fissures of the

which

waters

were

traced

their

the
to

in the baths

Yupanqui, upon the ridge of

from springsof
probably come
I have

of

limestone

heated

the Andes

to

2345

physicistin

tricts
dis-

the level of the

penetrating
The
be 52"*3 F.J
of the Inca Tupac
(Paso del Assuay),
water

the Ladera

also ran, barometrically

to
causeway
feet (almost that of Mont
Blanc)."

an

Cadlud, where

de

which

near

course,

745

Andes,
elevation of nearly 13,200

6" 45/ south

feet,and
through the

the

of 1" F. for

in the chain of the

visited silver mines

I have

to

feet above

1600

than

more

increase

an

feet in absolute

hitherto

not

indicated

have

old

the

elevation

These

are

Peruvian
of

15,526

the

highest

ica.
points at which I could observe spring water in South AmerIn Europe the brothers
Schlagintweit have found gallery-water
in the

gold mine

in the

Eastern

Alps

at

height
springs

of 9442

and found that the temperature of small

feet,
the opening of the galleryis only 33"*4 F.,|]
tance
near
at a disfrom any snow
or
glacierice. The highest limits of
springsare very different accordingto geographicallatitude,
the elevation

of the

snow

line and

the relation of the

hisrhest

ridgesand plateaux.
If the radius of our
to be increased
by the
planet were
and therefore
heightof the Himalaya at the Kintschindjunga,
surface by 28,175 feet (4-34 English
the whole
uniformly over
miles),with this small increase of only -g^jthof the

peaks to

the

mountain

See Cosmos, vol. i.,p. 221, and vol. v., p. 42.

f See above, p. 39.
de Chota, I.c.
X Mina de Gaudalupe, one of the Minas
393.
Views
" Humboldt,
of Nature, p.

!|Mine
Hermann
lische

on

the Great

Fleuss

in the

Moll

Valley of

the

sup., p. 41.
Tauern

Schlagintweit,Untersuchnngen iiber die

and Adolph
Geographic der Alpen, 1850,

s.

242-273.

; see

]"hysika-

1S4

COSMOS.

radius, the heat

(according

to

in the

surface,cooled by radiation,would

Fourier's

analyticaltheory) almost

the

be

same

But
is in the upper crust of the earth.
if individual
now
as
surface
the
of
raise
themselves
in
mountain
chains
parts
of the aerial
and narrow
peaks, like rocks upon the bottom
it

place in the interior of the

elevated strata, and this is modified
by contact with strata
of air of different temperature, by the capacityfor heat and
of heterogeneouskinds of rocks, by the
conductive
power
and declivities,
sun's action on the forest-clad summits
by the
ocean,

of heat takes

diminution

less radiation

greater and

of the

mountains

in accordance

their form

their massiveness, or their conical

(relief),
The
and pyramidal narrowness.
specialelevations of the
and ice coveringsat various elevations
region of clouds,the snow
the
of the snow
cool currents
line,and the frequency of
declivities
of air coming down
the steep
at particular
of
the
effect
terrestrial
of
the
radiation.
the day, alter
times
of the summits
become
In proportionas the towering cones
of heat tending toward, but never
current
cooled,a weak
reaching an equilibrium,sets in from below upward. The
tribution
recognitionof so many factors acting upon the vertical disof heat leads to well-founded
ing
presumptionsregardof complicatedlocal phenomena, but not
the connection
In the mountain
determinations.
to direct numerical
springs
er,
(and the higher ones, being important to the chamois-huntthe doubt
are
carefullysought) there so often remains
troduce
that they are mixed
with waters, which
by sinkingdown inthe colder temperature of higher strata, or by ascer.dFrom
temperature of lower strata.
ing introduce the warmer
the
Kamtz
draws
nineteen springsobserved by Wahlenberg,
rise from
960 to 1023
must
conclusion that in the Alps we
feet in order to see the temperature of the springssink 1" C.
of observations,selected with
(1"*8F.). A greater number
in the
and Adolph Schlagintweit,
more
care
by Hermann
Swiss Alps, on
Carinthian
eastern
Alps and in the western
the Monte
Kosa, give only 7G7 feet. According to the great
with

work*

of these excellent
of

the

somewhat
springs is certainly

of the average

that

Alps

observers," the decrease

amounts

annual
to

about

more

temperature of
320

the

feet for 1" F.

of the temperature

gradualthan
air,which
The

in

springs

than the average

temperature
are, in general,warmer
of the air at the same
the
level ; and the difference between
temperature of the air and springsincreases with the eleva-

there

Monte

Rosa, 1853, chap, vi.,s.

212-225.

186
the

cosmos.

fissures and

chambers

of the

elevated

volcano.

These

in the strata
perpetuallyproduce a refrigeration
which
"Without
down.
them
the whole
they run
through
of the doleritic and trachyticmountains
would
acquire,even
is
at times when
still higher
no
near
a
foretold,
eruption
from the volcanic source,
temperature in their interior,
petually
perin action, although perhaps not
the
at
same
lying
in
in
the
all
latitudes.
of
Thus,
depth
varying struggle the
waters

of heat

causes

of heat

and

and

upward

have

cold, we
downward

to

assume

in those

and

elevated

peaks

the

relief formation

two

thirds of the

of

form

very
continents ;
surface

entire

conical

placeswhere

solid parts ascend into the atmosphere.

As regardsthe area
which
they occupy,

tide

constant

however,

ains
mount-

small

phenomenon in
and, moreover,
nearly

of the

is sea-bottom

earth

of

(accordingto
present state
geographicaldiscoveryin
of
both
the
polar regions
hemispheres,we may assume
in
of
be
the
and
land
of
8
ratio
to
This
: o).
proportion sea
is directlyin contact
with
strata, which, being
aqueous
and
themselves
in accordance
with
slightlysalt,
depositing
the maximum
of their density(at 38" -9),possess an icy coldness.
Exact
observations
by Lenz and Du Petit-Thouars
that within
the tropics,
where
have shown
the temperature
the

the

of the

surface

of the

temperature of 36"*5
seven

or

could

eight hundred

of the

80o,6, water
from

up

depth

of

phenomena which prove

the polarregions. The

"

from

currents

to

drawn

be

fathoms

of under

the existence

is 78"*8

ocean

of this constant, sub-oceanic refrigeration

of by
consequences
far the greater part of the crust of the earth deserve a degree
of attention
and

which

they have

islands of small

sea-bottom

must

as

present

size,which

like
project,

cones,

the

that of parts of equal circumference

interior of continents.
In a very elevated

island,the submarine
has

the strata

they

come

pass into the

in contact, under
of dark

temperature

thermic

with

contact

and

conditions
in

the

heat, with

diminishes
of

the

fluid which

vertical

with

opposed

are

the

of insolation

and

increase

as

sea,

and

which

fluid in

gaseous
the elevation.

decrease

direction

But

below

influence

in

mass

mountainous

upward.
atmosphere unmoistened
by

free radiation
the

part is in

increasing
temperature from

an

from

surface

from

the

Rocks

received.

of the water, and narrow

muses,
isthPanama
and Darien, washed
by great oceans,
ferent
distribution of heat in their rocky strata dif-

above

such

hitherto

not

Similar
of temperature

repeated between

two

Caspian

seas, the

largeinland

187

SPRINGS.

THERMAL

Aral

and

Sea, in the

narrow

In order,
Ust-Urt, which separates them from each other.
however, to clear up such complicatedphenomena, the only

employed are such as borings of great depth,

which
lead directly
to the knowledge of the internal heat of
of springs,
of the
the earth, and not merely observations
or
temperature of the air in caves, which givejustas uncertain
of mines.
and chambers
results as the air in the galleries
chain or
low plain is compared with a mountain
When
a
plateau,risingboldlyto a height of many thousand feet,the
law

be

to

means

of temperature does not

of two
vertical elevation

diminution

and

of the increase

depend simply upon the relative

mit
pointson the earth's surface (in the plain and on the sumshould calculate from the supof the mountain). If we
position
of a definite proportion in the change of temperature
of feet from the plain upward to
in a certain number
the

summit,

from

or

the summit

in the interior of the mountain

level

the

surface

the

as

summit

find the

of the

too

downward

in the
far too

interior of the mountain

stratum

the

at

in the

should

plain,we

cold,and

lies

which

mass

the

to

other
hot.

the

same
case

one

in

stratum

distribution

The

of
(an undulation
graduallyslopingmountain
the surface of the earth) is dependent, as has alreadybeen
lation,
insoremarked, upon form, mass, and conductibility
; upon
the
of heat
toward
clear or cloudy
and
radiation
the contact
of the atmosphere ; and upon
and play of
strata
of air.
the ascending and descending currents
According
ant,
to such assumptions,mountain
springsmust be very abundof heat

in

of four
elevations
very moderate
the temperature would
exceed
feet,where
at

even

temperature of the localityby 72

would

it be

which

at

at

elevation

an

who

mica
had

of Jorullo
many

thousands
heat

was

I differ here
who

has

done

of

often

and

snow,

gneissand

foot

the

of

14,900

exhibit

schist!*

been

mountains

much

no

The

under

the

are

volcanic

service

of
as

only

in the fact of the

cano
vol-

one

of my

a
no

unusual

himself,at

trial
terres-

my

best friends, a

vnd

for

plain where

regards the distribution

the hot springs of Leuck

of
See, "upon the cause
Lehrbuch
der
Chemischen
Bischof,
Warmbrum,"
bcl. i.,s. 127-133.
ologie,
heat.

petual
per-

rock, but

great mathematician,

upheaved, in

opinion

excellent

tropics,

stillfree.from

of square miles around

to be detected,occupied
from

the

rier,
Fou-

interested

been

having

feet

sand
five thou-

the average
degrees; and how

90

or

or

re-

icist
physof telluric

and

Ge~
Physikalischen

188

cosmos.

quest, in the very year before his death, with

the

vestigationsupon
mountains

and

isothermal

surfaces

form

new

of

plays in this

are

elevation

of

of the

from

strata

differently
covered,

are

important part than the direction

cleavage planes of the rock, in cases

more

(inclination)of the

stratification is observable.

where

already elsewhere

I have

of ancient

environs

the

in

in~

lateral radiation

level,but

same

case

theoretical

the

surface

in the

The

soil.

the

in

earth, the
brought into equilibrium with the

alterations

the

lie in

which

question,how

mentioned*

how

the hot

springs

Carthage, probably the thermal

springs of Pertusa
(aqua?calidce of Hammam-el-Enf), led
Bishop Patricius,the martyr, to the correct view of the
of the higher or lower
cause
temperature of the bubbling
When

waters.

accused

bishop by

Proconsul

Julius

JEtna
*

see

and

tried to
"

the

mocking question, Quo

Patricius

hcec aqua iantum

ebulUatf
of the central heat, " which

vens

"

the

Vesuvius, and communicates

With
regard to this passage,
Cosmos, vol. i.,p. 223, 224.
et
caeli,
supra firmamentum

suiter

fer-

and

his theory

Saint

says

heat

more

de

by Dureau

autem,"

auctore

fieryeruptionsof

more

discovered
"Est

the

forth

set

the

causes

confuse

la Malle,
Patricius,

ignis atque aqua ; et

appellationem marium
:
unum,
quae supra
aqua,
infra, abyssorum suscepit; ex
quibus ad generis humani
quae vero
in terram
velut siphones quidam emittuntur
et scaturiunt.
Ex
usus
thermae
exsistunt
ab
iisdem
absunt
et
:
igne
quarum
quae
quoque
longius,provida boni Dei erga nos mente, frigidiores;
quae vero profluunt.
In
locis
etiam
et tepidae
quibusdam
pius admodum,ye?-re?2fes
intervallo
ab
sunt
igne
disjunctae."
aquae reperiuntur,pro ut majore
et

terram

So
et

run

tbe words

studio

collection:

Acta

Primorwm

Theodorid

According
sanctce

in the

in

coacta

est

terram

to

Rainart, ed. 2, Amstelaedami,

another
report (A. S. Mazochii, in

Kcclesice
Neapolitance

Kalcndariinn

Martyr inn,
1713

fol.,p.

vetus

opera
555.

marmoreum

commentarius, vol. ii.,

Neap.

744, 4to, p. 385), Saint Patricius developed nearly the same

theory
of telluric heat before the Proconsiil Julius ; but at the conclusion
of
1

his

cold hell is

indicated : "Nam
gius
distinctly
quae lonabsunt, Dei optimi providentia frigidiores
At quae propioresigni sunt, ab eo fervefactae,
intolerabili
erumpunt.
calore praeditae
foras.
Sunt
alicubi
et
tepidae,quippe non
promuntur
sed longiusculeab eo igne remotae.
Atque ille infernus ignis
parum
carnificina ; non
subterraneus
ac
impiarum est animarum
secus
frigiin
dissimus
glaciei glebas concretus, qui Tartarus nuncupatur."
gurges,
The Arabic
and is,as Temple
Hammam-el-Enf, signifies
nose-baths,
name,
of a neighboring
has already remarked, derived
from
the form
by this thermal
promontory, and not from a favorable action exerted

speech the
ab igne

water

upon
altered

more

subterranco

diseases

of the

nose.

Hammam

The

Arabic
1'Enf

name

has

been

Lif, Emmamelif

by reporters :
(Desfontaines). See Gumprecht,
sonel),la Mamelif
len avfdem Fcstlande von
Africa (1851), s. 140-144.
or

Die

ly
various-

(Peys-

Mineralquel-

189

'

SPRINGS.

THERMAL

springs,in proportionas they have a deeper origin."

the hell
the learned bishopPlato's Pyriphlegethonwas
With
the
time to remind
of sinners ; and as though he desired at
same
of the cold hells of the Buddhists, an aqua gelidissione
in glaciem is admitted, somewhat
unphysically
concrescens
ma
for
the
the
and notwithstanding
Jiniendum
depth,
nunquam
the

to

suppliciumimpiorum.
hot springs,those which, approaching the boiling
Among
of water, attain a temperature of 194"
than
is usuallysupposed,in consequence

heat
rare

F.

far

are

more

of inexact

servations
ob-

of still
in the vicinity
they occur
I was
active volcanoes.
so
fortunate,during my American
of the most
two
important of these
travels,as to investigate
the tropics. In Mexico, not far from
springs,both between
;

silver mines

rich

the

least of all do

of about

elevation

an

of

6500

Chichemequillo,*the Aguas

from

mountain

of basalt

1803, I found

their

of basalt has

and

lat.,and

at

the surface of the sea,

de Comangillas burst forth
In

basaltic breccia.

in the

be

to

temperature

broken

N.

feet above

near

mass

in 21"

Guanaxuato,

form

20o"-5

ber,
SeptemF.

of veins

This

through

white syenite
a
upon
rich in quartz.
At
a
greater elevation,but not far from
of
this nearly boilingspring,near
Los Joares,to the north
columnar

Santa

porphyry, which

de la

Rosa

again rests

falls from

Sierra,snow

elevation

December

to

April

of 8700

feet,and the inhabitants prepare

sins.
by radiation in artificial bayear round
On the road from
Nueva
Valencia, in the Valles de
Aragua, toward the harbor of Porto Cabello (in about 10j"
of latitude),
the northern
ezuela,
on
slopeof the coast chain of Ven-

even

from

at

an

ice the

whole

the

gneiss.
F., while

saw

stratified

aguas

granite,which

I foundf the
the

calientes de las Trincheras

Bonos

does

not

springing
at

pass

springs,in February, 1800,

de

Mariara, in

Valles

all into
194"-5

at

de

Aragua,
of
138"*7
a
belong to the gneiss,showed
temperature
F.
of
Twenty-three years later,and again in the month
February, Boussingault and RiveroJ found in the Mariara
the

which

Humboldt, Essai Politiquesur la Kouvelle Espagne, ed. 2, t. iii.

(1827),p. 190.
The
hot
f Relation Historique,t. ii.,
p. 98; Cosmos, vol. i.,p. 222.
springsof Carlsbad also originatein the granite (Leop. von Buch, in
Poggend., Anmlen, bd. xii.,s. 230), just like the hot. springsof Moforth
in Thibet, visited by Joseph Hooker, which
near
break
may,

Cbangokhang,

at

an

temperature of 115"
X Boussingault,

elevation

of 16.000

feet

above

the

tea,

with

{Himalayan Journal,vol. ii.,p. 133).

"

Considerations

sur

les

eaux

thermales

des

Cor

190

COSMOS.

exactly1470,2
at

F.

and

small

elevation

F.,

in the other

198"

in the Trincheras

above

F.

206"-6

risen
springshad, therefore,

hot

these

between

and

in the

mentioned

attention

interval

that

overwhelmed

which

1812.

March,

strong in

not

so

eva

Valencia);

to

the

fearful

commotion

the

vicinityof

it

far and

the

of these

short interval

F.,
has

above-

took

the

on

the surface

not

8"*5

in the

was

earthquake

place
of

26th

indeed,
of Tacarigua (Nutic
earth, where elas-

the Lake

fissures,
may

upon
propagated itself so

basin

one

about

Caraccas
at

Cabello,

Boussinsault

in the interior of the

act

vapors

fact that

The

but

F.

the

city of

the

in

temperature

in Mariara

12"-1

about

Porto

Sea,

unequally in

"

Trincheras

justlycalled

The

periods

two

de

the Caribbean

was,

which

movement

powerfullyreadilyalter the
The
and open deeper canals of supply1
fissures,
hot waters
of the Trincheras,risingfrom a graniteformation,
are
nearly pure, as they only contain traces of silicic acid,a
little sulphuretedhydrogen and nitrogen; after forming numerous
surrounded
ant
luxuriby a
very picturesquecascades,
constitute
the
Rio
de Aguas
a
river,
vegetation,they
calientes ; and this,toward
the coast, is full of large crocodiles,
the warmth, alreadyconsiderably
to which
diminished,
is very
52/ N.

so

of

net-work

suitable.

In the most

northern

parts of India

(30"

and also from

lat.),
granite,issues the very hot well
of Jumnotri, which
attains a temperature of 194" F., and,
it presents this high temperature at an elevation of 10,850
as
pheric
feet,almost reaches the boilingpoint proper to this atmos-

pressure.*
Among the intermittent hot springs,the Icelandic boiling
fountains,and of these especiallythe Great Geyser and
cording
Strokkr, have justly attained the greatest celebrity.Acof Bunsen,
admirable
to the
recent
investigations
Sartorius

von

of the

Waltershausen, and
streams

from

manner
a

truncated

horizontal

basin

the funnel

of

and

surrounded

in
dilleres,

below

of 25

cone

layersof

shallow

of water

the

in both

upward.

to

30

diminishes

In

perature
tem-

in

markable
re-

The

feet in

silicious sinter.

of 52 feet in

Descloiseaux, the

Geyser possesses
formed
by
height,

this

diameter, in the

cone

centre

there

lies

of which

third of its diameter,

boiling spring,one
to
a
by perpendicular walls, goes down

the Annates

de CMmie

et

de

Physique,t. iii.,1833,

p. 188-^

190.
*

in

On the Temperature of the Wells

and
Captain Newbold,
India and Egypt" (Phil. Transact, for 1815, pt. i.,p. 127).
"

River?

THERMAL

191

SPRINGS.

depth of 75 feet. The temperature of the water, which

At very regular intervals
constantlyfills the basin,is 180".
of

hour

one

and

20

30

or

of the

proclaims the commencement

water, of
ones

the

feet

thunder

eruption.

about
thickness, of which
another, attain a height of 100

follow

one

150

feet.

temperature of

The

found

been

has

before

little while

the

feet in

funnel

minutes

to

the

the

below

jets of
three
large

The

and

times
some-

ascendingin
be 260" -G at a depth of 72
eruption,during the eruption
water

255"-5, and immediately after it 251"*6; at the surface of

185".
The Strokkr, which
the basin it is only 183"
is also
"

of the

has a smaller mass

of
Bjarnafell,
sinter margin of its basin is
than the Geyser. The
water
The
only a few inches in height and breadth.
eruptions
are
more
frequentthan in the Geyser, but do not announce
In the Strokkr
themselves
thunder.
the
by subterranean
239" at a depth
temperature during the eruptionis 235"
surface.
of 42 feet,
and almost
212"
The
at the
eruptions
of the intermittent boilingsprings,
and the slightchanges in
the type of the phenomena, are perfectly
independentof the
disturbed by the
eruptions of Hecla, and were
by no means
1845
latter in the years
and
With
his peculiar
1846."

situated

at

the

base

"

in observation

acuteness

and

discussion,Bunsen

has

refuted

the earlier

of the Geyhypothesesregardingthe periodicity

ser
ers,
steam-boileruptions(subterranean caldrons,which, as
are

filled sometimes

According

with

him

vapors

and

the

sometimes

with

ter).
wa-

eruptions
by
tion
porof water, which
has acquired a high temperature
lower point under
lated
great pressure of accumubeing forced upward, and thus coming under
to

caused

are

of the column
at

vapors,
pressure which

Sartorius

does

not

correspond with

its temperature.

Skizze von
Waltershausen, Physisch-geographische
Riicksicht auf Vidkanische Erscheinungen,1847,
and Descloiseaux, in the Comptes rendus des Ses. 128-132
; Bunsen
de VAcad.
ances
des Sciences,t. xxiii.,1846, p. 935; Bunsen, in the
Annalen
der Chemie
und Pharmacie, bd. lxii.,
Lottin
3847, s. 27-45.
and Robert
had already found
that the temperature of the jet of water
in the Geyser diminishes
from
below
the forty
upward. Among
silicious bubbling springs,which
situated
in the vicinityof the
are
Great Geyser and Strokkr, one
bears the name
of the Little Geyser.
Its jet of water
boiling springs
only rises 20 or 30 feet. The term

Island,mit

von

besonderer

is
(Kochbrunnen)
with

the Icelandic

derived

from

the

word

is connected

Geyser,which
land

of Thibet

giosa (to boil). On

high
de Koros, there is,near
according to the report of Esoma
Lake
Mapham, a Geyser, which rises to the height of 12
the

the
feet.

also,
Alpi?ie

192

cosmos.

this way

In

"

Geysers

the

natural

are

collectors

of steam

power."
the

Of

hot

purity;

others

gaseous

matters.

few

springs a
contain

Among

euil,PfefFer,and

approach nearly to

solutions

of 8

former

the

12

"

are

absolute

parts of solid or
the baths of Lux-

of which
Gastein, the efficacy
of their

may
appear
all springs

purity.*
mysterious
fed principally
meteoric
by
water, they contain nitrogen,
as
Boussingaulthas proved in the very puref springsflowing
from the granite in Las Trincheras
de Porto
Cabello, and
BunsenJ in the Cornelius spring at Aix and in the Geyser
of Iceland.
The
dissolved in many
organic matter
springs
also contains nitrogen,and is even
sometimes
bituminous.
Until it was
known, from the experiments of Gay-Lussac
and myself,that rain and snow
contain more
water
oxygen
than the atmosphere (the former
10, and the latter at least
8 per cent, more), it appeared very remarkable
that a gaseous
could be evolved from the springs
mixture
rich in oxygen
of Nocera, in the Apennines.
The
analysesmade by GayLussac
during our stay at this mountain
springshowed that
it only contained
nished
much
as
as
might have been furoxygen
be astonished
If we
to it by atmosphericmoisture."
material of which
at the silicious depositsas a constructive
on

so

account

As

are

constituents

only

finds in the

Trommsdorf

parts of

in 1000
in

0-236

parts;

Luxeuil;

common

on

springsof

Lowig,

0*291

the other
in Berne

well-water

only 0-303 of solid

PfefFer; and Longchamp

Gastein
in

hand,

0-478

; 5*459

were

in the

found

in 1000

Carlsbad

bling
bub-

7*454 in Wiesbaden' (Studer,Phjsikal.Geospring; and even

ed. 2, 1847, cap. i.,s. 92).
graphieund Geologic,
hot springswhich
gush from the granite of the Cordillera
f "The

(of Venezuela) are nearlypure ; they only contain a small

solution,and hydrosulphuric acid gas, mixed
with a little nitrogen. Their composition is identical with that which
would
result from the action of water
nates
upon sulphuret of silicon" (Ande Chimie et de Physique,t. lii.,
1833, p. 189). Upon the great
in the hot spring of Orense
quantity of nitrogen which is contained
Minerales de Esde las Fuentes
(154"*4),see Maria Rubio, Tratado
of the coast

quantity

of silica in

1853, p. 331.
Sartorius
von
X
Waltershausen, Skizze von Island,s. 125.
The
"
distinguishedchemist
Morechini, of Rome, had stated

pana,

the

contained
in the spring of Nocera
(situated 2240 feet above
oxygen
the sea) to be 0*40; Gay-Lussac (26th September, 1805) found the
exact

0*31

quantityof

oxygen

to

be

only 0*299.

We

in meteoric
of oxygen
waters
(rain). Upon
in the acid springsof Neris and Bourbon

(1834);
Anglade and Longchamp
admirable
Bischof's
exhalations
in general, see
bd. i.,s. 243-350.
Chemische
Geologie,

works

of

had

previouslyfound
tained
nitrogen gas conl'Archambault, see the
the

and

on

carbonic

acid

in his
investigations

194

cosmos.

spring which gives rise to an entire river of

by sulphur,the Vinegar River {Rio Vinagre),
is a remarkable
by the aborigines,
enon
phenom-

thermal

acidified

water

called Pusambio
to

rises at

which

I first called

of about

elevation

an

of the
declivity

attention.
feet

of

volcano

The

10,660
Purace,

at

on

Rio
the

Vinagre

ern
northwest-

the foot of which

It forms three picturesque

cityof Popayan is situated.
I have
cascades,*of one of which
given a representation,
fallingover a steep trachyticwall probably 320 feet in perpendicular
the
the
small
From
where
river
height.
point
the

3
Cauca, this great river,for a distance of 2
miles (from 8 to 12 English miles)downward, as far as the
and
Palace, contains no fish;
junctions of the Pindaraon

falls into the

which

"

be

must

great inconvenience

to

the inhabitants

of

of fasts!
According to
Popayan, who are strict observers
of the Pusambio
the waters
Boussingault's
subsequentanalysis,
contain
a
great quantityof sulphuretedhydrogen and
Near
the source,
carbonic acid,with some
sulphateof soda.
The
Boussingault found the temperature to be 163".
per
upruns
underground. Degenhardt
part of the Pusambio
in
(of Clausthal, the Harz), whose early death has caused a
in
hot spring in 1846
a
great loss to geognosy, discovered
of the volcano
of the
the Paramo
the declivity
de Ruiz, on
same

at

name,

of
found

the

of the Rio

sources

12,150 feet,in

three

times

as

the

water

Guali,
of which

sulphuric acid

much

Vinagre.
of the temperature and
The equability
of springs,as far as we
ascertain
can
is far

of these

One

On

pi.xxx.

the

cascades

the Paramo

Ecuatoriales,1849,
t The examples
of Mariara

water,

whose

Aroanic

and

de

than

the

at

an

tude
alti-

Boussingault
as

in

chemical
from

the

Rio

tion
constitu-

servations,
reliable ob-

which
instability!

Vues dcs Cordilleres,

my
singault,
of the Rio Vinagre, see Bous-

represented in
the water

et de Physique, 2e se'rie,
t. hi., 1833,
serie,t. xviii.,1846, p. 503; on the spring in
d los Andes
Ruiz, see Joaquin Acosta, ViajesCientijicos

Dumas,
de

is

analysisof

in the Annales
p. 397, and

remarkable

more

and

Chimie

3e

p. 89.
of alteration

of temperature in the thermal

springs
the Styx
Las Trincheras
lead to the question whether
in the wild
is situated
difficult of access,
so
source,

Nonacris, in the district of Pheneos,

Alps of Arcadia, near
sures
fisperniciousqualitiesby alteration in the subterranean
ally
of supply ? or whether
the waters
of the Styx have only occasionbeen injuriousto the wanderer
by their icy coldness ? Perhaps
indebted
for
their
evil
reputation,which has been transmitted
they are
inhabitants
of
to the present
Arcadia, only to the awful wildness and
desolation of the neighborhood, and to the myth of their origin from

has lost its

has

detected.
occasionally

been

which, during their long and

a

variety of

are
are

have
forth,
exert

also

and
tivity,
how

strata

transforming and

upward by
changes of

the

them

to

with

sometimes

at

the

time

same

are

the

formative

many
been

vein-crevices
filled from

dissolved

temperature, by

vesicular

internal

produced

In this way
druses
been
have
sometimes

cavities.

loids appear
to
of the veins has taken
deposition

and

cient
(anbelow

elements.

By

chemical
electro-

of the lateral

the

are

ac-

of great geognostic importance.

with wonderful
acuteness

is that

of concretion

masses

they
they

places where

attraction
specific
processes,
sometimes
lamellar
(the rock traversed),
and

such

up
which

the springsburst
through
of a totally
different nature.
They

depositionof

pressure

take

course,

waters) have

and

spring waters,

which

extremely probable it
of thermal

hot

rocks

the

in this respect they

Senarmont
has shown

courses

walls

tortuous

often carry
action

an

The

from

constituents

in contact, and
deficient in the

195

SPRINGS.

THERMAL

and
deposits,
in fissures

porous

formed.

and

amygdaWhere

the

placein parallel
zones, these
zones
usuallycorrespond with each other symmetrically in
their nature, both vertically
and laterally. Senarmont
has
of
succeeded
number
in preparing a considerable
minerals
methods.!
artificially,
analogous synthetical
by perfectly
Tartarus.

young

and

learned

Theodor
philologist,

Schwab,

ceeded
suc-

years ago, with great exertion,in penetrating to the

wall from which
the spring trickles down, exactly as described
a

rocky
by Homer,

few

He
drank
of the water,
Hesiod, and Herodotus.
some
but
the
was
extremely cold,
taste, without
very pure to
ceiving
perund Geany injuriouseffects (Schwab, Arkadien, seine Natur
the ancients
it was
asserted that the
schichte,
1852, s. 15-20). Among
of the Styx burst all vessels except those made
coldness of the water
The
of the hoof of an ass.
legendsof the Styx are certainlyvery old,
but the report of the poisonous propertiesof its spring appears to have
been widely disseminated
only in the time of Aristotle.
According
of Antigonus of Carystus (Hist.Mirab., " 174), it was
to a statement
contained
has
very circumstantiallyin a book of Theophrastus, which
been lost to us.
The
calumnious
fable of the poisoningof Alexander
of the Styx, which Aristotle communicated
to Cassander
by the water
contradicted
Plutarch
and
inated
by Antipater, wras
by
Arrian, and dissemand
tioning
by Vitruvius, Justin,
Quintus Curtius,but without menthe Stagirite(Stahr, AristoteUa,th. i., 1830, s. 137-140).
Aristotelis
ambiguously: "Magna
Pliny (xxx., 53) says, somewhat
infamia
excogitatum." See Ernst Curtius, Peloponnesus (1851), bd.
i.,s. 194-196, and 212; St. Croix, Examen
Critiquedes Anciens Hisof the
A representationof the cascade
toriens d' Alexandre, p. 49G.
durch
Fiedler's
Reise
is
drawn
in
from
contained
a
Styx,
distance,
Griechenland,th. i.,s. 400.
*
"
Very important metalliferous lodes, perhaps the greater numwhich

196

COSMOS.

of my

One

friends,a

intimate

observer, will,I hope, before

work

from

long publish a

upon the conditions

with great acumen

in it treat

long series of recent

phenomenon of disturbances.
a

made

by

him

highly endowed

in

and

new

of temperature

ant
import-

of

springs,and
universality,
by induction
observations,upon the involved
and

In the determinations

(on

Germany

the

of temperature

Rhine)

vicinityof

in the Albanian

great elevations.*

The

the

scientific

and

in

mountains
Italy (in
Rome,
and
the year
1845
the Apennines) from
to 1853, Eduard
Kallmann
1,
:
the
distinguishes
Purely meteorological
springs,
of
which
is
increased
the
internal
not
by
average temperature
heat of the earth ; 2. Meteorologico-gcological
springs,which,
of
the
of
distribution
being independent
rain, and warmer
than the air,only undergo such alterations of temperature as
communicated
are
to them
by the soil through which they
flow out ; 3. Abnormally cold springs,
which
bring down their
coldness

from

been

more

have

we

advanced

less

obstructed,and

while the veins filled with

by solution,
canals more
to be nothing but immense
seem
or
formerly traversed by incrustingthermal waters.

The

formation

great number

have

bcr, appear

to

concretions

of metal

these

lodes

removed

of

does

from

formed

always
existingcauses.
not

which

of minerals

presuppose
The two

conditions

with

met

are

agents very

or

in
far

principalelements of the most

thermal
the
alkaline
sulphuretsand carbonates,
widely-diffused
waters,
have
enabled
to reproduce artificially,
me
by very simple synthetic
methods, 29 distinct mineral species,nearly all crystallized,
ing
belongmetals
to the native
(native silver,copper, and arsenic),quartz,
of iron, nickel,zinc,manganese,
specular iron,carbonates
sulphate
of baryta,pyrites,malachite, copper
pyrites,sulphuret of copper, red
We
silver.
arsenical and antimonial
approach as closelyas possible
succeed
in reproducing minerals
of nature, if we
to the processes
of the most
ly
widein their conditions
of possibleassociation,
by means
and
the
diffused natural chemical
imitating
phenomena
by
agents,
.

which
has

still see

we

concentrated

realized
the

in the

remains

foci in which

of that

the

mineral

activitywhich

it

creation

formerhy

played
dis-

with a very different energy." (H. de Senarmont, Sur la Formation

Annales
de Chemie
the
la
in
des Miner avx
Vote
et de
Humide,
par
also Elie de Beaumont,
t. xxxii.,1851, p. 234 ; see
Physique,3e serie,
les Emanations
in the Bulletin de la
Sur
et
]\tetalliferes,
Volcaniques
Socictc Gcologiquede France, 2e serie,t. xv., p. 129.)
*

"In

order

to

ascertain

temperature of springsfrom

the

amount

of variation

of the

average

served
obair,Dr. Eduard Kallmann
at his former
residence,Marienberg, near
Boppard, on the
of rain,and the temperature
Rhine, the temperature of the air, the amount
of seven
springs for five years, from the 1st December, 1845,
to
a

the
new

30th

November,

upon

these

observations

of
relative temperature
with
a
perfectly constant
springs

elaboration
the

1850;

that of the

of the

purely geologicalsprings)are

excluded.

On

he

has founded

springs.

vestigation
In this in-

temperature

the other

hand,

(the

all those

THERMAL

197

SPRINGS.

of late years, by the successful employment of chemistry,in

the geognosticinvestigation
of the formation
and metamorph-

springshave
alteration
"The

been

made

the

which
subjectof investigation

in their temperature
according to the seasons.
variable springs fall into two
natural groups

Purely meteorological
springs:that

"1.

air when

March,

to

age
aver-

these

the aerial average

of rain through

from
amount

colder than the

average
rain
of
for
the
four
cold
ber
proportion
months, from Decem-

the

to

amounts

than

warmer

average

is to say, those whose

heat of the earth.
In

demonstrably not elevated by the

of variation of the average
springsthe amount
is dependent upon the distribution of the annual
the twelve months.
These
springs are on the
is

undergo an

than

more

the air when

333- per

the

cent.

they

proportion of

are

on

the

rain for the four

than 33^- per

to more
months, from July to October, amounts
difference
The
of
the
or
negative
positive
spring average from
the
air average
is larger in proportion to the excess
of rain in the
thirds
above-mentioned
cold or warm
of the year.
Those
springs in
warm

cent.

which

the difference
with

the

distribution

of the average
from that of the air is in ance
accordis to say, the largestpossibleby reason
of the

law, that

of rain in the year, are called

average ; but those in which

of undistorted

purely meteorologicalsprings
the amount

air average
is diminished
average
of the atmospheric heat during the seasons

the

from

rain

the

by

of difference
the

which

of

tion
disturbingacare

free from

called

purely meteorologicalsprings of approximate average.

The
is caused
approximation of the average to the aerial average
either by the inclosure,
lower
the
channel
at
a
especiallyby
extremity
of which
the temperature of the spring was
sequence
observed, or it is the conof a superficial
and the poverty of the feeders of the
course
from
of difference of the average
spring. In each year the amount
the aerial average
is similar in all purely meteorologicalsprings,but
it is smaller
in the approximate than in the undistorted
deed
springs,and inis smaller in proportionas the disturbingaction of the atmospheric
heat is greater.
Of the springs of Marienberg four belong to the
of purely meteorological springs; of these
torted
four one
is undisgroup
are

in its average,

third
than
the

the three

others

are

approximated in

various

grees.
de-

In the first year of observation

the portion of rain of the cold
the average
colder
on
predominated, and all four springs were
the

air.
third

warm

higher

In

the

four

the rain of
following years of observation
and
these
all
in
the
four
predominated,
springs had a
than
the air; and the positivevariation
temperature
of the spring from that of the air was
higher,the greater

average
of the average
the excess
of rain in the
"

The

the amount

of the year,
upon the distribution of rain in the seasons
shown
to be perfectlycorrect
by Hallmann, at least for his

depend

must

has

third of one
of the four years.
warm
forward
in
the
1825
put
by Leopold von Buch, that
year
of variation of the average
that of the air
of springs from

view

been

place

of

ains.
observation,Marienberg, in the Rhenish
Graywacke mountpurelymeteorologicalsprings of undistorted average alone
be
to
have
for scientific climatology; these springs are
any value
hand
from
the
one
for
and
be
to
on
sought
distinguished
every where,
the purely meteorologicalsprings with an
approximate average, and
other
the
the
on
from
springs.
meteorologico-geological
"2. Meteorologico-geological
springs:that is to say, those of which

The

198

cosmos.

of

ic transformation

acquired

salts which

and

gases

and

rocks,the greater importance has been

of the

for the consideration

circulate

when

which,

impregnated with

waters

interior of the

in the

forth at the

burst

surface

they
alreadyfulfilled the greater part
destructive activity.
or
alterative,
Gas

and

Vapor

Sjwings,Salscs,Mud

as

of their formative,

springs,have

c.

earth,

thermal

Volcanoes,Naphtha

Fire.

(Amplificationof

the Picture

of

Nature, Cosmos,

Representationof Nature I
examples, which, however,

In the General
well-ascertained

taken into consideration,how

sufficiently
various stages through which
they pass,

the

than

warmer

temperature which

exhibit

they

soil

year

in the

shown

have

not

salses in

from

round

the

heat

springs

the

first erup-

of the

earth.

in their

are

(the alterations

of the year

course

by
been

are

of

nicated
commu-

which

they How). The amount

which
the
of
a
spring exceeds the
meteorologico-geological
by
average
the
which
the meteoric
to
depends upon
depth
atmospheric average
interior
the
where
the temperhave
sunk
down
into
the
of
waters
earth,
ature
is constant, before they again make
their appearance
in the form
interest.
of a spring; this amount, consequently,possesses no climatological
these springs,in order
The climatologist
must, however, know
them
for purely meteorologicalsprings. The
that he may
not mistake
also be approximated to the
springs may
meteorologico-geological
The
aerial average
by an inclosure or channel.
springswere observed
The
elevation
on
particularfixed days, four or five times a month.
the temperature
of the air was
above the sea, both of the place where
and
of the different springs,was
observed
count."
carefullytaken into acto

them

air all the

i.,p. 221-226.)

have

the

is demonstrably heightened by the

the average
the distribution
of rain may
Whatever
be, these
average

vol.

the

by

through

completion of the elaboration of his observations at Mariin Italy,and

passed the winter of 1852-1853
enberg, Dr. Hallmann
This is
found
abnormallycold springsin the vicinityof ordinary ones.
he gives to those springs which
the name
demonstrably bring down
These
cold from
above.
springs are to be regarded as subterranean
the

After

"

drains
at

or

subterranean
which

from
great elevation,

fissures
chain

lakes

of open
and

clefts,and

in the

of mountains
cold

elevation

break
form

which

better, they come

temperature."
of Hallmann's

of

at

the

of

situated

water

pour down
very rapidly in
foot of the mountain
or

springs. The
They

follows:

idea
are

ally
of the abnormtoo

cold

for

the

forth ; or, which

indicates the conditions
they
for their low
forth at too low a part of the mountain
in
which
These
the first volume
are
views,
developed
come

der Quellen,have
Temperaturverhcdtnissen

by the author in his second

meteorologicalspring,however
some

the waters
forth

springs is,therefore, as
at

accumulations

telluric heat.

volume

been

(s. 181-183), because

it
superficial

may

be, there

modified
in every
be
must

199

SALSES.

accompanied by flames to the subsequentcondition of

simple eruptions of mud, form, as it were, an intermediate
throw
hot springs and true
volcanoes,which
step between
tions

fused

out

cinders
earths,either in the form of disconnected
newly-formed rocks, often arranged in many beds one

as

or

both

all transitions

Like

the other.

over

deserve

volcanoes

specialknowledge of the facts.

The salses and naphtha springsare

of

than

from
by the older geognosists,

them

upon

steps,

salses and

careful consideration

more

intermediate

inorganicnature, the

organic and

in

and

sometimes

mud

the

want

arranged in
Girgenti,in

like the Macalubi, near

close groups
mentioned
even
Sicily,which were
by Solinus; those

isolated

"

Sassuolo,in

from

in South
in

Barigazzo, and

Mala,

Pietra

America

of

north

the

chains,and these

narrow

have

We

Italy;
they

sometimes

the

on

long known*

Zibio, not far

those near
Turbaco,

or

the outermost

as

near

Monte

to be
appear
the most
instructive

are

stowed
be-

was

arranged
and

portant.
im-

members

which
Humboldt, Asie Centrale,t. ii.,p. 58.
Upon the reasons
it probable that the Caucasus, which
for five-sevenths
of its
and
from
the Kasbegk
E.S.E.
to
length, between
Elburuz, runs
W.N.W.
423
the
in the mean
of
is
continuation
the
of
50',
parallel
volcanic fissure of the Asferah
(Aktagh) and Thian-schan, see the work
cited above, p. 54-61.
the Asferah
oscillate
Both
and Thian-schan
between
43".
I regard the great Aralothe parallelsof 40 "" and
Caspian depression,the surface of which, according to the accurate
of France
the area
of Strove, exceeds
of the whole
measurements
by
miles
nearly 107,520 geographical square
(Op. cit.,
supra, p. 309-312),
render

as

ancient

more

than

the

fissure of elevation

The

elevations

of the Altai

of the last-mentioned

and

Thian-schan.
chain

mountain

has

not

depression. It is only to the west

with it,with some
alteration
of the Caspian Sea that we
again meet
of the Caucasus, but associated with train its direction,
as the chain
This geognostic connection
has also
chytic and volcanic phenomena.
confirmed
and
valuable
been
observations.
by
recognized by Abich,
been

In

by

continued

treatise

the great

through

on

of the Thian-schan

the connection

dislocations
over

and

Asiatic
and

mass

lines

the whole

brings the

of elevation

district
axial

mean

elevations

(nearly from
(between the Black

the Caucasus

mountain

the Thian-schan.

most

trachvtic
the

Sabalan

mountains

southern
are

chain, and
The

to

and

tributed
west) disthe Caspian)

of the great latitudinal central

from
the Kosvurt
distinctlywestward

Bolar

of the

east

Sea

direction

Isthmus.
systems to the Caucasian
of the Caucasus, S.E." X.W., is E.S.E."
W.N.W.

in

with

this great geognosist,which

is in my possession,he says expressly
: "The
lel
frequency and decided predominance of a system of paral-

sometimes

Dzerlvdaerh

and

parallelsof which
arranged, constitute

which

Kargabassar
Mount

the

most

direction

mean

in the central

exactly E.

even

lines of elevation

The

"

unite Ararat
near

W.,

parts
in

as

with

the

Erzeroum, and

Argaeus, Sepandagh,
decided
expression

and
of

200

cosmos.

of the Caucasus, in the northwest

man,

and

naphtha

in the

southeast

springsand

the

of the

naphtha

mud

great mountain

fire of Baku

of Ta*

volcanoes

the

chain

and

the

Caspian

axial

volcanic

ing
bedirection,that is to say, of the Thian-schan
Many other mountain
prolongedwestward through the Caucasus.
directions
of Central
Asia, however, also revert to this remarkable
and
in mutual
relation to each
as
stand,
elsewhere,
other,so
space,
mountain
nuclei and
of elevation."
maxima
to form
vast
as
Pliny
Persas
Graucasim
montem
appellavere Caucasum
(vi.,17) says :
(var.Graucasum, Groucasim, Grocasum), hoc est nive candidum;" in
which
Bohlen
thought the Sanscrit words has, to shine, and gravan,
Asie Centrale,
to be recognized (see my
t. }.,p. 109). As
rock, were
of to (Rheinisches
Klausen
his
in
the
o
n
investigations
wanderings
says,
Museum
if
the
Graucasus
s.
name
fur Philologie,
Jahrg. iii.,
1845, 298),
into
then
which
"in
each
of
its first
was
a name
Caucasus,
corrupted
mean

"

svllables gave
the Greeks
the idea of burning might certainlv characterize a burnino; mountain, with which
the historv of the Fire-burner
would
(Fire-igniter,
Trvpicaevg)
associated."
from
the

It

become

readilyand

be denied

that

almost

ly
spontaneous-

sometimes

myths
production of so great and important
Typhonico-caucasic can certainlynot be derivable from
of a
name
similarityof sound in the misunderstood

From

better

are

the

not

originate

but the

names,

There

can

actual

arguments,
association

of which

Klausen

also

fable
the

as

dental
acci-

mountain.

mentions

one.

Typhon and the Caucasus, and from

the express testimony of Pherecydes of Syros (in the time of the 58th
garded
reOlympiad), it is clear that the eastern
extremity of the world was
mountain.
of the Scholia
as
a volcanic
to
According to one
Apollonius (Scholiain Apott.RhocL, ed. Schaefferi,1813, v. 1210, p.
521),Pherecydes says, in the Theogony, "that Typhon, Avhen pursued,
fled to the Caucasus, and that then
the mountain
burned
(or
the islset on
and
was
fire); that from thence Typhon fled to Italy,when
thrown
around
Pithecusa
was
(as it were, poured around) him."
is the island iEnaria
But Pithecusa
(nowlschia),upon which the Epomeus
(Epopon) cast forth fire and lava,according to Julius Obsequens,
95 years before
tian,
our
era, then during the reigns of Titus and Diocleof Toand, lastly,in the year 1302, according to the statement
of Lucca, who
Fiadoni
lomeo
of Santa Maria
at that time Prior
was
Novella.
"It is singular,"as Boeckh, the profound student of antiquity,
writes to me,
that Pherecydes should
make
Typhon flyfrom
the Caucasus
because
it burned, as he himself is the originatorof subterraneous
of

"

the

occurrence

fire ; but that his residence

the Caucasus
upon
of volcanic
eruptionsthere,appears to me

rests
to

upon
be niable."
unde-

v. 1212-1217, ed. Beck),

Apollonius Rhodius
(Argon.,lib. ii.,
of
birth
the
of
the
Colchian
speaking
Dragon, also places in the
the rock
Caucasus
of Typhon, on which
the giant was
struck by the
and crater-lakes of
lightningof Jupiter. Although the lava-streams
the high land of Kely, the eruptions of Ararat
and
Elburuz, or tha

in

of obsidian

currents

tan

be

dagh,

may
flames which

both
from
entire

from

broad

and

even

mountains

plains,may

mountain

pumice-stone from

placed

in
now

of
have

the old craters

of the Rio-

dred
hunpre- historic period,still the many
break
forth from
fissures in the sus,
Cauca-

seven

been

or
a

eight thousand
sufficient

district of the Caucasus

as

reason

feet in
for

Typhonic

height and
regarding the

seat

of fire.

202

cosmos
.

slag-likefragments

products

as

great eruption of

the

1839),small

hollow

volcanoes,were
In

the

Bosphorus, are

the

form

which

the

and

during
(7th February,

so-called ashes of the

mud

of the

volcanoes

peninsula of Ta-

eruptionof mud

and

the 27th

on

gas
subterranean

of fire half

of the Volcancitos de
in

hibited
ex-

of February,

umn
noise, a col(dense aqueous

enveloped in black smoke

?) rose to a heightof several hundred feet. It
phenomenon, and instructive as regardsthe

tested

and

one

1793, in which, after much

vapor

true

wind

group with those of Aklanisowka

of the salses of Taman
Kertsch.
One

Jenikale, near
an

eruption;

to a long distance.*
by
the Cimmerian
toward
extremity,

northwestern

the

man,

balls,like

carried

of

of Backlichli

flame

is

markable
re-

nature

Turbaco, that the gas of Taman,

which

Parrot
and Engelhardt,
by Frederick
the gas collected by Gobel
not inflammable;while
in
was
the same
place,twenty-threeyears later,burned, from the
of a glasstube, with a bluish flame, like all emanamouth
tions
was

from

1811

the salses in the southeastern

analyzed,contained
carefully

when

Caucasus, but also,

parts 92-8 of

in 100

bureted
car-

and
parts of carbonic oxyd gas.f
certainlynearly allied to these in
5

hydrogen
phenomenon
origin,although different as regards the
presented by the eruptions of boracic
A

known

Maremma,
and
marole,sqffioni,
Tuscan

and

Cerboli.

of

to

points,

205"
as

they throw

The

212",

names

in the
vapors
of lagoni,
fum-

Possara, Castel Novo,

ture
temperavapors have an average
and according to Pella, in certain

They rise in part directlyfrom

rocks, and partlyfrom stagnant pools,in which
of fluid clay. They are
to
seen
up small cones

much

clefts in the

the

volcani,near

even

Monte

under

produced,is

matter

acid

its

as

diffuse themselves

347".

in the air in whitish

eddies.

The

boracic

the aqueous
vapors from the
the vapors of
of the earth, can
when
bosom
not be obtained
condensed
in very wide and long tubes, but
the sojjioni
are

acid, which

is

brought

Humboldt, Asie
(t. ii.,p. 201) called
*

up

by

Centrak, t. ii.,p.
attention

to

the

511

and

513.

fact that Edrisi

I have
does

not

already
tion
men-

the fire of Baku, although it is described

diffuselyas a NefalaCothland, that is to say, rich in burning naphtha springs,by Massudi

beddin, two hundred

century (see Frahn,
years before,in the tenth
word
Jbn Fozlan, p. 245 ; and on the etymology of the Median
tha,
naphAsiatic Journal,vol. xiii.,
p. 124).
t Compare Moritz von Engelhardt and F. Parrot,Reise in die Krym
und den Kauhasvs, 1815, th. i.,s. 71 ; with Gobel, Reise in die Steppen
th. ii.,
des sudlichen Russlandz, 1838, th. i.,
s. 249-253, and
s. 138-144.

203

SALSES.

diffused

becomes

acid is

volatility.The

atmosphere in
only procured in

in the

of Count

consequence
the beautiful

of its
lishments
estab-

the orifices of the soffioni

Larderel,when

According
directlyby the fluid of the basin.*
the
contain
emanations
excellent
to Payen's
analysis, gaseous
0-57 of carbonic acid, 0-35 of nitrogen,and only 0*07 of
the boracic
of sulphuricacid.
Where
and 0001
oxygen,
phur.
acid vapors permeate the clefts of the rock they depositsulMurchison's
tions,
investigaAccording to Sir Roderick
the rock is in part of a chalky nature, and in part an
a
macigno,which
formation, containingnummulites
eocene
of
and elevated serpentinef
is penetratedby the uncovered
the neighborhood (near Monte
Rotondo). In this case, and
covered

are

"

in the

of

crater

Volcano, asks Bischof, do

and

decompose
vapors act upon
in
rich
rocks
datolithe,axinite,or

boracic

not

hot

aqueous
minerals, such as

tourmalin

IJ

phenomena, the system

of soffioni in Iceland exceeds any thing that we
are
quainted
acwith on the continent.
Actual
mud
springsburst
forth in the fumarole-field of Krisuvek
and Reykjalidh,from
small basins with crater-like margins in a bluish-gray
clay.fy
Here
also the fissures of the springsmay
be traced in deIn

the

Pay

varietyand

en,

De

de Chimie
Chem.

the

Vacide

de la Toscane,in the Annates

horaciquedes Suffioni
3me
t.
chof,
Physique,
serie, i.,1841, p. 247-255 : Bisbd. i.,s. 669-691; Etablissements industries
Physik.Geologie,

et

und

grandeur of

de

de Vacide

boraciqueenToscane,hy the

Count

de

Larderel,p.

8.

cany,
f Sir Roderick
Impey Murchison, On the Vents of hot Vapor in Tusof Hoffmann,
1850, p. 7 (see also the earlier geognostic observations
Dechen's
Archivfilr Mineral.,bd. xiii.,1839,
trustworthytraditions,
19).
Targioni Tozzeti asserts
of these boracic acid springswhich
that some
are
constantlychanging
their place of eruption were
to be luminous
once
seen
(ignited)at
interest of the observations
night. In order to increase the geological
and Pareto
of Murchison
the volcanic relations of the serpentine
upon
I may here advert to the fact that the flame of the
formation
in Italy,
Asiatic Chimeera
(near the town of Deliktasch, the ancient Fhaselis
in Lycia, on
the west
of the Gulf of Adalia),which
coast
has been
several
for
thousand
also
rises
from
the slope
burning
a hill on
years,
of the Solimandagh, in which
serpentine in position and blocks of
limestone
have been found.
Rather
the small
to the south, on
more
island of Grambusa, the limestone
is deposited upon
dark-colored
serpentine. See the important work of Admiral Beaufort {Survey of
the Coasts of Caramania, 1818, p. 40 and 48), whose
are
statements
confirmed
1854)
by the specimens of rocks just brought home
(May,
Albrecht
by a highly talented artist,
Berg (Pierrede Tchihatcheff, Asie
in Karsterfs

s.

und

old but

From

Mineure, 1853, t. i.,p. 407).

s. 682.
1 Bischof, op. cit.,
" Sartorius von
Skizze von
Waltershausen, Physisch-geographische

Island,1847,
volcanic

rocks

s.

123
of

Bunsen

"

upon

the

processes

of formation

of the

Iceland," Poggend., Annalen, bd. Ixxxiii.,s. 257.

204

cosmos.

directions.*

terminate
made

been

is

springs,salses,and

hot

where

There

is such

a
a

earth,

gas eruptions occur,

and complete chemadmirable
ical

those on Iceland,which
as
investigations
and perseveringexertions of Bunsen.
acute
in such

the

that has

subjectof such

the

portion of

no

we

the

to

owe

Nowhere, perhaps,

of country, or so near
the surface,
multifarious spectacleof chemical decompositions,

great

extent

conversions,and

Passing from

formations

new

nent,
contineighboringAmerican
tind in the State of New
we
York, in the neighborhood
of Fredonia, not far from Lake
Erie, a multitude of jetsof
inflammable
gas (carburetedhydrogen) breaking forth from
fissures in a basin of Devonian
sandstone
strata, and partly
Other
employed for the purpose of illumination.
springs

of inflammable

there

are

of South
of

America,

11

weak

with

connected

side of the

the other

on

of mud

others,in the valleyof the Ohio, in Virginia,

the Kentucky River, also contain
chlorid of sodium,

on

and

the form

Rushville,assume

near

gas,

the

to

and

cones;

and

Iceland

be witnessed.

to

Caribbean
miles

baco, a remarkable

group
I was

which

Sea,

on

the north

south-southeast

of salses

from

coast

the

bor
har-

of Turpleasantvillage

the

Cartagena de Indias,near

But

naphtha springs.

mud

or

volcanoes

exhibits

the first to describe.

phenomena
In the neighborhoodof Turbaco,

where

one
enjoysa magnificent
of the colossal snowy
Nevamountains
(Sierras
of
of the
midst
in
Santa
desert
the
on
a
Marta,
das)
spot
of 18 or
rise the Volcancitos,to the number
primeval forest,

view

largestof

The

20.

the

which
cones,
to 23 feet in

from
19
gray loam, are
80 feet in diameter
at the base.
is

circular orifice of 20

by

small mud

as

in

12

Taman,

my
cubic inches.
which

water,

eruptions are
each

28

The

The

in

height,and probably

the apex

inches in

of each

cone

ed
diameter,surround-

gas rushes

contains
graduated vessels,

upper

rests

a
upon
simultaneous

not

blackish

lence,
up with great vioing
forming.bubbles,each of which, accord-

wall.

measurements

to

to

At

consist of

10

"

part of the funnel is filledwith

The
compact floor of mud.
in

but

neighboringcones,

in

regularitywas observable in the periods

most
eruptions. Bonpland and I, standing on the outerthe
five
of
parts
pretty regularly
tions
erupgroups, counted

one

certain

of the

minutes.
On
every two
orifice of the crater
hollow
a
of the

earth, far below

*

bending
sound
the

down

is

base

Waltershausen, op. cit.,s.

over

the

small
terior
in-

perceivedin

the

of the

usually

118.

cone,

205

SALSES.

beforeeach eruption. A
instantlyextinguishedin

twenty seconds
taper

wax

was

collected with

twice

great care

Bombax

of the wood

glowing chip
not be ignited. Lime-water
no
absorption took place.
a

this

also the

was

Ceiba.

When

with

case

The

gas
turbid

rendered

not

was

very thin burning

the gas, which
was
could

by

it ;

for oxygen
with
of the former in

tested

trace
acid gas, this gas showed
no
one
experiment; in a second case, when the gas of the Volhours in a bell glass
cancitos had been confined for many

nitrous

with

rather

water, it exhibited

than

more

had probably been

which
oxygen,
intermixed.
and accidentally
From

results
analytical

these

one

from

evolved

I then

hundredth
the

of

water

declared,
perhaps not

of Turbaco
that the gas of the Volcancitos
incorrectly,
was
nitrogengas, which might be mixed with a small quantity
of hydrogen. At the same
time, I expressedmy regret
in my journal that, in the state of chemistry at that time
known
ture
were
by which, in a mix(April,1801), no means
of nitrogenand hydrogen gases, the numerical
tions
propordetermined.
The
of the mixture
be
expedient,
might
of
of
three
thousandths
which
the
hydrogen
by
employment
discovered
detected
in
be
a. gaseous
mixture, was
only
may
afterward.*
four
and
During
myself
by Gay-Lussac
years
residence in Turthe half century that has elapsedsince my
baco,
and my astronomical
survey of the Magdalena River,
traveler had occupiedhimself scientifically
with the small
no
mud
volcanoes just described,until,at the end of December,
1850, my friend Joaquin Acosta,| so well versed in modern

very

Kleinere

my

"It

made

of

the

necessary
for
even

might
by no

de
Vanalyse

sur

Tair atmos-

Lamitkerie,t. lx.,p.

Physique,par

emotion

fiftyyears
is such

as

that

just visited

I have

ago.
you have

The

151

(see

place which

of the small

appearance
described ; there

form
vegetation,the same
liquidand muddy matter

the nature

aqueous

de

Schriften,bd. i.,s. 316).

known
of

Memoire

Gay-Lussac,

the Journal

is with

of Turbaco

with

and

Humboldt

phcrique in

same

ance
luxuri-

clay,and the same

nothing has changed, unless

of
;

is the

you
volcanoes

cones

of

tion
ejecit be

of the gas which

is evolved.
I had with me, in accordance
advice
of our
M.
mutual
Boussingault, all that was
friend,
for the

making

chemical
a

analysisof

the

gaseous

emanations, and

freezingmixture

vapor, as the doubt

have been confounded

had
with

for the purpose

of
been
expressed to me
this vapor.
I arrived
as

condensing the
that nitrogen

this apparatus was

As
means
the
at
Volcancitos,the
soon
necessaiy.
distinct odor of bitumen
commenced
in the right course
I
set me
by
;
t
he
small
Even
the
orifice
now
of each
crater.
lighting gas upon
very
one

sees

delicate

on

film

the
of

surface

of the

petroleum.

The

But

liquid,which
gas

collected

rises

a
intermittently,

burns

away

entirely,

206

COSMOS.

and

geognosy
that

at

which

chemistry,made

present
trace

no

"

the

the

remarkable

diffuse

observation

bituminous

odor"

(of
existed in my time);
that some
petroleum
surface of the water
the
in
small orifices,
and
cones

"

the
floats upon
that
the gas pouring out

of Turbaco."

be

may

Does

ignitedupon

every
indicate

this,asks

mud-

would

teration
alan
Acosta,
of the phenomena
brought about by internal processes,
in
the
earlier
error
an
or
experiments'? I
simply
if I had not preserved the leaf
admit the latter freely,

of the

journal on

cone

detail,*on
without

(when

the

which

the

experiments were
morning on which they were

very

of nitrogen (?),and
any residue
in contact
with the atmosphere).
has

without
Thus

since your
observation,
justifiedby the less

changed
completely

recorded

in

made.

depositingsulphur
the

of

nature

journey,unless

ice

the

admit

nomenon
phean

advanced
of experistate
of
mental
chemistry at that period. I no longer doubt that the great
the country in a radius
eruption of Galera Zamba, which illuminated
of 100 kilometres
salses-like
is
a
phenomenon, developed
(62 miles),
of little cones,
on
a
vomiting
great scale,since there exist hundreds
saline clay,upon a surface of 400 square leagues. I propose
ing
examinthe most
the gaseous
of Tubara, which
are
products of the cones
distant salses from your
the powerful
From
Volcancitos of Turbaco.
manifestations
which
have
caused
the disappearance of a part of the
become
an
peninsula of Galera Zamba, now
island,and from the appearance
error

of
and

which

Galera

has

Zamba,

new

since
to

raised

island
the

of the

of the

am

led to

think

delta

of the

Rio

disappeared, I
west

the bottom

from

sea

that

in 1848,
it is near

Magdalena,

that

the

of salses in the province of

principalfocus of the phenomenon
Carthagena is situated" (from a letter from Colonel Acosta to A. von
Humboldt, Turbaco, 21st December, 1850). See also Mosquera, Memoria
sobre la Nueva
politica
Granada, 1852, p. 73; and Lionel Gisborne, The Isthmus of Darien, p. 48.
*
During the whole of my American
expedition I always adhered
advice
of Vauquelin, under
whom
for some
to the
I worked
strictly
time

before

my

voyage
the
on

to

write

down

and

preserve

the details of

journals of the

17th

ery
ev-

and

same
experiment
day.
my
April, 1801, I here copy the following: "As, therefore, the gas
showed
from
scarcely0*01 of oxygen
experiments with phosphorus
and nitrous acid gas, and not 0*02 of carbonic
acid with lime-water,
the question is,what
I supposed, first
?
the other 97 hundredths
are
of all, carbureted
posited
but
and
no
sulphur is desulphureted hydrogen ;
the margins of the small craters
with the atmosphere,
in contact
on
and
be perceived.
odor of sulphureted hydrogen was
to
no
The problematicalpart might appear
to be pure nitrogen,for, as above
mentioned, nothing was
ignitedby a burning taper ; but I know, from
the time of my analyses of fire-damp,that a lighthydrogen gas, free
from
acid,which
merely stood at the top of a gallery,
any carbonic
did not
but
extinguished the pit candles, while the latter
ignite,
the air was
in
burned
considerablymixed
clearly deep places,when
of
of
the Volcancitos
the
residue
The
with
is,
gas
nitrogen gas.
therefore, probably to be regarded as nitrogen,with a portion of hy-

18th

From

207

SALSES.

find
and

nothing in
the

them

observation

that
of Taman

"

that could

make

at all doubtful

me

already referred

to

(from

now

Parrot's

ports),
Re-

volcanoes of the peninsula

gas of the mud
1811
had
the property of preventingcombustion,

the

in

glowing chip was

extinguishedin the gas, and
the ascending bubbles, a foot in diameter, could not bo
even
of their bursting,"while
in 1834
ignited at the moment
Gobel
bluish
saw
a
readilyinflammable
gas burning with
flame
at the same
nations
place leads me to believe that the emaundergo chemical changes in different stages. Very
the
has, at my
recentlyMitscherlich
request, determined
limits of inflammability
of artificially
prepared mixtures of
nitrogenand hydrogen gases. It appeared that mixtures of
one
part of hydrogen gas and three parts of nitrogen gas
not
only took tire from a light,but also continued to burn.
When
the quantityof nitrogengas was
increased,so that the
mixture
consisted of one
part of hydrogen and three and a
half parts of nitrogen,it was
still inflammable, but did not
continue burning. It was
only with a mixture of one part of
as

"

drogen

gas,

know.

Does

the

quantitativeamount
same

carbonaceous

of which

do

we

schist that

saw

not

at

present

farther

ward
west-

Sinu, or marl and clay,lie below the Volcancitos?

Does
fissures into cavities
atmospheric air penetrate through narrow
formed
and
become
in
water
with blackish
contact
by
decomposed
and Berchgray loam, as in the pits in the saline clay of Hallein
filled with gases which
guish
extinare
tholdsgaden,where the chambers
lights? or do the gases, streaming out tense and elastic,
prevent
the penetration of atmospheric air?"
These
set down
questionswere
in Turbaco
53 years
servations
obrecent
by me
According to the most
ago.
de Mean
of M. Vauvert
(1854),the inflammability of the
has been completely retained.
The
traveler brought with
gas emitted
fills the small orifice of the craters
him
which
samples of the water
of the Volcancitos.
In this Boussingault found in the litre : common
6*59
of soda, 0-31 ; sulphate of soda, 0*20; and
carbonate
salt,
gr. ;
on

also traces
the

the

the
Rio

of borate

of soda

and

bottom, Ehrenberg, by

iodine.

In the mud

which

had

en
fall-

careful

microscopic examination,
found
calcareous
no
parts or scoriaceous
matter, but quartz granules
mixed
with micaceous
small crystalline
laminae, and many
prisms of
black
such
often
in
tufa
of Sponvolcanic
trace
as
no
occurs
Augite,
gioses
;
indicate
the
and
or
PolygastricInfusoria,
nothing to
vicinity
of the sea, but on
the contrary
remains
of Dicotyledonous
many
of the
plants and grasses, and sporangia of lichens,reminding one
constituents
of the Moya of Pelileo.
While
C. Sainte-Claire, Deville,
and George Bornemann,
in their beautiful
analyses of the Macalube
di Terrapilata,found 099
of carbureted
hydrogen in the gas emitted,
the gas which
di Limosina, near
rises in the Agua
Santa
Catanea,
trace
a
them, like Turbaco
gave
formerly, 0-98 of nitrogen, without
of oxvgen
1856, p.
(Comptes rendus de I Acad, des Sciences,t. xliii.,
361
and 366).
to

'

208

cosmos.

hydrogen a::d four parts of nitrogengas

that

took
ignition
their ready in"place.
flammabilit
gaseous emanations, which
and
color
of
their
flame
the
are
usually called
of pure and carbureted
emanations
hydrogen, need, therefore,
of
third part of one
consist quantitatively
of the
one
only
last-mentioned

of

Turbaco,

to which

again, on
Acosta

tradition

of the

descendants

Volcanes

exorcised

and

of carbonic

de

justlysuggests

the

question:

the inhabitants

formerlyall

burned,

and

fuego into Volcanes de

holy

water

according
were

agua,

by

monk,*

verted
con-

ing
by bepious

refer to a condition
which
has now
not
may
?"
Single great eruptionsof flames from mud
which

both

1793;

before

and

and

capacityfor

among
Indios de Taruaco,

sprinkled with

acid

limits of inflammability
of the

account

disseminated

the Volcancitos

from

mixtures

rarely,the

more

occur

prove different
of the former.

"Whether

With

gases.

hydrogen, which
heat

no

from

The

since have

been

very

turned
re-

canoes,
vol-

inactive

the

Jokmali, 1827;
Caspian Sea, near
and near
Baklichli,1839; near
Kuschtschy, 1846, also in
the Caucasus),present analogous examples.
The apparentlyunimportant phenomenon of the salses of
has
Turbaco
gained in geologicalinterest by the terrible
of
eruption flame,and the terrestrial changes which occurred
of
in 1839, more
than 32 geographicalmiles to the NN.E.
and that of Sabathis harbor
Cartagena de Indias,between
of the great Magdalena River.
nilla,not far from the mouth
The
the Cape
central point of the phenomenon was
true
8 geographicalmiles into
Galera Zamba, which
projects6
the sea, in the form of a narrow
edge
peninsula. For the knowlof this phenomenon we
also indebted
to Colonel
are
science has unfortunatelybeen deprived by
Acosta, of whom
In the middle
of the tongue of land there
an
earlydeath.
smoke
stood a conical hill,
from the crater of which
(vapors)
and
poured forth with such violence that
gases sometimes
boards and largepiecesof wood
into it
thrown
which
were
In the year 1839
were
cast back
again to a great distance.
the cone
disappearedduring a considerable eruption of fire,
(Taman,

on

"

and

the

entire

peninsula of Galera

Zamba

became

an

island,

des peuplesindigenes
Humboldt, Vues des Co7'dilleres et Monuments
beautiful
citos
The
drawing of the VolcanVAmerique, pi.xli.,p. 239.
which
the copper-plate was
de Turbaco, from
engraved, was
made
fellow-traveler,Louis de Rieux.
Upon the old
by my young
of
in
the
Taruaco
the first period
Spanish Conquista,see Herrera, Dec.
*

de

i.,p. 251.

210

COSMOS.

the

When

it has

bituminous

odor;

it is transferred

province Schan-si.

northern

diffuses

often

gas

reddish

flame,

partly in

tubes to remote
lying bamboo
for
the
use
salt-boiling, heating
houses,
the
In
for
streets.
some
rare
cases
or
lighting
supply of
carbureted
hydrogen gas has been suddenly exhausted, or
stopped by earthquakes. Thus we know that a celebrated
of the town
of KhiungHo-tsing,situated to the southwest
tscheu
(latitude50" 277, longitude 101" 6' East),which
salt spring burning with noise,was
a
was
extinguishedin
the neighborhood
the loth century, after it had illuminated
from
the second
In the province of
era.
century of our
is so rich in coal, there are
some
Schan-si, which
ignited
carbonaceous
tributed
strata.
(Ho-schan) are disFiery mountains

portableand

partly in

places,for

to

great part of China.

over

in

great height,for example, in the

the foot of

Fy-kia-schan,at
ual

On

of

the island

distance

of about

Very

salt-water,and
acid*
the

poured

of

volcanoes
mofette

perpetualfire

of the

Java, in the province of Samarang, at

to

from

miles

the north

of Turbaco

those

of

singularmixture

phenomenon
and

vast

forth

"

perpet'

inaccessible fissures'

of the

hills of 25 to 30 feet in

variable

with

of tho

in the Caucasus.

fourteen

salses similar

of rock

covered

long,open,
us

often rise

flames

mass

mountain

reminds

phenomenon which
Shagdagh mountain

with

from
snow(lat. 31" 40'),

are

The

which

destructive

and

coast, there

Galera

height throw
hydrogen

is not

to

be

Zamba.
out

mud,

and

bonic
cargas
confounded

of mud

streams

which

are

during the rare eruptionsof the true, colossal

Java (Gunung Kelut and Gunung Idjen). Some

grottoes

or

sources

of carbonic

acid

in Java

are

also

of exaggerations
in consequence
particularly
very celebrated,
of some
in the statements
nection
travelers,as also from their* conwith

the

myth

of the

tioned
Upas poison-tree,
alreadymen-

The
of the
most
remarkable
by Sykes and Loudon.
six has been
described
by Junghuhn, the soscientifically
island
called Vale of Death of the
ain
(Pakaraman) in the mountIt
is
a funnel-shaped
Dieng, near Batur.
sinkingon the
of a mountain, a depressionin which
the stratum
declivity
of carbonic

acid

emitted

attains

very

different

height

at

Besides the mud

Diard, Asie Centrale,t. ii.,
p. 515.
other
islands of the
and Surabaya, there are
upon
volcanoes
of
mud
the
Indian
Pulu-Semao, Pulu-KamArchipelago
seine
Gestalt undPjianzenbing,and Pulu-Koti ; see Junghuhn, Java,
dec/ce,
1812, abth. iii.,s. S30.
*

According

volcanoes

to

of Damak

211

SALSES.

different

of wild

and birds
hogs,tigers,
often found
in it.* The
are
pohon (or better,
poison-tree,
toccicariaof the traveler
puhri)upas of the Malays (Antiaris
its
Leschenault
harmless
de la Tour), with
exhalations,lias
these
fatal
actions.!
nothing to do with
Skeletons

seasons.

I conclude

this section
the

springswith

descriptionof

which

salses and

the

on

an

the

attract

vapors,
may
of the kind of rock

from

and

steam

gas

eruption of hot
interest of

sulphurous
geognosistson

which

they are evolved.

but somewhat
fatiguingpassage over
During my delightful
14 or 15 days
the central Cordillera of Quindiu (ittook me
on
foot,and sleepingconstantlyin the open air,to get over
account

the

mountain

Magdalena

crest

into

of

the

11,500 feet from

Cauca

feet I visited the

6810
Moral.

In

when
valley),
Azufral to the west

mica-schist

the

of

rather

dark

valleyof
at

the

the

Eio

height of

of the station El

color,which,

posing
re-

gneiss containing garnets, surrounds, with

the latter,the elevated granite domes
of La Ceja and La
Garita
del Paramo, I saw
hot sulphurous vapors
flowing
of
from
clefts
the rocks in a narrow
the
out
valley(Quebrada del Azufral). As
mixed
with
they are
sulphureted
and
carbonic
much
hydrogen gas
acid,a stupefyingdizziness
is experiencedon
the temperato
measure
stooping down
ture,
and remaining long in their vicinity. The
ture
temperaof the sulphurous vapors was
117"*7 ; that of the air
69" ; and that of the sulphurous brook, which
is probably
upon

cooled

in the upper
of the volcano
of

parts of

its

course

Tolima, 84"-G.

The

by the snow-waters
mica-schist,which

fragments
pyrites,is permeated by numerous
of sulphur. The
sulphur prepared for sale is principally
with native sulphur
obtained from an ochre-yellowloam, mixed
and weathered
mica-slate.
The operatives
(Mestizoes)
from
suffer
muscular
diseases of the eyes and
paralysis.
contains

some

854-858.
s.
Junghuhn, Op. cit.,abth. i.,s. 201, and abth. iii.,
weaker
Gua-Galan
and
Java
caves
on
are
suffocating
Gua-Upas
(the first word is the Sanscrit guhd, cave). As there can certainlybe
doubt that the Grotto del Cane, in the vicinityof the Lago di Agno
that Pliny (ii.,
ries
nearly 18 centunano, is the same
cap. 93) described
"in
mortiferum
"Charonea
scrobis
as
Puteolano,"
ago,
agro
spiritum exhalans," we must
certainlyshare in the surprisefelt by
Scacchi
(Memorie geol.sulla Campania, 1849, p. 48), that in a loose
soil,so often moved
by earthquakes,so small a phenomenon (the supply
unaltered
of a small quantity of carbonic
acid) can have remained
The

and

undisturbed.

f Blume, Rumjihia sive Comment,

botanicce,t. i. (1835),p. 47-59.

212

cosmos.

Boussingaultvisited the Azufral

(1831),the temperature
years after me
he analyzed*had so greatlydiminished

cle

When

of the

air
open
excellent observer
volcano

of

(71"*6),namely
the

saw

to

6G"

Quebrada de Aguas calientes

68".

"

trachyticrock

Tolinia,breakingthrough

Quindiu, thirty

of the vapors which

that
as to fall below
of the

the

The

same

neighboring

mica-schist,in

the

just as I have very distinctly

of
black trachyteof the volcano
the equallyeruptive,
seen
Tunguragua coveringa greenishmica-schist containinggarnet
the rope bridge of Penipe. As sulphur has hitherto
near
been found in Europe, not in the primitiverocks, as they
were
formerly called,but only in the tertiarylimestone,in
in conglomerates,and in true
volcanic
rocks, its
gypsum,
in the Azufral
de Quindiu (4^" N. lat.)is the
occurrence
more
remarkable, as it is repeatedto the south of the equator
between
Quito and Cuenca, on the northern slopeof the
In the Azufral
Paramo
del Assuay.
of the Cerro
Cuello
of
elevation
(2" 13' S. lat.),again in mica-schist,at an
feet,I

7980

met

with

bed

vast

of

quartz,! in which

the

At
sulphur is disseminated
abundantly in scattered masses.
the time of my journey the fragmentsof sulphur measured
8 inches,but they were
only 6
formerlyfound of as much
3
4 feet in diameter.
Even
ibly
a
as
naphtha springrises vis"

"

from

mica-schist

Cumana.
aco, near
to the surface of the
I found

feet,and
interior of the

in the

There
sea

to

sea-bottom
the
a

Gulf

of Cari-

naphtha givesa yellow color

distance

that its odor

peninsulaof

in the

was

of

more

than

diffused

as

far

sand
thouas

the

Araya.J

Humboldt, Essai Geognostiquesur h Gi"ement des Bodies clans les

Hemisplieres,1823, p. 76 ; Boussingault,in the Annates de Chemie
de
et
1833, p. 11.
Physique,t. lii.,
With
the
elevation of Alausi (near Ticsan),on the Cerro
regard to
f
Nivellement
barometrique, No. 200," in my Observ.
Cuello, see the
Astron.,vol. i.,p. 311.
of the
The
of a naphtha spring issuingat the bottom
existence
%
rich
in
from
and
sea
a
mica-schist,
diffusing,
according to
garn'ets,
the expression of the historian of the Conquista,Oviedo, a
resinous,
fact.
aromatic, and medicinal
liquid," is an extremely remarkable
All those hitherto known
belong to secondary mountains; and this
mode
of stratification appeared to favor the idea that all the mineral
bitumens (Hatchett, Transact. Linn"an
due
1798, p. 129) were
Society,
of vegetable and animal
to the destruction
matters, or to the ignition
of coal.
The
portance,
phenomenon of the Gulf of Cariaco acquires fresh imthat the same
so-called primitive straif we bear in mind
tum
contains
subterranean
fires,that the odor of petroleum is experienced
from time to time at the edge of ignited craters
ample,
(for exin 1805, when
threw
in the eruption of Vesuvius
the volcano
*

deux

"

"

"

213

SALSES.

ity
glance at the kind of volcanic activof
and
manifests itself by the production
which
vapors
of
combustion, we
phenomena
gases, either with or without
remarkable
sometimes
and
find sometimes
a
a
great affinity,
difference in the matters
escapingfrom fissures of the earth,
modifying
according as the high temperature of the interior,
If

cast

now

we

of the

the action

last

acted

has
affinities,

homogeneous
upon
which
driven
matters
are

or

The
to
compositematerials.
are
the surface by this low degree of volcanic activity
: aqueous
of
in
bureted
carsodium,
sulphur,
chloryd
great quantity,
vapor
gen
and sulphuretedhydrogen, carbonic acid and nitroor
yellowish,or in the form of brown
; naphtha (colorless
noes.
petroleum); boracic acid and alumina from the mud volcaever,
of these matters, of which, howThe great diversity
some
(common salt,sulphuretedhydrogen gas, and petroleum)
almost
are
always associated together,shows the
of the denomination
which
unsuitableness
originated
salscs,
of having
the
merit
in Italy,where
Spallanzanihad
great
to this
been the first to direct the attention of geognosists
ant,
phenomenon, which had been long regarded as so unimportof Modena.
The
in the territory
name
vapor and gas
springsis a better expressionof the general idea. If many
tion
of them, such as the Fumaroles, undoubtedly stand in rela-

very

to

extinct

volcanoes,and

are

even,

of

acid,peculiarlycharacteristic
the

contrary,appear to
which
fiery mountains

true

sources

of carbonic

last stage of such

the

others,on
of

as

be

canoes,
vol-

quite independent

vomit

forth

fused

in the Caucasus,
already shown
they follow definite directions in largetracts of country,
in
breaking out of fissures in rocks, both in the plains,even
tions
elevathe deep basin of the Caspian Sea, and in mountain
of nearly 8500
feet. Like
the true
volcanoes,they
sometimes
tivity
acsuddenly augment their apparentlydormant
of
of
which
the
columns
ror
terspread
fire,
by
eruption
in
all around.
In both
continents,
regionswidely separated,
exhibit
the
conditions
same
followingone upon
they

earths.

Then,

as

Abich

and that most

up scoriae),
issue from granite (Las
micaceous
in
mana,
the hollow

schist.

More

has

of the very

Trincheras,
to

the

hot

near

eastward

springs of
Porto

of

South

America

Cabello), gneiss,and
the

meridian
first

of

Cu-

to
came
descending from the Sierra de Meapire, we
ground (tierrahueca),
which, dui-ingthe great earthquakes
erward,
of 1766, threw up asphalt enveloped in viscous petroleum ; and aftbeyond this ground, to an infinityof hydrosulphurous hot
t. i., p. 136, 344, 347, and
springs (Humboldt, Relation Jlistorique,

447).

214

COSMOS.

the

other; but

observation

no

supposing that they

volcanoes

true

d.

caused

hitherto

the forerunners

are

different chemical

by

us
justified

of the

vomiting lava and cinders.

kind, perhaps originating
at

is of another
and

has

formation
Their

in

smaller

of

activity
depth,

processes.

Volcanoes,accordingto the difference

of their formation and
and
caldron-like depressions.
activity.Action by fissures
Circumvallation of the craters of elevation.
Volcanic conical
and bell-shaped
Mountains, with open or closed summits.
Difference
of the Ilocks throughwhich Volcanoes act.
"

"

"

"

(Amplificationof

the

Representationof Nature, Cosmos,

vol.

i.,p.

228-218.)
the various

Among

manifestations of force in the

specific
of our
planet upon its uppermost
that
mightiestis
presentedby the true volcanoes j
those
openings through which, besides gases,
say,

of the

reaction

strata, the
that is to
solid

interior

of

masses

various

materials

the

are

forced

from

up

surface,either in

measured
un-

state
a
depths
ous
ignelava
form
of
in
thefusion,as
cinders,or as
streams, or
of
If
the
finest
trituration
we
products
(ashes).
regard the
to

words

and

volcano

with

fierymountain

the old

as

of

in

synonymous,

ance
accord-

of

speech,we thus, according to a

preconceivedand very generallydiffused opinion,attach to
the idea of volcanic phenomena the picture of an
isolated
conical

usage

with

mountain,

circular

or

oval

orifice

the

at

when
views, however, lose their universality

Such

mit.
sum-

the

ed
opportunityof wandering through connectvolcanic districts,
occupying a surface of many thousand
square geographicalmiles ; for example, the entire central
of Orithe Peak
zaba,
part of the highlandsof Mexico, between

has the

observer

the

Jorullo,and
America;

the Volcano

between

and

Chimborazo

of the

Cordilleras

the

or

shores

; or

of New

South

Sea

Granada

Central

or

and

Quito,

of Purace, near
Popayan, that of Pasto
tween
the isthmian
chain of the Caucasus, be-

In Lower
Italy,
Kasbegk, Elburuz, and Ararat.
the PhlegrrcanFields of the main
between
land of Campania,
and
the islands of Lipari and Ponza, as also in
Sicily,
the Greek
Islands,part of the interveningland has not been
the

elevated with

by
In
the

the
the

the

volcanoes, and

part of it has

been

ed
swallow-

sea.

great districts of America

of eruptions(true Trachytes, and

above-mentioned

Caucasus,

masses

and
not

215

VOLCANOES.

of obsidian ; quarried
trachytic conglomerates; streams
blocks of pumice-stone,and not pumice-bowlderstransported
their appearance,
and depositedby water) make
seeming to
of
the
which
be quiteindependent
mountains,
only rise at a
the surface have
distance.
should
considerable
not
Why
been
ation
splitin many directions during the progressiverefrigerof the earth by radiation of heat,
strata
of the upper
of isolated mountains

before the elevation

mountain

or

chains

Why should not these fissures have

have hardened
in a state of igneous fusion,which
emitted
masses
melainto rocks and eruptivestones
dolerite,
(trachyte,
A
portion of
phyre, margarite, obsidian, and pumice)?
have
which
broken
in
these trachyticor doleritic strata
out
had

yet taken

viscid

place?

fluid state,

as

and
earth-springs,*

if from

which

originallydeposited in a horizontal position,have,

and bellduring the subsequent elevation of volcanic cones
shaped mountains, been tilted into a positionwhich by no
lavas produced from igrecent
means
belongs to the more
neous
mountains.
Thus, to advert, in the first place,to a
well
known
European example, in the Val del Bove on
very
JEtna, (a depressionwhich
cuts
deeply into the interior of
of lava, which
the mountain),the declination of the strata
of bowlders, is 25" to
alternate very regularlywith masses
inations,
determexact
30", while, accordingto Elie de Beaumont's
were

lava streams

the
and

which

form
on

of

an

have

only

which

mountain, only

of 30

average

of very
from
out

from

flowed

ancient

of

it since its elevation

exhibit

These

streams.

the surface

cover

in the

of 3" to 5"

declination
conditions

JEtna,

indicate

the

volcanic

have
formations,which
broken
before the production of the volcano
fissures,
A remarkable
as
an
igneousmountain.
phenomenon of
this kind is also presentedto us by antiquity a phenomenon
manifested
which
itself on
Eubcea, the modern
Negropont,
in an extended
plain,situated at a distance from- all active
existence

"

and

extinct

volcanoes.

partiallyshook
which

had

stream

of

the

opened

glowing

"

violent

The

island, did
on

mud

the

not

plain

of

earthquakes, which

cease

until

an

Lelantus, threw

abyss,
up

(lava)."f

Cosmos, vol. i.,p. 231.

f Strabo,i.,p. 58, ed. Casaub.
*

epithet cicnrvpog proves that

Plato, in his
spoken of. Where
with
alludes
to these, mixing mythical matter
geognostic phantasies,
observed
the
he
to
phenomenon
(in opposition
facts,
says distinctly
described by Strabo) in/povTrrfXov7ro~aj.ioi.
Upon the denominations
ttj/Xocand pva%, as volcanic emissions, I have treated on a former oc-

in this

case

mud

volcanoes

are

The

not

216

cosmos.

oldest formations

If the

the

similar

to

also in

part occupy

fissure

of the

in

be

to

to

think, both

ascribed
of the

to

previous

earth, as

I have

these fissures and

the less

of elevation
as

The
of

connection

veins, are

deeply-shaken crust

long
simple craters
regarded only
themselves.

eruptiverock (often perfectly

lavas in its composition),
which

recent

more

inclined

been

of

be
subsequentlyproduced must
volcanic eruptiveorifices,
volcanoes
not
as
principalcharacter of these last consists
the deep-seated
focus with the atmosphere,

from time to
is either permanent, or at least renewed
For this purpose the volcano requiresa peculiarframework

which
time.

in a letter to
for,as Seneca* says very appropriately,
"
alimentum
Lucilius, ignis in ipso monte
non
habet, sed
;

viam."

The

volcanic

a
activityexerts, therefore,

formative

versally
by elevatingthe soil ; and not, as was at one time uniand exclusively
supposed,a buildingaction by the
of cinders,and new
of lava, superposed
accumulation
strata
The resistance experiencedin the canal
one
upon the other.
of eruption,
in a state of igneousfluidity
when
by the masses
forced in excessive quantitiestoward
the surface,
givesrise to
"
the increase in the heaving force.
A
vesicular inflation of
the soil" is produced, as is indicated by the regularoutward
declination of the elevated strata.
A mine-like
explosion,
the
of
of
the bursting
the central and highestpart
convex
inflation of the soil,gives origin sometimes
only to what
Leopold von Buch has called a crater of elevation^that is to
action

other
(Cosmos, vol. i.,p. 237), and I shall only advert here to anin Strabo (vi.,
hardening lava,called
p. 269), in which
passage
In the descriptionof
is most
distinctlycharacterized.
7T77\6cjikXag,

casion

iEtna

we

find

"

the

converts

depth,so

that

red-hot

The

surface

whoever

(pvat)in

stream

of

the

wishes

to

earth

into

uncover

the

it must

of solidification

act
to

stone

considerable

undertake

the labor

and then upis molten

of quarrying. For, as in the craters, the stone
heaved,
is a black excrementitious
the fluid streaming from the summit

fallingdown
(tt?]\6c)
a
millstone,and

mass

becomes

the mountain,
the same

retains

which, afterward

hardening,
before."

color that it had

Cosmos, vol. i.,p. 239.

t Leopold von Buch, On Basaltic Islands and Craters of Elevation,
in the Abhandl.
der konig.Akad. der Wiss. zu Berlin,1818-1819, s. 51;
*

and

Beschreibungder
Phjsikalische

284, 313, 323, and

341.

profound knowledge
to

Madeira

and

of

canarischen

work, which
volcanic phenomena,
This

Teneriffe, from

the

Inseln,1825,
constitutes

beginning

is the
of

s.

fruit

April to

213, 262,

era

an

of

the

in the
voyage

end

of

indicates with much

justice,in 'his LehrOctober, 1815 ; but Naumanii
buch der Geognosie,that in the letters written in 1802 by Leopold von
Beobachtung avf Reisen durch
((rrofjnostische
Auvergne
Buch, from
DeutscMand

und

bd. ii.,
s. 282),in
Itrficn,

reference

to

the

description

218

cosmos.

because in
decidedlydisinclined to all classifications,
these
after
the endeavor
generalization
always rest only upon
the burstingforth of
conceive
imperfectindications,we may
not

are

fused

solid matter, vapors

Proceeding from the

and

masses

ways.

and

ferent
gases, in four difsimple to the complex

eruptionsfrom fissures,
phenomena., we may first mention
but producing volcanic
not forming separate series of cones,
rocks superlying each
other, in a fused and viscid state;
secondly,eruptionsthrough heaped-upcones, without any cirof lava, as was
the
cumvallation, and yet emitting streams
for five years during the destruction of the island of
case
craters
Lancerote, in the first half of the last century ; thirdly,
with upheaved strata, but without
central
of elevation,
of
lava only on
the outside of the
cones, emitting streams
from

circumvallation,never
detritus

with

up

circular
Pic

of

in
Teneriffe,

without

Mexico.
a

permanent

and

Quito, and

and
bell-shaped
trachytic
closed

at

to be
my observations,
active or extinct,and

than

more

far

the

more

as

in Iceland,*

is more

Of the

class

fieryinterior
ive
less effect-

or

dome-shaped
which

doleritic mountains

summit, there

the

the

on

of this fourth

between

atmosphere,which

by

entirely

or

"

or

central parts of

the

of elevation

connection

as

"

of elevation

intervals of time.

undetermined

remained

Monfina

Rocca

crater

of

cones

open

of the earth and the

closed

soon

inclosed

retained
partially

and

or

Cordilleras

The

maintain

at

least

Fogo,

either

summit,

the

at
at

circumvallation
in the

is

mountains
fourthly,closed bell-shaped

of elevation,
open
which
is
wall,

cones

which
interior,

the

have

according to

appear,

of the open cones, whether

than of the true volcanoes.

bell-shapedmountains, such as ChimboraMonfina, and Vultur, give

zo, Puy de Dome, Sarcouy,Rocca
the landscape a peculiarcharacter,by which
they contrast
with the schistose peaks,or the serrated forms of
pleasingly
and

Dome-shaped

limestone.

preservedto us so picturesquelyby Ovid

great volcanic phenomenon of the peninsulaof
productionof such a bell-shapedand unopened

In the tradition

regardingthe
Methone, the
mountain

is indicated

force of the winds

seeking in

with

imprisonedin dark caves

for an
opening,drive up

vain

{extentam tumefecithumum),
leather
*

bag

Sartorius

Island,1847,

air.

with
von
s.

methodical

as

when

one

clearness.

"

earth,and
heaving soil

of the
the

fills a

By gradual hardening

the

bladder

or

high pro-

Skizze
Waltershausen, Physisch-geographische

107.

The

von

CRATERS

jectingeminence

has retained

already elsewhere

adverted

to

219

ELEVATION.

the form

of

hill."

fact of how

the

representationis from

different this Roman

of

OF

I have

completely

Aristotle's

ration
nar-

volcanic

the

phenomenon upon Hiera, a newlythe subterranean,

island,in which
(Liparian)
ward
mightilyurging blast does indeed also raise a hill,but afterof ashes."
breaks it up to pour forth a fieryshower
The
elevation is here clearlyrepresentedas preceding the
eruption of flame (Cosmos,vol. i.,p. 241). According to
formed

JEolic

Strabo,

dome-like

elevated

the

hill of Methana

had

also

fieryeruptions,at the close of which an agreeable

diffused in the night-time. It is very remarkable
was
observed
the latter was
under exactly similar circumstances
tumn
during the volcanic eruptionof Santorin, in the au"
of 1650, and was
denominated
a consolingsign,that
would
his
not yet destroy
sermon
flock,"in the penitential
delivered and written
monk.*
shortlyafterward by a

opened
odor
that

God

"

in

been

of
disputed point to what particularlocality
the peninsula of Methana, the descriptionof
the Roman
poet may refer.
My friend,Ludwig Ross, the great Greek
and
antiquarian
chorograph, who has had the advantage of many
thinks
that
the immediate
travels,
vicinityof Troezen
presents no
be referred to as the bladder-like
and that,
can
localitywhich
hills,
Ovid has removed
the phenomenon described with
by a poeticlicense,
such truth to nature
the south of the peninsulaof
to the plain. " To
and
of
the
of
east
Methana,
Troezen," writes Ross, "lies the
plain
island Calauria, well known
the
as
place where Demosthenes, being
the
took
pressed by
Macedonians,
poison in the temple of Neptune.
the

It has

much

plain of Troezen,

arm

of the

coast

; from

narrow

from

the

and

island

united

take

their

with

Calauria

small

conical

or

sea

separates the

this

arm

present

of the
name.

limestone
sea

In

rocks

of Calauria

(passage,Tropog)the
the

middle

of the

town

strait,

by a low causeway,
probably of artificial origin,
in
form to an
islet,
comparable
egg cut through
the middle.
It is volcanic
of
throughout, consisting grayishyellow
and yellowishred trachyte,mixed
with eruptions of lava and scoria?,
and is almost entirelydestitute of vegetation. Upon this islet stands
the present town
of Poros,on
the place of the ancient Calauria.
The
formation
of the islet is exactly similar
to that of the more
recent
volcanic
islands in the Bay of Thera
(Santorin). In his animated
O
vid
followed
has
Greek
description,
a
probably
original or an old
tradition"
dated
(Ludw. Ross, in a letter to me
November, 1845)
As
member
of the Trench
scientific expedition,Virlet has set up
a
the opinion that the volcanic upheaval may
have been only a subsequent
increase of the trachyticmass
of the peninsula of Methana.
This
increase
in the northwest
occurs
extremity of the peninsula,
where
the black burned
called
rock,
Kammeni-petra, resembling the
Kammeni, near
recent
Santorin, betrays a more
origin. Fausanias
of
communicates
the tradition of the inhabitants
Methana, that,on
the north coast, before the now-celebrated
sulphurous springs burst
lies

220

cosmos.

this

pleasantoclor afford indications of naphtha %

The same
sian
thing is also referred to by Kotzebne, in his Rusof
in
with
an
discovery, connection
voyage
igneous
of
volcanic
the
island
of
eruption (1804)
Umnack, newly
elevated from the sea in the Aleutian Archipelago. During
the great eruption of Vesuvius, on
the 12th
August, 1805,
which
I observed
in company
with Gay-Lussac, the latter
found a bituminous
odor prevailingat times in the ignited
I bring togetherthese little-noticed facts,because
crater.
the close concatenation
of all
they contribute to confirm
manifestations
of volcanic activity,
the intimate
connection
salses and naphtha springswith the true volof the weak
canoes.
Does

not

Circumvallations,
analogous to those of

the

of elevation,

craters

also present themselves

in rocks which
ferent
are
very diffrom trachyte,
basalt,and porphyriticschists ; for example,
in the

Oisans, to which
of
the

de Beaumont's

French

the

Briancon

near

voux,

Elie

accordingto
graniteof the

Mont

of
Pel-

theatre
amphi-

an

of which

villageof

is situated

steep walls of

of

than

9600

interior is

feet.

The

Grand

the small

this circular space

The

circumvallation

granite.f In

formation

same

mass

circumference,in

The

the

mountain

highest*summit of France,
belongs,forms
(12,905 feet),

rarde.

all the

The

thirty-twogeographicalmiles in

centre

more

Alps.

observation,

acute

Swiss

the

rise to

La
a

of Mont

height

itselfis gneiss;
and

Savoy Alps

in small
presents itself repeatedly

Plateau

Be-

Blanc, in which

sions.
dimenBravais

bd. i.,s. 42
forth,fire rose out of the earth (see Curtius, Pcloponnesos,
Avhich
the
odor"
followed
indescribable
On
the
pleasant
46).
Santorin
see
Ross,
(September, 1650),
stinkingsulphurous odor, near
Reisen cm/ den Griech. Inseln des agaischenMeeres, bd. i.,
s. 196.
Upon
island
Aleutian
lava
of
the
of the
the odor of naphtha in the fumes
Entdeclcungs-Reise,
Umnack, which appeared in 1796, see Kotzebue's
ries,
bd. ii.,
s.
106, and Leopold de Buch, Descriptionphys.des lies Cana"

and

p. 458.
*

The

highestsummit

of the

Pyrenees,

is,the

that

Pic

highestpeak

of the Maladetta

twice

"

"

or

Malahita

de

Nethou

group),has
boid,
measured
trigonometrically
; its height,according to Heis 11,443 feet (3481 metres), and, according to Corabceuf, 11,167
Pelthan Mont
feet (3404 metres).
It is,therefore, 1705 feet lower
in height to the
The
in the French
Briancon.
next
Alps, near
voux,
Pic de Nethou, in the Pyrenees, are
the Pic Posets
or
Erist,and of
the Cylindre.
the group
of the Marbore, the Montperdu, and
servir a la DescriptionGcologiquede la France, t. ii.,
t Memoir
e pour
encircling ridges" in the
valleysof elevation" and
Upon
p. 339.
Muradmirable
Silurian formation, see the
descriptionof Sir Roderick
Silurian System," pt. i.,p. 427-442.
chison in "The
(theeastern

been

and

221

MAARS.

theatre
encamped for several days, is a closed amphiof
with a nearly flat bottom, at an
elevation
nearly
from
of
colossal
the
midst
which
the
pyramid
12,811 feet;
forces
The
of the summit
rises.*
same
upheaving
produce
similar forms, although modified by the composition of the
and caldron-like valleys(valThe annular
different rocks.
leys
of elevation)described by Hoffman, Buckland, Murchiin the sedimentary rocks of the north
son, and Thurmann,
and the Jura
of
mountains
of Germany, in Herefordshire,
scribed,
Forrentruy,are also connected with the phenomena here dewell as, although with a less degree of analogy,
as
elevated plainsof the Cordilleras inclosed on all sides
some
of
situated the towns
in which
are
masses,
by mountain
Caxamarca
(93G2 feet),Bogota (8729 feet),and Mexico
and in the Himalayas the caldron-like valleyof,
(7469 feet),
Caschmir
(5819 feet).
Martins

and

related

Less

to

simplestform

described

are
fissures)

mere

of the

volcanoes
rock

the
Eifel

of volcanic

of

me

the above

the

among

from

extinct

by

canic
depressionsin non-volvated
elesurrounded
by slightly

themselves.

mines,

bones

the

"These
of

indications

resemblingthe remarkable
of the human

to

caldron-like

"

margins, formed
funnels

than

activity(theaction
Maars

numerous

and
(Devonian slate),

the

were,

of elevation

the craters

are,

mine-like

tions,"
erupdescribed by

phenomenon

the hill of La

scattered

upon
of Riobarnba

it

as

Culcaf

earthquake
(4th February, 1797).
during
situated
not
at
singleMaars,
any great height,in the
Eifel"in Auvergne, or in Java, are filled with water, such
former craters of explosionmay in this state be denominated

When

cixttcres-lacs; but
Bravais

it

to

seems

that

me

this term

Martins, Ohserv. faitescm Sommet

Blanc, in the Annuaire Metcorol. de la

and

du Mont

et

should

an

France

not

Grand

teau
Pla-

pour

1850,

p. 131.

f Cosmos, vol.

Eifel,when
the autumn

v., p. 173.

I have

visited the volcanoes

twice

different

in very
was
geognosy
of 1791, and in August, 1845

states

of

of the

development,

the first time

in the

in

ity
vicin-

then
there,which was
still inhabited
by monks ; the second time in the neighborhood of
for more
Bertrich,the Mosenberg, and the adjacent Maars, but never
than a few days. As in the latter excursion
I had the good fortune
intimate
to be able to accompany
friend,the mining surveyor,
my
Von
Dechen, I have been enabled
years' correspondence,
by many
and the communication
of important manuscript memoirs, to make
dicated
of the observations
of this acute
free use
geognosist. I have often inI
have
what
is
borrowed,
as
quotation
marks,
wont,
by
my
of the

word

Lake

for word,

of Laach

from

and

the

monastery

his communications.

222

cosmos.

taken

be
have

as

been

highest volcanoes,on
craters

for

of

12,246

19,717 feet.

In the

an

at

true

from
distinguish
of

Maars.

of

the former

Uesbach,
of

Bertrich

near

in

is seated
form

cleft

and
olivin,

limestone

tivity
ac-

emitting
of the

eruptive phenomena
of
the

lava,
valley

schists
gray wacke
(1753 feet above the
of Manderscheid.

and

the

sea),not
The

last-

three craters, of which

the first and second,
furthest to the north, are
perfectlyround, and

volcano
those

with

covered

volcanoes

true

fully
care-

of volcanic

;* the volcano of Gerolstein,wdrich

containingdolomite,depositedin the

long ridge of the Mosenberg

far from Bettenfeld,
to the west
named

kinds

must

we

at

Elburuz

belong the basaltic stream

into upright columns, in

basin in the Devonian

the

extinguished

Caucasian

the

two

of the

of Toluea

of the Eifel

other
"

in

volcano

on

volcanoes

unequal age
lava, and the weaker

To

rich in

feet,and

very

of

streams

Mexican

lakes

small

as

the summits

of elevation

cones

the

each

Maar,

myself on

and

example, on

elevation

for

name

synonymous
found by Abich

southern!

has

peat

there

crater

of

from

; while

mosses

flows

down

third and

vast, reddish

lava,separatedinto

the

columnar

most

brown,
toward

a
form,
deep stream
the valleyof the little Kyll. It is a remarkable
non,
phenomevolcanoes
in
ther
to
foreign lava-producing
general,that neithe Mosenberg nor
in other
the Gerolstein,nor
on
on
of the Eifel,
volcanoes
true
the lava eruptionsvisibly
are
surrounded
at their origin by a trachyticrock, but, as far as
they are accessible to observation,proceed directlyfrom the
Devonian
The
surface of the Mosenberg does not at
strata.
all prove what
is hidden in its depths. The scoriae containing
augite,which by cohesion pass into basaltic streams,
contain
small, calcined fragments of slate,but no trace of
inclosed trachyte. Nor is the latter to be found inclosed in
the crater
of the Rodderberg, notwithstandingthat it lies
the greatest
in the immediate
vicinityof the Siebengebirge,

of the Rhine

trachyticmass
"The
*

H.

Maars

appear," as

Dcchen,

von

1847,

s.

district.
the

mining

Geognost.Uebersicht

der

surveyor

Umgegend

von

Von
Bad

De.
trich.
Ber-

11-51.

das Gebirge von

t Stengel,in Niiggcrath,

Rheinland

tmd

Westphalen,

Oeynhausen's admirable
nations
explaof his geognosticMap of the Lake
of Laach, 1847, p. 34, 39,
and
Upon the
42, including the Eifel and the basin of Neuwied.
der
Eifel, 1853, s-.
Maars, see Steininger, GeognostischeBeschreibung

bd.

113.

i.,s. 79,

His

Eifel und

taf. iii.

See

also C.

earliest meritorious
am

Nieder-Rhein"

von

work,

"

belongs to

Die

erloschenen

the year

1820.

Yulkane

in d*r

223

MAARS.

belong in their formation

the same
to about
epoch as the eruptionof the lava streams
of
situated in the vicinity
Both are
of the true volcanoes.
cidedly
dedeeply-cutvalleys. The lava-producingvolcanoes were
the valleys had already attained
active at a time when
also see the
very nearly their present form ; and we
of this district pouring down
into
ancient lava streams
most
surrounded
Maars
the valleys." The
are
by fragments of
Devonian
gins.
slates,and by heaps of gray sand and tufa marit be regarded as a large
The Laacher
lake, whether
Maar, or, with my old friend C. von Oeynhausen, as part of
a
(likethe basin
large caldron-like valley in the clay-slate
of Wehr), exhibits some
volcanic
eruptionsof scoriae upon
the Krufter
the ridgesurrounding it,as is the case
on
Ofen,
the Veitskopf,and Laacher
ly
Kopf. It is not, however, mereobserved,
ingeniously

has

chen

"

to

the

of lava

entire want
the

on

Canary

of elevation

craters

of the

elevation

of the

Maars

of the

The

as

appear,

has

vapors,

part fallen back.

most

of

the

tion
regular stratificathe upheaval,constantly

in the Devonian

slate

craters

of

explosionof hot gases

have for the
ejectedmasses
(Rajtilli)
As
examples I shall only mention

looser

the

"

observed, like the

already been

mines, into which, after

and

sunk

Maars

served
ob-

of true

of elevation

craters

consequence

be

to

margin
vicinity it is
ridgesurroundingthe

destitute of

are

in
rock, falling,

outward.

are

upon
in their immediate

this from
Maar, that distinguishes

margins

as

the outer

Islands

and

the inconsiderable

not

streams, such

the

violent

Immerather, the Pulvermaar, and the Meerfelder

of the first mentioned, the dry bottom
Maar.
In the centre
of which, at a depth of two
hundred
is cultivated,
are
i'eet,
here

the

situated

the

two

villagesof

Ober-

and

Unter-Immerath.

tufa of the

in the volcanic

vicinity,
exactlyas on the
Laacher
in sphelake,mixtures of feldsparand augiteoccur
roids,
of
in which
black
and
tered.
scatare
particles
green glass
Similar
spheroidsof mica, hornblende, and augite,
full of vitrified portions,
in the tufa veins
also contained
are
Here,

of the Pulvermaar

Gillenfeld,which, however, is

near

tirely
en-

deep lake. The regularlycircular

Meerfelder
and partlywith
Maar, covered partlywith water
by the proximity of the
peat, is characterized geognostically
of
three craters
of the great Mosenberg, the most
southern
converted

which

has furnished

is situated 639
at

into

its northern

stream

feet below

the

extremity, not

of lava.

long
in

The

Maar, however,

ridge of the
the

axis

volcano,and

of the

series of

224

cosmos.

craters, but

the

northwest.

of the Eifel above

of the Maars

feet

922

between

to

more

The average elevation

the surface of the sea falls

(Laacher lake?)and

1588

feet (Mosbrucher

Maar).
the

to

peculiarlythe place in which

uniformityand agreement exhibited

this is

As

call attention

to

by

volcanic

tivity
ac-

ferent
results,in the most difframe- work
forms of the outer
(as Maars, as circumof elevation,or cones
vallated craters
mit),
opened at the sumin its

productionof material

I may
mention
minerals
which

In the

which

of the

environs

certainlygreatest;

is

been

have

and
their first explosion,
tufas.

remarkable

the

other

but

thrown

abundance
out

of

lized
crystal-

by the Maars

in

stillin part lie buried in the

lake this abundance
Laacher
Maars

also,for example the

Immerather, and the Meerfelder Maar, so rich in bombs of

We
here mention
masses.
olivin,contain fine crystallized
may
apatite,nosean, olivin,augite,
zircon,hauyne, leucite,*
common
feldspar(orthoclase),
glassyfeldspar(sanryacolite,
If the numand
iron.
titanic
ber
mica, sodalite,garnet,
idine),
Vesuvius
minerals
be so
on
beautifullycrystallized
get
fornot
must
43 species),
much
we
greater (Scacchi counts
that very few of them
are
ejectedfrom the volcano, and
that the greater number
belongs to the portion of the soof Vesuvius, which, accordingto the
called eruptivematters
of

Papa in
cording
Monfina, acmountains,
in
sometimes
to Pilla,
diameter,
also
and from the dolerite of the Kaiserstuhl,in the Breisgau) occurs
Riethe Burgberg, near
"in positionas leucite-rock
in the Eifel,on
den.
The
tufa in the Eifel incloses large blocks of leucitophyrenear
the
resist the temptation to borrow
I can
not
Boll and Weibern."
memoir
from
observation
a
chemico-geognostic
following important
of Berlin
read by Mitscherlich
since before the Academy
few weeks
a
of
the
effected the eruptions
have
alone may
: "Aqueous
vapors
the
finest
Eifel,but they would have divided olivin and augite into
With
drops and powder if they had met with them in a fluid state.
the fundamental
of the erupted matters
mass
fragments of the old,
ser
broken-up rock are most
intimatelymixed, for example, on the Dreiivin
The
caked
and
these are frequently
largeroltogether.
Weiher,
surrounded
and the masses
of augite even
masses
usually occur
curs
ocby a thick crust of this mixture ; a fragment of the old rock never
in the olivin or augite; both were
consequently formed before
the breaking up took place. Olivin and
the spot where
they reached
before
had,
augite
therefore,separated from the fluid basaltic mass
caused
its
which
of water
this met
accumulation
or
a
with an
spring
Leonard
memoir
older
bombs
the
an
also
See
by
expulsion."
upon
vol.
2d series,
Society,
of the Geological
Horner, in the Transactions
iv.,pt. 2, 1836, p. 467.
*

Leucite

the Albanian

(of the

same

kind

from

Vesuvius, from

Rocca

Viterbo, from the Rocca

of more
than three inches

from

di

226

cosmos.

itself.

duckstein

Cordilleras

the

appear
the Trass can

whether
the

Notwithstanding

analogies which
to present, I have
always doubted
be ascribed to eruptionsof mud
from
of the Eifel.

lava-producingvolcanoes

with

H.

some

I rather

suppose,
thrown
out

Dechen, that the pumice-stonewas

von

er
dry,and that the Trass was formed in the same
way as othis
Pumice-stone
the
to
Siebenconglomerates.
foreign
and
the
of
the
gebirge;
great pumice eruption
Eifel,the
of
which
stilllies
above
the
loess
mass
principal
(Trass)and
alternates therewith
in particular
parts, may, in accordance
with
the presumption to which
the local conditions lead,
have taken placein the valleyof the Rhine, above Neuwied,
in the great Neuwied
basin,perhaps near Urmits, on the left
bank of the Rhine.
From
the friability
of the material,the
place of eruptionmay have disappearedwithout leavingany
traces
by the subsequent action of the current of the Rhine.
In the entire tract of the Maars
of the Eifel,
in that of
as
its volcanoes from Bertrich
to Ormond,
no
pumice-stoneis
"

found.
upon

That
its
of

margin

Maars
much

and

on

lake

the

other

rock, which
feldspathic

tuff,do not
We

of the Laacher

have

from

Maars

the

to

the small

lie in the volcanic

pass into pumice."

alreadytouched upon

and of the

is limited

the relative

sand

rocks

ments
fragand

antiquityof the

eruptionsof

them, compared

the lava streams, which differ so

with that of the formation
of the

trachyteof the Siebengebirgeappears to be

much
older than the valleyformation,and even
older than the
Rhenish
coal.
Its appearance
has been independent
brown
of the cuttingof the valleyof the Rhine, even
if we
should
of a fissure. The formaascribe this valleyto the formation
tion
of the valleysis more
than the Rhenish
recent
brown
valleys.

coal, and
than

the

the great

"

The

more

recent

than

the

volcaniceruptionswith

Rhenish

basalt

but

older

lava

streams, and older than

the Trass.
Basalt formations

pumice eruptionand
recent
decidedlyextend to a more
period than the formation
of trachyte,
of the basalt is,therefore,
and the principalmass
to be regarded as younger
than the trachyte. In the present
declivities of the valleyof the Rhine
basaltic
groups
many
(the quarry of Unkel, Rolandseck, Godesberg) were
only laid
bare by the opening of the valley,
as up to that time they were
probably inclosed in the Devonian
graywacke rocks."
The infusoria,
universal diffusion,
whose
demonstrated
by
the
the
in
continents,
Ehrenberg, upon
greatest depths of the
the
of
and
in
the
strata
sea,
atmosphere,is one of the
upper

227

MAARS.

brilliant discoveries

most

our

time, have

their

Eifel,in the Rapilli,Trass

in the volcanic

seat

of

strata,and

pumice conglomerates. Organisms with silicious

of
and the eruptivematters
the valleyof Brohl
mer

sometimes, in
of

the

Trass, they

coniferae.

mixed

are

According

principal
shields fill
Hochsim-

with

uncar-

Ehrenberg, the
is of fresh-water
of this microcosm
whole
formation,and
marine
Polythalamia*only show themselves exceptionally
in the uppermost depositof the friable,
yellowishloess at the
foot and on
the declivities of the Siebengebirge
(indicating
its former brackish coast nature).
limited to Western
ny?
GermaIs the phenomenon of Maars
Count
Montlosier,who was
acquainted with the Eifel
the
by personalobservations in 1819, and who pronounces
Mosenberg to be one of the finest volcanoes that he ever saw
(likeRozet), regards the Gouffrede Tazenat, the Lac Pavin
of
and Lac de la Godivel,in Auvergne, as Maars
craters
or
explosion. They are cut into very different kinds of rock
in granite,
ed
basalt,and domite (trachytic
rock),and surroundscoriae and rapilli.
at the margins with
f
The frame-works, which
built
are
powerful
up by a more
of
of
soil and
the
eruptiveactivity volcanoes, by upheaval
bonized

twigs

to

"

of

emission

with
this
reappear
of the earth.
zones

among

basaltic

and

Those

forms

are

among

physiognomy

least six different

their forms

varietyin
who

are

born

the

the most

of nature

same

forms

forms, and

in the most
in volcanic

trachyticmountains,

impressedin spots where

of the

in at

lava, appear

are

often

greet them.

distant

districts,

genially
ain
Mount-

important determiningelements
"

they give the

district either

of the valleyof the Rhine, see

Upon the antiquityof formation
in the Vervon
Dechen, Geognost.Beschreibungdes Siebengebirges,
handl. des JVaturhist. Vereins de?' Preuss. Rheinlande
und
Westphalens,
treated of by EhrenThe infusoria of the Eifel are
berg
1852, s. 556-559.
in the Monatsber.
der Wiss. zu Berlin, 1844, s. 337;
der Ahad.
Trass of Brohl,
The
1845, s. 133 and 148; and 1846, s. 161-171.
which
is filled with crumbs
of pumice-stone containing infusoria,
forms hills of as much
850 feet in height.
as
de la Societe Gcologique,2me
f See Rozet, in the Memoires
serie,t.
farious
of multiOn the island of Java
seat
i.,p. 119.
also,that wonderful
volcanic activity,
there occur
without
"craters
cones, as it were
Lief,
flat volcanoes"
(Junghuhn, Java, seine Gestalt tind JPflanzendecke,
the
to
between
and
Salak
analogous
vii.,p. 640),
Perwakti,
Gunung
"
elevated
Maars
of
of
craters
as
margins,
explosion." Destitute
any
they are situated partly in perfectlyflat districts of the mountains,
have
angular fragments of the burst rocky strata scattered around
them, and now
only emit vapors and gases.
*

H.

228

cosmos.

cheerful,or

and

magnificentcharacter,accordingas
they are adorned with vegetationor surrounded
by a dreary
I have quite recentlyendeavored
barrenness.
to bring together
in
of
As

stern

separate

atlas

of outlines of the Cordilleras

number

Quito and Mexico, sketched

basalt

rounded

sometimes

occurs

at

in

from

in the

summit, sometimes

the

of

drawings.

my own
domes

conical

somewhat

form

of

closely-

elevation,and

times
someunequal
bounded
each
at
tremity
exridge
elevated dome, so we
guish
principallydistinby a more
form*
in trachyte the majestic dome
(Chimborazo,
with the form of the unnot to be confounded
opened
21,422 feet),
but less massive
The
ical
conbell-shapedmountains.
form is most
exhibited
in Cotopaxi (18,877
perfectly!
and next
to this in Popocatepetl
as seen
feet),
J (1-7,727feet),

arranged

twin-mountains

in that

the

on

of

beautiful
of the

long horizontal

shores

of the

lake

of

Tezcuco,

or

from

the

step-pyramid of Cholula ;
of Orizaba" (17,874 feet; according to
volcano
is
Ferrer,17,879 feet).A stronglytruncated conical form||
the
exhibited
Nevado
de Cayambe-Urcu
by
(19,365 feet),
which
of
is intersected by the equator, and by the volcano
Tolima
the primeval forest at
visible above
(18,129 feet),
summit
and

the foot of the

Ibague.^[ To
ridgeis formed
the

ancient

Mexican

Paramo

de

in the

astonishment

the

by

less elevated

Quindiu,

the

volcano

extremityof

of

the

near

little town

of

geognosistsan

elongated
at
(15,891 feet),
broad, still ignited

of Pichincha
which

the

crater** is situated.

Fallingsof
phenomena,

or

of craters, induced
by great natural
their rupture by mine^like explosionfrom the

the

walls

Vulkanen
der Cordillcrcn von
Quito und
von
Humboldt, Umrisse
iv.
Mexico, ein Beitrag zur Physiognomik der Natur, Tafel
(Kleinere
Schriften,bd. i.,s. 133-205).
f Umrisse von
Vulkanen, Tafel vi.
bd. i.,s. 4G3-467). On
j Op. cit. sup., Tafel yiii.{Kleiner
-e Schriften,
the topographicalposition of Popocatepetl (smoking mountain
in the
Aztec
White
the
(recumbent)
Iztaccihuatl,
language), near
woman,
and its geographical relation to the western
and the
lake of Tezcuco
situated to the eastward, see
pyramid of Cholula
my Atlas Gcographiqueet Physiquede la Nouvelle Espagne, pi.3.
" Umrisse von Vulkanen^ Tafel ix. ; the Star-mountain, in the Aztec
Kleinere Schriften,bd. i.,s. 467-470, and my
language Citlaltepetl;
Atlas Gcogr. et Phys. de la Nouvelle Espagne, pi. 17.
| Umrisse von Vxdkanen,Tafel ii.
des peuplesindigenes
% Humboldt, Vues des Cordilleres et Monumens
de tAmcrique (fob),pi. lxii.
**
Umrisse
Schriften,bd. i.,
von
Vulkanen,Tafel i. and x. (Kleinere
*

s.

1-99).

TRUE

depths
forms

of the

pyramids
(15,667

razo

the

19th

mountains

of

more

of Ilinissa

less

and

contrasting

cleavage into
in the

suddenly fell in*

the

still

in the

feet);and

of the crater, in which

to each other,betray the

walls

Lican, between
Cuvillan, the tradition

ble
dou-

Carguainight of

beautiful

more

mids!
pyraof the per
up-

similar

peaks,opposite
previous primitiveform (Caonly 17,456 feet in height).
highlands of Quito, between

the

and

on

crenulation

two

pac-Urcu, Cerro del Altar, now

Among the aboriginesof the
and

the

as

and

regularkind

or

(17,438

such

which
feet),

July, 1698,

Chambo

remarkable

interior,
produce

in conical

22b

VOLCANOES.

has

very

mountains

of Condorasto

been

universallypreserved
that fourteen years before the invasion of Huayna Capac the
of the Inca Tupac Yupanqui, and after eruptionswhich
son
for seven
lasted uninterruptedly
or
eightyears, the summit
of the last-mentioned

fell

in, and covered the entire

is situated,with pumiceEiobamba
and volcanic ashes.
The
volcano, originallyhigher
the Inca
in
guage,
or
called,
Quichua lanChimborazo, was
of
mountains
the
king or prince
(urcu),because
cajxic,

plateau,in which
stone

than

the natives
lower

snow-line

Umrisse

von

New

its summit

saw

than

neighborhood.!
*

volcano

The

rise to

of

that

Yulkanen, Tafel

Quito, long

astronomers,
other

before

the natives

greater heightabove
other

any

great Ararat, the

knew

any

of

mountain
summit

of

the
the

which

iv.

t Ibid.,Tafel iii.and vii.

X Long before the visit of Bouguer

plateau of

and

La

Condamine

measurements

that

Chimborazo

(1736) to

of the
was

mountains

the

by

than

higher

any
of level

region. They had detected two lines

all the year round
that of
exactly the same
the lower limit of perpetual snow,
and that of the elevation to which
As in the equatorialrea
gion
single,occasional snow-fall reached down.
of Quito, the snow-line,as I have
where
elseproved by measurements
tion
t. iii.,
(Asie Centrale,
p. 255), only varies about 190 feet in elevasix of the most
colossal peaks ; and as this variation,
on
as well as
smaller ones
caused
by local conditions,is imperceptibleto the naked
when
from
seen
of
a
(the height of the summit
eye
great distance
Mont
Blanc
is the same
that
of
the
lower
as
equatorial snow-limit),
this circumstance
terrupted
givesrise within the tropicsto an apparently uninregularityof the snowy covering,that is to say, the form of
the snow-line.
The
is astounding
pictorialrepresentationof this horizontality
who
accustomed
to the physicists
the
are
to
irregularity
only
of the snowy
The
covering in the variable,so-called temperate zones.
of
elevation
of
the
about
and
the
uniformity
knowledge of
snow
Quito,
the maximum
of its oscillation,
presents perpendicular bases of 15,777
feet above the surface of the sea, and of 6396
feet above
the plateau
in which
the cities of Quito, Hambato,
Riobamba
and Xuevo
ated;
situare
which

Nevado

in that

remained

bases

almost

which, combined

"

with

very

accurate

measurements

of

230

cosmos.
.

reached
by Friedrich Parrot in the year
(17,084 feet)was
in 1845
and
1820, and by Abich and Chodzko
1850, forms,
Its vast lava streams
like Chimborazo, an unopened dome.
forth far below

burst

have

in the formation

character
the

the

snow-line.
of Ararat

A
is

ant
import-

more

lateral

chasm,
Jacob, which may be compared with
of iEtna.
In this,accordingto Abich' s observation,
a

deeply-cutvalleyof

the Val delBove

the inner

dome-shaped
and

firstbecomes

mountain

upheaval of

the

of the nucleus

structure

the whole

the lava streams.*

trachytic

as
reallyvisible,

of Ararat

are

this

much

cleus
nu-

more

The

Kasbegk and Tschegem,

the same
have broken
out
which
principalCaucasian
upon
mountain
ridge (E.S.E." W.N.W.) as the Elburuz (19,716
also
without
craters
at their summits, while
are
cones
feet),
ancient

than

of the

the colossal Elburuz

As

conical
in all

and

bears

forms

dome-like

regionsof the

crater-lake
are

upon its summit.

quent
by far the most fre-

isolated

earth, the

of

occurrence

long ridge of the volcano of Pichincha, in the group of

I
all the more
remarkable.
volcanoes
of Quito, becomes
have occupied myself long and carefully
with the study of
its structure, and, besides its profile
merous
view, founded upon nuhave
also published a topoangular measurements,
graphical
sketch of its transverse
f Pichincha forms
valleys,
of black trachyticrock (composed of augiteand olia wall
sure
than nine miles in length,elevated upon a fisgoclase)more
in the most
the South
western
Cordilleras,near
Sea,

the

but

without

the axis of the high mountain

angles of elevation,may
topographical labors

be

for

employed

which

ridge coinciding

determining distance

in

be

The
rapidly executed.
many
second
of the level lines here indicated,the horizontal,
which
bounds
the lower portionof a singleoccasional
snow-fall,is decisive as to the
relative height of the mountain
domes, which do not reach into the
Of a long chain of such mountains, which
region of perpetual snow.
have been
low
beare
erroneously supposed to be of equal height, many
the temporary snow-line,and thus the snow-fall decides as to the
relative height. I have heard
such considerations
these upon
as
petual
perand accidental
limits
from
the
mouths
of
snow
rough country
in the mountains
of Quito, where
the Sierras
people and herdsmen
Nevadas
often
close together,although they are
connected
are
not
by
the same
line of perpetual snow.
Grandeur
of nature
sharpens the
rigines,
abothe colored
perceptivefaculties in particularindividuals among
when
even
they are on the lowest steps of civilization.
*
Abich, Bulletin de la Societe de Geographie, 4me serie,t. i.(1851),
cano.
p. 517, with a very beautiful representationof the form of the old volt Humboldt,
Relat. Hist, du

de

are

to

Cordillhres,
p. 295, pi.lxi.,and
Voyage, pi. 27.
Vues

Atlas

de

1*

in direction

three

N.E.

S.W.

to

child

of the

The

domes,

set

the

Upon

ridge of

like castles,follow

up

from

Cuntur-guachana, Guagua-Pichincha (the

old

volcano

true

that of the Cordillera.

with

wall,the

the

231

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

volcano),and el Picacho de los Ladrillos.

is called the Father, or the Old Man, Rucu-

ridge
only part of the long mountain
that reaches into the region of perpetualsnow, and therefore
of Guaguaexceeds the dome
elevation which
rises to an
Pichincha, the child,by about 190 feet. Three tower-like
It is the

Pichincha.

lie somewhat
to the
the oval crater, which
therefore beyond the axial direction of a wall

surround

rocks

southwest, and
which

average 15,406 feet in height. In the spring

I reached the eastern
rocky tower accompanied only

of 1802

We

Indian, Felipe Aldas.

the

by

the

is on

stood

of the crater, about 2451

margin
Sebastian
of the ignited chasm.

torn

physicalsciences are indebted for

during his long residence
to pass several nightsin the year
is divided

crater

thousand
of

seat

Wisse,

to

treme
ex-

the bot-

whom

the

ations
observinteresting

in

Quito, had the courage

1845
in a part of the crater
sunrise

to

28".

The

portionsby a rocky ridge,covered

than a
The
eastern
portionlies more

into two

vitrified scoria?.

with

upon
feet above

many

fell toward

the thermometer

where

so

the

there

deeper than the western,

volcanic activity. Here a cone
feet

and
of

is

the real

now

eruptionrises

to

than seventy
by more
heightof 266 feet. It is surrounded
this
ignitedfumaroles, emittingsulphurous vapors.* From
circular

with

covered

Bromelia-like

cooler

crater, the

eastern

parts of which

tufts of

rushy grasses, and

leaves,it is probablethat the
and

ashes

the

To

the

of

class of volcanic

forms

of

upon

normal

gated
constitute elon-

which

Galungung, with

the

;f the

Java

Schiwelutsch, in Kamtschatka,

ridgeof
10,170 feet;J Hecla,

chain

the

direction upon

which

from

seen

the

singledomes

the northwest

doleritic
mountain

rise to

height

side,in

the

fissure
principaland longitudinal

Schriften,bd. i.,s. 61, 81, 83, and 88.

t Junghuhn, Reise durchJava, 1845, s. 215, Tafel
t See^Adolf Erman's Reise urn die Erde, which is
*

fiery
place in
The
city of
for days together

took

dust-like rapilli.
falling,

rarer

the

with

eruptionsof

of Rucu-Pichincha

ridgesbelong,in the Old World,

large crater, in the western
part of

mass

now

Pourretia

scoria?,
pumice,
1539, 1560, 1566, 1577, 1580, and 1660.
then frequently
envelopedin darkness
Quito was

by

are

Kkinere

in

geognosticpoint of

new,

bd. iii.,
271
s.

xx.

also very
and 207.

ant
import-

232

cosmos.

forth,as a broad mountain

chain,
Since
furnished
the last eruppeaks.
tions
of 1845
and
which
lava
of
stream
1846,
yielded a
placesmore
eightgeographicalmiles in length,and in some
it has

which

over

than

two

burst

with

various

miles

in

small

breadth, similar

1669, five caldron-like

in

of Hecla.

the

to

lie in

from .ZEtna

stream

upon the ridge

fissure is directed N. 65" E., the
the principal

As

volcano,when
side,and

craters

from

seen

row

that is from the southwest

Selsundsfjall,
in transverse
section,appears as a

therefore

pointed conical mountain.*

If

forms

the

(Cotopaxi

of volcanoes

place

in

of the

the

out, and

depths
of

the island

Upon

of their

Taal, the

the

taking
position
still more
singular.
of the Philippines,

is sometimes

of

in

processes
relative

interior,the

Luzon, in the group

the still active volcano

different

variation

any
chemical

the

in

of elevation

cones

remarkably

so

Pichincha) without

and

thrown

matters

are

destructive

most

tion
erupthat of the year 1754, rises in the midst
large lake inhabited by crocodiles (called the Laguna

of which
of

de

Bombon).

was

The

which

cone,

ascended

was

in Kotzebue's

of discovery,
has a crater-lake,from which
voyage
of eruption,
This
with a second crater, rises,f
cone
reminds

again a
tion
descripjournal of his
involuntarilyof Hanno's
island is referred to, inclosinga small
an

one

voyage, in which
lake, from the centre

is said to

phenomenon
*

Sartorius

Island, 1847,
Tafel

xv.

and

of which

von

s.

second

rises.

The

of the

in the Gulf

twice, once

occur

island

Skizze von
"Waltershausen, Physisch-geograpldsche
his GeognostischerAtlas von
Island, 1853,

107; and

xvi.

Kotzebue, Entdeckungs-Reisein die Sildsee und in die

von
s. 68 ; Reise-Atlas
Choris,1820,
Berings-Strasse,
1815-1818, bd. iii.,
Tafel 5; Vicomte
d'Archiac,Histoire des Progi-lsde la Gcologie,1847,
las islas
t. i.,
p. 544 ; and Buzeta, Diccionario Geogr. estad. Historico de
and 470, 471, in which, however,
t. ii. (Madrid, 1851), p. 436
Filipinas,
mentioned
alike
the double
encirclingof a crater in the crater-lake,
in
his
letter
to
and
Arago
circumstantiallyby Delamare,
accurately
(November, 1842, Comptes rendus de V Acad, des Sciences,
t.xvi.,
p. 756),
is not referred to.
The
great eruption in December, 1754 (a previous
stroyed
and
violent one
the 24th September, 1716), detook place on
more
bank
of
the old villageof Taal, situated on the southwestern
the lake,which was
subsequentlyrebuilt at a greater distance from the
f Otto

volcano.
is called

von

The
Isla

of the volcano

ma,

one

small

island

del Volcan.
of Taal

of the lowest.

is

of the

lake

(Buzeta, loc.
scarcely895

At

the

Captain Wilkes (1842) it was

Expedition,vol. v., p.

time

in full
317.

upon

which

cit.)

feet.

The

the volcano
absolute

rises

elevation

like CosiIt is,therefore,

expedition of

of the American

activity. See

Uirited States Exploring

234

cosmos.

upon

the

island of

of

Ischia,have

meus

Lancerote, and

preservedno

interior of the earth

the

excluded.

in

According

Arso,

the

the

on

Epo-

connection

permanent

and

atmosphere,

testimony of the

the

to

the

tween
behere

are

zealous

most

of the

Sartorius von
Waltersvulcanicityof -".'Etna,
hausen, this volcano is surrounded
by nearly 700 largerand
elevations of
smaller cones' of eruption. As the measured
observer

surface

level of the sea, the present fluid

planet,it is of importance here to advert to

relate

the summits
of the

the

to

the fact that insular volcanoes

volcano

Javanese

Cosirna,*at
by Horner

of which

"

the

(such as

some

of the Straits of

the entrance

and Tilesius)
do not projecta
Tsugar, described
thousand
feet,and others,such as the Peak of Teneriffe,f
are

12,250 feet above

than

more

raised

themselves

by

which

has

often

been

than

more

To

avoid

45,838

below
feet,

sea

have

"

sea-bottom,

one
20,000 feet,nay
surface
of
the
present

in

the

in the numerical

error

an

of the

forces above

volcanic
found

surface

the

case
ocean.

proportionsit must

also

that,although distinctions of the first and fourth

of 1000 and 18,000 feet (1066 and 19,188
classes" volcanoes
be mentioned

appear very considerable

ratios of these numbers

for volcanoes

Englishfeet)
"

the

of heat

the

earth

level.

to

in

infer the upper

we
progression)

be

Considering the
the

of elevation

to

ance

the
*

ness

map

the

heightof
For

by

the

mauna

the

the present
of elastic vapors, which

stoppingof

volcanic

of the volcanoes

enough

of the lava

and

measured

regardedas
other

is

ferences
the diffissures,

hitherto

to be

sea-

dense

are

hinder-

masses

to

the crater.

positionof

in smallis only exceeded

this volcano, which
the fine
and that of the Mendafia, see

of Tanna,

the volcano
F.

Siebold,1840.
the insular
here,with the Peak of Teneriffe,among
does
which
volcanoes, that of Mauna-Roa, the conical form of
In the language of the Sandwich
Islanders,
agree with its name.
tion
and roa both long and much.
Nor do I menjncnintain,
signifies
pute,
Hawaii, upon the height of which there has so long been a disdome
not
has been described
and which
as
a trachytic
opened at
ing
celebrated
Kiraueah
The
summit.
crater
(a lake of molten, boiling
accordthe
the
of
foot
lies
the
to
near
Mauna-Roa,
eastward,
lava)
of

Japan by

t I do not
not

elevation

limit of the fused interior of

tension

considerable

not
certainly

are

121,500 feet below

about

vastlyincreased by

tinents,
con-

quite changed if
experiments upon the melting point of
very probablehypothesisof the uniform
proportionto the depth in arithmetical

(from Mitscherlich's
and the not
granite,
increase

on

to

von

mention

Wilkes,

at

in Charles

an

elevation
Wilkes's

of 3970

feet.

See

the

excellent

scription
de-

ExploringExpedition,vol. iv.,p. 165-196.

TRUE

Volcanoes.

Hypsometry of
from 700

First group,

235

VOLCANOES.

Paris

to 4000

746

or

to 4264

English

feet in height.
The

of the

volcano

of the

volcano

The

island

Japanese

feet,according

746

Cosima, to
Volcano:

island

Liparian

Gunung Apt (signifyingFiery Mountain

The

of Izalco,fin

America), which
a

of Banda

of the island

volcano

is in

south

of Jezo

1305

cording
English feet,ac-

F. Hoffmann.*

to

volcano

the

Horner.

to

state

first ascended

was

of almost

state

the

in the

Malay language),the

feet.

1949

of

Salvador

San

in the year
2132

eruption:

constant

(in Central

1770, and

which

feet,according to

Squier.
Gunung Ringgit,the
to Junghuhn.J
Stromboli:

Vesuvius,the
and

The

the

two

which

the 29th

feet,according

highest northern margin of

measurements"
out

September,

1759

to 8000

Second group, from 4000

2345

barometrical

broke

Jondlo,

of
on

Palo, on
of

F. Hoffmann.

my
gives 3997 feet.

average

1822

volcano

Mexico||

del

Rocca

the

crater:

1805

feet,accordingto

2958

of Java

volcano

lowest

in the
:

Paris

42G6

or

elevated

the
of

plateau of

feet.
to 8528

4264

glish
En-

feet in height.
Mont
The

Pele,of Martinique

4707

Soufriere,of Guadaloupe

Gunung Lamongan,
to

in the most

feet,accordingto Dupuget.
4867
eastern

feet,according to
part of Java:

C. Deville.

5341

cording
feet,ac-

Junghuhn.

to Leopold von
Buch, upon the GeogLipari Islands,in Poggend., Annalen, bd.
urement
xxvi.,1832, s. 59. Volcano, 1268 feet,according to the recent measof C. Sainte-Claire
Deville,had violent eruptions of scoria?
and ashes in the year 1444, at the end of the 16th century, in 1 731, 1739,
of selenium, sulborate
contain ammonia,
Its fumaroles
and 1771.
phuret of arsenic,phosphorus, and, according to Bornemann, traces
*

Letter

nostic

F. Hoffmann

from

of the

Constitution

of iodine.

The

last three

substances

occur

products (Comptes rendus

among
t. xliii.,
1856, p. 683).
t Squier,in the tenth annual meeting of
volcanic

New

Haven,

here for the first time

VAcad.
des Sciences,

de

the American

Association,

1850.

Junghuhn's exceedinglyinstructive work, Java, seine

ly
Gestalt und Pflanzendecke,
1852, bd. i.,s. 99.
Ringgit has been nearthe
cost
extinct since its fearful eruption in the year 1586, which
lives of many
thousand
people.
of Vesuvius
is,therefore,only 260 feet higher than
" The summit
X See Franz

the Brocken.

||Humboldt,

Physique,pi.29.

Vues

des

and
Cordilleres,
pi. xliii.,

Atlas

Geogr. et

236

cosmos.

Gunung Tengger, which has

of Java : height at the cone
to Junglruhn.
The

of Osorno

volcano

of

volcano

The

the

largestcrater* of all
eruption of Bromo,

of

(Azores) :

cording
feet, ac-

feet,according to Fitzroy.

(Chili): 7550

Picof

the volcanoes
7517

feet, according

7G14

Captain

to

Vidal.
island

the

of

volcano

The

Bourbon:

of

feet, according to

8002

Berth.

to

of Aivatsclia

volcano

The

with

(peninsulaof Kamtschatka), not to he

northern
more
Strjeloschnaja
Sopka,

confounded^
is usually called the volcano
navigators: 8912 feet,according to
of

volcano

12,792

to

the rather

which

The

8528

12,000 Paris or
Englishfeet in height.

8000

Third group, from

Antuco"

or

Anto'io

of Awatscha

by

the

English

Erman.

(Chili):

8920

feet,accordingto

Domeyko.
The

of the island

volcano

Charles

according to
*

Junghuhn,

f See

my
the distance
has

sometimes

and

therefore

Captain

Vidal

% Erman,

which

Islands): 9154

of the volcano

Ferrer's

seen.

feet

feet,

bd.

the summit

been
304

Fogo\\(Cape Verd

i.,s. 68 and 98.

Historique,t. i.,p. 93, especiallywith

cit. sup.,

Op.

Relation
at

of

Deville.

than

more

of Pico

of the island

old measurement

the

regard to

certainlymore

gave
careful

7918

feet,

survey

of

in 1843.
of the volcanoes
interesting geognostic description

in his

peninsula
Kamtschatka, gives the Awatschinskaja or GorelajaSopka as 8912 feet, and the StrjeloschnajaSopka, which is also
called Korjaskaja Sopka, as
11,822 feet (Reise,bd. iii.,s. 494 and
these
two
See
with
to
regard
volcanoes,of which the former is
510).
de
the most
Descr.
active, Leopold
Buch,
Physiquedes lies Canaries,
of the

of

Erman's

p. 417-450.

best with

measurement

the earliest

measurements

of the volcano
of

Mongez

of Awatscha

(8739) during

agrees
the expedition

of La Perouse
of Caprecent
one
tain
(1787), and with the more
and
Lenz
in Kotzebue's
Beechy (9057 feet). Hofmann
voyage,
in Lutke's voyage,
found
only 8170 and 8214 feet; see Lutke, Voyage
du Monde, t. iii.,
of the
cmtour
measurement
The
admiral's
p. 67-84.
StrjeloschnajaSopka gave 11,222 feet.

" See

Pentland

table

of elevations

Geography,vol. ii.,p. 452;

the

Province

in Mrs.

Somerville's

Physical

Sir Woodbine

Parish, Buenos Ayres and

Plata, 1852, p. 313; Poppig, Reise in

of the Rio de la
Peru, bd. i.,s. 411-434.
it
Is
||
of this remarkable
probable that the height of the summit
volcano
is gradually diminishing?
A barometrical
measurement
by
Baldey, Vidal, and Mudge, in the year 1819, gave 2975 metres, or
9760 feet; while a very accurate
and practicedobserver, Sainte-Claire
of volcanoes,
Deville,who has done such important service to the geognosy
found
9154
2790
in
the
1812
or
( Voyonly
metres,
feet,
age
year
lies Antilles et a, file de Fogo, p. 155). Captain King had a
aux
little while before determined
the height of the volcano of Fogo to be
only 2086 metres, or 8813 feet.
Chile unci

TRUE

volcano

237

VOLCANOES.

of Schiwelutsch

(Kamtschatka)
10,551 feet, according to Erman.*

The

uEtna.-f according
Peak
The

to

Smyth, 10,871

mit
sum-

feet.

12,161 feet,according to
of Teneriffe:
volcano

the northeastern

Charles

Deville.J

the
all mountains
on
Gunung Semeru, the highest
: 12,237 feet,
according to Junghuhn's barometrical
of

island of Java
measurement.

volcano
Erebus, lat. 77" 32', the nearest
Ross.
12,366 feet,according to Sir James

The

The

volcano

southeast

to

the

south

pole :"

in Cappadocia, now
Argceus,\\
Erdschisch-Dagh,southof Kaisarieh:
von
12,603 feet,according to Peter

Tschichatscheff.

Reise,bd. iii.,s. 271, 275,

Erman,

like Pichinchn, has

namely, that of along
and

indicated

f For

| The

in the

is

rare

The

volcano

welutsch,
Schi-

canoes,
active vol-

among
which

ridge {chrebet),
singledomes
upon
and
conical mountains
are
Dome-shaped
volcanic district of the peninsula by the name

of the

account

an

the

with

Cosmos,

which

form

297.

(grebni)rise.

crests

always
sopki.

and

vol.

remarkable

barometrical

i.,p.

of the

agreement

measurement

of Sir John

rical
trigonomet-

Herschel,

see

28.

barometrical

measurement

of Sainte-ClaireDeville

Antilles,
p. 102-118), in the year 1842, gave
feet,nearly agreeing with the result (12,184

( Voy. aux
metres, or 12,161

3706

second
feet)of Borda's
enabled
in the year 1776, which I was
trigonometricalmeasurement
the manuscript in the Depot de la
from
to publish for the first time
Marine
aux
Regions Equinox., t. i.,p. 116 and 275(Humboldt, Voy.
in com.
Borda's
first
undertaken
trigonometricalmeasurement,
2S7).
junction with Pingre in the year 1771, gave, instead of 12,184 feet,
of the error
the false reading of an
was
only 11,142 feet. The cause
told me
angle (33' instead of 53'), as was
by Boixla himself, to whose
for much
indebted
useful advice before
great personal kindness I was
my

the Orinoco.
on
voyage
Pentland's
estimate
" I follow

Sir James

Ross's

Voyage of

of 12,367 feet,especially
because
in
Discovery in the Antarctic Regions, vol. i.,

eruptions of
daytime, is given

p. 216, the height of the volcano, the

from

which

were

seen

even

in the

smoke
in round

and

flame

numbers

12,400 feet.

at

||With

regard to Arganis,which

Hamilton

was

the

first to

ascend

barometrically(at 12,708 feet,or 3905 metres), see Peter

(1853), t. i.,p. 441-449, and 571.
Tschichatscheff,Asie Mineure
Hamilton
In his excellent work
{Researchesin Asia Minor), William
barometrical
and
several
of
measurement
the
mean
as
one
obtained,
if
of
the
Kaisarieh
of
feet
but
is 1000
elevation,13,000
height
angles
;
it
would
be only 12,000 feet.
See Hamilton,
feet less than he supposes,
Toward
the
in Trans. Geolog.Society,vol. v., pt. 3, 1840, p. 596.
southeast from Argasus (Erdschisch-Dagh),in the great plain of Eregli,
of eruption rise to the south of the village
numerous
very small cones
One of these,
of Karabunar
and the mountain
Karadscha-Dagh.
group
furnished
with a crater, has a singularshape like that of a ship,running
is situated in a salt lake,
in front like a beak.
out
This crater
of fullyfour miles
the road from Karabunar
on
to Eregli,at a distance
and

von

measure

238

cosmos.

FourtTt

The

group,

volcano

Pastos

Titqueres,*in the highlands of the provinciadc

12,824 feet, according to Boussingault.

The

volcano

of Pasto:f 13,453

The

volcano

Mauna-Roa:%

The

volcano

of

according
The

volcano

to

los

Boussingault.

13,761 feet,accordingto Wilkes.

Cumbal," in

the

provincia dc

los Pastos

15,621 feet,

Boussingault.

Kliutscheicsk\\
(Kamtschatka): 15,766 feet,according

volcano

Rucu-Pichincha

barometrical
The

from

feet,according

to

Erman.

to

The

12,792

or

of

to

t.

from 12,000 to 16,000 Paris

17,056 Englishfeet in height.

15,926 feet,accordingto Humboldt's

measurements.

volcano

Tunrjurahua: 16,491 feet,according

measurement^" by Humboldt.

the former

i.,p.

place.

; William

455

The

hill bears the

Hamilton,

same

to

name

Researches

in Asia

rical
trigonomet-

(Tschichatscheff,
Minor, vol. ii.,

p. 217).
*
The

ain
height here given is properly that of the grass-green mountis
the
of
which
the
situated
on
sollake,Laguna verde,
margin
fatara examined
los
Andes
by Boussingault (Acosta, Tiajcs Cientifcos
a

Ecuatoriales, 1849, p. 75).

f Boussingault succeeded
the
made
from

in reaching the crater, and determined

barometrically; it agrees very nearly with that which I
known
approximately twenty-three years before,on my journey
Popayan to Quito.

altitude

% The
of the
from

altitude
Colossus

18.410

feet

of few

of the

volcanoes
Sandwich

(the estimate

has

Islands.

given

in

so

We

Cook's

over-estimated
see

third

as

that

it

gradually fall
voyage), 16,486

King's,and 16,611 feet in Marchand's

by Captain Wilkes, and 13.524 feet by

feet in
feet

been

The

grounds of the last-mentioned

to 13,761
measurement,
Horner
in Kotzebue's
age.
voyresult were
first made
known

DescriptionPhysiquedes lies Canaries, p.

See Wilkes, Exploring Expedition,vol. iv.,p. 111-162.
The
379.
is only 13,442 feet.
The assumption of
eastern
margin of the crater
from
of the
snow
a
greater height, considering the asserted freedom
would
in
contradiction
the
result
Mauna-Roa
also
be
to
19"
28'),
(lat.
continent
in
the
Mexican
the
in
measurements
that, according to my
found
has
been
at 14,775
same
latitude,the limit of perpetual snow
feet (Humboldt, Voyage aux
Regions Equinox., t. i.,p. 97; Asie Cenand 359).
trale,t. iii.,
p. 269
" The volcano rises to the west of the villageof Cumbal, which is
itself situated 10,565 feet above the sea-level (Acosta, p. 76).
in Septem||I give the result of Erman's
repeated measurements
ber,
1829.
ations
is exposed to alterThe height of the margin of the crater
which
by frequenteruptions,for in August, 1828, measurements
pare
might inspireequal confidence gave an altitude of 16,033 feet. ComErman's
Beohachhmgen avf einer Reise inn die Erde,
Physikalische
bd. i.,s. 400 and 419, with the historical
of the journey, bd.
account

by Leopold

von

Buch

in the

iii.,s. 358-360.
^[Bouguer and La Condamine, in the inscriptionat Quito, give
16,777 feet for Tungurahua before the great eruption of 1772, and

of Purace*

volcano

The

17,056

to

and

Bouguer

to

Ellas Mount\\ (on the

earthquake

:" 17,783 feet, according to

west

of North

coast

In

the

trigonometrically
to

barometrical

rical
trigonomet-

year

be

measurement

1802

Ferrer.

America):
and

Quadra

of

(1797),which

of Riobamba

mountains.

The

cording
Quito: 17,128 feet,ac-

Condamine.f

La

to the measurements

according

volcano

of

southwest

from

or

Humboldt.

by

of Orizaba

volcano

of

than

more

:% 17,729 feet,accordingto
Popocatepetl

volcano

measurement

the

to

the

Sangay, to

volcano

The

17,010 feet,accordingto

20,000 Paris
21,320 EnglisJi
feet in height.

Fifthgroup, from 16,000

The

Popayan

near

Caldas.

Jose

The

239

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

17,855 feet,

Galeano.

gave rise to great

the summit
I found

sions
depresof the

feet.

only 16,191
of the highest peak of
Caldas, who, like my dear

the Volcan

friend and
Jose
de Purace
by Francisco
travelingcompanion, Carlos Montufar, fell a sacrifice to his love for
freedom
of his country, is given by Acosta
the independence and
5181
metres
at
(17,010 feet). I found the
(ViajesCientijicos,
p. 70)
which
small
emits
the
of
sulphureous vapors with a
height
crater,
be
del
noise
violent
11,427 feet ; Humboldt,
(Azufral
Boqueron), to
vol. i.,
RecueildObserv.
Astronomiqueset oV OperationsTrigonomctriques,
p. 301.

f The

from
Sangay is extremely remarkable
somewhat
removed
its position,
being
Cordillera
of Quito, to the south of
eastern
and

the
at

distance

of

positionwhich
in Asia) by no

(likethat
of Chili
from

of their distance

detail

in the

theory
% I measured

from

of the

the

volcanoes

are

coast

eastward

Rio

the

The

sea.

this old

to

and

which
Popocatepetl,

plain of Tetimba,
It

seems

to

me

talented

widely
on

from

Pastaza, and

of the

Pacific

"

of the Celestial mountains

volcanic

free from

Observations
Geological

de Mexico, in the
de los Ranchos.

nearest

the

tivity
uninterruptedac-

the

supports the theory according to which

means

Cordilleras

referringin

miles

120

its
to

the eastern

eruptions on

Darwin
diffused

has

not

account

omitted

volcanic

littoral

South America, 1816, p. 185.

Volcan Grande

is also called the

the Indian

near

to

be

villageSan

stilluncertain

which

las
Nicoof the

volcanoes,Popocatepetl or the peak of Orizaba, is the highest

(see Humboldt, Receuil d' Observ. Astroji.,vol. ii.,p. 513).
" The peak of Orizaba, clothed with perpetualsnow, the geographical
fore
positionof which was
quite erroneously indicated on all maps begation
my journey,notwithstandingthe importance of this point for navithe landing-placein Vera
near
Cruz, was first measured
nometrically
trigofrom the Encero
The
measurement
by Ferrer, in 1796.
17,879 feet. I attempted a similar operation in a small plain
gave
near
Xalapa. I found only 17,375 feet,but the angles of elevation
See Humboldt,
were
very small, and the base-line difficult to level.
Essai Politiquesur
la Nouv.Espagne, 2me
ed.,t.i.,1825, p. 166; Atlas
du Mexique (Carte des fausses positions),
pi.x., and Kleinere Sckriften,

two

bd. i.,s. 468.

||Humboldt, Essai
elevation

is

la

Geograpldedes Plantes,1807, p. 153.

too high.
than -j^th
uncertain,perhaps more
sur

Tin

240

cosmos.

of Tolima:*

volcano

The

volcano

The

of

extremity

is also

at

seen

feet)by

somewhat

nario de la Neuva
p. 349.
f The

and

estimates
rhe

obtained

altitude

rical
trigonomet-

of

the year

The

1802.

ain
mount-

plateau of Bogota. At
tolerablyapproximate result (18,430

of the

volcano

Arequipa has been

mere
distinguishbetween

of

difficult to

Dr. Thaddaus

of

had

been

erected

so

Hanke, of Prague,
round

Malaspina's voyage
Arequipa in the year 1796,

of

which

cross

the

upon

actual measurements.

the volcano
a

to

Tolima, situated
Quindiu, in the Valle del

de

Ibague, in

that it becomes

distinguishedbotanist

summit

rical
trigonomet-

in the year 180G ; Semacomplicated combination

aumentada
nueva
Granada,
edition,
por J. Acosta, 1840,

absolute

variouslystated

of

great distance

Caldas

this distance
a

of the volcano

cone

of the Paramo

the little town

Carvajal,near

by Dolley.

the truncated

I measured

at the northern

to

Arequipa :f~18,8S3 feet,according

measurement

18,143 feet, according

Humboldt.

by

measurement

there

the

cended
world, as-

and

found

twelve

years

at

the

before.

found
the volcano
to be 3180
trigonometricaloperation Hanke
the sea.
This
toises (20,235 feet)above
altitude,which is far too
vation
probably the result of an erroneous
assumption of the elegreat, was
of the town
of Arequipa, in the vicinityof which
the operation
been provided with a barometer, a botanist
was
performed. Had Hanke
would
entirely unpracticed in trigonometrical measurements
after ascending to the summit.
certainlynot have resorted to such means

By

The

ascended

first who

the United

from

Curzon,
aljournal, 1823, November,
altitude

the

the volcano
of North

States

after Hanke

America

In the year

p. 168).

Samuel

was

(Boston PhilosophicPentland

1830

mated
esti-

feet),and

I have adopted
(18,374
Longitudes,1830, p. 325) for my
factory
Carte Hypsometriquede la Cordillere des Andes, 1831.
There
is a satisthis
between
and
the
(within ^yth)
trigonometrical
agreement
naval officer,
M. Dolley,for which
of a French
I was
measurement
indebted
of Captain Alphonse de
in 1826 to the kind communication
of the volcano of Arequipa
Dolley found the summit
Moges in Paris.
5600

at

{Annuaire du

this number

metres

Bureau

dcs

11,031 feet,and
(trigonometrically)tobe
feet above
now

plateau in which

the

fix the town

we

barometrical

of

Arequipa

at

of

of Altitudes

to

the

of Charcani

Arequipa

7841

and

Eivero

11,860

is situated.

If

with

the

feet,in accordance

of Pentland

measurements

feet in the Table

the summit

the town

(Pentland, 7852

PhysicalGeography

of Mrs.

Som-

3d ed., vol. ii.,p. 454; Rivero, in the Memorial

de Ciencias
erville,
die Erde, Theil.
Naturales,t. ii.,Lima, 1828, p. 65; Meyen, Reiseum
ii.,1835, s. 5), Dolley's trigonometrical operation will give for the
volcano
of Arequipa 18,881 feet (2952 toises),
and
for the volcano
Charcani

19,702

feet

(3082 toises). But

cited,gives for the volcano

metres
(19,065 Paris feet);

above

feet, 6190
the

than

Hanke's
to

de

1830, and

trigonometricalmeasurement
this result the volcano

Chile,1852,
590

of

determination

metres

p. 221,
lower!

only at
A

sad

Pentland's
of

that

is to say,

somewhat
in the

Table

of Altitudes,

Arequipa 20,320 English

year

1945

feet

identical

too

1796

In

more

with

tion
opposi-

stated,in the Anales de la Universidad

5600
metres, or 18,378 feet : consequently
is

condition

of

hypsometry

242

cosmos:

(21,292 feet)and Illimani (21,155 feet)consist

are
of graywacke schists,which
penetrated by porphyritic
of
this
in
which
a
masses,*
penetration)fragments
(as proof
of Sorata

of schist

inclosed.

are

In

the eastern

Cordillera

of

Quito,

parallelof 1"

35',the high summits

(Condorasthe
and
the trato
chytes,
Collanes)lying opposite
to, Cuvillan,
and also entering the region of perpetual snow,
are
fire-stone.
and
also mica-slate
According to our
present
of the

south

of the

knowledge

mineralogical

of the most

nature

elevated

to the meritorious
bors
laHimalaya, which we owe
of B. H. Hodgson, Jacquemont, Joseph Dalton Hooker,
and
Thomson,
Henry Strachey, the primary rocks, as they
were
formerly called,granite,gneiss,and mica-slate,appear
mations.
to be visible here also,although there are
no
trachyticfor-

parts of

the

In
Silurian
above

Bolivia,Pentland

schists

the

between

sea,

Nevado

the

on

has

La

Paz

found

de

and

fossil shells in the

Antacaua,
Potosi.

17,482 feet

The

enormous

testimony of the fossils collected

height to which, from
from
Daghestan, and by myself from the Peruvian
by Abich
Cordilleras (between Guambos
and Montan), the chalk formation
is elevated,reminds
ic
us
very vividlythat non-volcanfull
of
and
not
to be
organic remains,
sedimentary strata,
the

confounded

tufaceous

volcanic

with

strata, show

themselves

for a long distance

around
places where
melaphyres,
other
and
dolerites,
trachytes,
pyroxenic rocks, which we
regard as the seat of the upheaving, urging forces,remain
in the depths. In what
concealed
of
immeasurable
tracts
the
the Cordilleras and the districts bordering them
upon
of any graniticformation visible !
east is no
trace
The
frequency of the eruptions of a volcano appearing to
depend, as I have alreadyrepeatedlyobserved,upon multifain

These

show themselves
in peculiar
penetratingporphyriticmasses
the Illimani,in Cenipampa
vastness
near
(15,919 feet) and Totora(13,709 feet); and a quartzose porphyry containing mica, and
pampa
time angular fragments of silicious
inclosinggarnets, and at the same
of the celebrated
schist,forms the superior dome
argentiferousCerro
de Potosi (Pentland in MSS.
of 1832). The
Illimani, which Pentland
estimated
afterward
first at
and
6415
at
7315
(23,973 feet),
has also been, since 1817, the object of a careful
(21,139 feet)metres,
of his
measurement
by the engineer Pissis,who, on the occasion

great trigonometrical survey

to

be

the

on

three

triangles

about

64

metres

average

between

(210

Sobre
Investigaciones

1852, p.

217

and

22l.

of the
6509

Llanura

Calamarca

feet) from
la Altitud

and

Pentland's
de los

de Bolivia, found

(21,349 feet)

metres

La

Paz

in

the Illimani

height,by

this onlv

last determination.

Andes,

in

the

Anales

de

ditfers
See

Chile,

TRUE

rious and

243

VOLCANOES.

complicatedcauses, no generallaw can safely

vation
regard to the relation of the absolute elethe frequencyand degree of the renewal
tion.
of combusin a small group
the comparison of Stromboli, Vesuvius,
very

be established
to

If

and

with

xEtna

may

mislead

into

us

the

belief that

the

of

eruptions is in an inverse ratio to the elevation

facts stand in direct contradiction
of the volcanoes, other
to this proposition. Sartorius
von
Waltershausen, who has
number

done

such

sood

service

to

knowledge

our

of .zEtna, remarks

that, on the average furnished by the last few centuries,an

eruption of this volcano is to be expected every six years,
while in Iceland,where
no
part of the island is reallysecure
from destruction
fire,the eruptionsof Hecla,
by submarine
which
5756
feet
is
lower, are only observed
every 70 or 80
of
The
volcanoes
of
years.*
Quito presents a stillmore
group
remarkable

contrast.

The

of Sangav,

volcano

17,000

feet

active than
the little conical mountain,
height,is far more
Stromboli
volcanoes
the one
(2958 feet); it is of all known

in

which

exhibits,every quarter of

an

hour, the greatest quantity

of

fiery,
widely-luminouseruptionsof scoria?. Instead of
losingourselves in hypotheses upon the causal relations of
inaccessible phenomena, we
will rather dwell here upon the
of six pointsof the surface of the earth, which
consideration
are
canic
important and instructive in the historyof volpeculiarly
cano
activity Stromboli,the Lycian Chimara, the old volof Masaya, the very recent
of Izalco,the volcano
one
Fogo on the Cape Yerd Islands,and the colossal Sangay.
The
Chimara
in Lycia, and Stromboli,the ancient Strongyle,are the two igneous manifestations of volcanic activity,
the historic proof of whose
extends
the furthest
permanence
"

back.

The

conical hill of

Stromboli, a doleritic rock, is twice

the heightof the island of Volcano
(Hiera, Thermessa), the
last great eruption of which occurred in the
The
year 1775.

uninterruptedactivityof Stromboli is compared by Strabo

and Pliny with that of the island of Lipari,the ancient
Meits flame," that is,its erupted
ligunis; but they ascribe to
scoriae, a greater purity and luminosity,with less heat."f
"

"

Sartorius

Waltershausen, Skizze

von
Island,s. 103 and 107.
Casaubon; Pliny,Hist. Nat., in., 9:
differt ; e cujus
tantum
Strongyle,qua? a Lipara liquidiorerlamma
fumo
quinam rlaturi sint venti,in triduo praedicereincolte traduntur."
See also Urlichs,Vindiciaz PUniana?, 1853, Fasc. i.,p. 39.
The volcano
cf Lipara (inthe northeastern
the
of
so
active,appears
island),once
part
to me
the Monte
been either the Monte
di
to have
or
Campo Bianco
Capo Castagno. (See Hoffmann, in Poggend.,^l72j?.,bd.
xxvi.,s.
49-54.)
von

f Strabo, lib.

"

vi.,
p. 276,

ed.

244
The

cosmos.

and

number

form

of the small

fierychasms

Spallanzani'sdescriptionof the

bottom

are

very

of the

riable.
vater,
cra-

long regarded as exaggerated,has been completely

an
Friedrich
experienced geognosist,
by
and
also
acute
Hoffmann,
naturalist,
very recentlyby an
A. de Quatrefages. One of the incandescent
chasms
has an
opening of only 20 feet in diameter ; it resembles the pit
of a blast-furnace,
and the ascent
and overflow
of the fluid
lava are seen
in it every hour, from a positionon the margin
of the crater.
The ancient,permanent
eruptionsof Strombofor the guidance of the mariner, and,
li stillsometimes
serve
which

was

confirmed

the Greeks
among
of the weather,

as

and

afford uncertain

Romans,

tions
predic-

by the observation of the direction of

of vapor.
the flame and of the ascending column
Polybius,
who displays
a singularly
exact
knowledge of the state of the
the
multifarious
crater, connects
signs of an approaching
change of wind with the myth of the earliest sojournof JEoand stillmore
with observations upon the
lus upon Strongyle,
then violent fire
(the holy island of Hephaesupon Volcano
tos "). The
frequencyof the igneous phenomena has of late
exhibited some
irregularity.The activityof Stromboli,like
is
that of -ZEtna,according to Sartorius von
"Waltershausen,
"

greatest

in November

and

the winter

months.

interruptedby isolated intervals of rest ;

learn from the experienceof centuries,are

we

It is
but

times
some-

these,as

of very

short

duration.
The

scribed
Lycia, which has been so admirably deferred,*
Beaufort,and to which I have twice reby Admiral
is no volcano,but a perpetualburning spring a gas
Chimccra

in

"

Cosmos, vol. i.,p. 223, and vol. v., p. 203. Albert Berg, who had
previouslypublished an artistic work, Physiognomie der Tropischen
DelikVegetationvon Sudame7-ika,visited the Lycian Chimsera, near
and
and
the
Gulf
of
in
tasch
1853.
Yanartasch, from Rhodes
Myra,
ain
(The Turkish word tdsch signifies
stone, as ddgh and. tdghsignifymountdeliktasch signifies
delik,a
perforated stone, from the Turkish
;
hole.) The traveler first saw the serpentinerocks near Adrasan, while
Beaufort
with the dark-colored
stone,
met
serpentine deposited upon limeand perhaps deposited in it,even
island
Garabusa
the
near
(not
the ruins of the
"Near
Grambusa), to the south of Cape Chelidonia.
in the
ancient temple of Vulcan
church
rise the remains
of a Christian
side chaplater Byzantine style: the remains
and of two
of the nave
els.
In the fore-court,
situated to the east, the flame breaks out of a
foot high in the
fireplace-like
opening about two feet broad and one
rock.
rises
of
three
four
It
to
a
or
serpentine
height
feet,and (as a
is
diffuses
which
a
pleasant odor,
naphtha spring?)
perceptibleto a
distance of fortypaces.
Near
this large flame,and without
the chimney-like
lambent
opening, numerous
very small, constantlyignited,
*

245

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

activityof the interior

It was
visited a few months
of the earth.
ago by a talented
artist,Albert Berg, for the purpose of making a picturesque
in periodsof high ancelebrated even
tiquity
survey of this locality,
of
times
of
Ctesias
and
Scylax
Caryanda),
(sincethe
the
from
rocks
which
Chimaera
t
he
breaks
of
and
collecting
forth.
The
descriptionsof Beaufort, Professor Edward
Forbes, and Lieutenant Sprattin the Travels in Lycia," are
of serpentine
An
rock
eruptivemass
completelyconfirmed.
springalways ignitedby

the volcanic

"

from

southeast

to

in

limestone

penetrates the dense

At

northwest.

ravine,which

ascends

the northwestern

ity
extrem-

serpentinerock is cut off,or perhaps

The
only concealed,by a curved ridge of limestone rocks.
fragments brought home are partly green and fresh,partly
In both serpentines
and in a weathered
state.
brown
diallage
is clearlyrecognizable.
of this ravine

flames
which

of

volcano

The

make
is in

the

Masaya*

their appearance
with the

contact

the fame

subordinate

from
flame

of which

is much

already

was

The

fissures.
and

blackened,

rock

the soot

deposited is collected to alleviate smarting of the eyelids,and especially

At a distance of three paces from
for coloring the eyebrows.
ble.
of the Chimaera
the name
the heat which it diffuses is scarcelyendurathe
and
when
it
is
held
in
A piece of dry wood
opening
ignites
brought

the

near

flame

without

touching it.

Where

the

old

ruined

rock,gas also pours forth from the interstices of

of the masonry,
and this,probably from its being of a lower

againstthe

walls lean
the stones

differently
composed,
brought in contact

does

ignite spontaneously,
light. Eight feet below
the great flame in the interior of the ruins there is a round
opening,
six feet in depth,but only three feet wide, which
was
probably arched
of
breaks
in
the wet seasons,
in
it
water
over
out
formerly, as a spring
which
small flame plays." (From the traveler's
a
a fissure over
near
manuscripts.) On a plan of the locality,
Berg shows the geographical
relations of the alluvial strata,of the (tertiary?)
limestone,and of the
rocks.
serpentine
*
oldest and most
The
important notice of the volcano of Masaya
is contained
in a manuscript of Oviedo's, first edited fourteen years ago
Historia da
by the meritorious historical compiler,Ternaux-Compans
translation
The
French
Nicaragua (cap. v. to x.), see p. 115-197.
forms one
volume
of the Voyages, Relations et Me moires Originauxpour
servir a VTIistoire et a la Decouverte
de VAmerique.
See also Lopez de
laslndias
Historia
General
de
Gomara,
(Zaragoza,1553),fol. ex., b ; and
the
most
recent
works, Squier, Nicaragua,its People,Scenery,
among
ly-famed
and Monuments, 1853, vol. i.,p. 211-223, and vol. ii.,
So widep. 17.
the incessantlyactive volcano
of Masaya, that a special
was
der
exists in the royal library at Madrid, unmonograph of this mountain
de Masaya, que estd
del
the title of Entrada
Descubrimiento
Volcan
y
la Prov. de Nicaragua,feclxapor Juan Sanchez del Portero.
The auen
thor
temperature
but whenever

or

it is

with

not

"

was

one

of those

who

let themselves

down

into

the

crater

in the

246

coSxMos.

in the

beginning of the 16th century under

the name
of el Injiernode Masaya, and gave occasion for reports
the
to
the
Emperor Charles V., is situated between
lakes
of
and
the
two
southwest
of the
Nicaragua
Managua, to
Indian
For
o
f
Nindiri.
centuries
charming
village
togetherit
widely spread

presented the

same

in the volcano
the

of Stromboli.

of fluid

waves

risingand

phenomenon

rare

From

lava, set

that
the

in motion

have

we

margin

described

of the crater

seen
by vapors, were
The
chasm.
Spanish

fallingin the incandescent

Fernando
de Oviedo, first ascended
the
historian,Gonzalez
Masaya in July, 1529, and made comparisons with Vesuvius,
he had
which
previouslyvisited (1501), in the suite of the
Queen of Naples as her xefe de guardaropa. The name
saya
Ma-

belongs to the Chorotega language of Nicaragua, and

The
signifies
volcano, surrounded
burning mountain.
by a
wide lava-field (mal-pays),
which
it has probably itself produced,
was

of the

"

at that

reckoned

time

the mountain
among
group
In its ordinary condition,

nine burning Maribios."

Oviedo, the surface of the lava,upon

feet below
float,stands several hundred

which

says

crater

that

the

black

margin

scoriae

of the

sometimes
the ebullition is suddenly so great
; but
the lava nearly reaches
the upper margin.
The

petual
per-

luminous

states, is not
illuminated
that

from
on

phenomenon,
caused by an

actual

flame,* but

It is said to have

below.
the

as

and
definitely

Oviedo

road

from

the

volcano

been

toward

ly
acute-

by vapors
of such intensity

Granada,

wonderful
monk, Fray Bias de Inesta
expeditions of the Dominican
(Oviedo, Hist, de Nicai'agua,p. 141).
*
translation
of Ternaux-Compans
In the French
(the Spanish
and
has
123
heen
"It
132:
at
never
we
published),
find, p.
original
issues
that
from
said
flame
the
be
a
can
precisely
crater,
not, however,
from far during the day, but
but a smoke
hot as fire ; it is not seen
as
volcano
is well seen
at night. The
a
lightas the moon
gives as much
This old observation
few days before it is at the full."
lematical
upon the probof a crater, and the strata
of air lying
mode
of illumination
of
the
often
account
on
above it,is not without
so
doubt,
importance,
the
of
raised in recent
to
as
disengagement
hydrogen gas from
times,
in
the
here inof volcanoes.
the craters
dicated
Although
ordinary condition
the Hell of Masaya did not throw out scoria1 or ashes (Gomara
it has nevertheless
sometimes
had
adds, cosa que hazen olros volcanes),
true
eruptionsof lava ; the last of which probably occurred in the year
1G70.
Since that date the volcano has been quite extinct,after a perpetual
cended
Stephens,who asluminosityhad been observed for 140 years.
of
the
it in 1840, found
trace
no
ignition. Upon
perceptible
of the word
Masaya, and the
Chorotega language, the signification
ingeniousethnographicalresearches,Zither
Maribios, see Buschmann's
die Aztekischen

Ortsnamen,

s.

130, 140, and

171.

TRUE

at

district

the

of

distance

almost

was

Oviedo,
monk, Fray

years
Dominican
the

Flemish

of the full

the

volcano

Bias

del

opinion that

absurd

associated

liquidgold,and

was

equal

illumination

leagues,the

to that

after

Eight
the

three

than

more

247

VOLCANOES.

the

moon.

ascended

was

Castillo,who

fluid

himself

lava

with

Franciscan, Fray Juan

de

an

of

by

tained
enter-

in the

crater

ricious
equallyava-

Gandavo.

The

tlers,
pair availingthemselves of the credulityof the Spanish setestablished a joint-stockcompany
to obtain the metal
cost.
ally,
at the common
They themselves,Oviedo adds satiricthat as
free from
ecclesiastics they were
declared
any
The
the
of
execution
pecuniary contributions.
report upon
this bold undertaking,which
sent to the Bishop of Caswas
tilla del Oro, Thomas
tillo
de Verlenga,by Fray Bias del Casis denominated
(the same
Fray Bias de Inperson who
in the writingsof Gomara,
esta
Benzoni, and Herrera),was
(in 1840) by the discovery of Oviedo's
only made known
had
work
Nicaragua. Fray Bias, who
previously
upon
served
board
on
ship as a sailor,proposed to imitate the
of
the sea, by which
method
the
hanging upon ropes over
collect the coloringmatter
natives of the Canary Islands
of the Orchil (Lichen Roccella)on
For
precipitousrocks.
months
made, in
together all sorts of preparations were
of more
order to let down
than thirtyfeet in length,
a beam
of a windlass
and crane, so that it might project
by means
over

the

with

an

down

The

deep abyss.
iron

three other

with

for
from

helmet

whole

which

and

Dominican,
of the

members

night in
they

crucifix

made

in

his
his

head

covered

hand,

association

was

let

mained
they re-

this part of the solid crater

vain attempts to dip out

vessels,placed in

an
supposed liquidgold with earthen
pot. Not to frightenthe shareholders,they agreed^

tom,
botthe

iron
that

companions agreed to say that they had found great

ambitious
known
I had
as
an
Fray Bias, whom
man,
and
his
associates
took upon
in
he
his
the
oath
which
relation,
gives,
the Gospel, to persistforever
in their opinion that the volcano
tained
conaragua,
NicDescr.
de
(Oviedo,
gold and silver in a state of fusion!"
*

"The

three

riches; and

cap. x., p. 186

and

196).

The

Cronista

de las Indias

ever,
is,how-

that "Oviedo
very indignant (cap.5) that Fray Bias narrated
his armorial
had
the
from
the
Hell
of
as
begged
Masaya
emperor
would
Such
memento
a
certainly not have
bearings."
geognostic
in oppositionto the heraldic
ageous
been
of
the
customs
period,for the courof
the
crater
reached
Diego de Ordaz, who boasted of having
the
of
ico,
Mexinto
the Popocatepetl when
Cortez first penetrated
valley

bore

this volcano

as

an

heraldic

distinction,as

did

Oviedo

the

248

cosmos.

they

when

drawn

were

say that
Injiernoof Masaya

again they

up

great riches,and that the

in future to be called el Paraiso

found

had

they
served
de-

del

The
Masaya.
eration
opuntil
several
the
Governor
times,
repeated

afterward

was

should

conceived some
picion
susneighboringcityof Granada
the revenue,
the deceit,or perhaps of a fraud upon

of the
of

forbade

and
This

took

Alvarez,

the

the

descents

ropes into the crater."

of 1538 ; but in 1551
Juan

summer

of

Chapter
permission"

naive

gold that

it contained."

the

century!

credulityof

on

of the

Dean

the

the

procure

further

place in

Madrid

from

"

any

16th

Leon, again received

to

open
Such

28th

the

October
of

volcano

The

contained

But

from

from

out

Vesuvius

the west

on

from

northward

of Central

coast

Salvador, and

San

of

harbor

Sonsonate,broke out 1 1 years

after the volcano of Jorullo, deep in the interior of Mexico.
Both
eruptionstook placein a cultivated plain,and after the
noises (bramidos)
prevalenceof earthquakes and subterranean

eastward

for

several

the

the

was

gold I*

no

Izalco, situated

America, 32 miles

and

popular
in Naples, in the
even
obligedto prove, by

and Covelli were

year 1822, Monticelli
chemical
analysis,that the ashes thrown
on

the volcano

months.

hill

conical

in the

rose

de

Llano

eruptionof lava poured

the 23d February, 1770.
from its summit
It stillremains
on
undecided
how
much
is to be attributed,in the rapidly-increasing
the
the
and
of
much
to
how
soil,
height,
upheaval
of erupted scoriae,
to the accumulation
ashes,and tufa masses;
is certain,that since the first eruption the
only this much
like Jorullo,
new
volcano, instead of soon
becoming extinguished,
has remained
uninterruptedlyactive,and often serves
in the
the landing-place
as
a
near
beacon-lightfor mariners
Bay of Acajutla. Four fieryeruptionsare counted in an
ished
hour, and the great regularityof the phenomenon has astonIzalco,and with it simultaneouslyan

its few
was

The

accurate

variable,but

elevation

since the last

which

same

originalcultivated
of

the

the

as

the

not

1825

the

The

ait., t.

Cross,
a

has

and

occurrence.

attained

now

at

about

of Jorullo
four

times

earliest

fragment of

iv.,p. 235-240),
Humboldt, Views of Nature, p. 368.
t Squier,Nicaragua, its People and Monuments,
Bailey, Central America, 1850, p. 75.)
(Exam,

their

is calculated

plain,but almost
Southern

of

time

elevation

of the eruptions

violence

of Izalco

volcano

eruption of

feet,nearly the

constellation

observers.!

map

of

1600

above
that

the

of the

all Columbus

of the Antilles.

vol.

ii.,
p.

10-4.

(John

250

cosmos.

1843, when
noise, the latter

the

and

harbor
coast

the

of

was

to the

the

Bolivia, and

volcanoes
Chili

Sangay, which

the

of

have
exceeds

remained
unfortunately

of

commencement

Mexico,

been

roost

only in the
south
along the

Ocean, as far as Payta and

at a
distance equal to that of Berlin
Pyrenees from Fontainebleau, or London
since

with

not
distinctly

of the Pacific

century,

of

most

associated

were

also further

Guayaquil, but

Although,

the

eruptions
heard

New

visited

by

San

ventura,
Buena-

from

Basle,

from

deen.
Aber-

the

present

Granada,
some

Quito,
geognosists,

Tungurahua in elevation,has
of
entirelyneglected,in consequence

distant

the

and which
with the same
battery of heavy artillery,
wind,
of the atmosphere, and
the same
temperature,
not
to the Sangay, but
were
so extremely unequal in their intensity,
to the Guacamayo,
a mountain
fortymiles nearer, at the foot of which
leads from Quito, over
the hacienda
de Antisana
a road
to the plainr
and the Rio Napo.
of Archidona
(See my specialmap of the province
Quixos, Kb. 23 of my Atlas Geogr. et Phys. de lAmeriqve, 1814heard
the Sangay thundering when
1834.) Don
Jorge Juan, who
closer to it than I have been, says decidedly that the bramidos,which
he
del Yolcan (Relation del Viage a la America
calls royiqiridos
Meridional,
pt. i.,t. 2, p. 569), and perceived in Pintac, a few miles from the
hacienda
de Chillo,belong to the Sangay or Volcan
de Macas, whose
the
is
if
I
make
of
use
voice,
expression,
may
very characteristic.
This voice appeared to the Spanish astronomer
to be peculiarlyharsh,
for which
he calls it a snore
rather than a roar
reason
(tinronqnido')
(bramido). The very disagreeable noise of the volcano Pichincha,
which
I have frequentlyheard
at night in the city of Quito, without
its being followed by any earthquake, has something of a clear rattling
rattled and masses
of glasswere
sound, as though chains were
falling
On
Wisse
describes
each other.
the Sangay,
the noise to be
upon
distinct and sharp, as if
sometimes
like rollingthunder, sometimes
in the vicinity
of platoon tiring. Payta and San Buenaventura
were
one
the
bramidos
of the Sangay, that is to
(in the Choco), where
cano,
of the volheard, are distant from the summit
say, its roaring, were
and
in a southwestern
miles.
252
348
direction,
geographical
des Cordil(See Carte de la Prov. Du Choco, and Carte hypsome'trique
leres,Nos. 23 and 3 of my Atlas Geogr. et Physique.) Thus, in this
mighty spectacleof nature, reckoning in the Tungurahua and the Coof which
I heard
in
to
Quito, and the roar
topaxi,which is nearer
bd.
Ocean
in
the
Pacific
(Kleinere
February, 1803,
Schr'/ften, i.,s.
the
voices
of
four
volcanoes
are
384),
perceived at adjacent points.
ancients
The
also mention
the difference of the noise," emitted
at
different times
the iEolian
islands
on
fiery chasm
by the same
(Strabo,lib. vi., p. 276). During the great eruption (23d January,
1835) of the volcano of Conseguina, which is situated on the coast of
the Pacific,at the entrance
of the Bay of Fonseca, in Central
ca,
Ameriof
the
sound
the subterranean
so
was
propagation
great, that it
the
of
was
most
Bogota, at a distance
distinctly
perceived on
plateau
de M.
equal to that from iEtna to Hamburg (Acosta, ViajesCient/'Jicos
Boussingaidta los Andes, 1849, s. 56).

the

same

clearness

"

251

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

all roads of commuat a distance from

nication.
solitaryposition,
It was
turous
only in December, 1849, that an advenand highly informed
S
ebastian
Wisse, after
traveler,
the chain of the Andes, ascended
on
a sojourn of five years
of the snowsummit
it, and nearly reached the extreme
He
not
an
rate
accucovered, precipitouscone.
only made
its

of

investigatedthe

also

eruptions, but

the

of the wonderful

determination

chronometric

frequency
of the

nature

trachyte which, confined to such a limited space, breaks

through the gneiss. As has already been remarked,* 267
in one
counted
hour, each lastingon an
eruptionswere
panied
13//*4,and, which is very remarkable, unaccomaverage
the ashy cone.
The
on
by any concussion perceptible
of a
smoke, sometimes
erupted matter, enveloped in much
of
ture
mixan
a
gray and sometimes
orange color,is principally
of black ashes and rapilli,
but it also consists partlyof
of a globularform
which
rise
cinders,
are
perpendicularly,
and

of 15

diameter

In

inches.

16

or

of the

one

lent
vio-

more

or
eruptions,however, Wisse counted only fifty
sixty
red-hot stones
thrown
out.
as
being simultaneously
They
fall
back
into
the
but
sometimes
usually
again
crater,
they
its upper
visible
their
cover
margin, or,
luminosityat a
by
at night upon
distance,glide down
a
portion of the cone,
which, when seen from a great way off,probably gave origin

to
an

the

effusion of

rise

singlyone
down

an

of La

notion

erroneous

burning sulphur and

after the other,so

while

others

of

that

there

that

The

bitumen."

of them

some

only just left

have

determination

exact

"

Condamine,

the

was

stones
are

crater.

ing
fall-

By

time, the visible space of falling

(calculated,
therefore,to the margin of the crater)
tained
ascerwas
feet.
the average
786
to be on
On
.ZEtna,according
only
to

the

and

sen

the measurements

attain

stones

the walls

of the

Christian

D.

astronomer
an

of Sartorius

elevation

of

as

eruption of iEtna in 1832 gave even

tion ! The black, erupted ashes form
hundred
for

as

estimates
three times

layersof

the

and

stern
fearfully

rapilligives the

during the
this eleva--

three

character.

We

upper

must

here

ejected

feet above

upon the declivities of the

circle of nearly fourteen miles in circumference.

or

four

Sangay

part of

again

The
the

call

is six
to the colossal size of this volcano, which
greater than that of Stromboli, as this consideration is

attention

times

2665

feet in thickness

color of the ashes

cone

Peters,

much

Gemellaro's

crater.

Waltershau-

von

Cosmos,

see

page

175.

252

cosmos.

the absolute

stronglyin oppositionto
volcanoes

always

grouping

The

their form

have

of volcanoes

phenomenon

of

the lower

is of

than

it relates to the great geological

fissures.
These
upon
groups,

elevation,because

and

belief that

frequenteruptions.
more
importance

the most

upheaval
Leopold von

Buch, they rise in lines,

central volcano, indicate the parts of
around
a
or, united
terior
of the earth, where
the crust
the eruption of the fused inhas found the least resistance,
either
in consequence
whether, according

of the reduced

to

of the

thickness

rocky strata, of their natural

Three
fissured.
structure, or of their having been originally
degrees of latitude are occupied by the space in which the
volcanic
is formidably manifested
in iEtna, in the
energy
JEolian islands,
in Vesuvius, and the parched land (the Phleto Cuma?, and as far
groean Fields)from Puteoli (Dicaearchia)
the fire-vomiting
and
as
Epopeus on Ischia,the Tyrrhenian islof Apes, .ZEnaria.
of analogous
Such
connection
a
of
Strathe Greeks.
phenomena could not escape the notice
bo says: "The
whole
Cumae, as far
sea, commencing from
is penetratedby fire,and has in its depths certain
as
Sicily,
nent.*
conduits communicating with each other and with the contiIn such

See

vi.,p.

nature,
(combustible)

as

all describe

it,ap-

lib*
: %xEl ^ou.lag rivdc ; and
Strabo,lib. v., p. 248, Casaubon
Upon a double mode of production of islands the geographer
himself
Amasia
geological
(vi.,p. 258) with much
expresses
Some
islands,"says he (and he names
them), are fragments

276.

of

"

"

acumen.

land ; others have proceeded from the sea, as still

the islands of the high sea
(those which lie far out in

of the main
For

happens.

the sea) were

it is more

probably upheaved
reasonable

separated by

and

strait,as

of the Pithecusa?

group
and Procida
to

be

an

from

the

consider
torn

trary,
depths ; while, on the consituated at promontories,

those

from

main

the

land."

The

small

of Ischia, originallycalled ^Enaria,

reason
why this group was considered

consists

(Prochyta).

ancient

to

habitation

The

of apes,

why

the

Greeks

it such

and

the

Italian

a name
(apes were
Tyrrhenians, consequently Etruscans, gave
called upifioi, in the Tyrrhenian ; Strabo, lib. xiii.,
p. 626), remains
with the myth, according to
is perhaps connected
very obscure, and
into apes by Jupiter.
transformed
The
which
the old inhabitants
were
of
relate
of
Homer
the
to
or
name
Arima,
Arimer,
apes, uptuoi, might
words
etv
ii.,783) and Hesiod (Tlieog.,
'Apt/note
(Iliad,
v., 301). The
word
contracted
into one
in some
of Homer
are
codices,and in this
in the Roman
writers
contracted
find the name
form
we
(Virgil,
xiv., 88). Pliny (Hist. Nat.,
j'Eneid,ix., 716; Ovid, Metamorph
Inarime
JEnaria, Homero
dicta,Gratis
iii.,
5) even
says decidedly:
The
of
the
Homeric
Pithecusa."
Arimer,
Typhon's
country
times
in
in
ancient
even
Cilicia,
was
Mysia,
sought,
resting-place,
Lydia, in the volcanic Pithecusae,at the crater Puteolanus, and in the
PhrygianPhlegraea,beneath which Typhon once lay, and even in the
.

""

253

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

around Dicsearchia
pear, not only ^Etna, but also the districts
and
Naples, and around Baiae and Pithecusa ;" and from
and that,
Sicily,
burst
when
he turned himself,flames and water
forth,nay
with
quently,
Freislands
water.
small
sometimes
boiling
even
trict),
between
Strongyle and Lipara (in this wide disbeen seen
flames have
burstingforth at the surface of
the sea, the fire opening itself a passage out of the cavities in
the depths and pressingupward with force."
According to
Pindar,* the body of Typhon is of such extent that " Sicily
this

Typhon lay under

the fable that

arose

"

Ischia, at such

upon

apes should have lived within historical times

the African
distance
from
coast, is the more

That

Katakekaumene.

already

I have

improbable,because, as

observed

elsewhere, the

cient
an-

of Gibraltar does not appear

of the apes upon the Rock
presence
to be proved, since Edrisi
(in the 12th century) and other Arabian
in such detail,do
geographers, who describe the Straits of Hercules
them.

mention

not

the

also denies

Pliny

in

of the Pithecusse

name

the apes

derives

iEnaria,but

of

improbable

most

irtdoc,

from

manner

"

to be
to me," says Bockh,
It appears
of
the
is a name
the main
point in this investigationthat Inarima
just as
interpretationand fiction,
Pithecusas,produced by learned

doliorum).
(ajigllnis

dolium

Corcyra

became

with
their

Scheria;

with

Pind., Pyth.,

iEneas

probably only

was

(iEneas insula) by
in these regions.

iEneas

in the first book

Romans,

Nsevius

who

nected
con-

find

also testifies
War."

of the Punic

See Strabo, v., p. 215 and

248, and xiii.,
i.,31.
phon
already observed (Cosmos, vol. v., p. 200, that Ty-

We
have
p. 627.
fled from the Caucasus
the volcanic

that

that

the

where

progenitorsevery

indicate

and

the Pithecusee

their connection

to

"

to

Italy,as though

Lower

the

myth

would

of less
latter country were
consideration
The
Isthmus.

eruptions in the

antiquitythan those upon the Caucasian

of mythical views in popular belief can
the geography or the historyof volcanoes.

not

be

separated

either

from

The
often reciprocally
two
regarded upon the surface of
Meteorol.,ii.,
the earth as the mightiest of moving forces (Aristotle,
the universal
as
inclosed
was
the
recognized
the
wind,
8, 3),
pneuma,
and
mountains
earthquakes).
of vulcanicity(of fire-vomiting
cause
the mutual
founded
tion
acAristotle's contemplation of nature
was
upon
air, upon a theory
and the internal subterranean
of the external
and dryand cold,moisture
heat
of
ness
differences
of transpiration,
upon
The
and
9
,
2).
ii.,
greater
31,
M
eteor.,
ii.,8,
25,
1,
(Aristotle,
illustrate each

the

of the

mass

and
of

ventorum,

Between
urav

the

wind
more

which

inclosed

was

"in

crecis
and

Trvevfiarog

subterranean
in its

and

submarine

natural,essential

sages,"
pas-

property

eruptions. "Vis
cavernis"
inclusa
(Ovid, Metamorph., xv., 299).
the fire there is a peculiar relation.
(To 7r0p
Aristotle,
Kal
yiverai
0Ao"
(peperai
raxeuc;
r/,

quickly,the

the wind
fieru

That

it is obstructed

far and

moving

fera

other.

more

violent

are

the

Meteorol.,ii.,8, 3. Kal yap rb ivvp olov irvEv/iaroc tic tyvac ; Theophrastus, Be Igne, " 30, p. 715.) The wind (pneuma) suddenly set
ning
lightfree from the clouds,sends the consuming and widely luminous
of
Katakekaumene
the
the
"In
flash (irprjoTTJp).
Phlegraea,
"
three
chasms, fully forty
Lydia," says Strabo (lib.xiii.,p. 628),
"

254

cosmos.

heightsabove Cumse (calledPhlegra,or the

sea-girt
burned
field)lie upon the shaggy breast of the monster."
Thus
Typhon (the raging Enceladus) was, in the popular
fancy of the Greeks, the mythical symbol of the unknown
of volcanic phenomena lying deep in the interior of
cause
the earth.
By the positionand the space which he occupied
indicated the limitation and the co-operationof particwere
ular
volcanic systems. In the fanciful geological
pictureof
the interior of the earth, in the great contemplation of the
Plato establishes in the Phaedo (p.112-114),
universe which
is still more
this co-operation
boldlyextended to all volcanic
and

the

The

systems.

lava streams

Pyriphlegethon,which,
beneath

the

derive

after it has

"

from

their materials

repeatedlyrolled

itself into Tartarus.

earth," pours

the

around

Plato

says

such
fire-vomitingmountains, wherever
occur
upon the earth, blow upward small portionsfrom the
Pyriphlegethon (""ovrog 6* eorlv 6v enovojid^ovoiHvpupXedvafivo"oiv,uttt]
yedovra, ov kclI ol pvatceg drroaTidafiaTa
dv rvx^ot
This
expression(p. 113 B.) of the
rrjg 777c").
expulsion with violence refers,to a certain extent, to the
denly
moving force of the previously inclosed wind, then sudward,
the
Stagiriteafterbreaking through, upon which
his entire theory of vulin the Meteorology, founded
canicity.
According to these ancient views, the linear arrangement
of volcanoes is more
characterized
in the consideration
distinctly
of the entire body of the earth
than their grouping

expresslythat

the

around

central

The

volcano.

serial arrangement

is

most

bags
other, are still shown, which are called the windwhich
lie rough hills,
are
probably piled up by tbe
blown
i.,p. 57) "that
up." He had already stated (lib.
between
the Cyclades (Thera and Therasia) flames of fire burst fortb
boiled and
from the sea for four da)-stogether,so that the whole
sea
of
calcined
masses
was
gradually
burned; and an island composed
All these well-described
raised as if by a lever."
phenomena are
Ancient
ascribed to the compressed wind, acting like elastic vapors.
essentials
troubled
itself
but
little
about
the
science
peculiar
physical
of material
of
bodies ; it was
dynamic, and depended on the measure
the moving force.
find the opinion that the increasing heat of
We
the planet with the depth is the cause
and earthquakes,
of volcanoes
first expressed toward
the close of the third century by a Christian
phlegethon
bishop in Africa under Diocletian (Cosmos, vol. v., p. 188). The Pyristadia

from

each

; above
red-hot masses

them

of fire circulating in the interior of the

of Plato, as a stream
have
all lava-givingvolcanoes, as we
tioned
already menearth, nourishes
in
narrow

may

the

text.

In

the

earliest

circle of ideas,lie the

explain under

the form

germs
of other

presentiments
of that

which

symbols.

of
we

humanity,
now

think

in
we

TRUE

in those

remarkable
and

placeswhere

tion
depends upon the situato each
fissures,
which, usuallyparallel

of

extension

other,pass through great tracts

(likeCordilleras).Thus,
series of
the

in

it

of country in a linear direction

portant
to mention
only the most imfind in

volcanoes,we
closely-approximated
those

continent

new

255

VOLCANOES.

of Central

those

Mexico;

of New

America, witTi their appendages

and
Granada
Quito,of

ands
Peru, Bolivia, and Chili ; in the old continent the Sunda Isl(the Indian Archipelago,especially
la
Java),the peninsuin the Kurile
and its continuation
of KamtscJtatka
Islands,
the nearly-closed
which
bound
Behand the Aleutian Islands,
We
of the
shall dwell upon
some
ring'sSea on the south.
gether,
principalgroups ; individual details,by being brought toof phenomena.
lead us to the causes
of
Central America, accordingto the
The linear volcanoes
older denominations
the volcanoes of Costa Rica, Nicaragua,
San Salvador, and Guatemala, extend from the volcano Tursix
rialva,near
Cartago,to the volcano of Soconusco, over
degreesof latitude,between 10" 9' and 16" 2/,in a line the
generaldirection of which is from S.E. to N.W., and which,
the few

with

geographicalmiles.

540

distance

from

Vesuvius

of
the
noes

of

which

curvatures

them,

as

it undergoes, has

This

length is
The
to Prague.
if they had broken

about

length of

equal

the

proximated
closely-ap-

most
out

to

and

one

upon

fissure onlv G4 miles in length, are the eight volcasame

situated between
the Laguna de Managua and the Bay

Fonseca, between

Conseguina,the

the

of Momotombo

volcano

subterranean

noise

and

of which

wras

that

of

heard

in

highlandsof Bogota in the year 1835,

and the whole
artillery.In Central America
of
southern
and
the
new
continent,
generallyfrom the
part
Chonos
Archipelago,in Chili,to the most northern volcanoes
of Mount
Sitka,* and
Edgecombe, on the small island near
Mount
Elias,on Prince "William's Sound, for a length of
Jamaica

and

on

the

like the fire of

geographical miles,the volcanic

04 00
where
*

broken

out

in the western

Mount

Edgecombe, or
(Croze'sIsland, near

island

near

the northern

part, or that

the St. Lazarus

nearest

every
to

mountain,

Lisiansky) which

half of the

fissures have

the
upon
is situated to the

largerisland

Sitka

the

small
ward,
west-

orBaranow,

in

Norfolk

seen
Sound, was
by Cook, and is a hill partly composed of
abounding in olivin,and partly of feldspathictrachyte. Its
feet.
Its last great eruption,which
height is only 2770
produced
much
du
in the year 1796.
(Lufke, Voyage autour
pumice-stone, was
afterward
Monde, 1836, t. iii.,
Lisiansky
Captain
Eight
years
p. 15.)

basalt

reached

the

time

sijms of activity

no

summit,

which
anv

contains
where

a
on

crater-lake.
the

mountain.

He

found

at

that

256

cosmos.

the line of the Central

Where

Pacific Ocer.n.

canoes
vol-

of

volcano

the

American

Conchagua into the state

of San Salvador, in the latitude of 13J" (tothe north of the
Bay of Fonseca), the direction of the volcanoes changes at
with

enters

of the west

once

with

then

strikes E.S.E.

that

mountains
more

indeed, where

counted

active,are

in the

miles,the direction is nearly E.

with

This

W.

"

peninsulaof Honduras, where the

suddenly,exactlyeast and west, from Cape
to the Gulf

of

for 300

Amatique

running

from

north

to

five,still

coast

the

tends also

Gracias

for the

responds
cor-

toward

miles,after it had
south

of 120

deviation

great dilatation of the continent

burning

that

distance

short

in the

east

the

again so closelyapproximated

are

less

or

"VV.N.W.

"

series of the former

The

coast.

Dios

been

viously
predistance.

same

14" 10')
In the group of elevated volcanoes of Guatemala
(lat.
N. 45" W., which
the series again acquires its old direction,
it continues

and

far

as

has

cone

of

to that

been

discovered

in quartz and
The volcanoes
mountain

toward

extinct

trachytic
; in this quarter graniteabounding
predominate.

of Central

an

even

America

do

not

usuallycompletelyseparatedfrom

other.

each

extremities

jacent
the ad-

crown

chains,but rise along the foot of

lie at the two

Chiapa

of the volcano

Northwest

Tuxtla, not

mica-schist

elevations

boundary

of Huasacualco.

the isthmus

of Soconusco

the Mexican

as

the

latter,
greatest

The

of the series.

Toward

visible from

its

the summit
south,in Costa Kica, both seas are
of
besides
of the Irasu (the volcano
Cartago),to which,
its central positioncontributes.
elevation (11,081 feet),

To

the

the

southeast

eleven thousand
Blanco
their

Cartago there

feet

the

stand

of ten

mountains

Chiriqui(11,262 feet)and

or

the Pico

know
nothing of the nature of
(11,740 feet). We
rock, but they are probably unopened trachyticcones.

Farther
agua

of

toward

to six and

the average
; but

the

southeast,the elevations diminish in Ver-

five thousand

heightof
toward

feet.

the volcanoes

the

northwestern

This

appears also to be
of Nicaragua and San Salvador

extremityof

the whole

not far from the new

series,
cityof Guatemala, two volcanoes
fall
againrise above 13,000 feet. The maxima
consequently

third group

tion
attemptedhypsometricclassificawith iEtna and the Peak of Tenvolcanoes,coinciding
of the heightslyingbetween
while the greater number
eriffe,
the two
extremities scarcelyexceed Vesuvius
by 2000 feet.
The volcanoes of Mexico, New
Granada, and Quito belong to
the fifth
than
group, and usuallyattain an elevation of more
into

the

of

17,000 feet.

of my

258

cosmos.

siduity partlyfrom

materials

"

from

manuscript

command

notes

and partly
alreadypublished,
the

upon

"

linear

volcanoes

of Cen-

of the Mexican

viceroy,Matias de Galvez),by Jose Rossi y

(Alcalde Mayor
Guatemala, 1800), and by Joaquin Ysasi and
de la Cerda
Antonio
(Alcalde de Granada), which I possessedprincipally
in manuscript.
In the French
translation
of his work
the
upon
Canary Islands,Leopold von Buch has given a masterly extension of
my first sketch (Dcscr. Physiquedes Isles Canaries, 1836, p. 500-514);
but -the uncertainty of geographical synonyms
and the confusion
of
caused
rise
which
have
been
for
names
to many
doubts,
thereby gave
the most
of Baily and Saunders
part removed
by the fine maps
; by
Molina's Bosquejode la Republicade Costa Rica ; and by the great and
work of Squier {Nicaragua,its People and Monuments,
very meritorious
with Tables of the ComparativeHeights of'the Mountains
in Central America,
vol.
and
vol.
The
i.,p. 418,
ii.,
1852,
important work
p. 102).
which
is promised us by Dr. Oerstedt,under
the title of Schilderung
der Naturverhaltnisse
mirable
von
Nicaragua und Costa Rica, besides the adbotanical and geologicaldiscoveries which
constitute the primary
object of the undertaking, will also throw lightupon the geogAmerica.
Dr. Oersted
nostic nature
of Central
passed through that
directions
and
in
various
from
1846
to
1848,
region
brought back a
indebted
collection
of rocks to Copenhagen.
I am
his friendly
to
communications
for interestingcorrections
of my
fragmentary work.
From
careful comparison of the materials with which
I am
a
ed,
acquaintincluding those collected by Hesse, the Prussian consul-generalin
canoes
Central
America, which are of great value, I bring together the volin the following manner,
from
of Central America
proceeding
Rubi

de

south

to

north

Above

the

of Costa

Rica

and

central

plateau of Cartago (4648 feet),in the republic

(lat.10" 9), rise the three volcanoes of Turrialva,Irasu,
Reventado, of which the first two are still ignited.
Turrialva*
(height about 11,000 feet) is, according to
ravine.
Oersted, only separated from the Irasu by a deep, narrow
of smoke
has
Its summit, from which
columns
not
rise,
yet been

Y.olcan de

ascended.
The

Irasu*

volcano

to

the

northeast

of volcanic
toward

and
one

on

which
be

activityin

Costa

the south

divided

may,
the two
at

seen

thousand

also called

the volcano

Cartago (11,100 feet),

Reventado, is the principalA-ent
Rica, but still remarkably accessible,
into

horseback, almost

once.

oceans,
The

feet in

of

of the volcano

the

sea

cone

reach
of the

of ashes

height,rises out

in such

terraces

of

the

elevated

Antilles
and

and

manner

summit,
the

which
rapilli,

wall

that
from

Pacific,
may
is about

of circumvallation

(a
northeastern
mit
flatter,
part of the sumlies the true crater, of 7500 feet in circumference,which
has
lava streams.
Its eruptions of scoria; have
emitted
often
never
quakes,
(1723, 1726, 1821, 1847) been accompanied by destructive earthhas been felt from Nicaragua or Rivas
the effect of which
of the Irasu,
ascent
to Panama
(Oersted). During a very recent
in the beginning of May, 1855, by Dr. Carl Hoffmann, the crater
of the summit
and its eruptive orifices have been more
ly
accurateinvestigated. The altitude of the volcano is stated,from a
crater

of

elevation). In

the

259

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

America, twenty-nine volcanoes

tral

former

present varied

or

Reventado

El

southern

(about

No.

3.)

feet),with

deep

fallen in,and

has

margin

cer-

by Galindo, at 12,000 Spanish feet,

of a toise,at 11,000 feet.
(Bon-

=0-43

9500

with

stated

be

activitymay

trigonometricalmeasurement
cast.
or, taking the vara
plandia,Jahrgang 1856,

numbered, whose

are

which

was

the
crater, of which
filled
with
formerly

water.

capitalof

the

8119

(more than

Barba

volcano

The

; with

Rica

Costa

feet),to

of San

the north
which

crater

Jose,
several

contains

lakes.

small

the

Between

and

Barba

volcanoes

Orosi

there

follows

series of

N.W".
principalchain, running
in
the
east and
in Costa Eica
oppositedirection,
Nicaragua,
west.
Upon such a fissure stand, farther to the eastward, Miravalles
is about 4689
tre,
Tenorio (each of these volcanoes
and
feet); in the cenof Orosi,the volcano
Rincon, also called Rincon de
to the southeast
exhibits small eruptions of
la Vieja*(Squier,vol. ii.,
p. 102), which
of the rainy season
the
commencement
ashes every
; and
spring at
the
volcano
of
little
the
town
farthest to the westward, near
Alajuela,
in sulphur. Dr. Oersted
Votos*
(7513 feet),which abounds
compares
a
verse
transof the direction of volcanic activityupon
this phenomenon
fissure with the east and west
direction,which I found in the
which

volcanoes

and

Mexican

from

to

sea

Orosi,*still active,in the

(5222 feet); probably
the Deposito Hidrograjico.
small

upon
named

by

island

the

in the

and

p. 178

named

western

still in

extinct

The
the

sea-level.
volcano

The

called

saya,
of these

the chart

and

of

feet),
Nicaragua,
5222

de

these

two

ains
mount-

Aztekische

Buschmann,

volcano

ously
Ometepec, erronet.
Guatemala, L, p. 51),
by
figuredby Squier (vol.ii.,p. 235).

period of

of

Afomobacho, on
to

(Hist,de

is

Zapatera, but little elevated above

ancient eruptions is quite unknown.

the

its

sometimes

of Momobacho

mountains

by

the

the

of the

Laguna

citv of Granada.

of the

south

Oviedo, Nicaragua,

pilotsindicate

shore

the western

the volcanoes

between

conical

insular

Juarros

The

Mombacho,
the

see

ragua
of Nica-

state

on

of the island

crater

Nicaragua, somewhat

cityis situated

district after

of the

The

Papagayo,

Ometepec* (4157
part of the Laguna

mountains

171).

Ometep
activity. It is

del

Yolcan

and

inhabitants

Aztec

part of the

southern

most

the

two
(ome tepetlsignifies

Ortsnamen,

sea.

Mandeira

volcanoes

two

"

almost

volcanoes

The

S.E.

the

intersects

As

(the place is

de
this
also

ed. Ternaux, p. 245) and Maand sometimes

the other
one

indefinite

name

of the Volcano

of

Granada.
The
in

volcano

detail

Massaya (Masaya),

(p. 258-261),

was

once

which
a

has

alreadybeen

Stromboli,but

has

treated

been

of

extinct

the great eruption of lava in 1670.

According to the interesting
der Philos. Hist. Classe der
of
Scherzer
Dr.
(Sitzungsberichte
reports
clouds of vapor
were
Alcad. der Wiss. zu Wien, bd. xx., s. 58), dense
cano
volThe
crater.
emitted
in
from
a newly-opened
again
April, 1853,
since

of

Massaya
Managua, to the

is situated
west

of the

between

cityof

the

two

Granada.

lakes

of

Massaya

Nicaragua
is not

and

synony-

260

cosmos.

tainty. The natives make

greater,taking into account
Nindiri

with

mous

number

quantity of

old

Oersted

craters, both

the Nindiri

reached

the

height of these two volcanoes,situated

feet.
at only 2450

Lake

of

eruptivebadistinct

and

two

The

lava stream

The
Managua.
equal
other,is stated

close to each

so

(7034 feet),burning, and

de Momotombo*

third

one

himself, Massaya

expresses
volcano, with two summits
lava streams.
have furnished

of 1775

Volcan

than

more

twin

of which

from

Dr.

but, as

form

Nindiri*

and

the

giving forth

often

in lat. 12"

without

ern
28',at the north-

smoking,
thundering noise,
extremity of the Laguna de Managua, oppositeto the small island
tombo
Momotombito, so rich in sculptures(see the representationof Momonagua
The
in Squier, vol. i.,p. 233 and 302-312).
Laguna de Mais
de Nicaragua, which
lies 28 feet higher than the Laguna
its size,and has no insular volcano.
than double
more
but

hence

From
miles

23

the
p.

from

S.E.

from

the

to

the
N. W.

to

common

Conchagua,

Pacific,a
closelyapproximated

of Los

name

or

of the

coast
;

of Fonseca

Bay

Maribios

line

of

each

to

(Squier,vol.

at

six

distance

volcanoes

of
runs

other,and bearing
i.,p. 419; vol. ii.,

123).
the erupde las Pilas,because
tion
this
of
the
foot
took
at
mountain;
place
April, 1850,
great eruption of lava almost in the plain itself! (Squier,vol. ii.,

El Nuevo,* erroneouslycalled Volcan

of the

p.

12th

105-110.)

by Oviedo as early as
Telica,*visited,daring its activity,
Leon
the 16th century (about 1529), to the east of Chinendaga, near
de Nicaragua, and consequently a little out of the direction previously
stated.
This important volcano, which
emits much
por
sulphurous vafew
from
320 feet in depth, was
crater
a
a
ascended,
years since,
Frobel.
He
friend Professor
Julius
scientific and
talented
by my
vol.
found
the lava composed of glassyfeldsparand augite(Squier,
ii.,
is
there
At
elevation
3517
a
the
of
at
feet,
an
115-117).
summit,
p.
in which
the vapors deposit great masses
of sulphur. At the
crater
is a mud-spring (Salse ?).
foot of the volcano
Volcan

The

de

volcano

volcanoes.

It

El

Viejo* the
ascended

was

Sir Edward

Belcher.

The

recent
feet,a more
measurement,
active
volcano, which was
very
The
of
scoria)
are
fieryeruptions

The

volcano

from

El

shore

of the

Bay

to

the

Viejo,

at

in

measured

result of the

the year

1838

measurement

tain
by Capwas

5559

by Squier, gave G002 feet. This

Dampier's time, is still burning.
frequently seen in the cityof Leon.

in

Guanacaure, somewhat

Nuevo

line of six

of the crowded

northernmost
and

to

the

distance

north, without
only 14 miles

of

the range
from the

of Fonseca.

ern
Conscgirina*upon the cape which projectsat the southcelebrated
for
the
extremity of the Bay of Fonseca
(lat.12" 50'),
fearful eruption,preceded by earthquakes, of the 23d January, 1835.
The
during the fall of ashes, similar to that which has
great darkness
been caused
sometimes
by the volcano Pichincha, lasted for 43 hours.
piration
At a distance of a few feet,fire-brands could not be perceived. Reslike
and
the
subterranean
a
noise,
discharge
was
obstructed,
of heavy artillery,
heard
not
was
only in Balize, on the peninsula of
The

volcano

sins,which
of

and

one

the

Yucatan, but also upon

Bogota, in the latter case
the

and

lateral

probably only

were

the coast
at

of

Jamaica,

elevation

an

of

nearly five

of

eruptionson
Among the

mountain.

same

distance

261

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

and

upon
than

more

hundred

the

clivity
de-

isolated

the

plateau of

8500

feet above

and

sixtygeographical
miles (Juan Galindo, in Silliman's American
Journal,vol. xxviii.,
d los Andes, 1849, p. 56; and Squier,
1835, p. 332-33 G ; Acosta, Victjes
and 165). Darwin
110-113
163
(journal
vol. ii.,
searches
of Re; figures,
p.
p.
the
the
calls
attention
Beagle,1815, p. 291)
during
Voyage of
of phenomena:
coincidence
After
to a remarkable
a
long slumber,
(So
Conseguina, in Central America, and Aconcagua and Corcovado
lat. 32t" and 43j"),in Chili,broke out on the same
day (accidentally?).
sea,

at

Conchagua, or of Amalapa, at the north of the entrance

the
Fonseca, opposite to the volcano Conseguina, near
Bay
de la Union, the harbor of the neighboringtown
beautiful Puerto
of
San Miguel.
Volcano

of

of

the

to

From

the

of Costa

state

Bica

the volcano

to

of

Conchagua,

fore,
there-

follows a direction from S.E.

the close series of twenty volcanoes
but
into the state of San Salvador,
on
near
Conchagua,
entering,
;

N.W.

to

which, in
five still more
turns
itself,

the short distance

less active

or

E.S.E.

of 160

geographicalmiles, exhibits

volcanoes,the
and

W.N.W.,

line, like the Pacific

indeed

almost

E.

coast

while

W.,
Dios) the
in Honduras
and los Mosquitos (see above,
noes
p. 256). It is only, as there remarked, to the north of the high volcaof Old Guatemala, toward
the Laguna de Atitlan,that the former
general direction N. 45" W. again occurs, until at last,in Chiapa, and
the isthmus
of Tehuantepec, the abnormal
direction E.
W. is again
on
chains.
Besides
lowing
manifested, but in non-volcanic
Conchagua, the folfour volcanoes
belong to the state of'San Salvador :
more

"

the eastern, Caribbean

land suddenly bulges out

(toward the Cape

coast

on

Gracias

"

"

The

volcano

the

same

next

to

of San

name,

Bosotlari*

Miguel

the

the insular volcano

ii.,p. 196). The volcanic

which
a
great eruption of lava
Volcano

of San

Vicente,*to

forces

the west

place,according to
long-continued eruption occurred
of San

name.

country

is

1854, which
in San

on

very
the

Salvador

with

trachytic cones
Nicaragua (Squier,
active in Bosotlan, in
20th of July, 1844.

that

de

and

between

in

January, 1835,
earthquakes.

destructive

of 1656.

Lempa,

great eruptionof ashes

a

the

(lat.13" 47-'),near

last

of

of

of the Bio

Sacatelepe.
Juarros, in 1643 ;

took

The

are

occurred

the town

of

regular

in the lake

and

of Sacatecoluca

Volcano

and

Ometepec,

vol.

the towns

(lat.13" 35'),near

beautiful

most

The

ei'uptionwas
exposed to violent earthquakes ; that
was
preceded by no noises,overthrew

city of the same

surrounding
of the 16th of April,
ings
nearly all the buildwhole

Salvador.

often provillageof the same

name,
ducing
recorded
occurred
in
on
eruption
history
in
the 23d February, 1770; the last widely-luminous eruptionswere
and
and
1825
1805
to 1807,
Thompson,
April, 1798,
(see above, p. 248,
Visit to Guatemala, 1829, p. 512).
Official
Volcano

of

ammonia.

Volcan
the

Izalco,*near
The

the

first

dePacaya* (lat.14" 23'),about

city of

New

Guatemala,

on

the

14

small

miles

Alpine

to

the

lake

southeast

Amatitlan,

of
a

262

cosmos.

and

conical

bell-shapedmountains,

volcanoes, many
very

The

often

flaming

volcano

an

there

are

extended

produced

lava, is

much

called

and

trachyte

ridge with

great eruptions of 15G5, 1651, 1671, 1677, and

; the last,which

known
as

and

active

domes.

indeed,

may,

which

consist of

described

dolthree

1775

by

are

Juarros

eye-witness.

an

Next

follow

volcanoes

the two

and

appellationsJjeAgua
Volcan

De

of Old

Guatemala,
the

Fuego, near

with

the

coast, in latitude

singular
11"

12'.

de

near
Agua, a trachytic cone
Escuintla,higher than the
of obsidian
Teneriffe,surrounded
by masses
(indicationsof
old eruptions?). The
volcano, which reaches into the region of perpetual
has received
its name
from
the circumstance
that, in
snow,
September, 1541, a great inundation
(caused by earthquake and the
of
ascribed
was
to
lished
melting
snow?)
it; this destroyed the first-estabof
and
led
to the building of the second
Guatemala,
city
city,
situated to the north-northwest, and now
called Antigua Guatemala.

Peak

of

Volcan

de

direction

Fuego*

from

Acatenango,

near

so-called

the

23

miles

water-volcano.

in

west-northwest

With

tive
regard to their relaDon
Jose
Mayor,
Kossi,

position,see the rare map of the Alcalde

thence
a present :
as
y Rubi, engraved in Guatemala, and sent to me
del
los
media
de la Provincia
de
entre
estremos
espacio que
Bosquejo
The
Volcan
de Fuego
Suchitepeques
y la Capitalde Guatemala, 1800.
is still active, but

eruptions
and

which

in the

less

than

so

formerlv.

The

older

great

of 1581, 1586, 1623, 1705, 1710, 1717, 1732, 1737,

not
only these eruptions,but also the destructive

1799, but it was

earthquakes

much

now

those

were

them, that

accompanied

second

of the

moved

the

Spanish government,
half of the last century, to quit the second
seat
ruins of la Antigua Guatemala
now
stand),and

city(where the
compel the inhabitants to settle farther to the north, in the new
city
of Santiago de Guatemala.
In this case, as
of Fuoat the removal
the volcanoes
of the chain of the
near
bamba, and several other towns
vehement
carried
in reference
on
Andes, a dogmatic and
dispute was
it might be asserted,
to the difficult selection
of a locality"of which
but little exposed to the
according to previous experience, that it was
and
action of neighboring volcanoes
(lava streams, eruptions of scoriae,
the
Volcan
de
ego
FuIn
earthquakes !)."
1852, during a great eruption,
toward
the shore of the Pacific.
tain
Cappoured forth a lava stream
temala,
of Old GuaBasil Hall measured, under
sail,both the volcanoes
and found
for the Volcan
de Fuego 14,665 feet, and for the
of this measurement
Volcan
foundation
de Agua 11,903 feet.
The
elevation of the
has been tested by Poggendorff. He
found
the mean
reduced
be
and
it
two
mountains
about
to
to
13,109 feet.
less,
Volcan

de

smoking,

Quesaltenavgo*(lat.15"
the town

near

of the

same

10'), burning since

name

the

three

1821, and

conical

ains
mount-

chain of
(in the mountain
Solola) on the south, are also said to be ignited. The volcano of Tajamulco,referred to by Juarros, certainlycan not be identical with the
volcano
of Quesaltcnango, as the latter is at a distance of 40 geographical
of the villageof Tajamulco, to the south of
miles
to the N.W.
Tejutla.
which

What

are

bound

the

by Funel,

the

two
or

Alpine

volcanoes
Brue's

lake

of

Volcan

Atitlan

Sacatepequesand
de

Amilpas?

tioned
menSajwtitlan,

263

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

erite,but, having always

unopened, have

been

of their

time

the

igneous activitysince
Eighteen are to be regarded as
any

still active

ited
exhib-

never

upheaval.

seven

of these

in the presand lava streams

ent
flames,scoriae,
the
two*
and
at
century (1825, 1835, 1848, and 1850);
of
end of the last century (1775 and 1799). The deficiency
thrown

have

up

mighty volcanoes of the Cordilleras of

Quito has recentlygiven occasion to the repeated assertion
of
is equally general in the volcanoes
this deficiency
that
tions
Certainly,in the majorityof cases, erupCentral America.
have
been
and
ashes
unaccompanied
by
scoria?
of
any
in
volcano
the
for
at
lava
of
effusion
example,
present
as,
have
been given by
which
of Izalco ; but the descriptions
canoes
of the lava-producing
eruptionsof the four voleye-witnesses
Nindiri, Ei Nuevo, Conseguina, and San Miguel de
Bosotlan
give an oppositetestimony.!
the details of the
I have purposelydwelt at length upon
positionand close approximation of the linear volcanoes of
Central America, in the hope that some
day a geognosist,
canoes
has previouslygiven a profoundstudy to the active volwho
of Auvergne, the
the extinct
of Europe and
ones
also (thisis of the greatest
Vivarais or the Eifel,and who
how
to describe the mineralogicalcomimportance) knows
in the

lava streams

"

of

great volcano

The

geographical miles

28

At

Soconusco,situated

to

the close of this

the south

long

note

of Cuidad

I think

the borders

on

Real,

in lat. 16"

again

I must

of

mention

Chiapa,
2'.

that the

are
partlyderived
of
from
the writings and maps
Espinache, and partlyborrowed
Molina.
and
Baily, Squier,
*
The following18 volcanoes,constituting,
therefore,nearlythe half
in
active
former or present times, are
as
of all those referred to by me

determinations

barometric

of altitude

adduced

here

from

to

be

regarded as

at

present

more

or

less active

Irasu

and

Turrialva,

de la Vieja, Votos(?) and Orosi ; the insular

Cartago, El Rincon
El Nuevo, at the foot of the
volcano
Momotomba,
Nindiri,
Ometepec,
guel
El
mountain
Las
Viejo, Conseguina, San MiPilas,Telica,
trachytic
temala),
Guade
Volcan
San
Fuego (de
Bosotlan,
Vicente, Izalco,Pacaya,
and Quesaltenango.
The
recent
most,
eruptions are those
Las
of El Nuevo, near
Pilas, on the 18th April, 1850; San Miguel
San Vicente, 1835; Izalco, 1825;
Bosotlan, 1848; Conseguina and
Volcan
de Fuego, near
New
Guatemala, 1799 and 1852 ; and Pacaya,
near

1775.

1850, p.

Squier, Nicaragua,vol. ii.,p. 103, with p. 10G and 111,

previous small work On the Volcanoes of Central America,
reference
7; Leopold de Buch, lies Canaries,p. 506, where

is made

to

f Compare
as

also his

1775, and
Dr.

the
which

lava stream
has

Oersted.

been

which

broke

out

recentlyagain

seen

of the

by

Nindiri in
volcano
observer,
scientific
very

264

cosmos.

positionof
state

of

is

region, which

so

near

and

so

with

the present
impelledto visit this

feel himself

knowledge,may

our

in accordance

different rocks

the

accessible.

if the trav-

Even

himself

gations,
exclusivelyto geognosticinvestimuch
to be done here
there stillremains
especially
of the trachytic,
determination
the oryctognostic
doleritic,
and melaphyric rocks ; the separationof the primitivemass
upheaved, and of the portionof the elevated mass which has
been covered over
by subsequent eruptions; the seeking out
of true, slender,uninterruptedlava streams,
and recognition
which are
only too frequentlyconfounded with accumulations
have never
of erupted scoriae. Conical
mountains, which
bell-like form, such as Chimbeen opened,risingin a dome
or
borazo, are, therefore,to be clearlyseparatedfrom volcanoes
have
been or still are, active,throwing out scoriae and
which

eler

should

devote

"

and

lava streams, like Vesuvius

or
alone, like Pichincha

iEtna,

Cotopaxi.

scoriae and

or

I know

ashes

nothing

that

edge
knowlbrilliant impetus to our
promises to impart a more
of volcanic activity,
which is stillvery deficient in multi-s
tricts.
continental disof observations in largeand connected
plicity
As

the material

results of such

labor, collections

canoes
brought home from many isolated true voland unopened trachyticcones, togetherwith the nonbroken
which
have been
volcanic
through by both;
masses
and the chemico-geological
the subsequent chemical analyses,
field
from
the analyses,would
a
inferences
deduced
open
have
and Java
equallywide and fertile. Central America
the unmistakable
over
Mexico, Quito, and Chili,
superiority
-formed
that in a greater space they exhibit the most variously
and most
closely-approximated
stages of volcanic activity.
noes
At the point w^here the characteristic series of the volcathe borders of Chiapa
terminates
of Central America
on
with the volcano of Soconusco
(lat.16" 2'),there commences

of rocks

would

be

different system
perfectly

isthmus

of Huasacualco

the trade with

ca, situated

to

of volcanoes

and

the Mexican.

"

The

Tehuantepec, so important for

Pacific,like the state of Oaxanorthwest, is entirelywithout volcanoes,

the coast
the

of the

destitute of unopened trachyticcones.

perhaps even
only at a distance of 160 geographicalmiles from the

It

and
is

of Soconusco

that

the small

volcano

of Tuxtla

cano
vol-

near
rises,

the

eastern
(lat.18" 28'). Situated on
it
had a great eruption of
slopeof the Sierra de San Martin,
An exact
nomical
astroflames and ashes on the 2d of March, 1793.

the coast

of Alvarado

determination

of the

positionof

the

colossal snowy

266

COSMOS.

phenomena
geological

important than

hornitos

which

the distance

surround

from

of

of its heaval
updetail,the

the

I found

granite,which

fragments
poured forth

volcano,

immersed

in

principalvolcano of Jorullo,
is destitute of granitefor a long distance.
a district which
tions
The followingtable contains the speciallocal determina-

the lava
in

rightangles,are

the seas, the evidence

representedgraphicallyin

of

the

at

from

have

fuming

innumerable
and

less

no

the eruptionof Jorullo

which

almost

to north-northwest

south-southeast

upon

of the series of volcanoes

elevations

and

the

which, running from

fissure

fissure of elevation

sea, intersects the

to

sea

of Anahuac,

of mountains

of the great range

in the
prolongationof the parallelof volcanic activity
ward,
of Mexico
leads,at a distance of 506 miles westzone
tropical
The

RePacific to the insular group

Collnet saw
of which
in the vicinity
pumice-stone
villagigedo,

from

the shores

of the

and perhaps stillfarther

floating,

on, at

upheaval

causing any

space !
The group of linear volcanoes
volcanic zone
which
includes
a

nearly 5"

N.

The

lat.

which

the reaction

is now

manifested

distance of 3360

Mauna

miles,to the great volcano

without

of islands in the

of Quito and
extends

from

boundaries

extreme

ographical
ge-

(19" 28'),

Roa

intervening

New
2"
of the

Granada
S. lat. to
area

in

upon its surface

active Sangay, and
the uninterruptedly

of the interior of the earth

are

Ruiz, the most recent conflagration

ing
smokof which was
in the year 1829, and which was
seen
by Carl Degenhardt from the Mina de Santana, in the
in 1833.
province of Mariquita,in 1831, and from Marmato
of great eruptivephenomena next
The most
remarkable
traces
and

the Paramo

to

the Ruiz
cone

by

are

Volcan

of the volcano

March, 1595
of the

same

from

exhibited

the recollection

tara, near

de

of Tolima

of the

name;

that of
of the

to

south, by the

cated
trun-

celebrated
(18,129 feet),

eruption of the 12th

of Purace
(17,006feet)and Sothe city
Pasto (13,450 feet),
near
Monte
de Azufre
(12,821 feet),

destructive

the volcanoes

Popayan

north

267

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

(15,618 feet)and of Chiles, in

ebrated
celthe province de los Pastos ; then follow the historically
volcanoes of the true highland of Quito, to the south
four
of the equator, of which
namely, Pichincha, Cotopaxi,
be regarded as
not
can
Tungurahua, and Sangay certainly
Tuquerres

near

of Cumbal

"

"

of the

group

fullyshow in
it is only the
to the

nearer

of
tripartition

to

the

not

Andes,

western

one,

activity
;

volcanic

of this group,

the south

shortlymore
of the

chain

the vast

sea-coast, that exhibits

shall

we

Cordillera,and

central

hand,

other

the

the

of the mountain

north

Although, to the
Robles, near Popayan, as

volcanoes.

extinct

on

the Andes

where

by
only two parallelchains, so frequentlymentioned
volcanoes
in their writings,
are
Bouguer and La Condamine
the
four
of
volcanoes
that the
Pastos,
so
equallydistributed,
well as Cotocachi, Pichincha, Iliniza,Carguairazo,and
as

form

foot of

Yana-Urcu,

at the

the western

chain, nearest

Chimborazo,
to the

sea

broken

have

and

upon

out

upon
the eastern

urahua
Cordillera,Imbabura, Cayambe, Antisana, Cotopaxi,Tungtoward
the east, but still
(oppositeto Chimborazo
elevated
nearly approximated to the middle of the narrow
gay.
plateau),the Altar de los Collanes (Capac-Urcu),and SanIf

we

in

America

of South

volcanoes

northernmost

the

include

expressedin Quito, and

to

one

linear

of the

group

view, the opinionso often

certain

founded

extent

on

torical
his-

activity
at all
from north to south,acquires,
and increase of intensity
that
in
of probability.It is true
events, a certain amount
the south, and indeed close to the colossal Sangay, which
documents, of the migration of

volcanic

the

of
find the ruins of the "Prince
Stromboli, we
exceeded
is said to have
Mountains," Capac-Urcu, which
acts

like

in

Chimborazo

height,but

which

fell in and

became

extinct

part of the 15th century (fourteenyears before

the capture of Quito by the son of the Inca Tupac Yupangui),

in the latter

and

has

never

its former

again resumed

activity.

is not occupied
which
space of the chain of the Andes
by groups of volcanoes is far greater than is usuallysupposed.
de
In the northern
part of South America, from the Volcan
The

Ruiz

and

volcanoes
isthmus

the conical mountain

the two

Granada

and

of the series of New

of Panama

as

the series of volcanoes

is

Tolima,

as

the

of
vicinity

of Central

America

northern

Quito, over

Costa

the

Rica, where

commences,

there

frequentlyand violentlyconvulsed by
ic
in which
flaming salses,but no true volcanThe
known.
length of this tract amounts

country which

earthquakes,and
eruptions,are

far

most

is

268

cosmos.

geographicalmiles.

628

i3

space of 968

of the group

Arequipa,

near

of Peru
same

and

country
tion
termina-

the

Chacani,

of the series of volcanoes

have

must

of

southern

Quito, to
and

complicated

so

"

chain

mountain

Granada

length (occupying

tract

Sangay, the

commencement

Bolivia

and

the

of New
the

this

geographicalmiles)is

volcanoes, from

free from

double

Nearly

various

in

the coincidence

been

the

of the

depends the formation of permanently

of the molten
unimpeded communication
of the earth with the atmosphere. Between
the
trachyticand doleritic rocks, through which the

upon which
and the
fissures,

conditions

open
interior

of
groups
volcanic forces

active,lie rather shorter spaces, in

which prevail
mica-schists,
granite,
syenite,
clay-slates,
quartzose
porphyries,silicious conglomerates,and limestones,of
become

which

of the
(accordingto Leopold von Buch's investigation
organic remains brought home by Degenhardt and myself)a
considerable
The
portion belong to the chalk formation.
gradually increased frequencyof labradoritic rocks, rich in
and oligoclase,
to the observant
traveler
announces
pyroxene
(as I have already elsewhere shown) the transition of a zone
hitherto
in

closed and

often very rich in silver

and full of glassyfeldspar,

non-volcanic,and
of quartz
regions,which

porphyries,destitute

into the
with
The

volcanic

still freely
cate
communi-

interior of the earth.

the

knowledge which
positionand boundaries

accurate

more

of the

have

we

of the

tained
recentlyat-

five

groups

of

or
(the groups of Anahuac
tropicalMexico, of
and
Granada
Central
America, of New
Quito, of Peru and
leras
Bolivia, and of Chili)shows that, in the part of the Cordilextends from
which
19j" north to 46" south latitude
the curves
caused by
(and, consequently,
taking into account

volcanoes

alterations
5000

in

direction, for

axial

the

geographicalmiles),not much*
The

followingis

distance

than

more

of

nearly

half

(calcu-

of the

the result of the determination

length

and

latitude of the five groups of linear volcanoes

in the chain of the Andes,
also the statement
as
of the distance of the groups from each other : a
statement
the relative proportionsof the volcanic and nonillustrating
volcanic
I.

areas

Group of

the Mexican

have
Orizaba

to

latitudes

isolated

128

of

farther

out

miles

Mexico,
south.

to

and

the
in

19
east

fissure upon

The

is directed

the Colima, for

19" and

between
Gulf

Volcano's:

broken

from

distance
=

20'.

east

of 392

The

to

west,

from

the

geographical miles,

volcano

of Orizaba,

the volcanoes

which

near

parallel(18" 28')which

of Tuxtla

the

coast

is half

lies

of the

degree

TRUE

lation

gives 2540

against 2428

by volcanoes.
free from

space
find the
we

from

group

in the direction

N.W.,

E.S.E.

of Central

group
Granada

of New

and

of the Andes

and

of

N.N.E.

me

distance

and
the group of Peru
of volcanoes.

Group of
2H"),

"

420

Distance

VIII.

group
desert

of

and

is
group of Pasto
from the volcanoes
there

which

Timana,
sea-shore,152

the
the

miles.
and

Quito from
titute
greatest length des-

of Volcanoes of Peru and Bolivia,from the

Arequipa to the volcano of Atacama
(16i"

of the

Chili,540

Group of Peru and

geographical miles.
on

the

border

Bolivia
From

of which

the volcanic

from
the

the

portion of

volcano

far

rises,to

Group of Chili,from the

Clemente, 968 miles.

volcano

of

Coquimbo

to

the

the

of San

to the volcano
beyond Copiapo, even
quimbo (30" S'),in the long Cordillera to the west of the two
Catamarca
and Rioja, there is no volcanic cone.

IX.

lated
iso-

very

cated
communi-

were

Granada

of New

group

is

general map. of
Cordilleras,from

my

miles.

of Atacama,

Pedro

the

de

portion of the
Purace, near Popayan,

Bolivia,960 miles,the

the Series

de Chacani

Volcan

from

of the Volcan

The

Eragua,

upon
American

South

from

of the volcanic

Distance

of

inserted

I have

group
of missionaries

to

VII.

of the Rio

sources

of the

statements

VI.

"

Popayan, at the
volcano,which

mountain

the north
miles.

the volcano

between

series of

Quito : Its length from

part of the volcanic mountain

S.S. "W. Far to the eastward

the southern

the

from
miles.

Quito, 628

ofS~ew
Group
de Ruiz to
the eruption in the Paramo
Tolima, to the volcano of Sangay, 472

directed

miles.

300

America

Granada

of the Volcanoes

and

to

miles.

680

of the

Distance

chain

il.
an-

tral
group, that of Centhe volcano
of So-

the next

W.N.W.),

"

one

the Volcanoes of Central America

Its length from S.E.
:
of Soconusco
the volcano
to Turrialva, in Costa

than

volcanoes
V.

groups

of Orizaba

groups,

from

from

Rica, more
IV.

the five volcanic

of two

pied
occu-

of the

distribution

the

between

distance

(from the volcano

Group of

to

we

volcanoes

America
conusco,

geographicalmiles)13

examine

of the Mexican

Distance

III.

If

maximum

269

VOLCANOES.

of Coinces
prov-

volcano

San
These
which

estimates
results from

parallelof
San

the

Clemente

miles, a space
volcanoes

with the curvature

length of the Cordilleras,
direction
in
of
the axis, from the
the
change

of the
the

Mexican
in

Chili

of 2540

of
volcanoes
in 19^" N. lat.,to the volcano
(46" 8' S. lat.),
give,for a distance of 496S

miles

Central

(Mexico,
Bolivia,and Chili);

which

is covered

America,

New

by

five linear

Granada

with

of
groups
Peru
Quito,

noes
probably quite free from volcahave
I
miles.
The
two
given
nearly equal.
spaces are
relations,as obtained by the careful criticism
very definite numerical
of my
and those of others,in order to give rise to a greater
own
maps
desire to improve them.
The
longest portion of the Cordilleras free
with Quito,
Granada
from volcanoes
is that between
the groups
of New
with
and Peru
Bolivia.
It is accidentallyequal to that occupiedby

with

of 2428

the volcanoes

of Chili.

and

space

270

COSMOS.

the

between

other

series of

volcanic

This

Quito and Peru.

approximated groups
miles,while the most closely
ica.
and Central Amerfirst and second, those of Mexico

is fully960
the

are

The

300, 628, 960, and

540

five groups

The

miles.

are

ally
sever-

great distance

of

northern
Quito from the most
the first glance,the more
remarkable, because,

is,at

of

volcano

the southernmost
of Peru

the

between
interspaces

four

according to old custom, we usuallyterm the measurement

of degreesupon the highland of Quito the Peruvian
ment.
measurethe
Peruvian
chain
Only a small southern portionof
is volcanic.

of the Andes

of the newest

I have

the lists which

to

The

group

pilco),Jorullo,*Colima,*

(or Cerro

and

Tuxtla.*

indicated

are
still active volcanoes
f The series of volcanoes

notes

pages

on

and

257

as

of Mexico

Popocatepetl,*Toluca

ing
volcanoes,accord-

prepared after

materials, is

of volcanoes

of

number

The

by

of Central

follows

includes
de

San

Here,

careful

cism
criti-

the volcanoes

Miguel
as

zaba,*
of Ori-

de Tutucuitla-

in similar

the
lists,

asterisks.
America

is enumerated

in the

263.

Quito includes the Paramo

y
Tolima, Purace,* and Sotara, near
Popayan ; the Volcan del Rio Fragua, an affluent of the Caqueta ; the
of Pasto, El Azufral,*Cumbal,*
volcanoes
Tuquerres,* Chiles, Imbaburu, Cotocachi, Rucu-Pichincha, Antisana(?),Cotopaxi,* Tungurahua,* Capac-Urcu, or Altar de los Collanes(?), and Sangay.*
north
from
to
and Bolivia includes
Peru
" The group of Southern
south the following 14 volcanoes
:
and
Volcano
of Chacani (alsocalled Charcani,according to Curzon
visible
from
the
and
the
of
to
Arequipa,
Meyen), belonging
group
lat.
in
bank
of
the
Rio
situated
the
on
town
Quilca,
right
; it is
server
obaccurate
16" 11', according to Pentland, the most
geological
de Chuof this region,32 miles to the south of the Nevado
than 19,000 feet in height.
quibamba, which is estimated at more
Manuscript records in my possessiongive the volcano of Chacani a
a
saw
large crater in the
height of fully 19,601 feet. Curzon
X The

Volcan

Granada
group
of
de Ruiz,* the volcanoes
of New

southeastern
Volcano
town.

diius
Samuel

and

part of the summit.

Arequipa* lat. 16" 20', 12 miles to the northeast of the

With
regard to its height (18,879 feet?),seep. 240. ThadHarike, the botanist of the expedition of Malaspina (1796),
of

Curzon

from

the United

States

of North

America

(1811),

According

these data the total number

to

the five American

1831, Meyen
the

91, of which

is

groups

ascended

(1847),have

Dr. Weddel

and

271

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

sa\v

thrown

had

volcano

(Meyen's Reise

die

um

out

th.

Erde,

belong to

the

summit.

rising;

scoria;,but
ii.,s. 33).

Volcan de Omato, lat. 16" 50'; it had

in

56

the

of smoke

large columns

of volcanoes

violent

never

In

August,

ly
year previouslava streams

eruption in

the

year

1667.

Volcan de Uvillas
in the

were

16th

the south

Uvinas, to

or

the

far from

25'),not

; its last

eruptions

to the east

the Pass

of

of the town

of

Arequipa
feet above

Cangallo,9673

sea.

lat. 16" 55',an

Volcan Viejo,
much

crater,with lava

enormous

and

streams

pumice-stone.
just mentioned

six volcanoes

The

Apo

century.

Volca'i de Pichu-Pichu, 16 miles

(la(.16"

of

of

the lake

the group

according
Chipicani,
Titicaca,lat. 17" 45', height 19,738

de Tacora

Volcan

constitute
to

or

of

Pentland's

Arequipa.

fine map

of

feet.

22,351 feet in height,lat. 18" 7'; a truncated

volcano
The
of Sa'regular form; see p. 211.
is (according to Pentland) 927 feet higher than the Chimhama
Everest,in the Himalaya,
borazo,but 6650 feet lower than Mount
which
is now
the
highest peak of Asia.
regarded as
According
to the last official report of Colonel
Waugh, of the 1st March, 1 856,
chain are .; Mount
of the Himalayan
the four highest mountains
Everest (Gaurischanka),to the northeast of Katmandu, 29,000 feet;
of Darjiling,28,151 feet; the
the Ktmtschinjinga,
to the north
Dhaulagiri(Dhavalagirir),26,825 feet; and Tschumalari (Chamalari),23,946 feet.
ain
Volcano
of Pomarape, 21,699 feet,lat. 18" 8',almost a twin mountvolcano.
with the following
Volcan de Sahama*

of the most

cone

Volcano

of

Parinacota,22,029 feet,lat. 18"

12'.

cones
Sahama, Pomarape, Parinagroup of the four trachytic
the
parallelsof 18" 7' and 18"
eota, and Gualatieri,lying between
trigonometric measurement, higher
25',is,according to Pentland's

The

than

Chimborazo,

Volcano

of

or

than

more

Gualatieri*

21,422

feet.

21,962 feet, lat. 18" 25',in the Bolivian

(Hertha,
very active,according to Pentland

province Carangas ;
bd. xiii.,
1829, s. 21).
Not

far from

the Sahama

group, 18" 7' to 18"

the entire chain of the Andes, which

and

of it, suddenly change their

N.W.
into that from north
""

as

the Straits of

point,the
on

volume

of

Volcano
west

notch

Magellan.
in the

the west

coast

Cosmos, p.
of
of

shore
of

strike,and pass
to south, which
I have
near

Africa, in

from

canoes
series of vol-

lies to the westward

the direction S.E.

becomes

generalas

far

important turningalogue
(18" 28'),which has an an-

treated
Arica

25',the

of this

the Gulf

of Biafra, in the first

292.

Isluga,lat.

Carangas.

19"

20',in

the

province of Tarapaca,

to tho

272

cosmos.

of South

continent

those which

America.

I reckon

stillburning and

are

Pedro

Volcan de San

de

Atacama,

of the

on

volcanoes,besides

as

active,those volcanic formthe northeastern

border

of the

in lat. 22"

Desierto
same
16',according to the new
name,
of Atacama, by Dr. Phiplan of the arid sandy desert (Desierto)
of San Pedro,
lippi,16 miles to the northeast of the small town
de Chorolqne.
far from the great Nevado
not
is

There

than

more

from

volcano

no

20J"

to

30", and, after

interruptionof

an

volcanic

cano
activityfirst reappears in the volvolcano
of a
of Copiapo (lat.
27"
; for the existence
who
is well
Mayen, while it is asserted by Philippi,

miles, the

568

of

Coquimbo
28) is denied by
acquainted with the country.
Our
||

geographical
which

and

include

we

indebted

geologicalknowledge

of the

in the

of the

name

common

canoes
of volgroup
noes
linear volca-

completion,
of Capto the acute
tain
completion itself,
investigations
and
expedition of the ships Adventure
Fitzroy in the memorable
detailed
labors of Charles
Beagle, and to the ingenious and more
Darwin.
The
latter,with his peculiargeneralizingview, has grasped
the connection
of the phenomena
of earthquakes and
eruptions of
volcanoes
under
The
one
point of view.
great natural phenomenon
which
of Copiapo on
the 22d of November, 1822,
destroyed the town
of country
tract
was
accompanied by the upheaval of a considerable
the 20th
of
the coast ; and during the exactly-similar
on
phenomenon
which
did
the
of
much
to
Concepcion,
so
city
injury
February, 1835,
the shore
submarine
volcano
broke
a
out, with fieryeruptions,near
of the island of Chiloe, near
Bacalao
Head, and raged for a day and
half.
All this,depending upon similar conditions,
has also occurred
a
of

and

Chili,is

first incitement

to

its

for the

even

and

formerlv.
which

lies

strengthens the belief that

the

opposite to

Valdivia, and
the Islas de

Maullin,
Huaytecas, the
Campana, De la Madre

la

from

Lobos,

Fjords

and

includes

Peninsula

53' to the entrance

39"

land,

main

and
de

islands

series of rockv

the

of the

of the Fuerte

of Chonos
Los

for the

south

of

ArchChiloe, the ipelago

de tres Montes, and

Dios, De

of the

the

to

and

Lucia

Santa

Straits of

Magellan, is

the crest of a submerged western

Cordillera
It is true
that no
open trachyticcone, no
cequore terris ; but
followed
and sometimes

fractis ex

indicate

to

Connection
the

the

Trans.

629-631

190, and
The
as

of this western

of Volcanic Phenomena, the Formation

Fffectof

and

is

the existence

projectingabove the sea.

volcano, belongs to these
individual
submarine
times
eruptions,somepreceded by mighty earthquakes, appear

Geol.

the

same

fissure (Darwin,
of Mountain

On

the

Chains,

Powers, by which Continents are elevated: in

series,vol. v., pt. 3, 18-10,p. 606-615, and

2d
Society,

Humboldt, Essai
t. ii.,p. 287).

Politiquestir

la Novvelle

Efpagne,

t.

i.,p.

of Chili
included
in the group
series of twenty-four volcanoes
quimbo
follows,counting from north to south, from the parallelof Coto

46"

(a.)Between
Volcan de

S. lat.

parallels
of Coquimbo and Valparaiso
30" 5).
Meyen, th. i.,s. 385.
Coquimbo (lat.
the

Volcano

of Limari.

Volcano

of

Chuapri.

274

cosmos.

eruption,lavas, scoriae,pumice-stones,and obsidians)

reference
to
characterize
them, without
as
any tradition,
extinct.
been
have
which
travolcanoes
long
Unopened
and
or
cones
long
domes,
unopened
trachyticridges,
chytic
and

such

and

Chimborazo

as

is also the

Iztaccihuatl,are
the word

given to

sense

Darwin,

and

geographicalnarratives.

Buch, Charles
volcanoes

to

those

which, when

This

volcano

by Leopold von
Naumaun, in their

Friedrich

give

excluded.

the

name

from

seen

of

still active

their immediate

still exhibit signsof greater or less degreesof their

vicinity,
and some
which
have also presentedgreat and wellactivity,
The qualificationseen
times.
attested eruptionsin recent
of
from
their immediate
vicinity"is
great importance,as
of
the present existence
activityis denied to many volcanoes,
"

According
new
feet,and mentions
eruptionsin the year 1853.
can
communicated
to me
to intelligence
by the distinguishedAmeriin
the
of
out
volcano
rose
depths
a
new
Gilliss,
astronomer,
the

interior of the

and the DescabeAntuco

Cordillera, between
of November, 1847, forming a hill* of 320 feet.

zado, on the 25th

than a
for more
seen
sulphureous and fieryeruptions were
tuco,
of Anof the volcano
Far to the eastward
year by Domeyko.
in a parallelchain of the Andes, Poppig states that there
Punhamuidda*
andUnalavquen*.
two other active volcanoes
are
The

"

Volcano
Volcan
Volcano

of

of

Volcan de

Callaqid.
lat. 39"

VMarica*

de

Chinal,lat.

14'.

39" 35'.

lat. 40$, according to Major Philippi.

Pcengmpulli*

of Valdivia
(d.) Betiveen the parallels
the Island of Chiloe :
Volcano

of Ranco.

Volcano

of Osorno

Volcan

de Calbuco*

or

the southernmost

41"

9',height 7443

Llanquihue,lat.

lat. 41"

of Guanahuca

Volcano

of

Volcan del Corcovado*

of Yanteles

Cape of

feet.

12'.

(Guanegue ?).
Minchinmadom, lat. 42" 48',height 7993

Volcano

Volcano

and

lat. 43"

12',height

(Yntales),lat.

43"

7509

feet.

feet.

29',height 8030

feet.

Upon the last four volcanoes, see Captain Fitzroy,Exped. of the

Beagle, vol. hi., p. 275, and Gilliss,vol. i.,p. 13.
de Tres Montes,
Volcano
of San Clemente,oppositeto the Peninsula
which
according to Darwin, of granite,lat. 46" 8'. On
consists,
southern
of South
the great map
America, by La Cruz, a more
volcano, De los Gigantes, is given, oppositethe Archipelago de la
is very doubtful.
Its existence
de Dios, in lat. 51" 4'.
Madre
for the most
are
latitudes in the foregoing table of volcanoes
The
Allan
of
the
derived
from
Pissis,
Campbell,and Claude
maps
part
Gilliss
work
of
admirable
(1855).
Gay, in the

because, when
from

ascend
the

eye.

from the

observed
the crater
it was

Thus

275

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

at

plain,the thin vapors, which

great height,remain invisible to

denied,at the time of my

even

ican
Amer-

and the great volcano of Mexico

that Pichincha
travels,
still active, although an
(Popocatepetl)were
enterprising
still
70
counted
Sebastian
Wisse,*
traveler,
burning orifices
(fumaroles)around the great active cone of eruption in the
I was
of Pichincha
crater
myself a witness,!at the
; and
foot of the volcano in the Malpais del Llano
de Tetimpa, in
of an extremely distinct
which
I had to measure
a
base-line,
eruptionof ashes from Popocatepetl.
of New

series of volcanoes

Granada

and

Quito,
includes 10 that are still active,and
in 18 volcanoes
which
is about twice the length of the Pyrenees,we
indicate,
may
from north to south, as four smaller groups or subdivisions :
In

the

neighboring volcano of Tolima

(latitude,
accordingto Acosta, 4" 55/ N.) ; Purace and SotaPopayan (lat.2^") ; the Volcanes de Pasto, Tuquerres
ra, near
the Paramo

Cumbal

and

and

de Ruiz

(lat.2" 20'

the

0"

to

from

Pichincha,near Quito, to
Sangay (from the equator to 2"
of the

active

is
group
of the New

the volcanoes

among

noes
the series of volca-

50') ; and
the

ive
actunintermittently

division
lat.). This last subnot
particularlyremarkable
World, either by its great
S.

now
length or by the closeness of its arrangement. We
know, also,that it does not include the highestsummit ; for
the Aconcagua in Chili (lat.
32" 390 of 23,003 feet,
ing
accordto Kellet,23,909 feet,according to Fitzroy and
Pentof Sahama
Parincota
land, besides the Nevados
(22,349 feet),
and Pomarape (21,699
(22,030 feet),Gualateiri (21,962 feet),
from
between
18" V and 18" 25/ south latitude,
feet),all
ertheless,
are
regardedas higher than Chimborazo
(21,422 feet).Nev-

of all the
volcanoes
these

to

land

of

of

volcanoes

Quito enjoythe

mountains

of the

most

chain

of the

New

Continent, the

widely-spreadrenown,
of the

Quito, attaches

Andes,

of those
the memory
and barometrical
geodetical,
optical,

to

this

assiduous

for

high

nomical,
astro-

labors,directed

important ends, which are associated with the illustrious

of Bouguer and La Condamine.
al
intellectuWherever
names
tendencies
wherever
rich harvest of ideas has
a
prevail,
been excited,leading to the advancement
of several sciences
at the same
time, fame remains, as it were, locallyattached

to

bd. i.,s.
Humboldt, Kleinere Sch?-iften,
Essai
See my
f 24th of January, 1804.
Espagne,t. i.,p. 166.

90.

Politiquesur

la Xouvelle

276
for

COSMOS.

fame

Such

long time.

has

Mount

Blanc, in the Swiss Alps

which

only exceeds

not

account

on

that

of the

of the value

account

views

in like
not

"

of Monte

Rosa

of his

557

in its ascent

danger overcome
of
multiplicity

ennoble

about

by
the

Saussure's

to

of its height,

account

on

and

which

belonged

manner

feet;
but

"

physicaland
and

name,

on

logical
geo-

the

scene

Nature

untiringindustry.
its impressionon
the
depths of thought.
The

sides
appears greatest where, besenses, it is also reflected in the

of Peru

series of volcanoes

and

Bolivia,still entirely
belongingto the equinoctial
zone, and, accordingto Pentland,
elevation of 16,945
at an
only covered with perpetualsnow
feet (Darwin, Journal, 1845,
p. 244), attains the maximum
of its elevation

(22,349 feet)at

in the Sahama

sudden

alteration

Thence, toward
no
fissure,
but

the

maintained

until

of

Magellan,for

glanceat

exhibits

of the

outline

and

the

1" S.

Cordilleras

coast-line

northeast,from
to that of Los
*

and
the

directed

the Paramo

thousand

miles.

two

and groups

from

Cordilleras

mountain

Robles,*near

micha-schist

The

the

de las

mountain

group

Popayan.
group

(lat.2"

is

Straits

of mountains

in the
year
the
between

me

distant Cordilleras.

the coast-line of the Pacific

being directed so long from southeast

of Arica and Caxamarca
the parallels
the

which

into the

promontories of Aguja and San

both
lat.),

are

northwest,

to

Andes, publishedby

between

of it.

also the volcanic

other similar agreements

many
New
Continent
and the near
or

(5^" to

the

than

more

of the

west

direction

entrance

of the ramifications

of the

Thus,
Lorenzo

of

gular,
sin-

chain

the

southeast

meridian,

the western

distance

the map

of the chain

1831,

of the

near
a

of the

lyingto

longer strike from

tude.
lati-

correspondswith

and
south, the coast-line,

direction

in the

Arica, appears

direction

series of volcanoes

length

18" 25' south

shore, which

in the axial

of the

and

Andes,

of

neighborhood
of the

of its

the middle

7* and

18"

between

group,
There, in the

bay-likebend

about

north, after
northwest, between

south

to

and

in the

to
;

from

run

of

de Los

near

regard to

Robles

way

southwest

Imbaburu,

With

same

to

Quito,
the geo-

2
(lat.
2')and of
Alpine lakes,La"

20') contains the

Papas
Iago and L. del Buey, scarcelysix miles apart ; from the
former
springs the Cauca, and from the latter the Magdalena, which,
chain, only unite with
separated by a central mountain
being soon
andTeneach other in the parallelof 9" 27', in the plains of Mompox
above-mentioned
mountain
between
The
erife.
Popayan, Algroup,
of
and
is
in
connection
with the
Timana,
great importance
maguer,
geologicalquestion whether the volcanic chain of the Andes of Chili,
guna

de

S.

logicalcausal
manifested

277

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

of the agreement, which is so often

the outlines of continents and the direc-

connection

between

with

be connected

Granada

Peru, Bolivia,Quito, and New

the mountain

in this way
with that of
and
of Panama,
and
of
Rica
Central
Costa
ica
Amervolcanoes
and
of
the
series
Veragua
and
the
of
mountain
in general. In my
1831,
1816, 1827,
maps
have been made
more
generally known
of which
by Brue in
svstems
(1817) and in other maps,
Joaquin Acosta's fine map of New Granada

chain

of the Isthmus

how

shown

I have

the

the northern

under

the

between

of the Andes

chain

undergoes

10' ; the western

and the Rio
Cauca

valleyof

the Rio

tripledivision
running

Cordillera

parallelof 2"

Atrato

; the

middle

the Cauca
Magdalena ; and the eastern
one
between
one
which
the valley of the Magdalena and the Llanos
between
(plains),
Orinoco.
and
I have
watered
are
by the affluents of the Maranon
and

able

been

to

indicate

great number

local

determinations,of
the

I obtained

which

of these

three

Cordilleras

the series of astronomical

152

in South

the

west

America

alone

of stars.

culmination
To

special direction
pointswhich fall in

the
of

from

by

the Rio

of the Rio

east

and

Dagua,

to

Cazeres, Rolda-

of

Cordillera
runs
Cartago, the western
nilla,Toro, and Anserma, near
S.S.W.
N.N.E., as far as the Salto de San Antonio, in the Rio Cauca
of the Vega de Supia. Thence
lies to the southwest
5" 11), which
(lat.
del
Viento
far as the Alto
as
(Cordillerade Abibe, or Avidi, lat. 7" 12'),
"

considerablyin elevation and

mediate
in the province of Antioquia, with the interbulk, and
Farther
the north, toward
the
to
Central Cordillera.
or
into
the
chain
and
Lucio
the
Rios
of
Guacuba,
ceases, dividing
sources
which
is scarcely32 miles
Cordillera occidental,
of hills. The
ranges
the mouth
of the Dagua, in the
of the Pacific, near
the coast
from
de San Buenaventura
Bahia
(lat.3" 50'),is twice this distance in the
Choco
the
in
of
(lat.5" 48'). This observation is of
parallel Quibdo,
confound
with the western
not
because
must
we
some
importance,
and the range of hills,
the country with high hills,
chain of the Andes
from south to north,
which
in this province,so rich in gold dust, runs
bank
of
the
Rio San Juan
and
and Tado, along the right
from Novita
9600

feet in

chain

the

left bank

of the great Rio

in

height, the
amalgamates,

increases

canal
Rio

of
San

It is this inconsiderable

Atrato.

of hills that is intersected

the

Quebrada

de

la

Raspadura (Canal des Monches), which unites

the Rio Quibdo, a
and
Noanama
Juan
or

two
Atrato), and by their means
which
it
was
this,
also,
235)
;
p.

(Humboldt,

oceans

series

Raspadura by
two

rivers

tributaryof

Essai

the

(the
the

Politique,i.,
t.

in the instructive

expedition
de Cupica (lat.6" 42'),long
the Bahia
Captain Kellet between
of the Napipi, which
extolled by me,
and the sources
and fruitlessly
ert
t
.
falls into the Atrato.
Humboldt,
Op. cit., i.,p. 231 ; and Rob(See
seen

was

of

Fitzrov, Considerations on the Great Isthmus

the Journal of the Royal Geogr. Soc, vol. xx.,

of Central America
1851, p. 178, 180,

in
and

186.)
The

middle

chain

of the Andes

highest,reaching within

Central),constantlythe
(Cordillera

the limit of

perpetual snow,

and,

in its entire

chain,
north, like the western
nearly
amos
Parwith
the
of
about
miles
northeast
35
the
to
Popayan
commences
toward
Farther
Chinche.
on
of Guanacos,
Huila, Iraca, and
the north between
Buga and Chaparral,rise the elongated ridge of the

extent, directed

from

south

to

278

cosmos.

of

tion

chains

mountain

near

(South America, Alleghanys,

Apennines),it appears

Norway,

difficult to

to

come

any

cision.
de-

de Quindio, the snowLa Montana

capped,
Baraguan (lat.4" 11/),
de Ruiz,
and Paramo
truncated
of Tolima, the Volcano
cone
These
de Herveo.
and the Mesa
deserts,to
high and rugged mountain
is applied in Spanish, are
of Paramos
the name
which
distinguished
by their temperature and a peculiar character of vegetation,and rise
I here describe,according to
in the part of the tropicalregion which
de

Neveda

the

mean

of my
of many
level of the sea.

measurements,

from

10,000

to

11,700 feet

parallelof Mariquita, of the Herveo

mences
valleyof the Cauca, there commention
and central chains, of which
of the western
a union
remarkable
most
This amalgamation becomes
has already been made.
Cascada
and
and
the
above-mentioned
Salto
the
between
Angostura
land
the
the
of
de Caramanta, near
high
Supia. Here is situated
ince
provwhich
of Antioquia, so difficult of access,
extends, according to
Manuel
mention, as
Restrepo, from 5i" to 8" 31' ; in this we may
the
north of
south
to
from
of
elevation
to
north,Arma, Sonson,
points
of the Rio Samana, Marinilla, Rio Negro (6841 feet),and
the sources
Medellin
(4847 feet),the plateau of Santa Rosa (8466 feet),and Valle
the conand Zaragoza, toward
de Osos.
Cazeres
Farther
fluence
on, between
chain disappears,
and Nechi, the true mountain
of the Cauca
from
and the eastern
slope of the Cerros de San Lucar, which I saw
and
Paturia
Badillas
7"
8"
navigation
(lat.
36'),during my
(lat. V)
its contrast
from
and
of the Magdalena, is only perceptible
survey
with the broad river plain.
inasmuch
The eastern
Cordillera possesses a geological
as it
interest,
ada
Granof
New
not
only separates the whole northern mountain
system
flow partlyby the Cathe waters
the low land, from which
from
and Caqueta to the Amazons, and partlyby the Guaviare, Meta,
guan
with
and Apure to the Orinoco, but also unites itself most
distinctly
above

the

de

Salto

San

and

the

the

littoral chain

"

What

union

is called

of mountain

in systems of veins a
have been
chains which

of very different directions,and probably

upon
The
Cordillera
at very different times.
eastern
departs far more
from
meridional
the two
others,
a
direction, diverging toward

elevated
than

in the

of Caraccas.

raking takes place there

even

In the

Antonio,

two

fissures

that at the snowy

mountains
of Merida
(lat.8" 10')it
than
at its issue
degrees of longitude farther to the east
the Ceja and Timana.
mountain
group de Los Robles, near

the northeast, so
alreadylies five
from
To

the

the north

de la Suma

of the Paramo

Paz,

to

the east

of the Purifi-

tude
Chingaza, at an altiand
treeless
the
but
oak
of only 8760 feet,
over
an
forest,
fine,
rises,
288
about
It
of
4"
stern
ical
geographoccupies
plateau
Bogota (lat. 36').
a remarkable
similarityto
square miles, and its positionpresents
that of the basin of Cashmere, which, however, according to Victor
Jacquemont, is about 3410 feet lower at the Waller Lake, and belongs
The
southwestern
to the
plateau
declivityof the Hymalayan chain.

cacion, on

the western

of Bogota

and

declivityof the Paramo

de

the Paramo
the

the Meta

of

Chingaza are followed in the eastern

of
the northeast, by the Paramos
Chita
of
of Zoraca, above
Sogamoso ;
of the Rio Casanare, a tributaryof
Socorro ; of Cacota
(12,854 feet),near

toward

Andes,
Guachaneque, above Tunja;
the sources
(16,000 feet?),near

Cordillera

of the Almorzadera

of

series of volcanoes

Although, iii the

the western

of the chain of the

branch

the

of the traces

sea-coast,

Ancles,which

Chili,

es
approach-

Pacific,at

perfectlypreservedbut

This

lava streams.
conical

and

observer,Pentland, has discovered at the foot of

than 180 geographical miles from the
chain,more

the eastern

of

of Bolivia

present exhibits the greater part

of still existing
volcanic activity,
perienced
yet a very ex-

to

nearest

279

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

mountain,

crater, with

is situated
Pedro

San

near

extinct

de

the

upon

Cacha,

mistakable
un-

summit

in the valley

Yucay, at an elevation of nearly12,000 feet (lat.14" 8',

southeast from Cuzco, where the eastern
long.71" 20'),
snowy
chain of Apolobamba, Carabaya, and Vilcanoto
extends from
southeast
This remarkable
to northwest.
point* is marked
of
the
ruins
of
famous
Inca
the
Viracocha.
The
a
by
temple
distance from the sea
of this old lava-producingvolcano
is
of

Pamplona ; of Laura
Pamplona, Salazar, and

and

(10,986 feet),near

Here,

between

50'),is

7"

situated

from

south

of the

west

and

toward

chain

group,
Ocafia
and

Valle

de

Upar

to

the

vaster

continues

crest

in the

originalnortheasterly

Merida, Truxillo, and Barquisemeto, to unite there,

of the Laguna de Maracaibo, with the granitic littoral

the eastward

to

Grita.

de Maracaibo, and unites with the most

advanced
de Santa Marta
Sierra Nevada
(19,000 feet?). The

of the

elevated

direction

north

to

La

(between lat. 7" 8' and

from which
crest
a
tends
ex-

mountain
toward

near

Laguna

mountains
more

the small

Porquera,

Rosario

Prom
the Grita
Venezuela, to the west of Puerto Cabello.
de Porquera the eastern
Cordillera rises again at once
the parallelsof 8" 5' and 9" 7',
to an
extraordinaryheight. Between
follow the Sierra Nevada
de Merida
(Mucuchies), examined
by Bousand
determined
Codazzi
singault,
by
trigonometricallyat 15,069 feet;
and
the four Paramos, De Timotes, Niquitao, Bocono,
and
de Las
beautiful Alpine plants. (See Codazzi,ResuRosas, full of the most
de la Geografia de Venezuela,1841, p. 12 and 495 ; and also my
men
Asie Centrale,t. iii.,p. 258-262, with regard to the elevation
of the
in this zone.)
The western
Cordillera
is entirely
ing
wantperpetual snow
in volcanic
which
is
the
central
Cordillera
to
activity,
peculiar
and

of

the Paramo

far

as

the Tolima

as

the volcano

from
The
at

Cordillera

eastern

the

than

and

origin of

to

of the local relations

of the mountain
of the

chains

geology

high

Pentland, in Mrs.

p. 185.

forming
northern

The
a

is of the

of volcanoes.

of that of the

small

smoking

Fragua,

hill

however

degreesof

its eastern

near

the northeast

of Mocoa

of Timana, at a greater distance

from
the shore
other
still
active
volcano
of
the
World.
New
any

knowledge

of Purace
has

the Rio

de Ruiz, which
by nearly three

Paramo

Peak

land

extremity
sea

the

of

older

maps,

east
south-

of the Pacific
An

the

accurate

arrangement

for the

with

declivity,
and

the

completion
ception
single ex-

only lead to error.

PhysicalGeography (1851), vol. i.,
(17,020 feet),situated in lat. 14" 28',
Quito, can

Somerville's

of Vilcanoto
of the

of 88

to

highestimportance

All

portion of the vast

inland

of the volcanoes

are
arated
seplatitude.

miles

mountain

group
which

plateau,in
in length, is

of that
the

situated.

name,

lake

of

closes the

Titicaca,a

280

cosmos.

also belongs to an
greater than that of Sangay, which
and
eastern
Cordillera,and greater than that of Orizaba

far

Jorullo.
of 540

interval

An

miles

the series of volcanoes

This

is the distance

from

of Peru

and Bolivia

of the
of

the volcano

of volcanoes

destitute

eruptionin
At
Coquimbo.

the

its greatest elevation

which, accordingto
(23,003 feet),
of all the

also the maximum

desert of Atacama

of volcanoes
volcano

in the

separates

that of Chili.

2" 34/ farther

south, as already remarked, the group

attains

from

the

to

of Chili

of

Aconcagua
present knowledge, is

our

of the New

summits

Continent.

sequently
average heightof the Sahama
group is 22,008 feet ; con586 feet higher than Chimborazo.
Then
follow,

The

diminishingrapidlyin elevation,Cotopaxi,Arequipa(?),and
18,877 and 18,129 feet in height. I give,
Tolima, between
in apparentlyvery exact
numbers, and without
alteration,
the

results

of measurements

from

which

barometrical

pounded
comunfortunately

are

tions,
trigonometrical determina-

and

the greatest inducement

in this way
will be
of the measurements
and correction
to the repetition

because

given

of the results.
I have

only

cited

In

the series of volcanoes

of

Chili,of which

for
it is unfortunately
twenty-four,

the southern

and

lower

from

ones,

Antuco

the most
to

part

Yantales,

of 37" 20/ and 43" 40', that have been

parallels
These have the inconsiderable
hypsometricallydetermined.
feet.
Even in Tierra
elevation of from six to eightthousand
of the Sarmiento, covered with
del Fuego itself the summit
rises
accordingto Fitzroy,to 6821 feet.
perpetualsnow, only
the
From
the volcano of Coquimbo to that of San Clemente

between

the

distance

is 968

miles.

regard to the activityof the volcanoes of Chili,we

have the important testimony of Charles
fers
reDarwin,* who
very decidedlyto Osorno, Corcovado, and Aconcagua as
being ignited; the evidence of Meyen, Pcppig, and Gay, who
that of Domeyko,
ascended Maipu, Antuco, and Peteroa
; and
the astronomer
number
of
and Major Philippi. The
Gilliss,
active craters may
be fixed at thirteen,only five fewer than
"SVith

in the group of Central

the five groups
From
which
local

have

we

America.
of serial volcanoes
been

able

determinations,and
as

to

positionand

See

describe

for the most

elevation,let

Darwin, Journal of Researches

duringthe Voyage of the Beagle, 1845,
*

to

of the New

in Natural

from

tinent,
Connomical
astro-

part also
us

now

sometrical
hyp-

turn

to

Historyand Geology

p. 275, 291, and

310.

282

cosmos.

work

justmentioned, although they cover

of the island,especially
in
entire area
districts of Java

In

three fifths of the

the

there

occur, as
many
former widely-spreadforests,
from
fragments,

southern
the

parts.
of

remains

three

to

seven

length,of silicifiedtrunks

feet in
the

For

Dicotyledons.
of palms
abundance

ferns grows, this is the more

markable,
rein the Miocene
of
r
ocks
brownthe
tertiary

because
coal formation

of trees, which
all belongto
at present an
country in which

of

and

tree

Europe, where

arborescent

monocotyledons
unfrequentlymet with.*
silized
By a diligentcollection of the impressionsof leaves and foswoods, Junghuhn has been enabled to give us, as the
first example of the fossil flora of a purely tropicalregion,
the ancient flora of Java, ingeniously
elaborated
by Goppert
longerthrive,fossil palms

no

from

his collection.

As

elevation

regards the
of Java

New

Quito with

maxima

attained

Bolivia,and

and

by

American

these

is

are

groups
thousand

For

for

feet,and

23,000
ten

feet

Chili,

Mexico,
the

(about

than

Gunung Semeru,

September, 1844;

measurements

12,233

gave

the

series of volcanoes.

entire Javanese

this in

ascended

to

nearly

still burning colossus is the

the

noes
volca-

canoes
the greatest elevation of the voland Java.
On the latter island the highest

height of ./Etna)more

point of

they attain,the

three groups
of
of
the two groups
to those
of TropicalMexico.
The

Granada, and

This

of Sumatra

which

even

Quito, 21,000

feet.

18,000

to

far inferior to those of the

are

Chili,Bolivia,and Peru,
of

not

are

culminating
Junghuhn

the average
metric
of his barofeet above the surface of

than the summit

consequently1748 feet more
of JEtna.
fell below
At night the centigradethermometer
6".2 (43".2 Fahr.). The old Sanscrit name
of Gunung Semeru

the

sea, and

was

the

time

Mahd-Meru
when

reminiscence

which,
of

the

of the

accordingto

Brahma, Vishnu,

(the Great

of the World

Mountain

and

Mahabharata,
the

seven

of

reminiscence

; a

Indian

received

Malays
the

Mem)

civilization
in the

"

north,

is the

dwelling-place
Devarschi.| It is re-

and Goppert,Die Tertiarftora

bd. iii.,
s. 155
avf clerInsel
Op. cit.,
The
sence
abJava nach den Entdechungtn von
Fr. Junghuhn (1854), s. 17.
of monocotyledons
is,however, peculiarto the silicified trunks
of trees lying scattered upon the surface,and especiallyin the rivulets
*

of the district of Bantam

; in the

subterranean

carbonaceous

strata, on

of palm-wood, belonging to two genera

the contrary, there are remains
(Flabellariaand Amesoneuron). See Goppert, s. 31 and 35.
of the word
Mcrti, and the conjectures
fUpon the signification
which

Burnouf

communicated

to

me

regarding

its connection

with

markable

guessed,before

at

than

the

The

of elevation
from

could

height of

serve

more

an

occasional
the

the

snow,

island,and yet,
the

greater

tance
dis-

the level of the lower

no

of

elevation

country, the Javanese

upon

country free from

case, in a
of the summit

in this

snow

plateau of Quito had

Chimborazo
surpassed

Holy Mountain, Maha-Meru, which is but

from the Gunung-Ardjuno (11,031 feet),

maximum

the

in the

mountains

snowy
that the

short distance

exhibited

that

measurement,

my

all the other

also knew

of the

natives

the

that, as

283

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

as

limit of petual
perguide to the judgment

temporary fall of snow.*

exceeds
Semeru, which
Gunung

11,000 (11,726 English) feet,is most

closelyapproached
found
hypsometrically
by four other mountains, which were
be

to

between

and

ten

Gunungl Slamat,

eleven

thousand

feet.

These

are:

of

mountain

Gunung
Tegal (11,116 feet),
Gunung Sumbing (11,029 feet),
Ardjuno (11,031 feet),
and Gunung
Lawu
(10,726 feet). Seven other volcanoes
of Java
feet ; a reattain a height of nine or ten thousand
sult
of
of
is
which
the more
the
importance as no summit
island was
rise
than
six
sand
thouformerly supposed to
higher
or

of North

feet.J Of the five groups

mira
and

(a Sanscrit
Lassen's

inclined
*

See

to

word

Indische

regard

page

the

for sea), see

my

Asie

Altertlmmskunde, bd.
names

as

not

and

South

t. i.,
Centrale,
p.

i.,s. 847.

of Sanscrit

The

Ameri114-116

latter is

origin.

229.

word
for mountain, in Malayan, gunong,
the enorover
which, singularlyenough, is not farther disseminated
mous
domain
of the Malayan language ; see
the comparative table of
words
in my brother's work
the Kawi
language, vol. ii.,s. 249,
upon
No. 62.
it is the custom
As
before
to place this word
the
gunung
of mountains
in Java, it is usually indicated
in the text
names
by a
simple G.
J Leopold de Buch, DescriptionPhysiquedes lies Canaries,1836, p.
419.
Not only has Java (Junghubn, th. i.,s. 61, and th. ii.,s. 547)
colossal
of 12,233 feet,which
a
mountain, the Semeru
consequently
little in height,but an
exceeds
the peak of Teneriffe
elevation of
a
12,256 feet is also attributed to the Peak of Indrapura, in Sumatra,
which
is also still active,but does not appear
been so accuto have
rately
measured
and
No.
The
s.
next
to
(th.i., 78,
1).
profileMap
this in Sumatra, are
the dome
of Telaman, which
is only one
of the
summits
of Ophir (not 13,834, but only 9603 feet in height),
and the
active of the
Merapi (according to Dr. Horner, 9571 feet),the most
thirteen volcanoes
of Sumatra, which, however
(th. ii.,s. 294, and
Junghuhn's Battalander,1847, th. i.,s. 25), is not to be confounded,
from
with two
of Java
the
the similarityof the names,
volcanoes
which
celebrated
the
and
Merapi near Jogjakerta (9208 feet),
Merapi
forms
the eastern
of the volcano
Idjen (8595
portion of the summit
JSIeru is again
feet). In the Merapi it is thought that the holy name
to be detected,combined
word apt, fire.
with the Malayan and Javanese

f Gunung is the Javanese

"

284

cosmos.

of Guatemala

volcanoes, that

can

only

in

exceeded

one

elevation

mean

(Central America) is the

by the Javanese
group.

the Volcan
del
vicinityof Old Guatemala
attains
feet
the
to
a
culation
cal(according
height of,13,109
Fuego
of PoggendorfF),and
and reduction
therefore 874
than
of the Cenfeet more
tral
Gunung Semeru, the remainder
series of volcanoes
American
only varies between five
thousand
and seven
feet,and not, as in Java, between seven
in the

Although

and

feet.

thousand

ten

The

highest volcano

of Asia

is not,

sought in the Asiatic Islands (the Archipelago

of the Sunda
but upon the continent ; for upon
Islands),
the
the volcano
Kljutschewsk
peninsula of Kamtschatka
rises to 15,763 feet,or nearly to the height of the Eucuhowever,

be

to

Pichincha, in
The

of

Cordilleras

the

principalaxis*

of the

Quito.

series
closely-approximated
in

than

volcanoes

45
(more
W.N.W."
E.S.E.
(exactlyW.
principallyparallelto the series

the Javanese

number)

12"
of

has

N.), and

of
rection
di-

fore
there-

of the

volcanoes

axis of
eastern
part of Sumatra, but not to the longitudinal
the island of Java.
This general direction of the chain of
volcanoes

by

attention

has

of the
are

so

series
chain.

no

excludes

means

recentlybeen

very

the

phenomenon

directed

in the

to

which

great chain

Himalaya, that three or four individual high summits

arranged togetherthat the small axis of these partial
form
an
oblique angle with the primary axis of the
This

of

phenomenon

fissure,which

has

been

served
ob-

describedfby Hodgson, Joseph Hooker,

partially
and
Strachey,is of great interest. The small axes of the
almost
at
subsidiaryfissures meet the great axis,sometimes
in volcanic
ma
chains the actual maxieven
a rightangle,and
and

of elevation

major

axis.

often situated

are

in most

As

in Java

is observed
size of the
those

are

of

crater

in

height.

at

Gunung

of these is

mer

linear

some

Tenderer

and

distance

the
The

Gunung

elevation
two

from

definite

volcanoes, no

between

the summit.

mountain

at

and

the
portion
prothe

largestcraters
Kaon.

The

for-

of the third

Its circular crater

class,only 8704 feet

than 21,315
is,however, more

ter.
feet,and therefore nearly four geographicalmiles in diameof the crater is a sea of sand, the surThe flat bottom

Junghuhn, Java, bd. i.,s. 80.

f See Joseph Hooker, Sketch-Map of Sikhim, 1850, and in his
Himalayan Journals,vol. i.,1854, Map of part of Bengal ; and also
Strachev, Map of West-Nari, in his PhysicalGeography of Western
Tibet,1853.
*

face of wnich

feet below

lies 1865

in which

surroundingwall, and

there from

here and

285

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

the

highestpoint of

the

lava

scoriaceous

layerof

pounded
crater
enormous
Kirauea,
Owhyhee,
with glowing lava, does not, according to the
of Captain Wilkes, and
survey
the

of

observations
In

Tensforer.

attain

Dana,

middle

the

the

of the

of

size

ject
proEven
rapilli.
is filled

which

onometrica
trig-

accurate

the

that

of the

crater

masses

of

excellent

Gunung

latter there

nel-shaped
funeruption,actual circumvallated
chasms, of which only one, Bromo
(the mythical*
of firein
Brahma, a word which has the signification
is now
active.
not
Kawi, although not in the Sanscrit),

rise four small

name

the

to 1842

has

of

cones

lake

proved

formed

was

that

it

Gunung

but

volcano, 10,178
and

so

acidulated

by
Next

largest crater,
half less. The view

has
one

the

awe-inspiring. It

than

more

and

sulphurous vapors.*

Kaon

of this is about

into the interior is

of

heated

been

Gunung

Tender,

the diameter

depth

have

the influx of atmospheric

origin to

penetrationof

simultaneous

to

its

owes

waters, which
the

phenomenon that from 1838

in its funnel,of which
Junshuhn

presents the remarkable

Bromo

in

of

the

feet in

2398

feet

to extend
to
appears
and yet the remarkable

height,which

carefullydescribed,!is

Junghuhn
not

even

has ascended

named

on

the

meritorious
Like
exhibit

of Raffles.
map
almost
all linear volcanoes,the

the

volcanoes

of Java

simultaneityof
more
great eruptions is observed much
rarelyin nearly approximated
than in those which
are
cones
widely separated.
When, in the night of the 11th and 12th of August, 1772",
the volcano Gunung Pepandajan (7034 feet)burst forth,
the
destructive
most
eruption that has taken place upon the
island within
historical periods,two
other volcanoes,the
Gunung Tjerima'iand Gunung Slamat, became
ignitedon
the same
line
tance
at a disnight,although they lie in a straight
of 184 and 352 miles from Pepandajan."
if the
Even
important phenomenon

that

From
Junghuhn, Java, hd. ii.,
fig.ix.,s. 572, 596, and 601-604.
the small crater
to 1848
of eruption of the Bromo
had eightfiery
had
eruptions. The
crater-lake, which
disappeared in 1842, had
been again formed
in 1848 ; hut, according to the observations
of B.
1829

Herwerden,

van

had

no

the

effect in

presence

of the water

preventing the

in the

eruption of

chasm

of the

dron
cal-

tered
red-hot,widely-scat-

scoriae.

t Junghuhn, bd. ii.,s. 624-641.

ascended
J The G. Pepandajan was
1837

by Junghuhn

The

latter,who

in

has

by Reinwardt, and in
the
accuratelyinvestigated

1819

286

cosmos.

of

volcanoes

series all stand

they communicate

through which

of old vapor nels,

chanof
ones, in the course

that the obstruction

constituted

so

sures
focus,the net of fisis,nevertheless,certainly

one

over

the temporary
opening of new
simultaneous
eruption at very distant points
ages, render
appearance
I may
again advert to the sudden disquite conceivable.
or

of the

of smoke

column

which

from

ascended

Pasto, when, on the morning of the 4th of

conFebruary, 1797, the fearful earthquake of Riobamba
Cotoand
'vulsed the plateau of Quito between
Tunguragua
of

the volcano

paxi.*
the

To

of the island of Java

volcanoes

generallya

ter
charac-

ing
ascribed,to which I have seen nothdilleras
similar in the Canary Islands,in Mexico, or in the Correcent
most
of Quito. The
we
traveler,to whom

of ribbed formation

are

chrometric
to

omit

not

order

ture
upon the strucof plants,and the psy-

to

allude with

such

call attention

to

I here

which

I must

observations

admirable

volcanoes, the geography

conditions of moisture, has described

of the

in

for such

indebted

is

to

furnish

an

inducement

decided
this
to

the

non
phenome-

clearness

that

regularityof form,
new
investigations.

of a volcano
surface
Junghuhn, "the
10,974 feet in height,the Gunung Sumbing, when seen from
and
some
distance,appears as an uninterruptedlysmooth
still
closer
ination,
examon
a
slopingface of the conical mountain,
of
find that it consists entirely
tudinal
we
separate longibecome
subdivide
and
which
gradually
ridgesor ribs,
from
the
downward.
advance
broader
They run
as
they
of the volcano, or more
summit
frequentlyfrom an elevation

"Although,"

says

feet below

several hundred
the

ridgeshave
longitudinal

short

distance,but

clefts of three
the
are

or

are

four hundred

feet in

each

other

to

the

foot of

umbrella."
a

all formed

way, and becoming broader as

furrows of the surface " which occur
from

an

sometimes

same

of all the volcanoes

down

summit,

mountain, diverginglike the ribs of

rib-like
for

the

tortuous

These
course

by approximated

depth, all directed in

They
they descend.
on

the lateral

slopes

ably
Java, but differ considerconical
various
mountains, in

of the island of
upon

the

merous
vicinityof the mountain, consistingof detritus intermingled with nuangular, erupted blocks of lava, and compared it with the
disseminated
has been
earliest reports, regards the statement, which
mountain
and
that
of
the
an
valuable
a
works,
portion
by so many
the
of
sank
miles
several
of
1772, as
eruption
during
area
square
98
and
bd.
ii.,s.
100).
greatlyexaggerated(Junghuhn,
*
Cosmos, vol. v., p. 183, and Voyage auz Regions Equinox, t. ii.,
p. 16.

TRUE

287

VOLCANOES.

depth and the distance of their upper origin

from an unopened summit.
from the margin of the crater
or
of those volcanoes
is one
The Gunung Sumbing (11,029 feet)
exhibit the finest and most
which
regularlyformed ribs,as
is bare of forest trees and clothed with grass."
the mountain
given by Junghuhn,* the
According to the measurements
clivity
of ribs increases by division in proportion as the denumber
their average

Above

decreases.

Gunung
of 8500
and

at

the

of 9000

zone

feet there

are,

on

Sumbing, only about ten such ribs ; at an elevation

feet there are thirty-two; at 5500 feet,
seventy-two ;
clination,
than ninety-five.The
3000
feet,more
angle of inat

the

time, diminishes

same

from

37"

to

25"

and

10^". The ribs are almost equallyregularon the volcano

while on the Gunung Kinggit
Gunung Tengger (8702 feet),
they have been disturbed and coveredj by the destructive
"The
production
eruptionswhich followed the year 1586.
mountain
fissures
of these peculiarlongitudinal
ribs and the
lyingbetween them, of which drawings are given,is ascribed
to erosion by streams."
of meteoric water
in this tropicIt is certain that the mass
al
three
four
the
is
than
in
times
or
region
temperate
greater
though,
indeed,the showers are often like water-spouts, for altion
the whole, the moisture diminishes with the elevaon
of the strata of air,the great mountain
cones
exert, on
the other hand, a peculiarattraction upon the clouds,and, as

zone

I have

in other places,volcanic eruptions

alreadyremarked
clefts and
in their nature
The
are
productive of storms.
of the Canary Islands,
in the volcanoes
valleys(JBarrancos)
and

of South

in the Cordilleras

of

importance to the
given by Leopold von
to him

up
conduct

traveler

BuchJ

him

up

the accumulated

and

become

frequentdescriptions
myself,because they open
the

even
mountain, and sometimes
the
of
vicinity
highestsummits, and
of a crater of elevation,
gous
exhibit analo-

to the

phenomena
the

from

have

the interior of the

the circumvallation

to

America, which

but

although these

meteoric

barrancos%
Junghuhn,

upon
bd.

the

ii.,s.

waters,

slopesof

the

carry off
originalformation of

also at times

the volcanoes

is

probably

241-246.

f Op. ^cit.
sup., s. 566, 590 and 607-609.
X Leopold von
Buch, Phys. Beschr. der CanariscJten Jnscln,s. 206,
218, 248, and 289.
ly
" Barranco and Barranca, both of the same
meaning, and sufficientin
row

in

use
or

Spanish America, certainlyindicate properly a water-fur'

la tierra las corrientes de
hacen
en
: la quiebra que
"
torrente
una
que hace barrancas ;" but they also indicate

water-cleft

las aguas

"

288

cosmos.

be ascribed

not

to

the

trachyticmass,

which

by foldingin

Fissures,caused

these.

to

has

only subsequently hardened,

been

have

elevated

while

soft and

probably preceded

all

tions
ac-

But in those places

impulse of water.
ed
where
deep barrancos appeared in the volcanic districts visitains
by me on the declivities of bell-shapedor conical mount(en las faldas de los Cerros barrancosos),no trace was to
with
of the regularityor radiate ramification
be detected
made
which
are
we
acquaintedby Junghuhn's works in the
The
greatest
singularoutlines of the volcanoes of Java.*
referred
is
to
presentedby the
analogy with the form here
server
phenomenon to which Leopold von Buch, and the acute obdirected
have
of volcanoes,Poulet Scrope,
tention,
atalready
that
at
almost
fissures
a
always open
namely,
great
of
from
ating
radithe
the
obtuse
centre
mountain,
angle
right or
with
accordance
the normal
in
(although undivided)
but not transversely
to them.
direction of the declivities,
belief in the complete absence of lava streams
The
upon
Buch
the island of Java,f to which Leopold von
appeared to
of erosion and

the

incline in consequence
been rendered
more

any

The

than

doubtful

by

Reinwardt, has
observations.

recent

is connected

with

barro,clay,
road-scrapings,is .doubtful.
of Elementary Geology,1855, chap, xxix., p. 497.
Lyell, Manual
bing
of regular ribremarkable
most
analogy with the phenomenon
of the Somma
in Java is presented by the surface of the Mantle

chasm.

soft,moist
*

of

of the observations

But

that the word

loam, and

of Vesuvius, upon

the

barranca

also

seventy folds of which

Julius

has

an

acute

and

accurate

Schmidt,
light(Die
observer,the astronomer
pold
Eruption des Vesuvs im Mai, 1855, s. 101-109). According to Leovon
Buch, these valley furrows are not originallyrain furrows
of cracking(folding,
etoilement)
during the
(fiumare),but consequences
al
The
radial
of
first upheaval of the volcano.
usually
position the lateraxis
of
the
volcano
also
the
to be
in
relation
to
eruptions
appears
connected
therewith
(s.129).
f "Obsidian, and consequentlypumice-stones, are as rare in Java
of any
fact is the absence
as
trachyte itself. Another
very curious
self
M. Reinwardt, who
has himof lava in that volcanic island.
stream
of
that
there
number
observed
a
eruptions,says expressly
great
violent and destructive eruption
have never
been instances of the most
lavas."
been
accompanied by
Leopold de Buch, Descr. des
having
the volcanic rocks of Java, for which
lies Canaries,p. 419.
Among
of Minerals
at Berlin is indebted
to Dr. Junghuhn, dioi'itic
the Cabinet
distinctly
recognizableat Burungagung, s. 255 of
trachytesare most
the Leidner
catalogue,at Tjinas, s. 232, and in the Gunung Parang,
situated in the district Batu-gangi. This is consequently the identical
and Toluca,
of Orizaba
formation
of dioritic trachyte of the volcanoes
of iEgina,
in
the
and
island
the
in Mexico
Banana,
LipariIslands,
; of
in the iEgean Sea !
"

thrown

much

290

cosmos.

mat.*

stream, after giving rise

into the tertiary
rocks.f From

the latter the lava

On

is continued
water-fall,
effusions

true

huhn

of

form

lava, which

coherent

in the
accuratelydistinguishes,

very

nung

Lamongan,^

rows,

are

the

to

such

Jung-

masses,

eruption of Gu-

6th of

July, I808, what he calls a

of glowing and usuallyangular fragstone stream, consisting
ments,
of
the
in
"The
crash
heard
a
was
row.
erupted
breaking stones, which rolled down, like fierypoints,either
I purposelydirect especial
in a line or without
any order."
in which
modes
attention
to the very various
fierymasses
the slopes of a volcano, because
in the dispute
on
appear
the maximum
angle of fall of lava streams
glowing
upon
of stones
streams
(masses of scoriae),
followingeach other in
As

sometimes

the

on

confounded

importantproblem of

of lava

streams

in Java

internal constitution

the

has not

been

treated with

of

"

with

continuous

lava streams.

the
a

ency
rarityor complete deficiwhich
touches on
problem

volcanoes,and which, I

sufficient earnestness

must

has

"

add,

recently

often

so
place in
spoken of,the present appears a fitting
though
Alwhich
to bring it under
a
more
generalpoint of view.

been

noes
it is very probable that in a group ro series of volcarelation to
all the members
stand in a certain common

generalfocus,the molten interior of the earth, stilleach

individual presents peculiarphysicaland chemical
processes
as
regards strengthand frequency of activity,
degree and
form of fluidity,
and material difference of products peculiarities
which
not be explainedby the comparison of the
can
form, and elevation above the present surface of the sea.
The
active
giganticmountain
Sangay is as uninterruptedly
the

"

The

of G.

Idjen,accordingto Buschmann, may be explained

by
hidjen,
singly,alone, separately a derivative
from the substantive hidji
or
grain,seed,which with sa expresses
icidji,
the number
With
one.
regard to the etymology of G. Tengger, see
the important work of my brother upon
between
the connections
Java
and India (Kaiui-Sprache,bd. i.,s. 188),where
there is a reference to
the historical importance of the Tengger Mountain, which
is inhabited
small
tribe
of
a
hammedanism
the
to
by
people,who, opposed
now
general Moof the island,have retained
their ancient Indo-Javanic
faith.
of
Junghuhn, who has very industriously
explained the names
mountains
the Kawi
from
language, says (th. ii.,s. 554), that in the
Kawi
hill ; the word also receives the same
Tengrjer
signifies
tion
significain Geriche's Javanese
WoordenDictionary(Javaansch-nederduitsch
of the high volcano
of Tegal,
boek,Amst., 1847). Slamat, the name
is the well-known
word sclamat,which
Arabic
signifies
happiness and
safety.
t Junghuhn, bd. ii.,Slamat, s. 153 and 163; Idjen, s. 698; Tengger,
*- 773.
% Bd. ii.,s. 760-762.
name

the Javanese

word

"

lowly Stromboli ; of two neighboringvolcanoes,one

out pumice-stonewithout
obsidian,the other both at
ing
furnishes only loose cinders,the other lava flowone

the

as

throws
once

in

same

characteristic processes, moreover,

in many
volcanoes appear not to have been always the
at various
epochs of their activity. To neither of the
These

streams.

narrow

is

continents

two

rarityor

of lava streams

total absence

distinctions

Remarkable

ascribed.
peculiarly

be

291

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

we
groups with regard to which
to definite historical periods near

in those

only occur

confine

must
to

to

our

selves
our-

times.

own

ously
depends simultanesinglelava streams
conditions.
Among these we may instance
upon many
of
and pumice-stone;
depositionof vast layers tufa,rapilli,

The

of

non-detection

the

and

the simultaneous

confluence

non-simultaneous

of several

widely-extended lava-field covered

that in a wide
detritus ; the circumstance
plain the
it were,
conical eruptivecones, the volcanic platform,
as
forming

streams,

which,

as

at

with

small
from

Lancerote, the lava had flowed forth in streams,

tions
long since been destroyed. In the most ancient condiof our
planet,in the earliest foldings
unequally-cooling
of its surface,it appears
to me
very probable that a frequent
of
viscid outflow of trachyticand doleritic rocks, of masses
pumice-stoneor perlite,
containingobsidian,took placefrom
of fissures,
which
over
no
a composite net-work
platformhas
The problem of such simple
been elevated or built up.
ever
effusions from fissures deserves the attention of geologists.
have

In the series of Mexican

volcanoes,the greatest and, since

celebrated phenomenon, is the

the most
travels,
my American
elevation of the newly-produced Jorullo,and its effusion of
lava.

This

volcano, the
I

measurements,
between
its

by

which

was

the two

eruption on
from

extends

topography

the first to make

which, founded

known,* by
and

of Toluca

volcanoes
the

of

Ocean

to

tion
posi-

Colima, and

great fissure of volcanic

the Atlantic

its

on

the

activity,!

Pacific,presents

sequently
important geognosticphenomenon, which has conbeen all the more
the subjectof dispute. Following
the vast lava stream
which
the new
volcano poured out,
I succeeded in gettingfar into the interior of the crater, and
in establishing
there.
instruments
The
eruptionin a broad
and long-peaceful
plainin the former provinceof Michuacan,
in the night from
the 28th to the 29th of September, 1759,
an

at

distance
Atlas

of

more

than

120

miles

from

any

Giographiqueet Physique,accompanying

1814, pi. 28
torique,

and

29.

Cosmos, voL

other

volcano,

the Relation Hiev., p. 264-266.

292

cosmos.

(?)months, namely, from the 29th

year, by an uninterrupted subterranean

preceded for fullytwo

was

of June

in the

noise.

This

same

differed from

it was,

that

earthquakes,which

of Guan-

bramidos

stance
described,*by the circumis usuallythe case, accompanied by

elsewhere

I have

axuato, which

wonderful

the

as

felt in

not

were

the

mountain

cityin

volcano, about
eruption of the new
foretold the day before by
3 o'clock in the morning, was
a
phenomenon which, in other eruptions,does not indicate
At
the point
but
their conclusion.
their commencement,
the great volcano
where
now
formerly a
stands, there was
of the Guayava
thick wood
(Psidium pyriferum),so much
of its excellent fruit. Laborers
valued by the natives on account
of the Hacienda
from the sugar-cane
fields (canaverales)
dres
de San Pedro
Jorullo, belonging to the rich Don Anthen livingin Mexico, had gone out
Pimentel, who was
The

January, 1784.

to

collect the fruit of the

the

farm

(hacienda)it was

their large

hats

straw

When

guayava.
remarked

with

called the

the

Malpais,probably at

foot of the

what

to

that
ashes.

volcanic

alreadyopened in
had, consequently,

Fissures

returned

astonishment

with

covered

were

they

is

now

high basaltic

before
Quiche,which threw out these ashes (rapilli)
in the plain. From
occurred
have
to
any change appears
letter of Father
Joaquin de Ansogorri, discovered in the
a
written three
Episcopal archives of Valladolid,which was
evident
it appears
after the day of the first eruption,
weeks
that Father Isidro Molina, sent from the neighboringJesuits'
dome

El

College of

"

Patzcuaro

of the

Playas

habitants
give spiritualcomfort to the inquieted
Jorullo,who were
extremely dis-

to

de

the
by the subterranean noise and earthquakes,"was
first to perceivethe increasingdanger, and thus caused the
preservationof the small population.
In the first hours of the night the black ashes alreadylay
the hill of Aguasarco,
fled toward
foot deep ; every one
a
the
feet higher than
small Indian village,situated 2409
a
the tradition)
From
this height (so runs
old plain of Jorullo.
a

large tract

eruption,and

"

of land

in the

was

midst

seen

in

of the flames

state

of fearful

(as those

who

fiery
nessed
wit-

expressedthemselves)there
less
appeared like a black castle (castillonegro) a great shapethe
From
small
population of
(bulto grande)."
mass
then
of indigo and
cotton
was
the district (the cultivation
the force of long-continued
but very little carried on) even
the ascent

of the mountain

Cosmos, vol. i.,p. 209, and

vol. v., p. 172.

TRUE

earthquakes

cost

no

293

VOLCANOES.

lives,although,as I learn from

human

manuscript record,*houses

overturned

were

by

them

near

In ray Essai
of 1811 and 1827

Politiquesur la Nouvelle Esjmgne, in the two editions

ture
(in the latter,t. ii.,p. 165-175), I have, as the naof that work
abstract from my
required,only given a condensed
cinity
journal,without being able to furnish a topographical plan of the viFrom
the importance which
chart of the altitudes.
has
or
a
of the middle
of the last cenbeen assignedto this great phenomenon
tury,
it
this
abstract,
here.
to
I have
I
thought
complete
necessary
indebted
details
for
the
volcano
of Jonew
am
particular
relatingto
after the day of the
official document, written three weeks
rullo to an
in the year 1830 by a very scientific
first eruption,but only discovered
Jose
Pastor Morales
Don
Juan
also to oral
Mexican
clergyman,
; and
from
the
communications
Don
Ramon
Escompanion,
Biscayan
my
had
been
able
examine
who
of
the
to
first
livingeye-witnesses
pelde,
eruption. Morales discovered in the archives of the Bishop of Michuthe 19th of October, 1759, by Joaquin de
on
a report addressed
acan
Indian
in
the
villagela Guacana, to his bishop. In
priest
Ansogorri,
work
und Reisen in Mexico, 1836) Burkart
his instructive,
(Aufenthalt
from it (bd. i.,
At the time of
has also given a short extract
s. 230).
the
Ramon
Espelde was
living on
plain of Jorullo,
my journey, Don
the summit
of the volcano.
and has the merit of having first ascended
afterward
attached
himself
the
made
he
Some
to
on
expedition
years
the 10th of March, 1789, by the Intendente
Juan
Corregidor, Don
de Riaiio.
To the same
Antonio
expeditionbelonged a well-informed
entered
Franz
who
had
the Spanish service as a
Fischer,
German,
of the latter the name
of the Jorullo
mining commissary. By means
first became
known
in Germany, as he mentioned
it in a letter in the
But
the
Schriften der GeselUchaftder Bergbauhunde, bd. ii.,s. 441.
the
volcano
had
of
been
referred
in
new
to
already
eruption
Italy in
del
Storia
antica
Messico
t.
Clavigero's
(Cesena, 1780,
i.,p. 42),and in
the poeticalwork, Rustkatio
of
Father
Mexicana,
Rapbael Dandivar
his
In
valuable
work
roneously
(ed. altera,Bologna, 1782, p. 17).
Clavigero erhe writes Juplaces the production of the volcano,which
ruyo, in the year 1 760, and enlarges the descriptionof the eruption
of ashes, extending as far as Queratoro,
of the shower
by accounts
had been communicated
in 1766
which
to him
by Don Juan Manuel
de Bustamente, governor
of the province of Valladolid
de Michuacan,
the
The
siastic
as
an
eye-witness of
phenomenon.
poet Landivar, an enthuthe colossus
adherent, like Ovid, of our theory of upheaval, makes
rise,in euphonious hexameters, to the full height of three miland finds the thermal
liaria,
springs(afterthe fashion of the ancients)
cold by day and warm
the thermometer
I saw
rise to
at night. But
*

"

]26F

in the water

In 1789, and
Governor
Riano
in the Gazeta

of the Rio

de Cuitiraba

consequently in the
and

the

de Mexico

Mining

about

noon.

year that the report of the

Commissary Franz Fischer appeared
same

(in the fifth part

of his large and useful Dicde las Indicts Occidentales 6 America, in the
Geograjico-historico
de Alcedo
article Xundlo, p. 374, 375), Antonio
the interesting
gave
that
when
information
the earthquakes commenced
(29th of June,
in
of
which
in erupthe
the
volcano
was
western
Colima,
1759)
Playas,
tion,
distance
it
is
of
at
70 leguas"
a
suddenl}rbecame
quiet,although
(as Alcedo says, according to my map only 112 geographicalmiles!)

cionario

"

294

cosmos.

Santiago

in

aro,

the

from

of

Inguaran, in

de

Ario, and

mines

the copper

''It is

Playas.

bowels

of

the

earth

and,

the small

adds,

thought," he

have

farther,but

miles

many

with

of Patzcu"

town

"that

obstacles

the

not

materials

in

their

following
(to the
reventar
out
en
at Jorullo
Xurullo).
east," they have broken
para
statements
Accurate
regarding the neighborhood of the
topographical
de Lejarza's geographical
Jose' Martinez
also in Juan
volcano
occur

the

their

old

course

as

met

have

they

found

to

suitable

cavities

"

sketch

of the

Taraskian

ancient

vincia de Michuacan

country

"

Andllsis

Estadistico de laPro-

(Mexico, 1824), p. 125, 129, 130, and 131.

author, living at Valladolid,in the vicinityof
increased
in Mexico, no
residence
of an
trace
1822

en

testimony of the
Jorullo,that,since my
activityhas shown itself
The

in the

mountain,

was

59' 47"), founded

Recueil oV Observ.

upon

in the

the

tion
earliest contradic-

ples
(Lyell,Princieruption
year
latitude
the
of
Jorullo
in
As
position
of Geology,1855, p. 430).
is not without
importance, I have noticed that Lejarza,who otherwise
of position,and who
determinations
always follows my astronomical
gives the longitude of Jorullo exactlylike myself as 2" 25' west of the
meridian
of Mexico
(101" 29' west of Greenwich), differs from me in
Is the latitude attributed by him to the Jorullo (18" 53'
the latitude.
of Popocatepetl (18"
nearest
to that of the volcano
30"),which comes
of the report of

new

observations

recent

1819

unknown

to

me?

In

my

Astronondques,vol. ii.,
p. 521, I have said expressly,
"
19"
deduced
tions
observafrom
Latitude
8',
good astronomical
supposee,
rection."
diand
the
19"
from
52'
at Valladolid,which
8",
itinerary
gave
I only recognized the importance of the latitude of Jorullo
in the
when
subsequently I was
drawing up the great map of Mexico
E.
series
of
volcanoes.
W.
capitalcity and inserting the
As in these considerations
edly
upon the originof Jorullo I have repeatstill prevailin the neighborhood,
mentioned
the traditions which
this long note by referringto a very popular tradition,
I will conclude
which I have already touched
sur
Politique
upon in another work (JEssai
la Nouvelle Esjmgne, t. ii.,1827, p. 172): "According to the belief of
have just described
the natives, these extraordinarychanges which
Ave
the work
of the monks, the greatest, perhaps, that they have proare
duced
At the Playasde Jorullo,in the hut that
in either hemisphere.
longing
we
occupied, our Indian host told us that in 1759 the Capuchins beof
San
but
the
station
mission
at
the
to
Pedro,
preached
that,
not
having been favorablyreceived, they charged this beautiful and
horrible and
fertile plain with the most
complicated imprecations,
by flames
prophesying that first of all the house would be devoured
the surrounding
would
which
issue from the earth, and that afterward
cooled to such a degree that the neighboring mountair would
become
ains
covered
with
and
would
remain
ice.
The
former
snow
eternally
"

of these

maledictions

class of Indians
presage
Next

of

having had
in the

already see
perpetual winter."

that of the poet, Father

such

fatal consequences,
the lower
gradual cooling of the volcano the

Landivar, the first printed account

in the Gazeta
probablv that already mentioned
N
um.
of the 5th of May, 1789
30,
de Mexico
iii.,
(t.
p. 203-297); it
nada
bears the modest
facultativa
Descriptiondel esSuperficial
title,
y
la
del
hallaba
el
de
dia 10 de Marzo
Volcdn
tado en que se
Jorullo, manana
occasioned
tie 1789, and was
by the expedition of Riaiio,Franz Fischer,
of the

to

catastrophewas

In the Hacienda

beyond San Pedro Churumucu.

during the general nocturnal
deaf and

dumb

and

return

while

him

save

he

is stillrelated that

mulatto

A
the

house

found

was

taper in his hand, before

Guadalupe.
According to

flight,
they

slave.

negro

295

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

"

the

de

forgotto

had

the

Jorullo,

remove

humanity

to

still standing. It

was

kneeling,with

a,

consecrated

Nuestra

picture of

Senora

de

tradition,
widely and concordantlyspread
the natives,the eruption,during the first days, consisted
of rock,scoria?,
of great masses
sand, and ashes, but

among

always

the

with

combined

effusion of

an

muddy

In the

water.

report, alreadymentioned, of the 19th of October,

memorable

of which

author

1759, the

was

who, possessingan

man

describes what
had only
knowledge of the locality,
just taken place,it is expresslysaid : Que espeleel dicho
All eye-witnessesrelate (I
ceniza y agua.
Volcan
arena,
the Intendant,Colonel
which
the description
translate from
the
German
Mining Commissary, Franz Fischer,
Riano, and
into
the
wdio had passed
Spanish service,have given of th"

accurate

of the

condition

1789),

"

volcano

that before

(antes de

of Jorullo

the terrible mountain

10th
made

este terrible
y aparecerse
subterranean
noises became
more

of the

of

March,

its appearance

reventar

earthquakes and
the

the

on

cerro) the

frequent;

itself the flat soil

to
was
seen
day
eruption
rise perpendicularly(se observo, que el plan de la tierra se
levantaba
and the whole
became
more
perpendicularmente),
that blisters (vexigones)
so
or less inflated,
appeared,of which
the volcano (de los que el mayor
the largest
is now
es
hoy el
inflated blisters,
of very various
del volcan). These
cerro
quently
sizes,and partlyof a tolerablyregular conical form, subseburst (estas ampollas,gruesas vegigas 6 conos
diferentemente
regularesen sus figurasy tamanos, reventaron
ifices
despues),and threw boiling-hotearthy mud from their or-

but

on

well as scoriaceous
as
(tierrashervidas y calientes),
(piedras cocidas? y fundidas),which are still
stony masses
found, at an immense
distance,covered with black stony
masses."
These

historical

complete,agree

see

more

the

mouths

Antonio
and

records,which

of the natives

de Riano.

To

perfectlywith

the Pacific

I learn

to

from

of
years after the ascent
"
the castle
the questions,whether

Espekle. Subsequently(1791),in
Malaspina, the botanists Mocino
from

what

fourteen

tion of

Jorullo

might, indeed, wish

we

coast.

the naval
and

Don

astronomical
Martin

expedi-"

Sesse

ed
visit-

296

cosmos.

mountain"

years, and

therefore

According

to

of water

the

months

first as

very
Piano'

place in

taken

eruptions had

graduallyfor

be obtained.

could

answer

no

appeared from

it

whether

to rise

seen

was

the

or
years, or
elevated peak,

an

that farther

assertion

first sixteen

seventeen

or

declared to be untrue.
1776, was
the phenomena of small eruptions
the tradition,

mud

and

to

up

which

during the

observed

were

the incandescent

simultaneouslywith

scoria?

first days

ascribed

are

to

of two

brooks,which, springingon the western

of Santa Ines,and consequentlyto
of the mountain
declivity
de Cuiche, abundantly irrigatedthe
of the Cerro
the east
de San Pedro
de Jorullo,
cane-fields of the former Hacienda
the destruction

far to the west

onward

flowed

and

to the Hacienda

sentation.
de la Pre-

where
the point is stillshown
origin,
they disappearedin a fissure with their formerlycold waters
during the elevation of the eastern border of the Malpais.
Running below the hornitos,they reappear, accordingto the
general opinion of the people of the country, heated, in two
thermal
springs. As the elevated part of the Malpais is
there almost
perpendicular,
they form two small water-falls,
and representedin my
which
I have
seen
drawing. For
and Rio
Rio de San Pedro
the previousname,
each of them
At this point I found the
de Cuitimba, has been retained.
to be 126"-8.
During
temperature of the steaming water
ulated.
the waters
their long course
are
only heated, but not acidI usuallycarried about with
The test papers, which
farther
the Hacienda
no
change ; but
on, near
me, underwent
Near

de

la

flows

Presentation,toward
a

the

Sierra

spring impregnated with

forms

which

their

of 20

basin

las

de

Canoas, there

sulphuretedhydrogen

gas,

feet in breadth.

line
acquire a clear notion of the complicatedoutand generalform of the surface of the ground, in which
tinguish
remarkable
upheavals have taken place, we must dishypsometricailyand morphologically: 1. The position

In order

such

to

of the volcanic

system of Jorullo

level of the Mexican

Malpais, which
fissure upon
arisen.

On

is covered

which

the western

which

six

plateau; 2.
by thousands

large volcanic

portionof

strikes from

in relation to the

S.S.E.

to

convexityof

of hornitos

mountain

Central

the

The

masses

Cordillera

N.N.W.,

the

erage
av-

the

3. The
have
of Mexico,

plain of the

Jorullo,at an elevation of only 2557 feet above

of the horizontal mountain
the level of the Pacific,forms one

Play as

de

terraces

which

every

where

in the Cordilleras

interrupt

298

cosmos.

the

cano,
point immediately at the foot of the volperpendicularelevation. The
inhabited stood only about 500 toises (3197
house
that we
feet)from the border of the Malpais. At that place there
small perpendicularprecipiceof scarcelytwelve feet
was
a
high,from which the heated water of the brook (Rio de San
The
Pedro) falls down.
portion of the inner structure of
the soil which
I could examine
at the
precipiceshowed
black, horizontal,loamy strata, mixed
with
sand (rapilli).
At other points which
I did not see, Burkart
has observed
the perpendicular
on
boundary of the upheaved soil,where
of this is difficult,
the ascent
a
lightgray and not very dense
This
(weathered)basalt,with numerous
grainsof olivin."*
and experiencedobserver has,however,! like myself,
accurate
the spot conceived
the idea of a vesicular upheaval of the
on
surface effected by elastic vapors, in opposition
to the opinion
of celebrated geognosists,
J who ascribe the convexity,which
I ascertained
by direct measurement,
solelyto the greater
that

with

at

gives473

feet of relative

"

effusion of lava
The

at

the foot of the volcano.

thousand

small

eruptivecones
(properlyrather
somewhat
or
a
elongated,oven-like form),which
the upheavedsur face pretty uniformly,are
the
cover
on
in
feet
four
to nine
height. They have risen almost
average
the
side of the great volcano,as inwestern
deed
exclusivelyon
toward
the
Cerro
the eastern
de Cuiche, scarcely
part,
many
roundish

of

constitutes
of the

Playas.

of weathered
*

J^th

of the entire
Each

basaltic

of the

area

Reisen

vesicular

hornitos

numerous

spheres,with

und
Burkart, Avfenthalt

of the

is

elevation

composed

fragmentsseparatedlike

in Mexico

in den

Jahren,

1 825-1

834,

bd. i. (1836), p.'

227.
f Op. cit. sup., bd. i.,p. 227 and 230.
X Poulett Scrope, Considerations on Volcanoes,p. 267 ; Sir Charles

of Geology,1855,
p. 429 ; Manual
also
"on
the elevation
See
337.
on
Volcanoes,
580;
Daubeny
p.
-p.
in
United
States
the
ExploringExpedition,
hypothesis,"Dana, Geology,
Constant
vol. x., p. 369.
Prevost, in the Comptes rendus,t. xli. (1855),
les eruptionset le drapeau de Vinfaillisur
p. 866-876, and 918-923:

Lyell,Principlesof Geology,1853,

also,with regard to Jorullo,Carl Pieschel's instructive

descriptionof the volcanoes of Mexico, with illustrations by Dr. GumSociety
precht,in the Zeitschrift
fur Allg.Erdkunde
of the Geographical
Berlin
and
the
s.
vi.,
(bd.
490-517);
newly-published picturesque
of
views in Pieschel's Atlas der Vidlcane der Republik Afexico, 1856, tab.
The
of Berlin, in the department of
Royal Museum
13, 14, and 15.
tion
collecengravings and drawings,possesses a splendid and numerous
volcanoes
of representationsof the Mexican
(more than forty
by Moritz Kugendas. Of the most western
sheets),taken from nature
has
of all Mexican
volcanoes,that of Colima, alone,this great master
bilite." See

furnished

fifteen colored

views.

concentric

but vary

balls

The

usually15

are

to

The

vapors and broken

nucleus is of greater
hot

up

in

into

to

diameter,

basaltic

black

24

somewhat

inches

18

"

from

count

into

flattened

are

to three feet.

one

penetratedby

frequentlyable

was

and

spheroidalform,
from

shells.

such

28

shells

299

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

is

mass

earthyform,

an

density,while

the shells,
although
when
detached, exhibit yellow spots of oxyd of iron. Even
the balls is,singularly
unites
which
the
soft,loamy mass
the

divided

enough,

interstices of the

all the

lamellae,which

curved

into

balls.

At

wind

the first

through

glance I

asked

basaltic
whole, instead of weathered
spheroids,containingbut little olivin,did not perhaps present
the

myself whether

disturbed

masses

in

this

oppositionto
basalt,mixed

in the
we

with

of their formation.

course

But

analogy of the hills of globular

are
layers of clay and marl, which

have

the

found,often

of very small dimensions,in the central chain of

isolated and sometimes
sometimes
crowning long

Bohemia,
basaltic
are

broken

much

so

that

both

ridges at

up,

extremities.
or

have

of the

Some

such

hornitos

large internal

cavities,

compelled to place their fore-feet upon the

sink in deeply,while
in similar experiments

mules, when

flatter ones,
I made
which

the hills constructed

In the basaltic

of the

mass

by

hornitos

or
scoriae,
fragmentsof old rocks which

the

termites

I found
had

no

resisted.
immersed

been

penetrated,
The
lation
appelHomos
Hornitos is especially
the
or
cumstance
cirjustified
by
that in each of them
(I speak of the periodwhen
the Flayas de Jorullo and wrote
1 traveled over
journal,
my
of smoke
18th of September, 1803) the columns
break out,
the
from
not
summit, but laterally.In the year 1780 cigars
be
fastened to a stick and
might still
lightedwhen they were
in
of
to a depth
two
three inches ; in some
or
pushed
places
the air was
that
time
heated
at
much
so
by the vicinityof

as

is the

the

case

in

the lavas of the

hornitos,that it

was

great Jorullo.

necessary

to

turn

away

from

one's

proposed course.
which,
Notwithstandingthe refrigeration
the
to
universal
of
district
the
the
according
Indians,
testimony
had undergone within 20 years, I found the temperature in
the fissures of the hornitos
and

at

distance

of the air
no

vapors

reached

and

me,

the

true

temperature

of the

phere
atmos-

time
scarcely77".
Playas being at the same
weak
sulphuricvapors decolorized strips of test paper,
after sunrise,to a height of
for some
hours
rose
visibly,

of the

The

was

199" and 203"

range between
of twenty feet from some
hills the temperature
still 108"-5 and 116"*2,at a point where
to

300

cosmos.

feet.

fully60

early in

remarkable

after 11

even

visible

of many
of the
fall of water.

cool

columns

had

become

their immediate
hornitos
The

low,

very

In

When

and

the

rushing sound

basaltic hornitos

small

most

was

midday,

vicinity.

heard

we

of smoke
Toward

morning.

easilydestructible.

remarked,

Burkart

were

interior
like the

as

are,

and

already

visited

the

of the hornitos
years after me, he found that none
still smoking, their temperature being in most

Malpais, 24
were

the

o'clock,they

from

only

of the

view

The

of the

surroundingair. while many of

of form by heavy rains and methem
had lost all regularity
teoric
Near the principal
influences.
volcano Burkart
found
small cones, which
were
glomerate
concomposed of a brownish-red
of rounded
or
angular fragments of lava, and only
In the midst of the upheaved area, covered
looselycoherent.
cases

elevation

Pedro

which

on

ridgedirected

the

east

of the great volcano

part of it is covered with dense
projectingbasaltic rock, grown
Flcus

and

the

the

for

describe

to

me

south-southwest
of the

N.

"

The

direction

ancient

trunks

of

of the Cerro

that

bound

the

existed

fore
be-

"

less-elevated

N.E.

fissure has

The

volcanoes

that of the three

consequently been

indicated

here

the vast

tion
partialdirecsituated

most

followingnear
curved, and

certainlynearly at right angles with the

which, accordingto my observation,the Mexican
follow

each

other

has

its total length of 10,871 feet.

of the linear but not contiguous

is

mountains
upon

with

over

fissure upon which

risen,in the general direction

has

its strike throughout

changed
The

of San

(burned rapilli).The

to north-northeast.

first three

southerlyis S.W.
S.

sand

the

series of six volcanoes

from

the

catastrophe.

It remains
a

farm

which
masses
high mountain
eastward, to be regarded as having

del Mirador

of the

remnant

in my plan,
and
its
west,
preservationat
is most
astonishing. Only a

like
Psidium, is certainly,

indica and

plain to

indicated

I have

and

foot

the

seen

buildingsof

which
hill,

The

rested.

forms

that

as

hornitos,there is still to be

with
old

same

from

sea

to

But

sea.

line
canoes
vol-

ence
this differ-

surprisingif we consider that a great geognostic phenomenon (the relation of the principalmasses
to
each
other across
with
a
continent)is not to be confounded
direction
of a singlegroup.
and
the local conditions
The
volcano
of
Pichincha, also,is not in
long ridge of the great
is the

the

in

same

less

direction

non-volcanic

as

the series of volcanoes

chains,for example

in

the

of

Quito

; and

Himalaya,

the

often

culminatingpointsare

301

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

as I have
situated,
alreadypointed

generalline of elevation of the

chain.
They are situated upon partialsnowy ridges,which
form nearly a rightangle with this generalline of upeven
heaval.
out,

at

from

distance

hills which

Of the six volcanic

the
fissure,

mentioned

first

the road

which

the

have

three,the

risen upon
southern

more

above-

tween
ones, be-

of

mines

the copper

the

Inguaran passes,
to be of least importcondition,
ance.
longer open, arid are entirelycovered
to

in their present

appear,

They are no
with grayish-whitevolcanic sand, which, however, does not
consist of pumice-stone,for I have seen
nothing either of
pumice or obsidian in this region. At Jorullo also,as at
Buch
Vesuvius, according to the assertion of Leopold von
of
the last covering-fall ashes appears to have
and Monticelli,
been
the

the white

large,true

of

volcano
its small

feet above

level,1151
and

in
difficulty

from

the

be

most

stillfilled with

was

the

the

on

should

thought we
which

elevation

Malpais

steep ridge of the

summit.

the very

the foot of the

at

I ascended

lustre
olivin.

others

When

of the lava

course

we

form.

turned

steepness,

stream
to

the

at

burst forth

passed over

Some

in

up

crisp,scocoke-like,or
a

parts of it have
full of small

lic
metal-

granules of

surface
thus
to the upper
perpendicularelevation of 711 feet,

white

could

we

some

ascended

had

we

sea

volcano,

Playas),I had

lava stream, which

vast

basaltic and

are

withstanding
not-

Bonpland and
of September, 1803.
We
19th
certain of gettinginto the crater,
ing
hot sulphurous vapors, by ascend-

The

cauliflower-like

the

it with

riaceous,clear-soundinglava, swelled
rather

which,

feet above

(42G5

is

mountain
of

summit

Jorullo,the

reaching,when

Montufar

Carlos

northern

more

the old soil of the

feet above

1681

fourth

The

one.

not

ash

cone,

but

fear that

on

which, from

its great
frequent and

during
by

wounded
seriously

the rugged
might
The
lava.
upper margin of the crater, on the southwestern
we
placed the instruments,forms a ring of a
part of which
be

rapid slipswe

few

feet in width.
into the

We

oval crater

fissure air streams

carried the barometer

of the truncated

forth

of

cone.

from
At

the
an

temperature of 200o,6.

gin
mar-

open
We

perpendicularheightbelow the margin

ment
of the crater ; and the deepestpointof the chasm, the attainof
of which
were
we
compelled to give up on account
the dense sulphurousvapors, appeared to be only about twice

now

stood 149

this

depth.

feet in

The

geognostic discovery which

had

the most

302

cosmos.

interest for

findingof

the

was

us

four inches

several

diameter, of

in

three

or

baked

into the black basaltic lava.

rock

white

fragments,
feldspar

rich in

at first*

regardedthese

but from the exact

examination
by Gustav Rose,
syenite,
I brought with me, they probablybelong
of a fragment which
Burkart
has also seen
rather to the graniteformation,which
emerging from below the syenite of the Bio de las Balsas.
"
of quartz and feldspar. The
inclosure is a mixture
The
blackish-greenspots appear to be not hornblende, but mica
fused with some
feldspar. The white fragment baked in is
splitby volcanic heat, and in the crack white, tooth-like,
from one
fused threads run
margin to the other."

as

To

of the

the north

mountain

it has

which

old basalt of the Cerro

six often-mentioned

active,for

very
of ashes El

and

great volcano

the scoriaceous

forth in the

vomited

direction

follow the two

delMortero

lava

of the

last of the

eruptions.These hills also were

the people stillcall the extreme

ly
originalmountain

the west,
fissure,
open toward
of a destroyedcrater.
The great volcano,
bears the traces
like the Epomeo in Ischia,appears to have only once
poured
out

Volcancito.

mighty

lava

broad

its

That

stream.

lava-pouringactivity

astonished
at finding,
Bonpland and myself were particularly
and scorified lavas of the volcano
the basaltic,lithoid,
of
composed
Jorullo,white or greenish-white angular fragments of syenite,
of a little amphibole and a great quantity of lamellar
feldspar.
have been
Where
these masses
splitby heat the feldsparhas become
filamentous, so that the margins of the crack are united in some
places
In the Cordilleras of South America,
by fibres elongated from the mass.
between
Popayan and Almaguer at the foot of the Cerro Broncofound
actual
I
have
in a traclvyte
fragments of gneiss encased
so,
These
abounding in pyroxene.
phenomena prove that the trachytic
"

M.

encased

in

formations

have

issued

from

beneath

the

Analogous phenomena are presented by

birgeon the banks of the Rhine, and by
lite

of the
{Porpliyrschiefer)

Biliner

granitic

the

of the

crust

trachytesof

the

the

inferior strata
Stein in Bohemia."

globe.

Siebengeof Phono-

(Humboldt,
Roches, 1823, p. 133 and 339.)
und Reisen in Mexico, bd. i.,s. 230) detected
also (Anfenthalt
Burkart
inclosed in the black lava,abounding in olivin,
of Jorullo,"-blocks of
Hornblende
is
tinctly.
a
metamorphosed syenite.
rarelyto be recognized disThe blocks of syenitemay
ble
certainlyfurnish an incontrovertiproof that the seat of the focus of the volcano of Jorullo is either
in or below
the syenite,which
shows
itself in considerable
extent, a

Essai

few

Geognostiquesur

miles

le Gisemeut

(kguas)farther south,

des

on

the

left bank

of

the Rio

de

las

Dolomieu, and, in 1832, the

Balsas,flowing into the Pacific Ocean."
Friedrich
excellent geognosist,
CaneHoffmann, found in Lipari,near
formed
of
of
red
black
to, fragments
granite,
pale
feldspar,
mica, and
little
inclosed
in
a
of obsidian (Pogmasses
pale gray quartz,
compact
gendorfFs Annalen der Physik, bd. xxvi., s. 49).

after the

endured

303

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

period of

eruption is not proved

valuable
so
letter,
historically
happily discovered,
; for the
of Father Joaquin de Ansogorri,written scarcelythree weeks
after the first eruption,
almost
of the means
treats
exclusively
of making "arrangements for the better pastoralcare
of the
had
fled from
the catastrophe and become
country people who
dispersed;" and for the followingthirtyyears we have
records.
As the tradition speaks very generallyof fires
no
it is certainlyto be supwhich
covered so great a surface,
posed
all the

that

portion of

six

the

its first

hills upon
the great fissure,
and
itself in which
the hornitos have

the

Malpais
peared,
apThe
were
simultaneouslyin combustion.
ture
temperaof the surrounding air,which
I measured, allows us to
judge of the heat which prevailedthere 43 years previously;
of the former
condition of our
one
they remind
planet,in
which
the temperature of its atmosphericenvelope,and with
this the distribution of organiclife,
might be modified by the
of deep fissures (unthermic action of the interior by means
der
of
time).
any latitude and for long periods
Since

I described

the hornitos

which

surround

the volcano

of

Jorullo,many analogous platformsin various

the wrorld have been compared with these oven-like
To

the Mexican

me

ones,
stand in a

still to

appear

If all
of Fumaroles.
lead to the
hornitos
cones,

their interior

hornitos

But

the

denomination

isolated

are

vapors

certainlydeserve

dition.
con-

be called

to

the

appellation

eruptive cones

that there

notion

erroneous

emit

littlehills.

conformation,

contrastingand

very
which
upheavals

eruptivecones, the

advert

from

regions of

is evidence

would
that

the

or
scoria?,
eruptive
even, like many
f
or
forth
lava.
Very different,
poured
example (to

thrown

have

to

out

great phenomenon),

former

are

boundaries

the three

chasms

in Asia

of

Mysia and Phrygia,in

it is
the ancient
burning country (Katakekaumene), "where
of the earthquakes),"
which
dangerous to dwell (on account
the meritorious
vStrabo calls (pvoai,or wind-bags,and which
Hamilton, has rediscovered.*
traveler,William
Eruptive
exhibited by the island of Lancerote
near
cones, such as are

Minor, upon

the

Strabo, lib. xiii.,

p.
Minor, vol. ii.,chap. 39.
*

called
a

Kara

great lava

than

The

628;

most

Hamilton,

western

Devlit, is raised 532 feet above

in the direction

stream

thirtysmall

Qvaai of Strabo)
of scoria? and

and

579

cones
are

lavas.

in the

craters

of Koula.

vicinity.

situated

the

upon

The

Researches

in Asia

of the three cones, now

plain,and has emitted
Hamilton

three

conical

counted

chasms
mountains

more

and
(j369poi
composed

304

cosmos.

Tinguaton, or by Lower Italy,or (of hardly 20 feet in height)

of the great Kamtschatkan
volcano,Awatby the declivity
in
ascended
which
was
scha,*
July, 1824, by my friend and
Siberian companion, Ernst
Hofmann, consist of scoriae and
ashes surrounding a small crater, which
has thrown
them
out, and

has

nothing like

tos

this is

an

in

been
a

return

buried

by them.

In the

is to be seen, and they consist

and
character
merely of basaltic balls,with

crater

important

horni"

"

admixture
of
separated fragments,without
any
loose angular scoria?. At the foot of Vesuvius,during the
ferent
great eruption of 1794 (and also in earlier times),eightdifof eruption(bocchenuove) were
small craters
formed,
fissure ; they are
the so-called
arranged upon a longitudinal
of eruption,
wnich
cones
poured forth lava,and are
parasitic
distinct from the hornitos
even
entirely
by this circumstance
"
of Jorullo.
Your
Buch
to
hornitos," wrote
Leopold von
accumulated
are
not
cones
by erupted matters ; they
me,
from
have
the interior of the earth."
been upheaved directly
of
The
Jorullo itself was
production of the volcano
compared
this
of
in the
with
Nuovo
that
the Monte
by
great geologist
notion of the upheaval of six
Phlegrasanfields. The same
fissure forced itself
volcanic mountains
a
longitudinal
upon
the most
and the mining
as
probable upon Colonel Riano
commissary Fischer in 1789 (see ante, p. 295), upon myself
in 1827.
Burkart
the
first glance in 1803, and
at
upon
With
both the new
mountains, produced in 1538 and 1759,
ern
the same
Upon that of Southquestionsrepeat themselves.
di Toledo,
Italythe testimonies of Falconi, Pietro Giacomo

shell-like

"

del

Francesco
near

the

time

observers.

of the

The

Nero, and

Porzio

are

circumstantial,

and prepared by
catastrophe,

Porzio, who

celebrated

was

the most

educated
learned

Magnus terras tractus, qui inter

observers,says :
incolas appellant,
et mare
radices montis, quern Barbarum
juxta Avernum
jacet,sese crigerevidebatur et montis subito
of these

"

Iste terra? cumulus

aperto veluti
figuram imitari.
ore
ignes evomuir, pumicesque, ct lapides,cineresmagnos
que."|

nascentis

230.
t.

Rcise

s.
Erde, bd. iii.,
538; Cosmos, vol. v., p.
du Monde
le Cap. Lutke,purtie hist.,
par
naries,
Buch
Physique des lies Ca{Description
iii.,
p. 76) and Leopold von
the
of
Jorullo.
In
the
hornitos
mention
to
similarity
p. 448)
describes
communicated
Erman
a
to
most
kindly
manuscript
me,
*

Erman,

Postels

urn

die

('Voyage autour

of scoriae in the immense

lava-field to
of truncated
cones
great number
the
of
Kamtschatka.
the east of the Baidar
Mountains, on
peninsula
t Porzio, Opera omnia, Med., Phil., et Ma than, in vnnm
collecfa,

306

cosmos.

limit of

Frayle and at the

renders
Popocatepetl,
El

perpetualsnow, on the volcano

so
dangerous,because,when
the sand-mass, rolling
it is set in motion
on
steep declivities,
this
down, threatens to overwhelm
every thing. "Whether
lava-field of fragments (in Spanish Malpais,in SicilySciarra
viva,in Iceland Odaada-Hraun) is due to ancient lateral eruptions
of Popocatepetl,
situated one
above the other,or to the
of Tetlijblo
somewhat
rounded
de
cone
(Cerro del Corazon
determine.
It is also geognosti'cally
not
markable
rePiedra),I can
the ascent

that,farther

to

the

east,

the road

on

toward

the

small fortress Perote, the ancient Aztec Pinahuizapan,between

canic
Ojo de Agua, Yenta de Soto, and El Portachuelo, the volformation

of

coarselyfibrous,white, friable perlite*

rises beside
limestone
is
a
(Marmol de la Puebla) which
probablytertiary. This perliteis very similar to that of the
and Valladolid),
conical hill of Zinapecuaro (between Mexico
and
contains,besides laminae of mica and lumps of immersed
sometimes
or
obsidian,a glassy,bluish-gray,
red,jasper-like
"
perlitedistrict" is here covered with
streaking. The wide
of
which
weathered
a finely
granular sand
perlite,
might be
for
the
first
and
taken
withstanding
at
which, notglance
graniticsand,
its allied origin,is still easilydistinguishable
The
from the true grayish-whitepumice-stone sand.
latter
the plaof Perote
is more
vicinity
teau
proper to the immediate
the two
7460 feet in heightbetween
volcanic chains of
Popocatepetland Orizaba, which strike north and south.
to Vera
Cruz, we begin
When, on the road from Mexico
from the heights of the non-quartzose, trachytic
to descend
porphyry of the Tigas toward Canoas and Jalapa, we again
the
fields of fragments and scoriaceous lava
twice pass over
"

"

first time

between

Tochtlacuaya, and the

station Casas de la Hoya.

second

or

and

Canoas

between

Canoas

and

Garros

de

the station Parage

the

point is called Loma de

of the numerous
upraisedbasaltic blocks
Tobias,on account
of olivin ; the second simply El
of lava containingabundance
Malpais. A small ridge of the same
trachyticporphyry,full
of glassyfeldspar,
forms the eastern
limit of the Arenal
which
La Cruz Blanca
and Rio Frio
near
(theperlitic
sand-fields),
of the heights of Las Vigas),sepadeclivity
(on the western
rates
of the lava-field which
have just been
branches
the two
*

The

beautiful

marble

of La

and

Tecali, Totomehuaean,
mountain, El Pizarro.
near

the terrace

pyramid

The

of

first

Puebla

comes

Portachuelo,
I have

also

Cholula, on

to

from

the south

seen

the way

the

limestone
to

La

quarries of
chytic
high tracropping out

of the

Puebla.

TRUE

mentioned

Those

pais.
with

the Loma

"

the

toward

Tablas, and the much broader Malof the country people who
well acquainted
are

the

Cofre

The
Fuerte

or

de

the
consequently
myself ascended the Cofre and
it,*I have been but little in-

on

stands

Perote

Castillo

de

south

(Ltd.19"
T

nearly isolated
the

Perote, near

20")} to the westward

(lat.19"

Mexican

sur

an

southeast

of

sloje of the great

important range

slope,extends

in

north

of Xicochimalco

and

Achilchotla,to

the Peak

17", long.97" 13' 56"), parallelto the chain (Popocatepetl

valley of the
Iztaccihuatl)which
separates the cauldron

"

532

belongs to
of the

the

to

eastern

and Bio Frio toward Las Vigas

direction,from Cruz Elanca
de Perote
37' 37") past the Cofre
(lat.19" 28' 57",long. 97"

of Orizaba

these

elongated

toward

plateau of Mexico; but its great mass

of heights,which, forming the margin
and

of scorias is

band

the

I have

As

measurements

many

that

south-southeast,and

Cofre de Perote.
made

de

district assert
the

307

VOLCANOES.

lakes

2'

from

the

determinations,see

plain

Puebla.

of La

Recueil

my

the

(For

grounds

of

d'Observ. Astron.,vol. ii.,p. 529-

547, and also Analyse de t1Atlas du Mexique, or Essai Politique

Espagne, t. i.,p. 55-GO). As the Cofre has raised itself

and

la Nouvelle

abruptly in

miles in width, it appeared

a field of pumice-stone many
in
winter
thermometer
fell at the summit, on
to me
ascent
(the
my
the 7th of February, 1804, to 280-4) to be extremely interestingthat
the covering of pumice-stone, the thickness
and
height of which I
measured

barometricallyat
rose

more

than

stone, in the plain between

feet)above

several
feet.

780

the level of the

Perote
sea

points both
The
and

in

lower
Kio

; the

ascending

limit of the

Frio,is
limit,on

and

scending,
de-

pumice-

toises (7590
the northern
clivity
de-

1187

upper
of the Cofre, 1309
toises (8370 feet); thence
through the PinaI
huast, the Alto de los Caxones
(1954 toises
12,496 feet),where
"

could

determine

the latitude

by the sun's meridian

altitude,up to the
summit
of pumice-stone was
trace
no
to be seen.
itself,
During the
of
mountain
of
the
of
the
a
coat
upheaval
portion
pumice-stone of the
which
has
been
leveled
in strata
probably
great Arena!,
by water, was
carried up.
I inserted a drawing of this zone
of pumice-stone in my
journal (February, 1804) on the spot. It is the same
important phenomenon
which
described
was
by Leopold von Buch in the year 1834
raised by the
on
Vesuvius, where horizontal strata of pumice-tufa were
elevation of the volcano
to a greater height indeed, 1900
2000
feet
or
toward
the Hermitage del Salvatore
's Annalen, bd.xxxvii.,
(Poggendorff'
The
surface of the dioritic trachyte rock on
s. 175-179).
the Cofre, at
the point where
I found the highest pumice-stone, was
withdrawn
not
from observation
The
limit of perpetual snow
lies in Mexico,
by snow.
under
the latitudes of 19" or 19^", only at the average
elevation
of 2310
toises (14,770 feet); and the summit
of the Cofre, up to the
foot of the

small, house-like

reaches

2098

toises,or

cubical

rock

where

13,418 feet,above

I set
the

up
sea

the

ments,
instru-

level.

cording
Ac-

angles of altitude the cubical rock is 21 toises,or 134 feet,

in height ; consequently,the total altitude,
be reached
which
not
can
on
account
of the perpendicular wall of the rock, is 13,552 feet above
the sea.
I found only singlespots of sporadic snow, the lower limit of
to

which

was

12,150 feet,about

forest trees, in beautiful

700

or

pine-trees:

800

Pinus

feet

below

the

upper
mixed
occidentalis,

limit of
with

Ctt-

308

cosmos.

conclude,from the prolongationof the lava stream,

is certainlyvery probable (itis so representedin my

clined to
which

tab.
Profiles,

is

which

from

flowed

have

it may

that

remarkable.

so

the Nivellement

in

1 1 , and

and

Barometrique),

this mountain,

Cofre

The

form

the

of

Perote, which

de

is

considerabl
but inhigher than the Peak of TeneriiFe,
in comparison with the giantsPopocatepetland
Orizaba, forms, like Pichincha, a long rocky ridge,upon the
southern
extremity of which stands the small cubical rock
tec
(La Pena), the form of which gave originto the ancient AzIn ascending the mountain
of Nauhcampatepetl.
name
of the falling
in of a crater, or of eruptiveorifices
I saw
trace
no

nearly 1400

feet

its declivities ;

on

of scoria1,and

masses

no

no

ans,
obsidi-

ish-gray
or
perlites,
pumice-stonesbelonging to it. The blackhornblende
rock is very uniformlycomposed of much
is not glassyfeldspar(saniwhich
and a speciesof feldspar,
the entire rock, which
show
dine) but oligoclase
; this would
pressions
is not porous, to be a dioritic trachyte. I describe the imblack lavawhich
I experienced. If the terrible,
field
Malpais (upon which I have here purposely dwelt
"

"

in order

force from

of volcanic
the Cofre

itself

de Perote

pressus sabinoides and

had
accompanied us

Arbutus

only

of

the

at

which
NauJicampatepetL

language,
Spaniards

is derived

from

it the

the

elevation

Nos.
Cordilleres,
mountain

peculiar form,

its

of Cofre.

flow

ertions
ex-

from
up-

oak, Qucrcus xalapensis,

absolute

an

not

opening,still the

The

Madrono.
to

of

consideration

interior)did

lateral

barometr. des

(Humboldt, Nivellement
name

one-sided

the too

counteract

to

bears
which

It

of

10,340 feet.
The
414-429.)
in

also

the

Mexican

induced

the

"

signifies quadrangular
give
from nahui,the numeral
mountain"
for nauhcampa,formed
four, signifies
tionaries
as
an
adverb,from%four sides,but as an adjective(although the Dicdo not. state this),
undoubtedly, qvadranrpdar or four-sided,as
is attached
this signification
to the compound
nauhcampa ixquich. An
M. Pieschel,supposes
with
the
observer
well
acquainted
country,
very
the existence
of an old crater-opening on the eastern
declivityof the
Cofre de Perote
Erdkunde, herausg.von Gumfur Allgein.
(Zeitschrift
view
of
I
drew
the
the Cofre, given in my
Vues
precht,bd. v., s. 125).
des Cord'dllrcs,
pi.xxxiv., in the vicinityof the castle of San Carlos de
The
ancient Aztec
name
Perote, at a distance of about eight miles.
of Perote
was
Pinahuizapan, and signifies(according to Buschmann)
the beetle pinahuiztli
and employed super(regarded as an evil omen,
to

stitiouslv in
de Nueva
beetle

fortune-tellino;:

Espana,

is derived

is derived

t.

when

ii.,1829,

from

touched.

as

see

p.

Sahao;un, Historia
10-11) on the water

pinahua, to

the above-mentioned

well
this district,
as
herba
translated
tli,
down

name

the

name

verecunda

be

local
of

shrub

de las Cosas

of this
; the name
the same
verb
From

ashamed.
name

Gen.

Pinahuast

of
{pinahuaztli)

(Mimosaceas ?)pinalmihuiz-

by Hernandez,

the

leaves

of which

fall

of this isolated

heaval

and

mountain, 13,553

the formation

caused

have
such

309

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

of the

Loma

feet in

height,mayDuring

de Tablas.

of fisfissures and net-works

sures
upheaval,longitudinal
be produced far and wide
by foldingof the soil,
may
have
from
these molten
masses
poured directly,
may
an

sometimes

as

dense

masses,

and

sometimes

of true
formation
lava, without
any
of elevation).Do
craters
or
(open cones

points (cratermountains),

central

circular

to which

chasms,

platforms
seek in vain

not

we

for

porphyriticslate

lower, circumvallated,

or

productionmight

common

be

separationof that which is genetically

the
formation
of conical
in phenomena
permanently open craters and lateral openings

different
mountains

their

and

mountain

careful

The

ascribed?

of basalt

great mountains

in the

scoriaceous

as

"

with

of circumvallated

craters

of elevation

and

Maars

of

or
or
upraised,closed, bell-shapedmountains
cones,
open
ence.
matters
poured out from coalescent fissures is a gain to sciof
is
the multiplicity opinions which
It is so because
of
horizon
tion,
observacalled forth by an
enlarged
necessarily
exists
the
strict
critical
and
comparison of that which
of producis asserted to be the only mode
with that which
tion,
inducements
to
most
are
investigation.Even
powerful
however, on the island of Eubcea, so rich
upon European soil,
has been poured out,*
lava stream
in hot springs,a vast
in the great plain
within the historical period,from a chasm
"

of

Lelanton, at

distance

from

any

mountain.

of Central America, which

follows
group
the south, and in which
eighteen
group toward
be regarded as still
bell-shapedmountains
may

In the volcanic
the Mexican
and

conical

active,four (Nindiri,El Nuevo, Conseguina,and San Miguel

The
de Bosotlan) have been recognizedas producing lava.f
group, that of Popayan and
than a century enjoyedthe utation
rep-

mountains

of the third volcanic

Quito, have

alreadyfor more
furnishingno lava streams,

of

glowing

scoriaceous

masses,

thrown

mital crater, and often rollingdown

the opinion^of La
This was
even
*

Strabo,lib. i.,p.

58

but

out

in

only incoherent,
singlesum-

of the
linear

arrangement.
when

Condamine,

lib. vi.,
p. 269, ed. Casaubon

he

left

Cosmos, vol. i.,

p. 237, and vol. v., p. 215.

t See page 263.
in
Condamine, "lava-like matter
for
whole
have
encamped
myself
America, although
those of
the volcanoes, .and especiallyupon
weeks
and months
npon
mountains
I have
these
and
Chimborazo.
Upon
Pichincha,Cotopaxi,
only seen traces of calcination,without liquefaction.Nevertheless,the

"I

have

never

says La
Bouguer and

known,"
M.

310

COSMOS.

highlands of Quito

the

afterward, when

Fourteen

years
of Vesuvius
(4th of

reutb, he had
in

June,

sister of Frederick

the

lava

streams

from

the

the

read

was

1757, only
of Paris,and is of
this

acuteness, and
of

from

which

he

ascent

an

accompanied

the

the

at

Journal

dun

of the

meeting

Voyage

20th

in the Memoires

of

extinct

en

April,

of the Academy

geognosticimportance in

some

volcanoes

journal,La

in

the history

France,
peculiar

Condamine,
servations
knowing of the certainlyearlier obGuettard,* expresses himself very decidedly
with

his

without

of ancient

the existence

upon

The

recognitionof old

in

spring of 1743.

Margravine of Eaiexpressinghimself warmly,

of true
Academy, upon the want
de
torrens
maticres liquejices)
pan

(lavescoulees
of Quito.
volcanoes

of the

the

returned

Great,

appeared in 1762

because

he

1755), in

of the French

which
Italie,

in

opportunityof

the

meeting

Cuenca

and

crater

lakes and

extinct

volca-

of blackish

kind

crystal,commonly called Piedra de Gallinaco in Peru

I have
several fragments, and of
brought home
a polished lens of seven
or
eightinches in diameter may be seen
cabinet of the Jar din du Roi, is nothing but a glass formed
by

of which
(obsidian),
which
in the
volcanic

The

action.
from

that

materials

of

Sangai,

of the stream

in the

of fire which

flows

of Macas,

the

tinually
con-

to
east
southprovince
doubt lava, but we
have only seen
of Quito, are
this mountain
no
from
no
a
distance,and I was
longer at Quito at the time of the last
eruptionsof the volcano of Cotopaxi, when vents opened upon its flanks,
from which
were
to issue in streams,
seen
ignited and liquid matters

which

have

of

been

similar

to

the lava

of Vesuvius"

(La
de VAcad. des
Condamine,
Voyage en
Sciences,1757, p. 357, Historic,p. 12). The two examples, especially
The
first scientifically
the first,
are
not
happily chosen.
Sangay was
of the year 1849, by Sebastian
examined, in December
Wisse; what
must

Journal

La

Condamine, at a
flowing down, and "an
of red-hot

de

in the Memoires
Italie,

distance

of

effusion
and

stones

nature

of

miles, took for luminous

burning sulphur and bitumen,"
108

scoriaceous

which

masses,

lava
sists
con-

sometimes, pressed

the steep declivities of the cone

on
of
closelytogether,slip down
(Cosmos, see above, p. 251). On Cotopaxi, as on Tungurahua,
Chimborazo, and Pichincha, or on Purace, and Sotara near
Popayan,
ashes

I have
which

seen

had

nothing that could be looked

flowed

these

from

colossal

as
upon
mountains.

lava streams,

narrow

The

incoherent,

6 feet in diameter, often containing obsidian,

of 5
glowing masses
which
Cotopaxi has scattered abroad during its eruptions,impelled by
floods of melting snow
and ice,have reached
far into the plain,where
form
in
radiate
form.
La Condamine
rows
a
they
partiallydiverging
also says very trulyelsewhere
du
{Journal
Voyage a. VEquateur, p. 160) :
"These
ries
fragments of rock, as large as the hut of an Indian, form se"

of rays, which
start
Guettard's
memoir

from
on

the volcano

as

from

the extinct volcanoes

a
was

centre."

common

read

at

the Academy

in 1752, consequently three years before La Condamine's

Italy; but only printed in 1 756, consequently during the
travels of the astronomer.
into

journey
Italian

in Middle

noes

Northern

and

311

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

Italy,and

in

the

south

of

and

doubted
un-

France.
remarkable

This

between

contrast

the

of

narrow

thus

Auvergne
early recognized,
absence
of any effusion
asserted
and
absolutely
of lava in the Cordilleras,
occupied me seriouslyduring the
whole
periodof my expedition. All my journalsare full of
this problem, the solution of which
I
considerations
upon
lava

streams

the often too

of the summits

elevation

lono" sought

in the

absolute

the vastness

of the

circumvallation,that is

ino1 of

volcano

much
(that of Macas),is uninterruptedly

scorire

the

in elevation,

We
of great breadth.
now
know, however, that a
throws
of Quito, 17,000 feet in height,which
out

and

the low

than

"

to

English) feet

9600

(8500

thousand

nine

eightor

say, the sinkmountain

plainsof

from

mountains

trachyticconical

Izalco

volcanoes

and

Stromboli

know

; we

conical mountains,
dome-shaped
free
slopestoward the plainsof
Sangay, have

and

Pastaza

and

the

western

active

more

and

eastern

and

in

and

that

Antisana
the

Kapo

Pichincha, Iliniza,and

ones,

In
Chimborazo, toward the affluents of the Pacific Ocean.
also,the upper part projectswithout circumvallation
many,

eight

nine

or

all these

Moreover,

feet

thousand

elevations

elevated

the

above

the

above

plateaux.

the mean
as
regarded,although not quitecorrectly,
of the earth's surface,
are
certainlyinconsiderable
the

with
the

elevation
as

pared
com-

of
to be that
assume
may
and of the necessary temperaactivity,
ture

depth which

of volcanic

seat

is

which
sea-level,

we

for the fusion of rock-masses.

which

presentedby

the

trio-onometrical

be

to

Cordilleras

Quito are those

Antisana, the height of
19,137 feet (5833 metres) by a
As

measurement.

important

most

the

eruptions

of

colossal mountain

I determined

which

the

in

discovered

lava

resembling narrow

only phenomena

The

denomination

criterion

productionwithin too
of the
quiteprovisionally,

furnishes

structure

the

here, I will avoid

atic
system-

confines the idea of the mode

lava,which

of

the

limits,and

narrow
"

make

use,

but

rock-debris"

(Felstrummern)
volcande masses
trainees
(Schutticallen,
of Antisana, at an elevation
iques). The mighty mountain
than
forms a nearlyoval plain,more
of 13,458 feet,
12,500
the portion
in long diameter, from which
toises (79,950 feet)
or

"

detritus dikes"

of the

mountain

island.
The

names

dome

The

covered

with

highestsummit

is united

by

perpetual snow

is rounded

off and

rises like

an

dome-shaped.

short, jagged ridge,with

truncat-

312

cosmos.

ert
plateau,partlydeswith grass (the dwelling-place
and sandy, partly covered
of cattle,which, owing to the slight
of a very spirited
race
and
atmosphericpressure, easilyexpel blood from the mouth
nostrils when
excited to any great muscular
is situated
exertion),
small farm (hacienda),
a
a
singlehouse in which we
38"*C.
passed four days in a temperature varying between
is by no
cirThe
and 48"*2.
means
great plain,which
ed

lyingtoward

cone

cumvallated
ancient

de la

elevation,bears the
regarded

is to be

Moya,

of

traces

an

of

the westward

Laguna Mica, to

The

sea-bottom.

the Altos

of

in craters

as

In the

north.

the

the residue of the

as

margin of the limit of perpetual

bursts
the Rio Tinajillas
snow
forth,subsequently,
of Rio de Quixos, becoming a tributaryof
under the name
Two
like
wallthe Maspa, the Napo, and the Amazon.
narrow,

old

covering of

At

water.

the

elevations,which
by me,
plan of Antisana, drawn
dikes

are

called

by

like bands

language),pass

as

de la Hacienda
in

brown

or

and

the

with

for

more

S.W.,
plain. With
"

of 192

Hacienda,

very

than

very
to

volcano

feet above

213

every
In

very

parently
ap-

N.E.

(12,792 feet)into
they have probably an

the soil of the Llanos

Lucia, and del Cuvillan.

where

extend,

direction

at

the

toises

2000

little breadth

Santa

de

in
declivity,

moderate

Yana

Qquechhua

the foot of the

from

margin of the perpetualsnow-line,and

the lower

are

indicated

the
upon
and which
coulees de laves,

Volcan

the natives

black
(Yana signifies

Volcan

I have

or

rugged

and

de

la

ities
decliv-

Their

at the

steep, even

vation
ele-

tremities.
ex-

they consist of conchoidal

and usuallysharp-edgedfragments of a black basaltic rock,
olivin or
without
hornblende, but containinga few small
quently
of feldspar. The
fundamental
has frewhite crystals
mass
and contains an admixture
lustre like that of pitch-stone,
a
of obsidian,which
was
especiallyrecognizablein
distinctlyin the so-called
very large quantity,and more
Cueva

de

their present state

Antisana,

15,942 feet.

This

the

is not

elevation
a

true

of which
cavern,

found

we

but

shed

by blocks of rock which had fallen against and

supported each other, and which preserved the
also
cowherds
and
ourselves
during a fearful
The

Cueva

Hacienda.

lies somewhat
In

the

of cooled

two

to
narrow

the north

dikes, which
the

lava streams,
inflated
like cinders, or
part
and mixed
edges,and in part weathered
in

of the

even

with

formed

mutually
mountain
hail-storm.

Volcan
have

tables and

be

to

de la
the

blocks

spongy

at

pearance
appear
apthe

earthy detritus.

314

cosmos.

of which

action
here

we

of manifestation

is this mode

How

am

do with

to

lava streams
wiiich

of volcanic

the
activity,

denominated

be

to
describing,

only with

or

?*

Have

semi-scorified

thrown

out unconnected, but

ignitedmasses,
each other (as on Cotapaxi in
in chains pressedcloselyupon
the dikes of Yana
Yolcan
and
times)? Have
very recent
Ansango been, perhaps, merely solid fragmentary masses,

and

which

interior of

the

any fresh elevation of temperature

volcanic
conical mountain, in which

forth without

burst

from

are

they lay looselyaccumulated, and therefore badly supported,

of an earththeir movement
quake,
being caused by the concussion
impelledby shocks or falls,and giving rise to small
of the three manifestations
local earthquakes 1 Is no
of
one
volcanic activityhere indicated,different as they are, applicable
in this case?

detritus been

and

have

fissures in the
upon
in the vicinity
of a

upheaved

(at the foot and

now

lie

two

dikes

of

fragments

called Volcan

de

in this

la Hacienda

spots where

they

volcano)?

The

inclined plateau,
slightly

so

and

Yana

Volcan, which

cooled lava
as
considered,although only conjecturally,

once

streams,

now

Volcan

to

appear
little in

present but

as

me,

support of

de

far

as

Pinantura

toises

of the

no

opinion. In the
line of fragments may
be
a
river-bed,to the pumice

From

average

inclination

an

what

we

believe

now

angles of inclination

difference

the

tween
difference of level be-

(9476 feet),
andLecheyacu 1900
about
7700 toises (49,239
distance of

contradicts

means

small

to

toises

1482

in
(12,150 feet),

feet),
by

remember,

can

latter

the

the
Ansango, where
like
traced without
interruption,
margins of two small lakes,the fall,or

is

of rock

the linear accumulations

of level of 418

of 3" 6'.

of the floor of the

the

middle

any

hinderance, because

toises

of lava

swell

know

streams.

there
(2674 feet),

partialelevation
valleywould not

the back

we

of the soil in

appear
of fluid masses

to

be

pelled
im-

valleyshas been observed elsewhere ; for example,

eruption of Scaptar Jokul in Iceland, in 1783 (NauGeognosie, bd. i.,s. 160).
word
lava indicates no
peculiar mineral composition
and
when
rock ;
Leopold von Buch
says that every

up
in the
mann,

The
of the
*

have

the

"

There

Buch,

ever

been

volcanoes
have

"which

around

seen

of the

chain

M.

de Humboldt

in the

chain

presented

the volcanoes

saw,

near

pold
Andes," says Leolava, and none
of Quito. Antisana, upon
of the

streams

of

only volcano of Quito upon

summit, something analogous to
was
exactly like obsidian" (Descr. des
488).

Andes,

of lava; this stream

Canaries,1836, p. 468 and

stream

Iks

few

eastern

which
a

arc

von

is the

the

TRUE

thing is lava that flows in

I add
by its fluidity,

the volcano

change

may

in

1837,

volcanic

cone,

of
in the first description*
of Chimborazo

the summit

(onlypublished

Astronomische

Schumacher's

in

positions
come
again be-

new

has not

in the interior of

position. Even

ascend

to

attempt

my

attains

and

that that which

fluid,but is contained
its

315

VOLCANOES.

Jahrbuch), I

ments
"fragexpressedthis opinion in speaking of the remarkable
I collected on the 23rd of
of augiticporphyry which
June, 1802, in loose piecesof from twelve to fourteen inches
mit
diameter, upon the narrow
ridge of rock leadingto the sumelevation of 19,000 feet. They had small,shining
at an
The blackest of
porous and of a red color.
sometimes
lightlike pumice-stone,and as though

cells,and
them

were

are

altered by
freshly
in streams

have

They

not, however, flowed

out

sures
probablybeen expelledat Asof the previously
the declivity
on
upheaved,bell-shaped
This geneticexplanationmight find abundant
mountain."
the
who
in
assumptions of Boussingault,
regards the
support
volcanic

like

fire.

cones

have

lava, but

themselves

uas

trachyticfragments,upheaved
without

up

rocky

solid

condition,and heaped

after the

As

order.

any

in

of angular

accumulation

an

upheaval the broken

than before they were

a
greater space
occupy
remain
cavities
ing
beshattered,great
them, movement
among
volcanproduced by pressure and shock (the action of the ic
masses

force being
vapor
the partialoccurrence
become

abstracted)." I
of such

filled with

water

regular,and,

for

columns

of the Pico

de

los

Ladrillos,and Tablahuma

all,over
Pichincha, and,
Cocha
on
Chimborazo, appear to me
above

on

far from

doubting
which
fragments and cavities,
in the Jsevados,although the beautiful,
the most, perfectly
chytic
perpendiculartraam

the

small

to have

basin

been

Yana-

formed

on

friend,Boussingault,whose
My
a
nd
chemico-geognostic
meteorological
opinionsI am always
ready to adopt,regardswhat is called the Volcan de Ansannow
an
as
eruptionof fragments
go, and what
appears to me
from two
small lateral craters
low
(on the western
Antisana,beChussulongo),as upheavals of blocks']"
long fissures.
upon
the

old

spot.

and

valued

bd. i.,s. 1G1.

Humboldt, Kleinere Sc/a-iften,
differ entirelywith regard to the pretended stream
toward
Pinantura.
I regard this stream
(coulee)as a
upheaval analogous to those of Calpi (Yana Urcu), Pisque, and
lo. The trachyticfragments have acquired a greater thickness
*

f "We

the
than

middle
at

of the

stream.

points nearer
upheaval, and

of local

Their

Antisana.
in the

is thicker

stratum

The

fragmentary

Cordillera

toward

recent

Jorultoward

Pinantura

condition

of the Andes

tisana
of An-

is

an

fect
ef-

earthquakes

316

cosmos.

this regionthirtyyears after

acutelyinvestigated
the analogy which
appears to him to
the
relations
of
the eruption of
be presentedby
geognostic
Ansango to Antisana, and those of Yana Urcu (of which I
made
I was
the less ina
clined
particularplan) to Chimborazo.
to believe in a direct upheaval upon
fissures throughout
the entire linear extent
of the tract of fragments at Ansango,
because this,as I have alreadyrepeatedlymentioned,
chasms
filled
leads,at its upper extremity,to the two
now
with water.
Non-fragmentary,wall-like upheavals of great
to
length and uniform direction are, however, not unknown
and
in our
described
them
seen
hemisphere,
me, as I have
in Chinese Mongolia, in granitebanks with a floctz-like bedAs

he has

myself,he

insists upon

ing."*
Antisana
in the
the

an

eruptionfin

the year

1580, and

another

beginningof

summit
of

mass

had

adhere.

the last century, probably in 1728.

of the north-northeast
observe
side,we

rock, upon
At

this

which

even

snow
freshly-fallen

of emoke

point a black column

days in the sj"ringof 1801,

ascending for several

Near
black

does

not

was

at

seen

time

M.

Boussingault,
descriptionof his ascent of
1834). See
of the
Chimborazo
mass
(December, 1831), Boussingault says, "The
mountain
in my opinion, of a heap of trachyticruins
piled
consists,
order.
These
of a
without
each
other
on
trachyticfragments
up
any
in
the
solid
which
often
of
are
enormous
upheaved
are
size,
volcano,
state ; their edges are
sharp, and nothing indicates that they had been
condition.
in a fused or even
softened
a
Nowhere, on any of the equatorial
volcanoes, do we observe any thing that would allow us to infer
lava stream.
a
Nothing has ever been thrown out from these craters
less scorified
and ignited,more
of mud, elastic fluids,
or
except masses
considerable
scattered
been
to
which
have
frequently
trachyticblocks,
With
distances"
Kkinere
bd.
s.
i.,
regard
200).
Schriften,
(Humboldt,
of
solid
in the
the
the
of
the
of
first
masses
to
upheaval
opinion
origin
los
Andes
Ecuain
the
form of heaped-up blocks,see Acosta
Viojes a
The
of the
movement
toriales par M. Boussingault,
1849, p. 222, 223.
and other causes,
and
heaped-up fragments, induced by earth-shocks
the
the
to
of
according
assumption
interstices,
gradual filling
may,
up
ain
of the celebrated traveler,
produce a gradual sinking of volcanic mountpeaks.
*
Humboldt, Asie Centrak, t. ii.,p. 296-301
(Gustav Rose, MineralAltai
mid dem Kasp.
Reise naoh dem Ural, dan
Mecre, bd.
geognostische
elongated granitic Avails may have risen,
i.,s. 599). Narrow, much
during the earliest foldingsof the earth's crust, over fissures analogous
often be
may
dated August,

to

produced by heaping up" (letterfrom

the remarkable,

p. 256.

still open

the

ones,

In the

which

are

of the

found

at

of

as

the

of the

foot

cityof Quito, of

Guaycos
Pichincha;
(see my Kleinere Schriften,bd. i.,s. 24).
des trois premiersDcgres du
f La Condamine, Mesure
I'Hemisphere
Austral,1751, p. 56.

volcano

30

"

40

feet in width

Meridien

dans

317

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

free from clouds.

perfectly
the 16th
of March, 1802, Bonpland, Carlos Montufar,
On
and myself reached
a
ridge of rock covered with pumicestone, and black, basaltic scoriae in the region of perpetual
and
elevation of 2837
toises (18,142 feet),
at an
sequently,
consnow,
feet higher than
Blanc.
Mont
The
2358
snow
the ridgeof
firm enough to bear us on
was
pointsnear
many
rock, which is so rare under the tropics(temperature of the
34" -5). On the southern declivity,
which
atmosphere 280,8
scales of
did not ascend, at the Piedro de Azufre, where
we
of
themselves
rocks sometimes
by weathering,masses
separate
feet
in
of
12
ness,
of pare sulphur, 10
length and 2 feet in thickfound ; sulphurous springs are wanting in the vicinity.
are
the summit

when

was

all sides

on

"

"

in the

Although

eastern

Cordillera

the volcano

of Anti-

its western
declivity
(fromAnsango and
especially
is separatedfrom
Pinantura, toward the villageof Pedregal),
ly
Cotopaxi by the extinct volcano of Passuchoa* with its wideSinchulacrater
(La Peila),by the Nevado
distinguishable
and

sana,

hua

and

by the lower
the

between

che

onward

Ruminaui,

there

rocks of the two

the whole

chain

eastern

is still

certain

giants. From

semblance
re-

Quin-

of the Ancles

has duced
proPassuchoa

obsidian,and yet El Quinche, Antisana, and

belong to the basin in which the cityof Quito is situated ;
while
Cotopaxi bounds another basin, that of Lactacunga,
*

does
The

Passuchoa, separated by the farm

not

any
elevated

west, but
runs

had

than

more

the

margin of
projectstoward
that

at

the

previouslybeen

the occasion

of

the crater, La
the east
like

end

from the Atacazo,

region of perpetual snow.
Peila, has fallen in toward the
tion
an
amphitheatre. The tradiEl Tambillo

latter attain the

of the

16th

active, ceased

century

the Passuchoa, which

of activityon

its manifestations

cation
eruption of Pichincha, which proves the communibetween
the vents
of the opposite eastern
and western
leras.
CordilThe true basin of Quito, closed like a dam
the north by
on
Cotocachi
and Imbaburo, and on the south
a mountain
group between
by the Altos de Chisinche
(between 0" 20' N. and 0" 41' S.),is for the
most
of Ichimbio
part divided longitudinallyby the mountain
ranges
and Poingasi. To the eastward
and Chillo;
lies the valleyof Puembo
the plain of Inaquito and Turubamba.
to the westward
In the eastern
an

"

Cordillera

mani,

and

follow from

north

to

south

"

Imbaburo,

the Faldas

de Gua-

Antisana, Sinchulahua, and the perpendicularblack wall,

crowned
with
turret-like points, of Ruminaui
(Stone-eye); in the
western
Cordillera,
Cotocachi,Casitagua,Pichincha, Atacazo, and Cothe slopesof which
blooms
the splendidAlpine plant,the
razon, upon
red Ranunculus
Gusmani.
This has appeared to me
to be the place to
in
from my
drawn
brief
give,
terms, a morphological representation,
and
al
classicof
own
experience, the form of a spot which is so important
in respect to volcanic geology.

318

cosmos.

Hambato, and Eiobamba.

The

separates the

Altos

of Chisinche

what

is remarkable

de

San

while

Pedro,

slope of Chisinche

de

dam

the

the

and,
Rios

Pacific,
the Rio

through

the Amazons

Felipe into

San

by

into

flow
declivity

southern

the Rio

and

pass

de Guallabamba

Pito, and

of the

those

Alaques

de

basins like

two

of the

consideringits smallness, the

enough,

of the northern

waters

small knot of mountains

and

of the Cordilleras

by mountain
ed
knots and dikes (sometimes low, like the Altos just mentionequal to Mont Blanc in height,as on the road
; sometimes
and
the Paso
del Assuay) appears
recent
to be a more
over
also a less important phenomenon than the upheaval of the
itself. As
divided
chain
Cotopaxi, the
parallelmountain
analogy in
greatest of the volcanoes of Quito, presents much
rock with the Antisana, so also we
its trachytic
again meet
have
ready
alof blocks (linesof fragments)which
with the rows
the
in greater number
occupied us so long,even
upon
slopesof Cotopaxi.
to trace
It was
business,when
traveling,
especiallyour
the
where
rather to
or
these rows
to their origin,
they
point
We
of
the
snow.
concealed beneath
are
perpetualcovering
from
of the volcano
the southwestern
ascended upon
declivity
Mulalo
(Mulahalo),along the Rio Alaques, which is formed
of the Rio de los Baiios,and the Rio Barrancas, up to Pansache
(12,060 feet),where we Inhabited the spacious Casa
in the grassy plain(El Pajonal). Although up
del Paramo
nevertheless
had
fallen at night,we
much
snow
to this time
del Inga, first
of the celebrated Cabeza
got to the eastward
ward
afterde las Minas, and
into the Quebrada and Reventazon
de Suniguaicu,
the Alto
still farther to the east, over
Atlantic

to

the

saw

only showed
a

snow-clad

ash-cone
and

Amazon)
blocks

distance,has

were

Valle

moved

the Rio

vicioso.
out

from

the

however

Negro (an
crater

we

only

part of the
affluent of the

eastern

It is uncertain
of the

the

or
14,471
toises,

of 2263

fragments,which,

toward

all thrown

(Puma-Urcu),where

elevation

an

line of

Another

from

Mountain

of the Lion

chasm

barometer

feet.

union

The

Ocean.

at

these

whether

the summit

to

fused
air,as glowing,scoriaceous masses
rounded, of six or
the edges (some angular,some

great heightin

the

only at
sana),
eight feet in diameter, rarelyconchoiclal like those of Antiof Cotopaxi, and hastened
in
fallingon the declivity
their movement
; or
by the rush of the melted snow-water
forced
out
whether, without passingthrough the air they were
through

lateral fissures of the volcano,

as

the word

reventa-

would

zon

indicate.

319

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

Soon

returning from

Suniguaicu and
long and broad
to S.E., unites
Cotopaxi
the blocks arranged
Here

examined

Quebrada del Mestizo, we

ridge which, strikingfrom N.W.
the

with

Nevado

the

de

Quelendana.

wanting, and the whole

upheaval,upon the ridge of which

in

El

mountain

conical

Morro, and,

shaped Quelendana, several

and
(Lagunas de Yauricocha
El

to be a like
damappears
situated the small
are

are

rows

Morro

and

of the

entire

to

nearer

marshes
de

the

and

the

small

two

Verdecocha).

linear volcanic

The

Nowhere

was

there any

trace

of true

lakes

rock

of

upheaval was
layersof eight

slate,separatedinto
greenish-grayporphyritic
inches thick,which
dipped very regularlytoward
60".

horse-shoe

lava

the east

at

streams.*

that the vast volcano

of Cotopaxi,
particularlyremarkable
an
enormous
although, indeed, usuallyonly
activity,
the neighborhood, esafter long periods,and acts destructivelyupon
pecially
exhibits
which
it
visible vainundations
the
no
pors
produces,
by
either in the plateau
its periodicaleruptions,when
between
seen
de Pansache.
From
several comof Lactacunga or from the Paramo
parisons
is certainly
with other colossal volcanoes,such a phenomenon
its height of 19,180 feet,and the great tenuity
not to be explained from
No
of air and vapor corresponding with this elevation.
of the strata
shows
itself so often free
other Nevado
of the equatorialCordilleras
paxi,
of Cotofrom clouds and in such great beauty as the truncated
cone
rises above the limit of perpetthat is to say, the portion which
ual
of this ash-cone
is much
The
snow.
uninterrupted regularity
the
Peak
which
of
than
that
of
the
ash-cone
of
on
a
Teneriffe,
greater
down
like
wall.
obsidian
the
rib
of
runs
a
narrow
Only
projecting
per
uppart of the Tungurahua is said formerly to have been distinguished
in an
almost
rible
equal degree by the regularityof its form ; but the terearthquake of the 4th of February, 1797, called the Catastropheof
of Tungurahua by fissures
the mountain
cone
Riobamba, has deformed
of loosened
wooded
and the fallingin of parts and the descent
ments,
fragAt Cotopaxi, as even
of debris.
also by the accumulation
as
in particularspots with crumbs
is mixed
Bouguer observed, the snow
it
forms
A slight inewhen
quality
of pumice-stone,
a
nearly solid mass.
the northwest, where
is visible toward
in the mantle
of snow
Black
down.
fissure-like valleys run
two
rocky ridges ascending to
the summit
nowhere
from
are
seen
afar,although in the eruptions of
the 24th of June
and 9th of December,
1742, a lateral opening showed
"There
itself half way up the snow-covered
ash-cone.
opened," says
la
also
de
lxviii.
La Condamine,
nal
JourBouguer (Figure
Terre,p.
; see
mouth
toward
du Voyage a rEquateur, p. 159), "a new
the middle
sued
of the part constantlycovered
while the flame
with snow,
always iscone."
at the top of the truncated
Quite at the top, close to the
terrupted,
horizontal black streaks,parallelto each other, but insummit, some
detected.
examined
with the telescope under
When
are
various
illuminations
to be
rocky ridges. The
they appeared to me
*

It is

which

manifests

close to the truncation

of this upper part is steeper, and almost
of the cone
forms a wall-like ring of unequal height,which, however,
is not visible at a great distance with the naked
My description
eye.

whole

320

cosmos.

Lipari,which
of pumice-stone and

the island of

In
lava

stream

abounds

in

obsidian

pumice-stone,a
down

runs

the

to

has already attracted

nearly perpendicular uppermost circumvallation
attention
Darwin
of
two
the particular
distinguishedgeologists
ing
(VolcanicIslands,1844, p. 83), and Dana {Geologyof the U. S. ExplorExpedition,1849, p. 356). The volcanoes of the Galapagos Islands,
gous
in St. Helena, Teneriffe,and Cotopaxi, present analoPeak
Diana's
The
formations.
by angles of
highest point which I determined
situated
of Cotopaxi, was
measurement
altitude in the trigonometrical
the
the
inner
wall
of
It
in a black convexity.
higher and
is,perhaps,
from
of the
distant margin of the crater
snow
more
; or is the freedom
by steepness and the heat of the crater?
protruding rock caused at once
of this

"

In the

of the year

autumn
to

seen

was

be

the Pacific

on

On
of

part of the

upper

the

or

no

ash-cone

emission

even

other

of the volcano

noise

thundering

the

coast

in the harbor

whole

of
eruption,
the
violent
in
eruption
hand,
during my residence
January, 1803, when

luminous, although

visible vapors, followed.

of Cotopaxi, on the 4th
windows

the

1800

shook

the

Guayaquil (at a distance of 148 geographical

and presented a most
entirelylost its snow,
observed
before ?
such a heating ever
Was

of

miles),the ash-cone had

threatening appearance.
Even
very recently,as we

learn

from

that

and

admirable

courageous

Weltreise,bd.

s.
iii.,
170),
(Meine zweite
the Cotopaxi had, in the beginning of April, 1854, a violent eruption
itself like
of smoke,
of thick columns
through which the fire wound
have
been
this
luminous
a conseflames."
quence
May
phenomenon
flashing
The
?
of the volcanic lightning excited
by vaporization
tions
eruphave been frequent since 1851.
itself rentruncated
The
ders
cone
great regularityof the snow-covered

female

traveler, Ida

Pfeiffer

"

it the
is

the
form

more

remarkable

that to the

southwest

small, grotesquely-notched,rocky mass

lower

limit

of the
The

commences.

probably on

account

region
snow

of

with

perpetual

remains

of its steepness.

(AtlasPittoresquedu Voyage, pi. 10)

snow,

it

four

or

where

points at

the

conical

in small

only
upon
A glance at my
shows

there

of the summit
three

its relation

patches,
representation

to

the ash-cone

this blackish-gray,
to
distinctly. I approached nearest
probably
in the Quebrada and
though
Albasaltic rocky mass,
Reventazon
de Minas.
has
been
this widely visible hill,of very strange appearance,
del
for centuries
in the whole
generallyknown
province as the Cabeza
different
with
regard
hypotheses, nevertheless,prevail
Inga, two very
the colored
to its originamong
aborigines(Indios): according to the
cano,
of the volone, it is merely asserted that the rock is the fallen summit
of the
which
formerly ended in a point,without any statement
took place ; according to the second
date at which
the occurrence
pothesis,
hythis is placed in the year (1533) in which
the Inca Atahuallpa
with the terrible fiery
was
strangledin Caxamarca, and thus connected
of
described
which
took place in the
Cotopaxi,
by Herrera,
eruption
also
with the obscure prophecy of Atahuallpa's father,
same
year, and
Huayna Capae, regarding the approaching fall of the Peruvian
empire.
is common
to both hypotheses
Is that which
namely, the opinion that
the apex
of the cone
this fragment of rock formerly constituted
the
remembrance
of an
actual occurrence?
traditional echo, or obscure
be said, in their uncultivated
The
aborigines, it may
state, would
and
facts
them
in
remembrance, but would
probably notice
preserve
most

"

"

322

cosmos.

only find simple fragments of pumice-stone of

leaguesto the south of Cotopaxi,
; but at seven
pointwhich correspondswith our tenth triangle,
pumice-stone
forms entire rocks, ranged in parallel
banks of five

he says, " we
certain size
a
in

to

six feet in thickness

depth is not
requiredto fuse

have

of

space
known.

Its

league.
must

in

this

than

more

Imagine

enormous

what

it now
occurs
;
very spot where
it has
and
that
has not been deranged,

cooled

inhabitants

of the

it

where

liquefied.The

was

this immense

profited
by
with
Lactacunga,
have

it

in the

easilyseen

that it

in the

place
neighborhood

for the small

quarry,

square

heat

and

mass,

for it is

of

town

has been entirely

very pretty buildings,
of pumice-stone since the earthquake which

constructed

some

it in 1698."

overturned

the Indian village

pumice quarriesare situated near
in the hills of Guapulo and Zumbalica, which
of San Felipe,
elevated 512 feet above the plateauand 9990 feet above
are
The
the sea level.
uppermost layers of pumice-stone are,
The

five
therefore,
the
of
now

feet below

six hundred

or

beautiful villa of the

once

the level of Mulalo,

of Maenza

Marquis

foot

(atthe

Cotopaxi),also constructed of blocks of pumice-stone,but

terranean
completelydestroyedby frequentearthquakes. The sub-

quarriesare at unequal distances from the two act*

ive volcanoes,Tungurahua and Cotopaxi : 32 miles from the
former, and about half that distance from the latter. They
assert that from the
reached by a gallery. The workmen
are
of which a few are surrounded
horizontal solid layers,
by loamy
of
blocks
20
divided
feet,
quadrangular
by
pumice fragments,
be
The
transverse
no
procured.
fissures,
pumice-stone,
might
which

is

fine and

have

consists of very
partlywhite and partlybluish-gray,
fibres
with a silkylustre.
The parallel
long fibres,

sometimes

The

structure.

gular
and then exhibit a sinappearance,
formed by roundish
knots
are
particles

knotted

finelyporous pumice-stone,from
around which
long fibres curve so as

of

mica

in small

"

lJr line in breadth,

to inclose them.

tables,white

six-sided

ish-black
Brown-

of
crystals

oli-

sparinglyscattered in it ;
the other hand, the glassyfeldspar,
which
elsewhere (Caon
in
wanting.
is entirely
maldoli,near Naples)occurs
pumice-stone,
that
is
of
from
The
different
pumice-stone Cotopaxi very
its fibres are short,not paralof the quarriesof Zumbalica:*

goclase,and

black

of the great
quence
1797.
*
This difference

hornblende

earthquake
has

also

(Ueber JSTatw und Zusammenhang

are

of Riobamba

been

on

the 4th of

recognized by

vulkanischer

the

February,

acute

Abich

Bildungen,
1841, s. 83).

TRUE

in

lei,but curved
is not

confused

peculiarto

fundamental

ever,
Magnesia mica, how-

manner.

pumice-stone,for it is also found

of the

mass

323

VOLCANOES.

of
trachyte*

Cotopaxi.

At

in the

the

more

volcano, Tungurahua, pumice-stone appears to be

cinity
entirelywanting. There is no trace of obsidian in the viof the quarriesof Zumbalica, but I have
found black

southern

obsidian

fracture in very largemasses, immersed

the blocks
in bluish-grayweathered
perlite,
among
with

conchoidal

Mulalo.
Of this
Cotopaxi, and lying near
fragments are preservedin the Royal Collection of Minerals
The
at Berlin.
at a
pumice-stone quarries here described,
distance of sixteen miles from the foot of Cotopaxi, appear,
to judge from their mineralogical
therefore,
nature, to be quite
tion
relaforeignto that mountain, and only to stand in the same
of Pasto and Quito, occuall the volcanoes
to it which
pying
thrown

out

many
focus of the
the

been
the

from

miles, present to the volcanic

square
equatorialCordilleras. Have these pumice-stones
thousand

wall of which

external

convulsions

crust

such

as

here

dergone?
un-

depositedhere upon fissures in

ancient foldingsof the earth's
most
during
the assumption of aqueous
sedimentary alluvia,

rest

they

often exhibited

are

has

been

the

For

remains

with

has

proper crater of elevation,

been destroyedin the numerous
a

the surface of the earth

which

have

or

apparent

interior of

and

centre

of

tufaceous

in volcanic

plants and

masses

shells,is attended

with

ed
mixstill

greater difficulties.
The

questions are

same

pumice-stone,at
platforms,which
*

The

rock

of

that

from

distance

I found

Cotopaxi
of the

suggestedby

has

on

the Rio

the

great

all intumescent

Mayo,

the
essentially

same

volcanoes,Antisana

mass

of

volcanic

in the Cordillera

position
mineralogicalcom-

and

Tungurahua.
augite,and consequently
the identityof the same
kind of volcanic
a
mountain
in masses
in the opposite Cordilleras.
In the specimens
collected by me
in 1802, and by Boussingault in 1831, the fundamental
is partly lightor greenish gray, with a pitch-stone-like
mass
lustre and translucent
at the edges; partlyblack,nearly resembling
with
and
small
The
basalt;
large
pores, which
possess shiningwalls.
inclosed
in very brilliant
oligoclaseis distinctlylimited ; sometimes
in
striated on
the cleavage planes ; sometimes
crystals,
very distinctly
small fragments, and difficult of detection.
intermixed
The
augites
as

It is

nearest

of

oligoclaseand

trachyte,composed
Chimborazo
rock : a proof of

are

brownish

and

blackish

green,
metallic

size.
of very variable
iron
are
of
grains
magnetic

and

Dark

rarely
In the
probably quite accidentallysprinkled through the mass.
native sub
some
oligoclase there was
containing much
pores of a mass
sulphurous vapors.
phur, probably depositedby the all-penetrating

laminae
and

of mica

and

black

324
of

cosmos.

Mamendoy

Pasto, between

and

the Cerro

del

Pulpito,36
miles from
Leopold von Bnch
has also called attention to a similar perfectly
isolated eruption
of pumice-stone described by Meyen, which, consisting
of bowlders, forms a hill of 320 feet in height,near
the village
of Tollo, to the east of Valparaiso,in Chili.
The
cano
volMaypo, which upheavesJurassicstrata in its rise,is two
full days'journey from this eruptionof pumice-stone.* The
in Washington, Friedrich
embassador
Prussian
von
Gerolt,
indebted for the first colored geognosticmap
to whom
we
are
"a
of Mexico, also mentions
subterranean
quarry of pumiceat Bauten," near
stone
Huichapa, 32 miles to the southeast
of Queretaro, at a distance from
all volcanoes. f
The
logical
geoexplorerof the Caucasus, Abich, is inclined to believe,
from his own
observation,that the vast eruption of pumicethe village
stone
near
Tschegem, in the littleKabarda, on the
of the central chain of the Elburuz, is,as
northern
declivity
the

effect of

an

active volcano

much
fissure,

of Pasto.

older than

the elevation

of the very

just mentioned.
the volcanic
tion
If,therefore,
activityof the earth, by radiaof heat into space during the diminution
of its original
in
the
of
the superiorcooling
contraction
temperature, and
and
strata, produces fissures and wrinkles {fractureset rides),
of
the
therefore simultaneous
sinking
upper and upheaval of
the lower parts,!
must
we
naturallyregard,as the measure
conical mountain

distant

"The

volcano

Maypo (S.lat. 34" 15'),which

of

of two

has

ejected

never

the ridge of
days'journey
pumice-stone, is at a
Tollo,which is 320 feet in height, and entirelycomposed of pumicecrystalsof mica, and small
stone, inclosing vitreous feldspar,brown
It is,therefore,an (independent) isolated erupfragments of obsidian.
tion,
and close to the plain." Leop. de
quite at the foot of the Andes
Buch, Desc. Phys. des lies Canaries, 183G, p. 470.
Distritos
de Gerolt, Cartas Geognosticasde los Principales
f Federico
distance

from

Minerales

% On

de Mexico, 1827, p. 5.
the solidification and formation

of the crusts

of the

earth, see

experiments of Bischof,Charles Dethrown

and
Delesse
have
new
a
ville,
lightupon the foldingof the body
of the earth.
of Babbage,
See also the older,ingenious considerations
of his thermic
the occasion
on
explanation of the problem presented
by the temple of Serapis to the north of Puzzuoli, in the Quarterly
Journal of the GeologicalSociety of London, vol. hi., 1847, p. 186:
Cosmos, vol. i.,p. 172,

Charles

Deville, Sur

173.

The

la Diminution

de Densite

dans

les Roches

en

pas~

V Acad,
Comptes
des Sciences,t. xx., 1845, p. 1453 ; Delesse, Sur les Fffets de la Fusion.
in the
t. xxv.,
1847, p. 455 ; Louis Frapolli,Sur la Caractere Geologique,
Bull, de la Soc. Geol. de France, 2me.
serie,t. iv.,1847, p. 627; and,
above all,Elic de Beatinnnt, in his important work, Notice sur les Syssant

de l\'tat cristallin

Ve'tat vitrenx,in the

rendus

de

325

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

activityin the various regions of the

volcanic platforms (open,
of recognizable
earth, the number
conical,and dome-shaped mountains) upheaved upon fissures.
has been repeatedlyand often very imperThis enumeration
fectly
and
solfataras,
belonging to
attempted : eruptive hills
of this

evidence

and

the

and

one

system,

same

has
investigation,
of this work
as
solidity
the
coast
regions near
In

volcanoes.

been

not

great

so

commonly supposed,as islands and

are
generallythe principalseat of
numerical
which
not be
can
investigation,

regarded as a lower limit,and

great probabilityupon how

with

interior of

earth

our

the

to

is

of

full conclusion

much
is to be

obstacle

an

in the present state

attain to
is alreadygained when
we

brought to

distinct

as

space in the interior of

closed to all scienremained
tific

hitherto

has

which

continents

to

of the

magnitude

The

volcanoes.

referred

been

have

has

when

remained

result which

ine
determ-

can

we

many
in active

edge,
knowl-

our

points the

fluid

communication

atmosphere within the historical period. Such an

activityusually manifests itself simultaneouslyin eruptions
ing
from volcanic platforms(conicalmountains), in the increasheat and inflammabilityof thermal
springsand naphtha

with

the

in the increased

wells, and

which

phenomena

all stand

commotion,

connection

in intimate

and

in

again,also,Leopold von Buch

the great merit of having (in the supplements to the ical
Physthe
for
first
time
taken
underDescriptionof the Canary Islands)
to bring the volcanic
system of the whole earth, after

dependence.*

mutual
has

de

femes

the

of circles of

extent

Montagues, 1852,

dus

1330

; Sur

comme

une

une

diminution

l'Ecrasement
des

causes

1333, and 1316 ; Sur

tendant
cristallisant,
rendre

sa

iii.

The

followingthree

Considerations
:
geologists
du volume
progressive

sections
sur

de

lente et

deserve

les Soulevela

Terre,p.

par Saussvre,
de l elevation des Chaines de Montagnes, p. 1317,

Transversal

la Contraction

nomme

reftmlement

que Us Roches

des le commencement

interne

masse

t.

of

particularattention

ments

Here

pluspetiteque

la

fondues eprouvent en
du Globe a
au
i-efroidissement
extericapacitede son envelojijie

eure, p. 1235.

springs of Saragyn at the height of fully5600 feet are

acid gas which
erses
travthe part played by the carbonic
the
At
this
them
the
of
at
epoch
period
earthquakes.
gas, like
in
increases
the carbonated
hydrogen of the peninsula of Apscheron,
the
volume, and becomes
heated,before and during the earthquakes in
rises
In the peninsula of Apscheron the temperature
plain of Ardebil.
*

"The

remarkable

36",

until

hot

for

spontaneous

the spot where

inflammation

an
igneous
by earthquakes in

ron."
364-365

Abich,

occurs

eruption takes

in

the

(see Cosmos,

at

the

moment

place,which

is

when

always

and
nosticated
prog-

and Arscheprovinces of Chemakhi

t.
Melanges Physiques et Chimiqucs, ii.,1855, p.
the

vol. v., p. 160).

326

COSMOS.

the fundamental

distinction of Central

and

Linear

Volcanoes,
more
My own
recent, and,
for
this reason,
more
taken
probably
complete enumeration, underwith
in accordance
which I have alreadyindicated
principles
and
233
257), and therefore excluding unopened
(p.
mountains
and mere
bell-shaped
eruptivecones, gives,as the
lower
numerical
limit
result
a
probable
{nombre limite inferieur),
which
differs considerablyfrom all previous ones.
It is an
under

cosmical

one

within

indicate

to

attempt

question has

parts of
volcanoes

of the

earth

Whatever

be the

it be the
theoretical

by

in thosa

manifests

the

the

face?
sur-

to

nearer

determine

the

erage
av-

of the earth in its maximum

purely mathematical
astronomy,* or

which

is ed
presented
simpler course, foundone

the

of the increase

law

the

upon

lie

adopted to

course

active

the greatest number

ot
the reaction of the rior
inte-

not

part may

of the solid crust

thickness
whether

in which

been

whether

together,and
the hard (solid)
crust

upon
the
activity, fused

most

have

period.
repeatedlyraised

crowded

are

which

been

earth's surface

the

view.

volcanoes

the

historical

the

The

pointof

of heat

with

depth

and

the

f still the solution of this probtemperature of fusion of rocks,

*

W.

Hopkins,

Researches

PhysicalGeologyin

on

the Phil. Transact,

for 1839, pt. ii.,

p. 311, for 1840, pt. i.,
p. 193, and for 1842, pt. i.,
p. 43 ;
also with regard to the necessary
relations of stability
of the external
surface ; Theory of Volcanoes in the British Association Report for 1847,
p. 45-49.

f Cosmos, vol.

bd. i.,p. 66-76;

38-40; Naumann,
Geognosie,
382
Bischof, Wdrmelehre, s.
of Geology,1853, p. 536
; Lyell,Principles
In the very interestingand instructive work, Souvenirs
-547 and 562.
oVun Naturaliste,by A. de Quatrefages, 1854, t. ii.,
p. 469, the upper
limit of the fused liquidstrata
is brought up to the small depth of 20
kilometres

"as

of the silicates fuse

most

Gustav

as

v., p.

Rose

observes,"is

at

founded

123LV'
in

"This

an

low

mate,"
esti-

The

error.

perature
tem-

the melting point

as
2372", which is given by Mitscherlich
of granite( Cosmos, vol. i.,p. 25), is certainlythe minimum
that we
can
admit.
I have repeatedly had graniteplaced in the hottest parts of a
The
mica
porcelainfurnace, and it was
always but imperfectlyfused.
alone fuses with the feldsparto form
vesicular glass; the quartz becomes
a

of

opaque,
contain

not

be

quartz ; and
of quartz in
discovered

Plauen, and
in the Ural.
so

rich

readily than
but

but does

not

this

fuse.

over

means

the

naked

in the diorite which

All rocks
as

granite to
the

case

which

use
so

which

of for the

small

that

it

tection
decan

example, in the syenite of

brought in 1829 from Alapajevvsk,

we

contain

all rocks

eye ; for

granite,such
form

with

be made

no

as

quartz,

basalt,for

perfectglassin the

spiritlamp with a
certainlycapable of producing

not

is the

even
may
rocks,in which its quantity is

with

in silica

This

double
a

or

any

other

als
miner-

fuse

more
example,
furnace
porcelain

is nevertheless
current, which
of 1231"."
In Bistemperature

327

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

of values which
are
presents a great number
mention
undetermined.
Among these we have to

at

lem

of

by heterogeneous rocks

of heat

conduction

different

fusibility
; the

upon

pressure

enormous

an

present

ence
the influ-

the remarkable

with a great increase of temperaof conductibility

ture,
enfeebling
Forbes ; the unequal depth of the
treated of by Edward
basin

oceanic

and

to the fluid interior!

lead down

of the Assures which

nature

connection

in the

the local accidents

and

vicinityof the upper limit of the fluid interior

in particular
regionsof the earth may explainthe frequency
of communication
of volcanoes
and the greater multiplicity
the depths and the atmosphere,this vicinity
again
between
of
differences
relative
either
the
average
depend
upon
may
If the greater

of the

elevation

But

latitudes.
there

perfectmobility of
been
have frequently
of
the plasticity some
been elevated
of

ment

does such

where

the

to

the

If it be

intermediate

not

just as much
considerations,
even

probablethat

very

also occur,
the

example, by

mass), which

hard

from

below

Even

the

with

immortal

are

subterranean

from

fluid lava
author

time

and

of the

to

vapors

as

the

enormous

an

the

the

with

to increase

selves
them-

abstract

states

local intermediate
progression,
for

which

to the move-

surface,and also with regard

continues

where

every

of transition

so-called fluid interior under

of the

pressure.

perfectsolidityand

referred to in the discussions relative to

Plutonic and volcanic rocks which have

mathematical

condition

Are

surface commence?

"

glaciers. Such

from

degreesbetween
parts? states

intermediate

not

longitudesand
geographical

in various

occurs,

mass

upon the
en
the surface of the molt-

continents,or

which

depth at
unequal perpendicular
fluid

the

and

sea-bottom

ture
tempera-

depth in

ithmetical
ar-

disturbances
basins

may
(cavitiesin

filled
partially
restingupon it.*

time

Protogceaallows

these

cav.

diminishingcentral
heat :
Postremo
se
credibile est contrahentem
refrigeratione
rei
bullas reliquisse,
crustam
magnitudine id est
ingentespro
The
sub vastis fornicibus cavitates""\
more
improbable it is

ities to

play

part in the theory of

the

"

experiments on the fusion of a globule of basalt,

hypotheticalassumptions,to
appeared, from some
264"
than
the melting point of copper.
a
higher
require temperature
des
Innern
unsers
(Warnielehre
Erdkorpers,s. 473.)
*
tribution
See also with regard to the unequal disCosmos, vol. v., p. 1G2.
pendently
indeit commences,
of the icy soil,and the depth at which
of
observations
of geographical latitude,the remarkable
Middendorff
of
{he,
Captain Franklin, Evman, Kupffer, and especially
chof
even

'

remarkable

this

cit.sup.,

s.

mineral

42, 47 and

f Leibnitz

in the

107).

Protogcea; "

4.

328

cosmos.

of the

alreadysolidified is the same

the more
in all regions,
important is the consideration of the
which
and geographicalposition of the volcanoes
number
examination
have
been open in historical periods. Such
an
quently-ren
of the geography of volcanoes
can
only be perfected
by frethickness

that the

crust

attempts.

I. Europe.
JEtn a,
Volcano

in the

Lijparis,

Stromboli,
Ischia,
Vesuvius,
Santorin,

LemnoSj
All
its

and

European

seven

great basin

the

belong to

its African

to

not

of the

Mediterranean,but
shores

and

been, active in
Mosychlos
periods; the burning mountain

volcanoes

Homer

wnjch

have
or
still,

are

the

names

favorite

seat

of

to

all these
torical
his-

known
in

Lemnos,

Hephrestos,was

of the sea
by
only destroyed and sunk beneath the waves
earthquakes,togetherwith the island of Chryse, after the
time of the great Macedonian
{Cosmos,vol. i.,p. 24G ; Ukert,
Geogr. der Griechen unci Romer, th. ii.,abth. 1, s. 198). The
of the
in the middle
great upheaval of the three Kaimenes
Gulf of Santorin (partlyinclosed by Thera, Therasia, and
been
has
repeated several times within
Aspronisi),which
about
1900 years (from 186 B.C. to 1712 of our
epoch),had
ity
similarin their productionand disappearancea remarkable
porary
with the relatively
unimportant phenomenon of the tem-

formation

of the

islands which

were

called

Graham,

Sciacca
and Pantellaria.
Ferdinandea, between
quently
Upon the peninsulaof Methana, which has alreadybeen frementioned
(Cosmos, vol. i.,p. 240; vol. v., p. 218),

Julia, and

there

are

brown

and

Kaimeno

those
;

from

eruptionsin

the

limestone

the
near

reddish*
Kaime^

s. 439).
(Curtius,Pelop.,bd. ii.,

volcanoes
pre-historic

of lava

north

rises from

trachyte which

nochari
Of

of volcanic

distinct traces

with

fresh traces

of the emission

from

north
to south,
counting
farthest to the
of the Eifel (ALosenberg,Geroldstein),

the

craters

great

there

crater

are,

of elevation

situated; Auvergr.c (Chaine des Puys

in which
or

of the

Schemnitz
Monts

Domes

is

330

cosxMos.

of ashes

every

part of Jan
volcano.*

feet in

height,in the broad,

(lat.71" 4/),is not known

Mayen

of Iceland

Volcanoes

April, 1818, presented high

tions
erup-

four months.

Beerenberg, 6874

The

in

volcano, which

another

eastern
northbe

to

Oerafa, Hecla, Rauda-Kamba

of the island of Pico,f in the Azores : a great
Volcano
eruptionof lava from the 1st May to the 5th June, 1800.
.

of

Volcano

Fogo,| one

Pre-historic Volcanic
attached

Cape
Activity.This
"

certain

to

of the

island,with Sartorius
classes,of which those of the

eruption,while

of the

those

de Verd

other

is less definitely

divide

we

the

noes
volca-

Waltershausen, into

von
one

Islands.

Iceland

on

If

centres.

of the

two

of Teneriffe.

Peak

The

have

only had a
repeatedlyemit

gle
sinlava

refer to

must
the
we
principalfissure,
the
east
southformer, Rauda-Kamba,
Scaptar,Ellidavatan,to
of Reykjavik
exhibits a per; to the second, which
manent
of
the
volcanoes
Iceland
two
individuality,
highest
Oerafa (more than 6390 feet)
and Snaefiall,
Hecla, etc. Snaeof man, while
fiallhas not been in activity
within the memory
Oerafa is known
by the fearful eruptionsof 1362 and 1727
(Sart.von Waltershausen, Skizze von Island,s. 108 and 112).
In Madeira," the two
highest mountains, the conical Pico
Ruivo, 6060 feet in height,and the Pico de Torres, which is

the

at

streams

same

but

little known,

covered

their

on

steep declivities with

sco-

regardedas the central pointof the

former
volcanic
activityon the whole island, as in many
toward
fices,
the coasts, eruptiveoriespecially
parts of the latter,
Maand even
a
large crater, that of the Lagoa, near
thickened
The
lavas,
chico, are met with.
by confluence,

riaceous

not

can

lavas,can

not

traced

far

be

be

as

dicotyledonousand
by
*

v.

Charles

fern-like

Bunbury,

Scoresby'sAccount

and

separate

of

of

Remains

cient
an-

investigated
carefully
vegetation,
found

are

the Arctic

streams.

buried

in

upheaved

Regions,vol. i.,p. 155-169,

tab.

vi.

cleslies Canaries, p. 357-369, and Landgrebe,Naturgeschichteder Vulkane, 1855, bd. i., s. 121-136; and with

f Leop.

Buch., Descr.

von

of elevation
craters
(Caldeiras)
the maps
and
Terceira
(from
Fayal,
upon
of Captain Vidal) (see page 216). The
eruptions of Fayal (1672) and
the printo be dependent upon
Saint George (1580 and 1808) appear
cipal

regard

to

circumvallations

the

the islands

of the

of St. Michael,

J See pages

volcano, the Pico.

" Results
and

of the

Hartung,

observations

in the Manual

236

and

Sir Charles

Madeira, by
upon
of Geology,1855, p. 515-525.

249.

Lyell

strata

of volcanic tufa and

recent

basalt.

27' to the

loam, sometimes

of very
group
hornblende
containing

trachyticand

tufa

penetratingwhite

layers.*
feet

2868

by

more

small

basaltic

The

ands
isl-

loid,
amygdaof Ascension,

island

basaltic

2"

crater,

no

"

vein-fissures filled with

highest summit

covered

lat. 3" 50/ S. and

de Noronha,

of Pernambuco

phonoliticrocks

but

Fernando

east

331

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

lavas

with

more

sprinkledthrough them, and welltraceable up to the eruptive cone

bounded
of trastreams
chyte.
The latter rock of lightcolors,often broken
up like
tufa,predominatesin the interior and southeast of the island.

glassyfeldsparthan

The

olivin

of scoriae thrown

masses

immersed

granite,which

angular
remind

of Green

westward

one

out

from

Green

fragment sf containing
of the

Mountain

there

is

island

large

masses

of obsidian.

volcanic,the beds of lava in

pathic;

basaltic

dikes

as

Nestlpdge,in

at

toward

the

coast,

FlagstaffHill.

the central

ten

as

crater.

inches

in

the whole

interior rather

penetratedby

Between

the

gether
quantities,to-

St. Helena
the

To

large open

bombs, partlyhollow, of as much

diameter, lie scattered about in innumerable

close
in-

syenite and

of Jorullo.

lavas

Volcanic

with

Mountain

Diana

felds-

ble,
innumeraPeak

and

of

mountains, are the curved

and crescentic shaped fragments of a wider, destroyedcrater
full of scorise and
cellular lava (" the mere
wreckj of one
great crater is left"). The beds of lava are not limited,and
of small
true
streams
be traced as
not
consequently can
breadth.
da Cunha
Tristan
(lat.37" 3/ S., long. 11" 26'
W.), discovered as earlyas 1506 by the Portuguese ; a small
circular island of six miles in diameter,in the centre of which
conical mountain
is situated,described by Captain Denham
a
series

height,and composed of volcanic rock

To
(Dr. Petermann's
s. 84).
Geogr.MittkeiL,1855, No. iii.,
the southeast,but in 53" S. lat.,lies the equally volcanic
tion,
direcThompson's Island ; and between the two, in the same
Gough Island, also called Diego Alvarez.
Deception
about

as

8300

feet in

Darwin, Volcanic Islands,1844, p. 23, and Lieutenant

Lee, Cruise
States
80.
Brig Dolphin,1854, p.
of
in Darwin's
Volcanic
f See the admirable
descriptionof Ascension
Islands,p. 40 and 41.
% Darwin, p. 84 and 92, with regard to " the great hollow space, or
the half of
of the central curved
which
valleysouthward
ridge,across
the
the crater
have
extended.
It is interestingto trace
must
once
obscured
becomes
which
the
district
volcanic
of
structure
a
steps by
and
finallyobliterated."
(See also Seale, Geognosy of the Island of
St. Helena, p. 28.)
*

the United

332

cosmos.

Island, a slender,narrowly-openedring (S. lat. 62" 557),and

Bridgeman's Island,belongingto the South Shetlands group ;
both volcanic,with layersof ice,pumice-stone,black ashes,
obsidian ; perpetual eruption of hot vapors
and
(Kendal,
vol.
Journal of the Geographical
i.,1831, p. G2). In
Society
',
February, 1842, Deception Island was seen to produce flumes

simultaneouslyat thirteen pointsin

vol. x.,
States Exploring Expedition,
that,as

the

ring(Dana, in

remarkp. 548). It is able

islands in the Atlantic Ocean
canic,
volare

so

many
the entire flat islet of St. Paul*

neither

United

(Penedo de S.

of the equator ; nor

the PalkSouth Georgia or Sandwich
lands (with thin quartzose clay-slate),
land appear to offer any volcanic rock.
On the other

region of

hand,

south

of the

seat

of

Ocean, about 0" 2CK to the

equator, longitude 22" W., is regarded as the
the Atlantic

columns

of smoke

1806); and in 1836

point (southeastfrom
on

this

rise out

volcanic

vicinityKrusenstern
sea
(19th of May,

of the

ashes, collected

exhibited

to

Calcutta.

at

rock

the

same

of St.

Paul)
Societyof
investigations
by Daus-

the above-mentioned

occasions,were

two

In

volcano. f

submarine

black

saw

the north

degreeto

Pedro), one

the Asiatic

According to very accurate

sy, singularshocks and agitationof the sea, ascribed to
of the sea-bottom
commotion
by earthquakes,have been
in this volcanic region,
it is called in the new
as
beautiful
the

of

American

chart

of Lieutenant

SurveyingBrig Dolphin,1854),

Lee

Samuel

five times

between

the
served
ob-

and

(Track
1747

circumnavigationof the globe,and seven

times from 1806
But during the recent
to 1836.
expedition
of the brig Dolphin (January, 1852), as previously(1838),
during Wilkes's
exploring expedition,nothing remarkable
of
was
observed,although the brig Mras ordered," on account
with
the lead
Krusenstern's
volcano," to make investigations
and about
18" to 27" long.
the equator and 7" S. lat.,
between
and

Krusenstern's

III.
It is stated

Leba,

by Captain Allan

in the Cameroon

of the mouth

Africa.

of the

river

of the

(4" 12/N.
same

name,

Mongo-ma
westward
lat.),
in the Bight of

(See Darwin, p. 31-33 and 125.)

volcano in the
of a submarine
probable existence
t Daussy
rendus
VAcad.
des
de
in
t.
the
Comptes
Sciences, vi.,1858, p.
Atlantic,
512; Darwin, Volcanic Islands,p. 92; Lee, Cruise of the United States
Brig Dolphin, p. 2-55, and Gl.
*

St. Paul's

on

Rocks.

Mountains

that the volcano

the

TRUE

Biafra, and

eastward

emitted

eruption of lava

an

high volcanic

333

VOLCANOES.

of the Delta

of the
the

in

Kowara,

year

Niger,

or

The

1838.

four

islands of

cipe,
Annabon, St. Thomas, Isla do Prinand San Fernando
rect
dion
a fissure in a
Po, which run
linear series from S.S.W.
to N.N.E., point to the Cameof Captain Owen
which, accordingto the measurements
roons,
and Lieutenant
Boteler,rises to the great altitude of nearly
13,000 feet*
A

volcano

(?)a

little to

the west

of the snowy
mountain
1\" 20' S. lat.,was
ered
discov-

Kignea, in Eastern Africa,about

of the
by the missionaryKrapf in 1849, near the source
River Dana, about
of the
320 geographicalmiles northwest
of
Mombas.
In a parallelnearly two
coast
degrees more
than
is
the Kignea
situated another snowy
ain,
mountsoutherly
which
the Kihmandjaro,
discovered
sionary
was
by the misRebmann
in 1847, perhaps scarcely200 geographical
from

miles
third

the

the

mountain,

snowy
The

Short.

coast.

-?ame

knowledge
of

Doengo Engai,

of the existence

is the result of laborious and

Evidences

little to the westward

hazardous

volcanic
pi-e-historical

the interior of which

by Captain

of these

mountains

researches.
action in the

the

tinent,
great con-

degreenorth
and the twelfth degree south latitude (the parallels
of Adaand the Lubalo
maua
Mountain, which acts as a water-shed)
stillremains
so
unexplored,are furnished,
accordingto Puppell,by the country surroundingthe Lake Tzana, in the kingdom
of Gondar, as well as by the basaltic lavas, trachytes,
and obsidian strata of Shoa, accordingto Pochet
d'Hericonrt,
whose
mineralogicalspecimens,quite analogous to those of
Cantal
and Mont
Dore, may have been examined
by Dufreical
Though the connoy (Comptesrendus,t. xxii.,p. 806-810).
either in
mountain
seen
Koldghi,in Kordofan, is not now
a
burning or smoking state, yet it appears that the existence
of

black, porous,

between

seen

lies

vitrified rock

and

seventh

has

been

ascertained

there. j"
In

Adamaua,

south

mountain

their conical
his
*

of the
of

masses

Bagele
forms

dome-like

and

journeyfrom

Kuka

great Benue

Iola,to

to

River,rise

and

Alantika, which from

appeared to Dr. Barth, on
resemble

avfdem
Gumpreeht, Die VuUcanische T7uitic/keit

in Arable
rilca,

und

avf

den Inselndes Rothen

f Cosmos, vol. i.,p. 245,

hitherto

known

bd.

195-219.

i.,s.

in

trachytemountFesthnde

von

18.

Af-

Meeres, 18-19,
{. For the whole of the phenomena
Landgrebe, Naturgcschlchteder Vulkane,

note

Africa,see

the isolated

s.

334

cosmos.

notices from

According to Petermann's
researches
of Overweg (of whose

ains.

traveler found

that
deprived),

of

of the Lake

westward

natural
in the

the note-books

science

district of

Tshad, separate basaltic

was

so

ly
ear-

Gudsheba,
cones,

rich

sometimes
sected
interform,which were
by layersof the red, clayeysandstone,and sometimes
by those of quartzose granite.
of now
small number
vided
The
ignitedvolcanoes in the undicontinents,whose coast-lands are sufficiently
known, is
in olivin and

in

columnar

Can
it be that in the unknown
phenomenon.
very remarkable
south of the equaregionsof Central Africa,especially
tor,

largebasins of water exist,analogousto Lake Uniames

whose
shores rise
on
(formerlycalled by Dr. Cooley,N'yassi),
the
Much
volcanoes,like the Demavend, near
Caspian Sea?
natives

the

as

of them

none

of any

accustomed

are

such

hitherto

have

a.

volcano
to

about

move

brought

The

try,
coun-

of

Asia.

Western

Demavend,*

the accounts

The

volcano

The

volcano

Red

the

the least notice

us

of

and
in

Central part.
a

of

state

895

of Medina

(eruptionof

lava in

Djebel el Tir (Tair

Loheia
feet high,between
of

cording
but, acignition,
son
Taylor Thomnot
edly.
uninterrupt-

Olivier,Morier, and

(1837),smoking only moderately,and

mountain

over

thing!
IV.

The

to

or

127C).

Tehr),

an

and Massaua,

insular
in the

Sea.

above the sea was

The height of Demavend
at
given by Ainsworth
14,695,but,after correctinga barometrical result probably attributable
ing
of the pen (Asie Centrale,
t. iii.,
to an
error
p. 327), it amounts, accordvation,
to Ottman's
tables,to fully18,633 feet. A somewhat
greater ele*

bv mv
feet,is given bv the angles of altitude worked
in
the
the
Russian
of
navy,
Captain Lemm,
year 1830, and

20,085

friend

certainlyvery correct, but the distance is not trigonometdown, and rests on the presumption that the volcano of
is 66 versts
Demavend
distant from Teheran
(one equatorialdegree
it would
being equal to 101-^versts). Hence
appear that the Persian
covered
with perpetual snow,
situated so near
volcano of Demavend,
shore of the Caspian Sea, but distant 600 geographical
the southern
of the Black
coast
miles from the Colchian
Sea, is higher than the great
Elburuz
Ararat by about 2989 feet,and the Caucasian
by probably1600
Erdkunde
Aden.
bd. vi.,
the
see
von
abth.
On
Demavend,
Ritter,
feet.
connection
of
the
the
from
name
and
taken
on
Albordj,
i.,s. 551-571
;
of
the
Zend
therefore
the mythic and
geography
vague
nation,with the
of Kazwini) and Elburuz,see Ibid.,
Elburz (Koh Alburz
modern
name
which

are

ricallylaid

s.

43-49, 424, 552, and

555.

The

of

volcano

mountain

Central
of

the year

89

of

miles
geographical

the

also

geographies the
from

almost

the

west

which

is

from

Resht

Thibet

bounds

lor Mountains

in the

the Persian

of Herat

and

not

must
same

and

and
of

with

the

near

on

where
else-

and

intersects the Bo-

Demavend

word

to

belongs

of mountains

to

which

ridge of the
lies 7^" farther

Elburz

World, which

is

tion
corrupis connected

of the Zends.
cosmogony
of Demavend,
volcano
according to the

ancient

While

chains

The

I have

of Chitral

Caucasian

the

of the

Mountain

Asterabad,

mighty Kuen-lun,

and

The

Tsungling.

farther west.

10"

Alborj,or
the

alityof

of the

the north

with

and

iii.,
p. 433-435)

(now called Elburuz),and which

name

north

toward

confounded

be

Meshid.

Caspian Elburz,a system

or

tion
the direc-

slopessuddenly down

westerlycontinuation

Urumtsi,

height of upward
geographicalmiles from

(AsieCentrale,t. i.,p. 124-129

; t.
that the Hindu-kho
mentioned
the probability
Kafiristan

of

Thian-schan, in

the

Hindu-kho, which

in the direction

of Turfan

Caspian Sea, in Mazenderan,

distance

same

of the

chain

the

of the

shore

the

at

tury
cen-

in the very

volcano

great Solfatara

the

19,000 feet,lies nearly 36

southern

the

7th

the

sometimes

of the beautiful fruit country of Hami.

of Demavend, which
rises to
The volcano
of

historical

true

beginning of

the

to

extremity of

the eastern

near

within

Ho-cheu, called

Chinese

circumstantial
120

up

of Kutsche, in the great

Celestial Mountains, in

era.

our

volcano

The

or

eruptions of lava

period,from

Peshan, northward

of the Thian-schan

chain
Asia

335

TOLCANOES.

TRUE

geognosticviews
of Central

its western

its eastern

on

the

Asia, bounds

direction
the

extremity,another

extremity,the

existence

of the

mountain

great Kuen-lun

igneous
of which

(Asie Cenlrale,t. ii.,p. 427

and

gener-

chain

at
appearance
first
I was
the

483), deserves
of the important researches
particularnotice. In the course
I recommended
which
to my
respectedfriend and colleague
in the Institute,Stanislas Julien,with the view of deriving
information
from the rich geographicalsources
of old Chinese
literature on the subjectof the Bolor, the Kuen-lun, and the
Sea of Stars, that intelligent
discovered,in the
investigator
tury
great Dictionarypublishedin the beginning of the 18th cen"
of the
nal
eterby the Emperor Yong-ching, a description
hill
in
called
the
flame" which
issues from
an
opening
minous
luof
Kuen-lun.
This
the
the
eastern
Shin-khien,on
slope
phenomenon, however
deeply seated it may be, can

to

announce

336

cosmos.

well

not

present
tash

and

This

is

termed

be

analogy

an

volcano.

with

the

Yanartash, which
in the

action

volcanic

to me
rather to
appears
Chimsera
in Lycia,near
Delikso

was

of fire,an

stream

It

issue

to the Greeks.
earlyknown
of gas constantlykindled by

interior of the

earth

243,

(see page

f).

note

Arabian

writers

inform

though for

us,

the

most

with-

part

quoting any preciseyear, that lava eruptionshave taken

shore of
place during the Middle Ages on the southwestern
Arabia, in the insular chain of the Zobayr, in the Straits of
in Arabia, vol.
and Aden
Travels
Bab-el-Mandeb
(TVellsted,
out

ii.,
p. 466-468), in Hadhramaut,

in the Strait

at different pointsin the western

portionof

of

Ormuz, and

the Persian

Gulf.

eruptionshave

These

always occurred on a soil which had

times
the seat of volcanic action.
pre-historical
The
date of the eruption of a volcano
at Medina
self,
itof
of
northward
the
Straits
Bab-el-Mandeb, was
12^"
found by Burckhardt
in Samhudy's Chronicle
of the famous
in the Hedjaz. It took place on
the 2d
city of that name
November, 1276.
According to Seetzen,however, Abulmahasen states that an igneous eruption had occurred there in
already been

in

1254, which is twenty-two years earlier (seeCosmos, vol. i.,

in which
Vincent
p. 246). The volcanic island of Djebeltair,
recognizedthe burned-out island" of the PeriplusMaris Eryis still active,and emits smoke, accordingto Botta and
throzi,
the accounts
collected by Ehrenberg and Russegger (Reisenin
formation
th. 1, 1843, s. 54). For inEurojia,Asien,and Africa,bd. ii.,
"

respectingthe entire district of the

el-Mandeb,with the basaltic island of Perim

Straits of Babthe

"

circumvallation,within
island of Seerah
"

with

island

the

volcanic

nature

which

The

of the

volcanic

formed

at
so

one

that

obsidian,covered

Zobayr

the

with

"

the
ice
pum-

Farsan

(the
was
by Ehrenberg in
researches of Eitto the interesting
abth. 1, s. 664-707,
Asien, bd. viii.,

groups
of the latter

mountain

t. i.,
trale,
p. 201-203

Asia

town

and

crater-like

of Aden

discovered

1021-1034.

and

Central

of

streams

1825), I refer my readers

von
ter, in his Erdkunde
889-891,

lies the

between

; t.

chain

of the Thian-schan

(AsieCen-

ii.,
p. 7-51),a range which

Altai

and

Kuen-lun

from

east

intersects
to

west,

period the particularobjectof

I have

been

enabled

from

to

the

add

to

tions,
investigamy
the few notices

Japanese Encyclopaedia,
by Abel-Remusat
of
some
fragments greater importance discovered by Klaproth,
Neumann, and Stanislas Julien (AsieCentrale,t. ii.,
p. 39-50
obtained

338

cosmos.

whom

for

indebted

are

we

that the fires which

shown

has
geographers,

Nubian

important supplements

the

to

burn

on

slope of the Coca'ia have nothing volcanic in their nature.

of Tehama
(AsieCentrale,t. ii.,
p. 99.) Edrisi places the Lake
said enough to
I think I have
farther to the south.

the

of
probability

the

show

of

great Lake
is

only 180

miles farther south.

Polo

placed

century and

the wall

with

of

half later

Magog

among

of the elevated

east

the

flows,and which

Hi

the

In-schan, to the

of

mountains

the

which

into

Balkasch,

Edrisi, Marco

than

being identical

the Tehama

plain

GhiHoang-ho and
Gobi, in the direction
nese
Wall, respectingwhich, singularlyenough, the famous
of the River

of

traveler is

Venetian
of tea.

use

as

he

is

the

on

subjectof

In-shan, the limit of the territoryof

The
be

John, may

ter

silent

as

the

the

regarded as

the

Pres-

prolongationof
92-104).

eastern

the

(Asie Centrale,t. ii.,p.

and
conical volcanic
The
two
mountains, the Petschan
of Turfan, which
Hotshen
formerly emitted lava, and which

Thian-schan

separated from each other at a distance of about 420

called
geographicalmiles by the giganticblock of mountains
and ice,have
eternal snow
with
the Bogdo-Oola, crowned
long been erroneouslyconsidered an isolated volcanic group.
are

I have

I think

of the

south

the

that

shown

volcanic

action

of the Thian-schan

long chain

north

here, as

well

and
as

Caucasus, stands in close geognostic connection with

the limits of the circle of terrestrial commotion, the hotand beds
the sal ammoniacal
fissures,
springs,the solfataras,

in the

of rock

salt.

According
and
the

the view

to

in which

Caucasian

the writer
mountain

itself is

Caucasus

alreadyfrequentlyexpressed,
profoundlyacquainted with
coincides,the
system (Abich) now

I have

Thian-schan

only a
and

most

continuation

Asferah, on

of the

ridge of

the volcanic

other side of the great

the

Aralo-Caspian depression.* This is,therefore,the place,in

with

connection

the

phenomena

of the

Thian-schan,

to

cite

noes
periodsthe four extinct volcabelongingto pre-historical
of Elburuz, 18,494 feet in height; Ararat, 17,112 feet;
Kasbegk, 16,532 feet; and Savalan, 15,760 feet high.f In

as

Asie

Centrale,t. ii.,p. 9,

and

54-58.

See

also p. 190, note

*, of

the present volume.

from
f Elburuz, Kasbegk, and Ararat, according to communications
volcano
extinct
of
the
57.
The
Asie
t.
Struve,
Centrale, ii.,p.
height
of
a

Savalan, westward
measurement

Chim., t. ii.,p.

of
361.

on
Ardebil, as given in the text, is founded
the
See Abich, in
Melanges Phys. et
Chanykow.
tedious repetitionin the citation of the
To save

of

TRUE

point of height,these
Blanc.

Mont

Parrot,

Cotopaxi and

between

(Agri-dagh),ascended for
great Ararat
the 27th of September, 1829, by Friedrich

on

several

times

and

during 1844

1845

Choclzko, is

Colonel

lastly,in

and

stand

mountains

The

the first time

von

339

VOLCANOES.

by Abich,
dome-shaped,

1850, by
Chimborazo, with two extremelysmall elevations on the
the apex.
at
border of the summit, but without
any crater
and probably the latest pre-historical
extensive
most
The
like

eruptionsof Ararat have all issued below the limit of

of these eruptionsis two-fold ;
The nature
perpetualsnow.
spersed
trachyticwith glassy feldspar,interthey are sometimes
with
pyriteswhich readilyweather, and sometimes
doleritic,
composed of labradorite and augite,like the lavas
of ^Etna.
doleritic lavas of Ararat
The
considered by
are
than the trachytic. The
Abich
to be more
recent
pointsof
lava

of the lava streams,.which are

emission
of

all beneath

the limit

frequentlyindicated (as,for example,

the northwestin the extensive grassy plain of Kip-ghioll,
ern
on
and by small craters
encircled
slope)by eruptivecones
by scoria?. Although .the deep valleyof St. James, which
extends
of Ararat, and gives a peculiar
to the very summit
character to its form, even
when
at a distance,exhibits
seen
perpetualsnow,

are

resemblance

much

the

to

internal

the

Val

del Bove
of the

structure

on

.zEtna,and

plays
dis-

dome, yet there is this

strikingdifference between
them, that in the valleyof St.
James
massive trachytic
rock alone is found, and no streams
of lava, beds of scoria? or rapilli.*The
Great
and Little
of
the
first
which
is
shown
Ararat, the
by
geodeticlabors of
Wasili
Fedorow, to be 3' 47/ more
northerly,and 6' 42"
more
westerlythan the other, rise on the southern
edge of
the great plain through which
the Araxes
flows in a large
volcanic plateau,
bend.
whose
They both stand on an elliptic
The
southeast
and northwest.
major axis runs
Kasbegk
and
the Tshegem have likewise no
summit
crater, although
the former has thrown
toward
the north,
out vast
eruptions
in the

direction

extinct
has

on

in the
isthmus

of the talc and

out
which

I have

geologicalsection
is b.orrowed from

communicated
for my

The

volcanoes,the trachyticcone

risen

sources

of Wladikaukas.-

to

unrestricted

me

by

greatest of all

these

of the

Elburuz, which
dioritic schistous mountains,

here explain that every thing

relatingto the important Caucasian
manuscript essays of the years 1852 and 1855,

drawn,

I would

of Cosmos
Abich

in the kindest

and

friendliest

manner

use.

Abich, Notice EpUcative oVune Viie de V Ararat, in the Bulletin

de Geograpliie
de France, 4eme
serie,t. i.,p. 516.

la Soc.

de

340

cosmos.

granite,of

in

rich

Similar

lake.

crater

the

from

of

valleyof
lakes

crater

which

Kely,
eruption-cones. Moreover,

lands

system
miles

south
the

on

gem,

of

Cordilleras

in the

rugged

of lava flow
basalts

the

Backsan, has

in the

here, as

are

from

chain

upper

Phasis

of the

Portion

high-

well
the

as

chyte
tra-

to thirty-two
twenty-four

of the Tsche-

Elburuz, and

Rhion

or

between

out

Quito, widely separatedfrom

of the

j3.The Northeastern

River

occur

streams

they commence

the

valley.

{thePeninsula

of Kamtschatka).

peninsulaof Kamtschatka, from Cape Lopatka, which,

accordingto Krusenstern, is in lat. 51" o',as far north as to
with the island
of Java,
Cape Ukinsk, belongs,in common
those
and
in
Central
to
the
which
Chili,
America,
regions
The

of volcanoes,-and it may
greatest number
active volcanoes, are
compressed within
of these

Fourteen

of 420

range
in a space

are

be

added, of still
small

very
in Kamtschatka

reckoned

In Central

geographicalmiles.

area.

within

America

I find

to
miles, from the volcano of Coconueco
Turrialva,in Costa Rica, twenty-ninevolcanoes,eighteenof
still burning ; in Peru
which
and Bolivia, over
a
are
space
of 420 miles,from the volcano Chacani
to that of San Pedro
de Atacama, fourteen volcanoes, of which
only three are at
present active ; and in Chili,over a space of 960 miles,from
of Coquimbo to that of San Clemente, twentythe volcano
four volcanoes.
known
Of the latter,thirteen are
to have

of 680

active within

been

the

periodsof

time

embraced

in historical

records.
Our

acquaintance with

the

Kamtschatkan

respect to their form, the astronomical

and
position,

their

height,has

been

volcanoes, in

determination

vastlyextended

of their
in recent

by Krusenstern, Horner, Hoffman, Lenz, Liitke,Postels, Captain Beechey, and, above all,by Adolph Erman.
The
Peninsula
is intersected
lengthwise by two
parallel
of which
the volcanoes
mountain
chains,in the most easterly
times

accumulated.

are

from

11,190

from

south

to

to

The

loftiest of these

15,773 feet.

Opalinskian volcano
Krusenstern),lat, 51" 2V.
tow, this mountain
was

lie in the

north.

The

and
riffe,

They

height of
followingorder

attain

rises to

(the Pic Koscheleff

of Admiral

According to Captain Chwosof Tenethe height of the Peak

extremely active

at

the

close of the 18th

tury.
cen-

TRUE

Hodutka

The

just noticed

341

VOLCANOES.

Sopka (51" 3d7).

there

lies

unnamed

an

this and

Between
volcanic

which, however, accordingto Postels,

seems,

the

one

(51" 32'),

cone

ka,
like the Hodut-

be extinct.

to

Poworotnaja Sopka (52" 22'); accordingto Captain Beet. iii.,

chey,7930 feet high (Erman's JReise,
p. 253 ; Leop. von
Buch, lies Can., p. 447).
of ashes,
AssatschinskajaSopka (52" 2/); great discharges
in the year 1828.
particularly
The
Wiljutschinskervolcano (52" 5'2/)
tain
; accordingto CapLiitke,6744
Beechey, 7373 feet ; accordingto Admiral
feet high. Distant only 20 geographicalmiles from the harbor
of Petropolowski,on the north side of the Bay of Torinskr
Awatschinskaja, or Gorelaja Sopka (53" 17')? according
feet high ; first ascended
8910
to Erman,
during the expedition
ward
of La Perouse, in 1787, by Mongez and Bernizet ; afterErnst
by my dear friend and Siberian fellow-traveler,
Hofmann
of
(in July, 1824, during the circumnavigation the
Kotzebue
and Lenz during the expediglobe by
tion
; by Postels
of Admiral
Liitke in 1828, and by Erman
in September,
1829.
The latter made
the importantgeognosticobservation
that the upheaving trachytehad piercedthrough slate and
graywacke (a Silurian rock). The still smoking volcano had
terrific eruptionin October, 1837, there having previously
a
been a slight
in April,1828 (Postels,
in Liitke,Voyage,t.,
one
bd.,s. 67-84

Erman, Reise,Hist. Bericht,bd. Hi.,s. 494, and

534-540).
In

the immediate

(see page
53"
(lat.
84.
kans

neighborhood of the Awatscha-volcano

236) lies the Koriatskaja or Strjeloschnaja
Sopka
19'),11,210 feet high,accordingto Liitke,t. iii.,
p.

This
so

mountain

late

Mexicans

as

and

Jupanowa

the
the

is rich in

obsidian,which the Kamtsehatlast century made

into arrow-heads, as the
ancient

traveler

the

Sopka,

on

account

subterranean

is 9055

just

32'.

53"

mentioned

of the

smoke

rumbling, is

Schiwelutsch, and
mountains."

used

to

Its

The

do.

Erman's

Sopka, lat.,according to

s. 469),
{Reise,bd. iii.,

and

Greeks

summit

calculation
is pretty
"

expresslystates
it

emits, and

always compared

reckoned

anion";

height,as

measured

the

by

its
to

that

flat,
this

perceptible
the

undoubted
Liitke from

mighty
igneous
the

sea,

feet.

Kronotskaja Sopka, 10,609 feet,at the lake of the same

of the very
the summit
lat. 54" 8/ ; a smoking crater
on
name,
(Liitke,Voyage,t. iii.,
sharp-pointedconical mountain
p. 85).

342

cosmos.

The

volcano

Schiwelutsch, 20 miles southeast

respectingwhich

we

iii., 261-317

(Reise,bd.

s.

possess
; and

admirable

an

work

of

Jelowka,
by Erman

Phys.Beob.,bd. i.,s. 400-403),

previousto whose journey the mountain was almost unknown.

Northern
peak,lat. 56" 40',height10,544 feet ; southern peak,
feet. When
the
Erman
ascended
lat. 56" 39', height 8703
in September, 1829, he found it smoking vehemently.
Schiwelutsch
Great
eruptions took place in 1739, and between
melted
not of flowing,
1790 and 1810; the latter consisting,
C. von
Dittlava,but of ejectionsof loose volcanic stones.
relates that the northern
mar
peak fell in during the night
At that time
from the 17th to the 18th of February, 1854.
an
eruption,which still continues,took place,accompanied
of lava.
by genuine streams
but in earlier
TolbatschinskajaSopka; smoking violently,
it
times frequentlychanging the openings through which
According to Erman, lat. 55" 5V, and
ejectedits ashes.
height 8313

feet.

closelyconnected with the Kliutschewsker

volcano ; lat. 56" 0',height 1 1,723 feet (Buch, Can.,
p. 452 ;'Landgrebe, Volkane,vol. i.,p. 375).
ive
KliutschewskajaSopka (56" 4'),the highestand most actof the peninsula of Ivamtschatka
of all the volcanoes
;
and hypby Erman, both geologically
thoroughly examined
sometrically.According to Kraschenikoff 's report, the Klihad great igneous eruptions from 1727 to 1731, as
utschewsk
the 11th of September, 1829,
On
and 1795.
also in 1767
Uschinskaja Sopka

Erman
no,

and

ashes,and
below

it

an

the western

an

vapor

feat of

the hazardous

performed
was

eye-witnessof
from

immense

the
stream

the

summit,

ascending the volca-

ejectionof
while

at

of lava flowed

declivity.Here, also,the

red-hot

stones,

a
great distance
from a fissure on

lava is rich in obsidian.

and 419) the

(Beob.,vol. i.,p. 400-403
According to Erman
geographicallatitude of the volcano is 56" 4',and its height

calculation,
September, 1829, was, on a very accurate
15,763 feet. In August, 1828, on the other hand, Admiral
Lutke, on taking angles of altitude at sea, at a distance of
of Kliuts160
knots (40 nautical
miles),found the summit
chewsk
16,498 feet high (Voyage, t. iii.,
p. 86; Landgrebe,
and a comparison
Vulkane,bd. i.,s. 375-386). This measurement,

in

drawings of Baron von Kitwho

tlitz,
accompanied Liitke's expeditionon board the Sein September,
himself observed
niaurin,with what Erman
1829, led the latter to the conclusion that,in this short peof the admirable

outline

343

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

months, great changes had

taken

place in
am
the form and
opinion,"says
"that
vol. iii.,
Erman
we
can
scarcelybe wrong
{Reise,
p. 359),
in August, 1828, to have
in assuming the heightof the summit
than
in September, 1829, during my stay
been 266 feet more
riod of thirteen

heightof the summit.

at

the

periodsmust have
of Vesuvius, I found, by my

case

(founded

Saussure's barometrical

on

that

of these

former

the

In

of Kliutschi, and

neighborhood

in the

of

"

been

16,029 feet."
calculations

own

in

measurement

Palo, the highest northern

del

of the Rocca

therefore its height

1773),
of the

margin

that is to say, in the course

the year 1805
this northern
of thirty-two years
margin of the crater had

crater, that up

to

"

"

feet ; while from 1773 to 1822, or forty-nine

35tJt
years,
it had risen (apparently)
102 feet (Vieicsof Nature, 1850, p.
lated
376-378). In the year 1822 Monticelli and Covelli calcusunk

del Palo

the Rocca
then
In

3996

gave

as

spring of

the

barometrical

the

3990

at

feet,and I

at

feet; I

4022

probable result for that

most

1855, thirty-three
years
of the Olmutz

measurements

period.

later,the delicate
astronomer,

Julius

Schmidt, again brought out 3990 feet {Neue Bestimm. Am.

Vesuv.,1856, s. i.,16 and 33). It would be curious to know
how

should

much

and

here be attributed

barometrical

formula.

of
imperfection

to

urement
meas-

Investigations of this

might to be multipliedon a largerscale and with greater

completed trigonometrical
certaintyif,instead of often-repeated
operationsor, in the case of accessible summits, the
barometrical
more
urement,
measthough less satisfactory
practicable
to determining,
operators would confine themselves
of
to fractions
ty-five
even
seconds, at comparative periods of twenof
of
the
altitude
or
gin
marfifty
years, the simple angle
of
of the summit, from the same
observation,and
point
found
be
which
could
with
one
again. On account
certainty
of the. influence of terrestrial refraction,
I would
recommend
result of three
that,in each of the normal
epochs,the mean
In
days' observations at different hours should be taken.
order
to obtain
not only the generalresult of the increase or
of the angle,but also the absolute amount
of the
diminution
change in feet,the distance would required to be determined
of knowledge,
rich source
a
previouslyonly once for all. What
kind

relative

the twenty
of Quito, would
not the
more

than

damine,
as

to

volcanic

Colossi

of the

ras
Cordille-

for
angles of altitude,determined
Concentury by the labors of Bouguer and La

have

providedhad

fixed

and

permanent

those

travelers

pointsthe

accuratelydesignated
they

stations whence

344

cosmos.

C.

to

of the summits.

According
entirelyquiescent
burst forth again

Kliutschewsk

Dittmar,
was
of
until
the
lava
1841,
eruption
The
fallingin, however, of the

von

1853.

in

altitude

the

the

since

angles of

the

measured

of the

summit

the new
action (Bulletin
cle la Classe
interrupted
t. xiv.,
Physico-Mathem.de V Acad, des Sc. de St. Petershourg,
1856, p. 246).
in part by Admiral
Four more
volcanoes,mentioned
Liitke,
and in part by Postels
namely, the Apalsk, still smoking,
of the villageof Bolscheretski,
the Schischato the southeast
of Krestowsk
pinskajaSopka (lat.55" ll7)?the cone
(lat.
the Kliutschewsk
56" 47),near
group, and the Uschkowsk
from want
I have not cited in the foregoing series,
of more
The
central
mountain
exact
specification.
range of Ivamtsin the plain of Baidaren, lat. 57" 20',eastward
chatka, especially

Schiwelutsch

"

"

of
ancient
number

Sedanka, presents (as if it had

field of

an

four wersts, that is to say, the same

crater
of kilometres,in diameter") the remarkable
ical
geologof effusions

often brick-colored

tery and

of lava

scoriae from

and

volcanic

rock, which

penetrated through fissures in the earth

from

possibledistance
man,

the

of about

phenomenon
has

"

been

any

frame-work
and

Meise,bd.

iii.,
221, 228,
analogy is here

273

blis-

in its turn
the greatest

at

of raised
;

cones

(Er-

Buch, lies Canaries,

I
what
very strikingwith
have
already circumstantially
explainedregardingthe Malpays, the problematicalfields of debris in the elevated plain
of Mexico
(see p. 297).
The

p. 454).

V.
Torres

From

latitude
the

of

Eastern

Strait,which

separates New
volcano

smoking

in the 10th

Guinea

of Flores

Asia.

to

and

degree

ern
of south-

Australia, and

the most

northern

from

of

the

of islands,for
(lat.55"),there is a multitude
most
part volcanic,which, considered in a generalgeological
on
count
acdifficult,
point of view, it would be somewhat
of their genetic connection, to divide into separate
Isles

Aleutian
the

and

groups,

the
that

Islands

the

See

in circumference
ward
toconsiderably
the
first
observe
at
Beginning
north, we
series* of the Aleutians, issuingfrom
the

which

increase

south.
curved

Dana's

convexity in the

remarks
South

or

southeast, in the

x.

(Geology,by

on

Sea

of ranges
always directed

curvatures

of

whose
islands,

toward

the south

Exploring Expedition by Wilkes,

Dana), 1849, p. 419.

United

James

the

is almost
States

vol.

346

cosmos.

indicated

action,as

ous

in the

from
crust, is precisely
is carried
conical

separates the
the Linschote

which

Colnet

by

"

of the Loo-choo

and

approaches within a distance of

the eastern
margin of the great island
Formosa
or
Tay-wan.
Here at Formosa
(N. lat. 25"-26")

Majico-sima,which
92 geographicalmiles

of the Chinese

is the

lines of elevation

of the

from

direction

in the

those

north

5" or
nearlyas far as the parallel
They are recognizablein Formosa
(Luzon and Mindanao) over a space
of latitude,
the coasts,
intersecting

They

sometimes

visible

the

on

east

to

S.W.
and

commence,

6" of southern
and
of

in the

pines
Philip-

sometimes
the

grees
deone

on

meridian.

of the

coast

tude.
lati-

fullytwenty

both, in the direction of

on

likewise

are

N.E.

south

to

coasts,

important point

from

continue

side and

tres),
me-

Diemen
"

latter

where, instead

(1780

straits of Van

two

Archipelago of Siebold
by
and
sulphurisland,Lung-Huang-Schan,

Captain Basil Hall's

by the small group

range
which
a

on

feet

5838

earth's

The

Jakuno-Sima,

height of

rises to the

mountain

and
and

by

on

southwest.

to

of

island

the

of the

rents

numerous

northeast

and
great isl-

of

Borneo, which is connected by the So-lo Archipelago

island of Palawan
Mindanao, and by the long, narrow

with

ebes,
portionsof the Celwith their varied outline,and Gilolo,and, lastly
(which
fissures
is especially
in
the
on
which,
remarkable),
longitudinal
of the group
miles eastward
at a distance of 1400 geographical
of the Philippinesand in the same
canic
latitude,the range of vol-

with

and

also in the

So

Mindoro.

western

coral islands of Marian

the Ladrones

or

have

been

upheaved. Their generaldirection* is north, and 10" east.

Having pointed out in the parallelof the carboniferous
the direction
island of Formosa
the turning point at which
from N.E. to S.W.
of the Kuriles
is changed to that from
north

south, I

to

to

Borneo, which,
The

west.

lant to

latitude
north

to

greater and

from
and

are

the Gulf

even

those

for the

most

south.

of

and

for the
chiefly

space
latitude.

Tonquin,

of New

part

cut

16.

island

Asiatic

those

the south
is cut

of 18"
At

coasts

from

islands,from

lesser Sunda

lines of the southeast

sures
system of fis-

new

already seen,

Geologyof the PacificOcean, p.

chin-China

Siam,

have

parallelof 8" south

mean

Dana,

meridian
of

we

of Celebes

south

West-Bali, follow

the

as

that

observe

now

to the

commences

of

must

east

Timorof

tude,
longi-

the western

Corresponding with
world, the shores of

of Malacca

Holland

south

off,as

it were,

from

of the 25th

the
Co-

the Gulf

degree of

in the direction

from

extremity of

the

Java

axis

mean

Strait of Sunda

S.E.

direction is from

to

from

volcanic

whole

the

Isles the

of the Nicobar
The

N.W.

ward
to-

more

while

W.N.W.,

the southernmost

to

somewhat

runs

and

north, nearly E.S.E.

the

347

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

fissure

N.W.) has consequently

of about 2700 geographicalmiles,or eleven times
extent
an
Of this space, if we
disregard
the length of the Pyrenees.
north
in
1620
miles
the
toward
deviation
Java,
the slight
east
and 1080 to the southbelong to the east and west direction,
(E.

of elevation

lead

Isles.

the land

10"

and

of 5" north

zone

of 68"

space

Little Sunda

and

Great

configurationof

in the

to

Behring's Sea

Isles and

Aleutian

the
the

and

S.E.

(over the immense

of Asia

from

and

general geologicalconsiderations
in the island world
uninterruptedly,

do

Thus

coast

W-i

northwest.

and

range

to

with

is met

the

on

of

and
east

latitude),

the Moluccas

greatestvariety

The

parallel

in the

able
It is very remark-

latitude.

south

to

form

on

generallythe line of eruptionin the largerportions

repeatedin a neighboring smaller portion. Thus a long
how

is

of islands

range

mountain

of the

and

of Sumatra

coast

in the smaller
appearances
of the
veins as in the greater ones

mineral
of whole

ranges
by the

south

the

near

find the

We

it.

parallelto
phenomena

lies

same

Accompanying

continents.

debris,

principalvein, and secondary

chains (chainesaccompagnantes)lie frequentlyat considerable
and
distances from each other.
They indicate similar causes
action in the foldingin of
similar tendencies of the formative

running

the

crust

in the
conflict of powers
openings of fissures in oppositedirections

of the

to

be

may

The

earth.

sometimes
as

of the

side

temporaneous
con-

pears
ap-

sition,
strange formations in juxtapoin the Molucca
Islands,Celebes, and

occasion

seen

Kilolo.
After
East

internal

developingthe

and

from

ate
insular system, in order not to deviarbitrary,
long-adopted,though somewhat
geographical

South
the

Asiatic

divisions and
limit of the Eastern
at

Formosa, where

N.E.

"

S.W.
The

of the

connection
geological

to

we

insular range
line of direction

Asiatic
the

the N.

enumeration

beginning with

nomenclature,

the

"

S.,in the 24th

place the southern

(the turning-point)
runs

degree of

proceedsagain from

eastern, and

more

off from

north

American,

north
to

the

tude.
lati-

south,

Aleutian

Islands.
The
in the

Aleutian
direction

Isles,which
from

east

to

in

abound
west,

the

volcanoes, include,

Fox

Islands, among

348

cosmos.

largestof all,Unimak, Unalaschka, and Umfamous

the
nak
Andrejanowsk Isles,of which the most
cano
Atcha, with three smoking volcanoes,and the great volare
of Tanaga, already delineated
the Rat
ands,
Islby Sauer
distant islands of Blynia, among
and the somewhat
ing
which, as has been alreadyobserved,Attu forms the connectlink to the Commander
group (Copper and Behring'sIsles),
There
Asia.
no
seems
near
ground for the often-repeated
which

are

the

"

"

rection
conjecturethat the range of continental volcanoes in the diof N.N.E.
the peninsula of Kamtsand S.S.W., on
where
the volcanic
fissure of upchatka, first commences
heaval
in the Aleutian

Islands

the ocean, the Aleutian

of conduction.
channel

intersects

fissure thus

the

neath
peninsulabeit
forming,as
were,

Liitke's
According to Admiral
Sea (Behring'sSea),the island of
chart of the Kamtschatkan
Attu, the western
extremity of the Aleutian range, lies in
ands
lat. 52" 46',and the non-volcanic
Copper and Behring'sIslin lat. 54" 30' to 55" 20',while the volcanic range of
under the parallelof 56" 40/ with
Kamtschatka
commences
of Cape Stolof Schiwelutsch, to the west
the great volcano
bowoy. Besides, the direction of the fissures of eruptionis
indeed,almost opposite. The highestof the
very different,
Aleutian
volcanoes, on Unimak, is 8076 feet according to
Liitke. Near the northern extremityof Umnak, in the month
able
from the sea, under very remarkof May, 1796, there arose
have
been
admirably described
circumstances, which
u
Kotzebue's
Entde clean gsreise"
in Otto von
(bd.ii.,s. 106),
the island of Agaschagokh (or St. Johannes
Theologus),
continued
which
According
burning for nearly eightyears.
island
this
to a report publishedby Krusenstern,
was, in the
ence,
geographicalmiles in circumferyear 1819, nearly sixteen
laschka
and was
nearly2240 feet high. On the island of Unathe proportionsof the trachyte,containing much
(5474 feet)to the
hornblende, of the volcano of Matuschkin
as
black porphyry (?)and the neighboringgranite,
given by
scientific
by some
Chamisso, would deserve to be investigated
observer
geology,
acquainted with the conditions of modern
the mineralogicalcharacter of
and able to examine
carefully
Of the two
the different kinds of rocks.
contiguousislands
lie isolated in the Kamtschatkan
of the Pribytow group, which
is
entirelyvolcanic,abounding in
Sea, that of St. Paul
lava and pumice, while St. George's Island,on the contrary,
a

contains

onlv

According

trranite and
to

the

most

gneiss.
exact

enumeration

we

yet possess,

range

the

miles,seems
greater part of

how

visible above

sunk

slino- of

which, after having long appeared, have

more

many
either

wholly

furnishes

Islands

Aleutian

the Tchutches

which

Asia, and

of

the

of Kamtschatka

Behring'sStraits,
from

crossed

America

Anadir.

Islands,from the extreme

Cape Broughton (the northernmost

to

teen
four-

to

point

of the Kurile

range

minof the

range

thirteen

side of the River

the other

to

even

from

that of

have

to

seem

For

nations,the

channel

southerlythan

degrees more

The

unobserved
partially

or

the migration

and

races,

of formative

state

islands in the course

many
there not be
of the Azores, may
and
the surface of the ocean,

centuries,as in the group

becoming

constant

activity. How

destructive

near

to

in

great continents

two

by

historical times.

in modern

active

them

volcanoes,
thirty-four

above

here

see

we

west

of

contain

graphical
geo-

(in 54" and 60" latitude,and 160"-196"

tween
belongitude)a strip of the whole floor of the ocean

Thus

and

to

960

Isles,stretchingover

of the Aleutian

the

349

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

ontory
prom-

of 720

geographical
longitudinal
space
for the most
still
miles, exhibits from eightto ten volcanoes,
of these, on
part in a state of ignition. The northernmost
for its great eruptionsin the years
the island of Alaicl,
known
1770 and 1793, is well worthy of being accuratelymeasured,
its heightbeing calculated at from 12,000 to 15,000 feet. The
less loftyPic Sarytshew (4193 feet accordingto Horner)
much
Japanese Kuriles, Urup,
on
Mataua, and the southernmost
Jetorop,and Kunasiri, have also been very active volcanoes.
of

AVe

range

Jesso),in

now

come

which

order

of succession

the

three

specting
largerJapanese Islands, re-

in my

assistance
was

traveler,Herr

the celebrated

kindly communicated

to

Cosmos.

defective

of the volcanic

in the

Jesso, and

to

me

von

Siebold,has

largeand important work

This

will

in the notices which

serve

to

correct

I borrowed

for

ever
what-

from

the

Fragmais de Geologieet
de Climatologie
(torn,i.,p. 217-234), and in Asie
Asiatiques
Centrale (torn,ii.,
p. 540-552).
of Jesso, which
is very quadrangular in
island
The
large
its northern
portion (lat.41-1" to 45^-")separated by the

great Japanese Encyclopedia in my

Saugar, or Tsugar, from Kiphon, and by that of La

bounds
from the island of Krafto
Perouse
by
(Kara-fu-to),
not
its northeast
cape the Archipelago of the Kuriles ; but
the northwest
on
far from
Jesso, which
Cape Eomanzow,
Strait of

northward
in the Strait
degree and a half more
the
volcanic
Pic de
Perouse, lies, in latitude 45" ll7,

stretches

of La

350

cosmos.

on
Langle (5350 feet),

also

seems

to

the little island

intersected

be

by

of Risiri.
of

range

Jesso

volcanoes,from

Bronghton's Southern Volcano Bay nearlyall the way

the more
North
remarkable, as,
Cape, a circumstance
island

narrow

of

Ivrafto,which

is almost

itself

to

the

on

the

continuation

of

Jesso,the naturalists of La Pe'rouse's expeditionfound,in the

fields of red porous
lava and scoriee. On
Bale de Castries,
conical mountains, the
seventeen
Jesso itselfSiebold counted
greater

of which

number

to

appear

extinct

be

volcanoes.

Kiaka, called by the Japanese Usaga-Take, or Mortar

of a deeply-hollowed crater, and the
Mountain, on account
The

said

both

Kajo-hori are

to

(Commodore Perry noticed

the harbor

near

of

still in

be
two

volcanoes

of

state

from

ignition.
Bay,
lofty
Manye

Volcano

Endermo, lat. 42" 17'.) The

conical mountain
Pallas)lies in the middle of
(Krusenstern's
the island of Jesso,
to the E.N.E.
nearlyin lat. 44", somewhat
of Bay Strogonow.
"
of Japan mention
historical books
The
only six active
and
before and since our
volcanoes
era
namely, two on the islThe volcanoes
of Niphon, and four on the island of Kiu-siu.
oning
of Kiu-siu,the nearest
to the peninsulaof Corea, reckfrom south to north,
them in their geographicalposition
of Mitake, on
the islet of Sayura-sima,
are, (1) the volcano
lies
in the Bay of Kagosima (province of Satsuma), which
cano
open to the south, lat. 31" 33", long. 130" 41' ; (2) the volKirisima
(lat.31" 45'),in the district of Naka, province
of Finga ; (3) the volcano Aso jama, in the district Aso
(lat.32" 45/),provinceof Figo; (4) the volcano of Vunzen,
the peninsulaof Simabara
on
(lat.32" 44'),in the district of
Takaku.
The height of this volcano
amounts, according to
barometrical
a
only to 1253 metres, or 4110
measurement,
feet higher than
that it is scarcely
a hundred
so
English feet,
violent eruption of
Vesuvius
(Rocca del Palo). The most
"

the volcano

of Vunzen

Vunzen

Aso

"

and

The

volcanoes

from

south

jama

on

both

record

is that

of

lie east-southeast

February, 1793.
of

Nangasaki."

oning
of the great island of Niphon, again reckof Fusi jama,
to north, are, (1) the volcano

scarcely16 geographical miles distant from the southern

coast, in the district of Fusi, province of Suruga (lat.35" 18',
in the same
as
long. 138" 35'). Its height,measured
way
of Vunzen, or Kiu-siu, by some
the volcano
Japanese
young
to 3793
metres, or 12,441
by Siebold, amounts
feet
fully320
higher than the Peak of
; it is,therefore,
it has been alreadycompared by Kampwith which
Teneriffe,

instructed
feet

351

VOLCANOES,

TRUE

(Wilhelm Heine, Iteise nach Japan, 1856, bd. ii.,s. 4).

is recorded in the fifth
The upheaval of this conical mountain
VI. (286 years before our
era)
year of the reign of Mikado
'
words
in these (geognostically
In
the
:
remarkable)
country
fer

of 0mi
is

violent
era

1707

Fusi

the volcano

formed, and

most

quantity of

considerable

land

makes

recorded
historically

sinks,an inland lake

its appearance.' The

eruptionswithin

the Christian

of

799, 800, 863, 937, 1032, 1083, and

has been tranquil.
since the latter periodthe mountain
those

are

of Asama

volcano

(2) The

jama,

the most

in the interior of the

volcanoes

from

miles

country, distant 80 geographical

52
south-southeast,

227, long. 138"

36"

from

miles

coast, in the district of Saku

north-northwest

Sinano), lat.

the

of the active

central

38'; thus

the

(provinceof
lying between

of the two

the meridians

The
Mijako and Jeddo.
capitals,
Asama
temporaneously
jama had an eruptionas earlyas the year 864, conwith the Fusi jama ; that of the month
of
violent and destructive.
Since
July,1783, was
particularly
that time the Asama
constant
state
a
jama has maintained
of activity.
"Besides

these

volcanoes

two

other

small

islands

with

smoking craters have been observed by European mariners,

namely, (3) the small island of Ivogasima,or Ivosima (sima
ing
island,and ivo sulphur ; ga is merely an affix marksignifies
the nominative),Krusenstern's
He du Volcan, south of
in Van
Iviu-siu,

Strait,30" 43/ N. lat.,and

Diemen's

18' E.

miles from
long.,distant only fifty-four
of Mitake ; the height of the
mentioned
volcano

sulphur,or fierymountain.'
sea-charts

Siebold,Atlas

saw

it

Guerin

of the

is

oldest Dutch

(Fr. von
and

is

'

so

the

stern

volcano

(715 met.). This island is mentioned

byLinschoThe
island has a volcano,
earlyas 1596, in these words:

which
on

above-

feet

2364

ten,

the

130"

cone,

smoking
and

De

in

under

the

name

It

also

occurs

of Vulcanus

Jap. Reiche, tab. xi.). Krusen1804, as did Captain Blake in 1838,

von

la Roche

according to

the

Poncie
latter

in 1846.

The

height

navigator,is 2345

feet

volcano
(715 met.). The
a
as
rocky islet mentioned
by
der Vulhane (bd.i.,s. 355),
Landgrebe in the Naturgeschichte
and which, accordingto Kampfer, is near
Firato (Firando),
is undoubtedly Ivo-sima, for the group
Ivo-sima
to which
belongsis called Kiusiu ku sima,i. c, the nine islands of Kiuscription
siu,and not the ninety-nineislands. A group of this deof
northward
occurs
near
Firato,
where
Nagasaki,and noisland
else in Japan.
The
of
Ohosima
(4)
(Barne-

o^

52

cosmos.

velde's Island

part

Krusenstern's

He

province
Vodavara, in 34"

front of the

of

Bay
long. Broughton saw
in 1797, a violent eruptionof
short time previous. From
a
26' E.

volcanic

de

Vries),which is
Idsu, on Niplion,and

of

the

of

isles stretches out

smoke

42'

N.

136"

the

crater

having taken place

this island

in

lies in

lat.,and

issuingfrom

the volcano

ered
consid-

range of smaller
southerlydirection as far as
a

Fatsi-syo(33" 6' N. lat.)and continues as far as the Bonin

Islands (26" 30' N. lat.,
and 142" 5y E. long.),
ing
which, accordPostels (Liitke,
to A.
dans les
Voyage autour du Monde
likewise volcanic,and
annees
1826-29, t. lii.,
p. 117), are
are
subjectto very violent earthquakes."
"These, then, are the eightvolcanoes historically
known
to be active in Japan Proper,in and near
the islands of Kiusiu and Niphon. But in addition to these volcanoes a
range
of conical
marked

mountains

by
to

very
be volcanoes

appear
the conical mountain
in the

31"

since

Kaimon,

deeply indented
extinct.

One

Krusenstern's

Strait,in the

of Mitake.

Another

which,
craters,

of these is
Pic

Horner,

of

Kiu-siu,on the
province of Satsum (lat.

97),scarcelysix geographicalmiles S.S.W.

volcano

of

cited, some

of the island

corner

Di'emen's

often

long
of

southernmost
of Van

coast

also be

must

distinct and

is the

from

Kofusi,or

the active

Little

Fusi,
Sikok; and another is on the islet of Kutsunasima, in the
of the
coast
province of Ijo (lat.33" 45'),on the eastern
on

Van
der Capellen,which
or
great straits of Suvo Nada
arate
septhe three great portionsof the Japanese empire, Kiu-

siu,Sikon, and Kiphon. On the latter,or principalisland,

nine such conical mountains, probably trachytic,
oned,
reckare
of which
remarkable
the most
are, the Siri jama (or

Mountain), in the province of Kaga,

Tsyo Kai-san, in the province of Deva

White
the

both

of which
of Fusi

are

considered

upward of
province of

is

jama, which

two, in the
(or Flame Mountain, lat. 36"
these

jama

conical

mountains

senstern, whose

gained him
and (2)the
Nambu,

(lat.39" 10'),

the

cano
southerlyvoltween
12,360 feet high. BeJetsigo,lies the Jaki

53'). The

two

most
northern-

Saugar Strait,in sightof the

(1) the Ivaki jama, called byKrugeography of Japan have
Pic Tilesius (lat.40" 42');

illustrations of the

honor, the
Jake jama (the Burning Mountain,
immortal

at

5', and

in the

great island of Jesso, are,

in

loftier than

lat. 36"

the

northeastern

extremity of

lat. 41"

Niphon,

20'),
with

times."
igneous eruptionsfrom the remotest
In the continental portionof the neighboringpeninsulaof

354

cosmos.

Asiatic
a

islands.

Close

to the east

great volcanic eruptionin the

Boyle in 1853 (Commodore

has

which
scorias,
i.,p. 200

do
and
VI.

sea

was

observed

long.142" 15'),that called

several craters
abounding in sulphur and
to have
been long extinct (Pernot appear
ry,

Japanese,lat, 26^"
Peel's Island

(lat.
24")

tenant
by LieuPerry,Expeditionto Japan,
the Bonin
Islands (Buna-sima of the

i.,p. 500). Among

vol.

of Formosa

coast

to

27f",

and

209).
Islands

of

Southern

Asia.

(Tayvan),the
comprehend under this division Formosa
the Sunday Islands,and the Moluccas.
KlapPhilippines,
roth first made
us
acquaintedwith the volcanoes of Formosa
from
Chinese
which
extracted
are
sources,
by information
of
nature.*
in
their
descriptions
They are
always so copious
four in number, and of these the Chy-kang (Red Mountain),
contains a hot-water
whose
crater
lake,has experiencedgreat
igneouseruptions. The small Baschi Islands and the Babuyans, which so late as 1831, accordingto Meyen's testimony,
Formosa
with
experienceda violent eruptionof fire,connect
the smallest and most
of which
broken islands
the Philippines
enumerates
in volcanoes.
abound
most
Leopold von Buch
nineteen
loftyisolated conical mountains
upon them, which
of
called volcanes,though probably some
in the country are
Dana
is of opinion that
closed trachyticdomes.
them
are
Luzon
there are
that
in southern
only two active volcanoes
rises in the Laguna de Bongbong, with an enof Taal, which
circling
another
lagoon (see page
escarpment which incloses
of
the
in
southern portion
the peninsula of Cama232) ; and
the natives call
rines the volcano of Albay, or May on, which
feet high, experienced
The
is 3197
Isaroe.
latter,which
We

"

great eruptions in

the years 1800

and

1814.

In the

portionof Luzon
graniteand mica-slate,and even
formations,togetherwith coal,are diffused, f

northern

ary
sediment-

Fragmens de Geologiect de CUmatologie

Asiatiques,
berian
appeared immediately after my return from my SiAsie
and
the
which
the
in
pressed
Centrale,
expedition,
opinion exby Klaproth, and which I formerly adopted, respecting the
of the connection
of the snowy
mountains
of the Himalaya
probability
with the Chinese
and
with Nanling, northwestward
province of Yunan
confuted
of Formosa,
of Canton, has been
The
mountains
by me.
upward of 11,000 feet high, as well asTa-yu-ling, which bounds
Fukian
fissures of
to the westward, belong to the system of meridian
the
of
and
the
in
in
the
Upper Assam,
Burmese,
country
group of the
Philippines.
f Dana's Geology,in the Erjdor. Exped., vol. x., p. 510-515; Ernest
*

t.

Compare

my

i.,p. 82, which

of the Soolo

far-stretching
group

The

355

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

which
(Solo)Islands,

nao
Mindanumber, and which connect
and Borneo, is partlyvolcanic,and partlyintersected by

fullyone

are

coral-reefs.

in

Isolated

unopened trachyticcone-shapedpeaks
by the Spaniards.

often called Vulcanes

indeed

are

hundred

all that
examine
carefully
fifth degree of north latitude (to the

If

we

south

and

Guinea, thus taking in the Sunda

small, and the Moluccas, we shall find as
of Dr.

hundred

but

an

with

us

active volcano

northwest
and

as

mouth

far

of any

but, indeed,it is only a few narrow

that we
are
acquainted with (on the
the small
far as
coast-island of Labuan,

side,as

Cape Balambangan
and

on

on

the

the

west

of the

highest mountain
South

Asiatic

coast

southeastern

Banjermas-Sing, on account
platinum washings). It is not

of the whole

one

hitherto

existence

the district of

the

are

it ;

of the Pontianak
and

there

Polo,* has

proofs of the

certain

no

upon
shore

the

as

northwest

circle of islands

Borneo

Borneo, the Giava Maggiore of Marco

stripsof

Philippines)

the

enumeration.

actual

furnished

of the

loftyfire-emitting
mountains, and ten mud
is not merely an approximate calculation,

This

volcanoes."

that "in

continental

the almost

nine

and

Junghuhn,

south

Islands,great and
the result,
given in

of New

the great work

surround
which

the

of the

of the Nicobars

meridians

the

between

lies to

of the

at

point in
mond,
gold,dia-

believed

even

the

that

whole

island,and perhaps even

island world, the double-peaked

Hofmann, Geogn.Bcob. avfder Reise von Otto v. Kotzebue, p. 70 ; Leop,

See the
de Buch, DescriptionPhysiquedes Iks
Canaries,p. 435-439.
the
Pilot
Don
Islas
tonio
Anadmirable
chart
of
the
and
Filipinas,
by
large
in
Morati
two
plates.
(Madrid, 1852),
*
Polo
Marco
distinguishes(Part iii.,cap. 5 and 8) Giava Minore
where
scribes
he dehe remained
for five months, and
(Sumatra), where
in
itself (HumJava
the elephants,which
not to be found
boldt,
were
Grit, de VHist. de la Geogr., t. ii.,p. 218), from what he
Examen
secondo dicono i marihad before described as Giava (Maggiore), la quale,
nai, che bene lo sanno, e I'isolapiiigrande che sia al 7"o"e/o" which, as the
This
sailors say, who know
it well, is the largestisland in the world.
the
chart
the
outlines
of
of
this
From
assertion is even
to
day true.
and Celebes, by James
Brooke
and Captain Bodney Mundy,
Borneo
I find the area
of Borneo
51,680 square geographical miles, nearly
tenth of the
equal to that of the island of New Guinea, but only one
of the great quantity
Holland.
Marco
continent of New
Polo's account
of gold and treasure
from thence

(as also did Martin

Ruysch

in the
for the

which

the "Mercanti

shows

that

Behaim

Roman

on

edition

historyof

the

by

Giava

di Zaiton

Maggiore

he

del Mangi" exported

Borneo
meant

the Nurnberg globe of 1492, and Johann

portant
is so imof Ptolemy, dated 1508, which

discoveryof America.)

356

cosmos.

Bailu

Kina

northern

the

at

from

miles
geographical

two

makes

Belcher

Captain

extremity,distant only thirty-

it

the

Pirate

13,095 feet high,which

the

volcano.

is

nearly

matra.*
Gunung
(Ophir) of Sumentions
On the other hand Rajah Brooke
much
a
mountain
in the province of Sarawak, whose
lower
name,
in
Mountain
the
well
as
as
(Fire
tongue),
Api
Malay
Gunung
feet

4000

higher

it,lead

quartz veins, the

between

Carambo

are

called

conclusion

that it

of tin washed

abundance

sand

down

on

rivers,and the feldspathic

porphyry!of
Mountains, indicate a great extension of what

of the

shores

the

to the

Large depositsof gold

active.
volcanically

once

both

Pasaman

lie around

the scoria? which

was

than

coasts, is

transition

primitiveand

rocks.

According to the
from a geologist

only certain information which we

possess
of
the
meritorious
Zurich astronomer
(Dr. Ludwig Horner, son
found in
and circumnavigatorof the globe),there are
the southeastern
bly
portionof Borneo, united in several profitathe
Siberian
in
worked
a
s
Ural, gold,
washings,precisely
iridium
and
not
diamonds, platinum,osmium,
(but
dium).
yet pallaof serpentine,
and
Formations
syenite,
euphotide,
lying
feet
of rocks 3411
in great proximity,belong to a range
high, that of the Ratuhs Mountains. "
the remaining three great
The
still active volcanoes
on
reckoned
Sunda
Islands are
by Junghuhn as follows : On
from

six to seven, on
Celebes eleven, and

Sumatra

three,on

of Java

of the island

281)

treated in detail.

of volcanic

have

pura,

six.

there

of nineteen
are

to

twenty-

noes
Of the volca-

already (see above

Sumatra, which

appearance
be

twenty

page
hitherto

has not
conical

ains
mount-

six stillactive.^ Those

the

following: The Gunung Indratitude

about
12,256 feet in height,accordingto angles of alfrom the sea, and probably of equal height
measured
Semcru
the more
or
Maha-Meru,
accuratelymeasured

ascertained

we

In

from

Flores

on

out
completelyinvestigated,

been

with

Java

to

so

Captain Mundy's

are

chart

(coast of Borneo

Proper, 1847,) gives,it

is true, 14,000 English feet.

in Junghuhn's
See a doubt of this datum
bd.
580.
The
conical
colossal
Kina
Bailu
ain.
mountis not a
ii.,s.
Java,
In

shape

under

inal

summits.

resembles
which

form

the basaltic mountains

a

loner ridge with

two

which
term-

and Celebes,
vol. ii.,p. 382, 384, and 386.
het Bataviaasch
van
Verliandelingen
Genootschap van
Deel
xvii.
Asie
s.
Centrale,t.
Wetenschappen,
(1839), 284;

f Brooke's
| Horner,
en

more

all latitudes,and

occur

Kunsten

it much

Borneo

in the

ii.,p. 534-537.

" Junghuhn, Java,

bd.

ii.,s.

809

bd. i.,s. 39).

(Battaldnder,

TRUE

357

VOLCANOES.

the

Gunung Pasaman, called also Opliir (9602

with a nearlyextinguishedcrater, ascended
feet),
by Dr. L.
Horner
Salasi,with eruptionsof
; the sulphureousGunung
ashes in 1833
and 1845
Merapi (9751), also
; the Gunung
ascended
by Dr. L. Horner, accompanied by Dr. Korthal, in
on

Java

the

active of all the volcanoes of Sumatra,

year 1834, the most
with the two
and not to be confounded
similarly-named

;*

of Java

Gunung Ipu, a smoking truncated

cone
; and the Gunung Dempo, in the inland
country of Benkula, reckoned at 9940 feet high.
of which
Four
islets forming trachitic cones,
the Pic Reand Panahitam
cata
(Prince'sIsland)are the highest,rise
mountains

the

above

in

sea

the

Strait of

the

of Sumatra

with

Sunda, and
crowded

the

range
the eastern
in like manner,
extremityof
of Idjen,forms, through the medium
of Gunung

boring
the

of

island

smaller

Bali,

Sunda

and

Gunung

connection

Islands.

of the active volcanoes

Asfunir, on
with

the

Bali, by
island of Lombok,

the

Java,

and

its volcano

with

the

the

smoking

neigh-

chain

long

Here, again,the range

from

eastward

jani,on

Batur

the volcanic

connect

field of Java;

is

of
tinued
con-

of Kind-

volcano

12,363 feet high, according

the

of M. Melville de Carnmeasurement
trigonometrical
be'e ; by the Temboro
the Sumbava, or Samon
(5862 feet),
bava, whose
eruption of ashes and pumice in April, 1815,
obscured
the surrounding atmosphere, and was
of the
one
history has recorded ;f and by six conical
greatest which
mountains
still partially
smoking, on Flores
The
large and many-armed island of Celebes contains six
Volcanoes,which are not yet all extinct ; they lie all together,
the narrow
northeastern
Beside it
on
peninsulaof Menado.
of
melted
hot
into
the orifice of
sulphur,
spout out streams
to

of which,

one

traveler

great

Piedmontese
he

from
way

As

of the

1586
the

to

than

more

of
*

the small
of

volcano

1824, and

island of

Gunung

is about

of Ternate

Api,
feet

1812

century and

See

ten

page

note

J.

active

was

the

formed

by

high, the Gunung

1838

half of entire

same
a

Java, bd.

gle
sin-

Gama

1849, after

to

are
q-uiescenee,

the

different

283,

Moluccas,

high,in

is likewise

feet

the burns

the

which

Vidua, my

from

Banda, in

eruptions from

violent

his death

met

Lamovang,

to

Carlo

scribed
de-

eruptionof the

periods. During
February, 1840, according to Junghuhn,
at

3d

and

mountain, 5756

whose

Sonder

intrepidobserver,Count

largerisland

conical

Lama,

and

from

road

friend,sank

received.

consists

the

near

stream

ii.. s. 818-828.

of

358

cosmos.

poured

lava

fissure

fort of

the

near

Toluko, and

shore,*"partly issuingin the form of a

ing
thoroughlymolten stream, and partlyconsist-

to the

down

flowed

of

out

connected and

forced
glowing fragmentswhich rolled down and were
of
the
If
succeedingmasses."
along the plainby the weight
here
volcanic
cones
tioned
mento the more
individually
important
of

Serangami, on Mindanao,
the meridians

of the northwest

of the Nicobar

east, and
amounts,

one

igneous
of Cape
parallel
of the Philippines,
and between
Cape of New Guinea on the
of the

has

as

This

Andaman

and

calculation

the

largenumber

in the belief that

is made

volcanoes,for
forty-five

the

the west,
of

on

groups

alreadystated,to

been

which

of the

total number

situated to the southward

mountains

109.

island volcanoes

small

numerous

noticed,the

here

be

not

can

the

add

we

"

Java

on

part cone-shaped,and

most

vided
proOf these,however, only
with craters, may be counted."
21, and only 42 to 45, of the whole number of 109, are recognized

having been so
range of history. The mighty Pic
like Stromboli
to
as
a light-house

as

the
served

island of Pulu

small
the

active,or

now

of

north
of

stream

Batu

(calledalso

Floris,a volcano

glowing

lava

down

to

of Timor

mariners.

the

little to

in 1850

to

sea-shore.

the

On

Komba),

P.

seen

was

in
periodwithformerly

at any

as

pour

The

samo

in 1812, and againin the springof 1856,

in respect to the Pic on the greater Sangir Island,between
the
Junghuhn doubts whether
Magindanao and Celebes.
observed

thingwas

famous

conical

ejectedany

of Vavani

mountain

hot

than

thing more

or

mud

Ateti, on

the island at present as only a solfatara.

of the South Asiatic islands is connected

group

of the Western

groups

the

and

Carolinas

the

proceedwith

of the Indian

of the
less

and

The

by

siders
con-

great

the division

Nicobar

and

the division of

Ocean, and by
and Philippineswith the Papuas,

the Moluccas

however,

with

Isles of the Indian

Andaman,
Islands

Islands

Sunda

Amboina,

1674,

in

South
numerous

Sea.
and

We

the

Pellew

shall

more

first,

dispersed

Ocean.

VII.

The

Indian

Ocean.

comprehends the space between the west coast of the

peninsulaof Malacca, or of the Birman
country to the east
in its northern
of Africa, thus inclosing
division the
coast
Bay of Bengal and the Arabian and Red Seas. We pursue
in the Indian Ocean
in the
the chain
of volcanic activity
This

direction from
*

northeast

Junghuhn's Java,

to southwest.

vol. ii.,p. S-10-S42.

Ibid.,p.

853.

TRUE

Island,in

Barren

the

of the great Andaman

active cone
an

upheaval.
and
this

by

The

sea

fills an

volcanic

what

Santorin, and

eruption,issuingout
forces its way
through a
basin.

The

discovered

was

We

for the

the

east

exhibits

other

points of

eruptionsin November, 1803,

of

of

crater

narrow

ing
open-

presented

appearance

by Horsburgh in 1791,

theory of the formation of

in a complete and permanent
in only a cursory way
at

here

see

nature
at

little to

of

structures.

form

Bengal, a

sidered
(lat.12" 15'),is correctlycon-

Island

exceedinglyinstructive

is

of

Bay

internal

island,which

359

VOLCANOES.

the

surface.*

earth's
like those

The

of

Sangay, in
of Quito, very distinctly
the Cordilleras
periodical,
recurring
in
the
at intervals of ten minutes
Abhandl.
von
Buch,
(Leop.
derBerl
Akademie, 1818-1819, s. Q"2).
of Barren
The island of Narcondam,
to the north
Island,
has likewise exhibited volcanic action at a former period,as
has

also the

were,

island of

of the

mountain

Cheduba, which
lies more
the shore of Arracan
to the north, near
(10" 52').
American
(Silliman's
Journal, vol. xxxviii.,p. 385.)
The
the frequencyof
active volcano,judging from
most
the lava eruptions,not only in the Indian Ocean, but in almost
cone

of the south

the whole
of the west

of New

coast

America, is that

hemisphere
Holland

the island

between

and

the

the
east

ians
merid-

coast

of

Bourbon, in the group of

the Mascareignes. The
larly
greater part of the island,particuthe western
portion and the interior,is basaltic. Keof
veins
of olivin,run
cent
basalt, with little admixture
on

of

abounds
in olivin ; beds of
through the older rock,which
also
inclosed
in
the basalt.
The
ligniteare
culminating
of
the
Mountain
Island
Gros
the
Morne
and the
are
points
Trois Salazes,the height of which
La Caille overestimated
at
The

10,658.

volcanic

portion,the
volcano

of

feet

the

high."f

limited

now

of the
The
summit
pays brule'."
describes as
which
Hubert
emitting,

year, two

streams

sea, is,accordingto

It exhibits

several

received

of

lava, which

Berth's
cones

distinct names,
and which
eruptions. The eruptionsfrom the
*

1818
a

Leop.
and

von

Buch,

most
to the southern-

Grand

Bourbon,

nearlyevery
to

action is

in the Abhandl.

tend
frequentlyex-

measurement,

8000

of

eruptionwhich have
alternatelysend forth
summit
are
infrequent.

der Ahad.

der

Wiss.

zit

Berlin,

1819,
; Lyell, Princ. of Geology(1853), p. 417, where
fine representationof the volcano
is given.
t Bory de St. Vincent, Voyage mix
t. ii.,
Quati-eIsles d'Afrlque,
p.

429.

s.

62

60

The

COSMOS.

lavas

contain

trachyticthan

long,fine

shower

threads,

are

volcano

we

which

wise
like-

violent

eruption

island

of Bourbon,

neighboring terra incognita

dispersionof pumice at

Madagascar is the extensive

Tintingue,oppositethe French island
of

tains
confrequently

phenomenon

of

in the year 1821.

of the great
know

occurred
that

the

therefore rather

of ashes

A
Owhyhee.
glassythreads, covering the whole
at

occurs

All

The

basaltic.

olivin in

of these

and
glassyfeldspar,

of St.

Marie,

and

the

of the

Bay of Diego Suathe

northernmost
Cap d'Ambre, surrounded
by
rez, near
graniteand gneiss. The southern central ridge of the Amlittle cerMountains
is calculated (though with
bohistmene
tainty)
of
at about
11,000 feet. Westward
Madagascar, in
outlet of the Mozambique
the northern
Channel, the largest
of the Comoro
Islands has a burning volcano (Darwin, Coral
of

occurrence

basalt,to the south

Reefs, p. 122).

the

volcanic

small

Amsterdam,

island of St. Paul

is considered

volcanic,not

(38" 387),south

only on

account

of
of

ren
stronglyreminds us of that of Santorin,Barof the New
Island and Deception Island,'in the group
of the repeatedlyShetland
Isles ; but likewise on
account
observed
The
times.
eruptionsof fire and vapor in modern
very characteristic drawing given by Yalentyn in his work
the Banda
on
Islands,relative to the expeditionof Willem
dc Vlaming (November, 1696), corresponds exactly,as
do
also the statements
of the latitudes,
with the representations
in the atlas of Macartney's expeditionand Captain Blackwood's
circular bay, nearly
survey (1842). The crater-shaped,
an
English mile across, is every where surrounded
by precipitous
in the interior,
rocks which
mil perpendicularly
with
the exception of a narrow
opening,through which the sea
form the margin of
enters
those which
at flood-tide ; while
the crater
fall away
with a gentleslope.*
externally,

its

form,which

ther
Amsterdam, which lies 50/ of latitude fartoward
the north (37" 48'),consists,
according to Valentyn's representation,of a single,well-wooded, somewhat
rounded
mountain, from the highestridge of which rises a
small
cubical rock, almost the same
at the Co/re de Peas
The

island

of

rote, on the higher plainsof Mexico.

During the
of D'Entrecasteaux
(March, 1792), the island was
two

whole

days entirelyenveloped in

Valentyn, Beschryvingvan Out!

(1726), p. 70 ; Hct By land St. Paulo.
*

en

Nievio

flames
Oost

expedition

and

seen

for

smoke.

Deel
iii.,
Jndi'cn,
(Compare Lyell,Princ, p. 446.)

362

cosmos.

that of

volcanic

volcano.
action

the beds

of

group.

Both

on

More

evidences

certain

of former

the island of Amsterdam

be

may

genuine
found

in

mention
of
pumice-stone{uitgebranden
puimsteen),
is made
which
so
early as by Yalentyn, according to Vlaming's Ship Journal of 1696.
of the Cape of Good
To the southeast
Hope lie Marion's,
Island (47" 2'),and Possession
Island
Edward's
Prince
or
(lat 46" 28', and long.51" 56'),formingpart of the Crozet

conical

small

"

exhibit

of them

traces

with
hills,*

basalt.
by columnar
More
eastward, and almost

in the

"

similar

volcanic

tion
ac-

ed
eruptionopenings surround-

Paris,Berlin,and Gottingen), that

last expedition the island of Amsterdam
of

of former

the

on

latitude,we

same

specialchart

is set

reversal

down

as

more

come

of Cook's
to

the

of the

appellations,quite
Willem
de Vlaming, was
of
the
intention
the
to
discoverer,
opposed
third
of
first
the
in
the
as, for example, on
frequent
present century
Arrowsmith
and Purdy
world
the
of
the older and excellent
by
maps
third voyCook's
than a specialchart of
more
(1833) but there was
age
the
it.
There
operating to cause
was, 1st,the arbitraryentry on
the
in
atlas
the
circumstance
and
Mortimer
of
Cox
that,
2d,
;
maps
of Lord
Macartney's voyage to China, though the beautiful volcanic
St. Paul, under
island represented smoking is very correctlynamed
called
lat. 38" 42',yet it is absurdly added,
Amsterdam,"
commonly
Staunton
and, what is still worse, in the narrative of the voyage itself,
mation"
still in a state of inflamand Dr. Gillan uniformly called this "island
Amsterdam, and they even add (p. 226, after having given the
of
latitude in p. 219) "that St. Paul is lying to the northward
correct
there
is
confusion
of
row
Barthe
names
same
Amsterdam
by
; and, 3d,
{Voyage to Cochin China in the Years 1792 and 1793, p. 140-157),
ting
of Amsterdam
to the southern
who
also gives the name
island,emittime the latitude
and flames, assigning to it at the same
smoke
Malte-Brun
t. v., 1817,
42'.
38"
(Precis de la Gcographie Universelle,
M.
but
he
in
also
blames
errs
Barrow,
blaming
properly
p. 146) very
of the latter writers give as
Both
de Rossel and Beautemps-Beaupre.
is the only one
the latitude of the island of Amsterdam, which
they represent,
it lies 50'
of
island
St. Paul, because
37" 47', and that of the
to the
more
south, 38" 38' (Voy. de D' Entrecasteaux, 1808, t. i., p.
sterdam,
40-46) ; and to show that the design represents the true island of Amde Vlaming, Beautemps-Beaupre adds
discovered
by Willem
from
in his atlas a copy of the thickly-wooded island of Amsterdam
Abel
celebrated
the
here
observe
I
that,
navigator,
Valentyn.
may
Tasman, having in 1642, along with Middelburg, called the island of
of Amsterdam
Tonga-Tabu (lat.2H"), in the Tonga group, by the name
(Burney, Chronoiog Hist, of the Voyages and Discoveries in the
also been
South Sea or PacijicOcean, part iii.,
p. 81 and 437), he has
and St.
sometimes
erroneously cited as the discoverer of Amsterdam
Histor.
See
Indian
Ocean.
Leidenfrost,
Handwortcnbuch,
the
in
Paul,
than

south

St. Paul."

"

"

"

'

bd. v., s. 310.

*
Sir James

i.,p. 46, and

Ross, Voyage in the Southern and Antarctic

50-56.

Regions, vol.

Kerguelen'sIsland (Cook's

to

363

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

of

Island

for
Desolation),

the

indebted to
of which
account
cessful
sucare
we
geological
of
Ross.
In the
Sir James
and important expedition
48"
harbor
Christmas
harbor called by Cook
41/,long.
(lat.
found
feet
several
69" 2/),basaltic lavas,
thick,are
inclosing
is
the
also
there
of
trees
trunks
seen
the fossil
singularand
;
Arched
Bock, a natural passage through a narrow
picturesque
projectingwall of basalt. In the neighborhood are conical
tinct
mountains, the highestof which rise to 2664 feet,with exof green-stoneand porphyry, traversed
craters
masses
of
and
amygdalaid with drusy masses
by beds of basalt
of all are
Bay. The most remarkable
quartz, at Cumberland
beds of coal,covered with trap-rock(dolerite,
the numerous
as
the

first

"

"

in Hessian

Meissner

at

?),of

of from

thickness

few inches

outcrop.*
shall
If we
take a generalsurvey of the Indian Ocean, we
matra,
find the northwesterlyextremity of the Sunda
range in Suis curved, carried on through the Jsicobars and
which
to four

feet at the

and Little Andamans

Great

the

while

of Barren

the volcanoes

to the
Cheduba, almost parallel
into the eastern
and Tenasserim, run
tion
por-

Island,Narcondam,
of Malacca

coasts

and

Bengal. Along the shores of Orissa and

ands,
Coromandel, the eastern portionof the bay is destitute of islgascar,
the great island of Ceylon bearing,like that of Madaof a continent.
of the character
more
Opposite the
shore of the Indian peninsula(the elevated plainof
western
Neilgherryand the coasts of Canara and Malabar) a range of
three Archipelagoes,
lyingin a direction from north to south,
of the

Bay

of

extending from 14" north to 8" south latitude (the Laccadives,the Maldives, and the Chagos), is connected by the

and

shallows

of Sahia

volcanic

srroup

de Malha

of the

and

Cargados Carajos with

and

Maseareinnes

Madagascar.

the

The

al
chain, so far as can be seen, is the work of corin
accordance
with
true
Atolls,or lagoon-reefs
;
polypes
this
that
at
Darwin's
part a largeextent
ingeniousconjecture

of this

whole

"

of the floor of the

area

an

we

compare
with water

Sir James

i.,p.

an

area

of

upheaval,but

of subsidence.

VIII.
If

forms,not

ocean

63-82.

The

South

Sea,

that

portionof

with

the

Ross, Voyage

Pacific.

or

the earth's surface

aggregate
in the Southern

area

now

of the terra

and Antarctic

ered
cov-

firma

Region*,voL

364

cosmos.

(nearly*in

the

astonished,in
of volcanoes
South

The

proportion of 2-7 to 1),we can not

geological
point of view, at the small

which

Sea,

stillcontinue

the

but

number

active in the oceanic

of which
superficies

region.

is

nearly one sixth

of our
planet
Archipelago of
nearly two fifths of the

greater than that of the whole terra firma

the
in the equinoctialregion,from
which

Galapagos
whole

to

Pellew

the

circumference

of the

Islands,is
earth

be

in breadth

"

"

exhibits

fewer

the interior
smoking volcanoes, fewer openings through which
of the planet still continues in active communion
with
does the singleisland of Java.
its atmosphericenvelope than
of the great American
Mr. James
Dana, the talented geologist
of
exploringexpedition(1838-1842), under the command
his
Charles Wilkes, basing his views on
gations,
own
personalinvestiaided by a careful comparison of all previousreliable
observations,and especially
by a comprehensive examination
the forms, the distribution,
of the different opinionson
and
the

axial

direction

the different kinds

and

of the island groups, on the character of

of rocks,and the periodsof the subsidence

upheaval of extensive tracts of the

indisputablemerit of having shed

floor of the

ocean,

has

the
lightover
of the South
In availingmyself of his
island world
Sea.
win,
writingsof Charles Darwork, as well as of the admirable
the geologistof Captain Fitzroy's expedition (1832them, I trust that the
1836), without always particularizing
high respect in which I have for so many years held those
from the chance of having my mome
tives
gentlemen will secure
misinterpreted.
the divisional terms
is
It
my intention to avoid altogether
of Polynesia,
Micronesia,Melanesia, and Malaisia,fwhich are
the

new

Rigaud's levelingsat Oxford, according to HalCentrale,t. i.,p. 189.

my Asie
t D'Urville, Voy. de la Corvette V Astrolabe,1826-1829, Atlas,pi.i.
the eastern
to contain
1st. Polynesia is considered
portion of the
and
the
South
Sea (the Sandwich
Tahiti,
Islands,
Tonga Archipelago;
and Melanesia
form the westand also New
ern
Zealand) ; 2. Micronesia
extends
from
the
former
Kauai, the
portion of the South Sea;
island of the Sandwich
westernmost
Japan and the
group, to near
rians
Philippines,and reaches south to the equator, comprehending the Masia,
(Ladroncs), the Carolinas and the Pellew Islands ; 3d. Melaneits dark-haired
called from
so
inhabitants,bordering on the Malaithe small Archipelago of Viti,or Feesia to the northwest, embraces
Islands ; likewise the larger islands
jee, the New Hebrides and Solomon's
and
New
New
New
of New
Guinea.
Britain,
Caledonia,
Ireland,
in a geographand Polynesia,often so contradictory
The terms
Oceania
ical
(1813)and from Lesson
point of view, are taken from Malte-Brun
*

The

ley'sold
"

(1828).

result of Prof.

method.

See

but
only extremely arbitrary,
from the number
drawn
principles

not

of the

descent

and

365

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

totallydifferent
ion
size,or the complex-

founded
and

inhabitants,and

to

which

those

lie to

proceed in the
situated

the

The

must

It is

fissures

said

admitted, with
submarine

and

of the

taken

of

ands
isl-

parallelof 30"
islands,
trachytic
tive,
erup-

the greater number

to

place on

widely

chains,which

tended
ex-

in

run

regionand grouping,and

continental

which

to

govern

of

chains

mountain

Caucasus, belong

circumstances

the

but

has

laws

governed by fixed
which, just as we see in the
Asia, and

the

to

tered.*
scatindiscriminately

mountain

directions

Central

be

to

respect

upheaval

their

of them, that

basaltic and

be

account

no

on

the

west,

with

ward
shall after-

craters, formerly at different times

their countless

with

to

and

equator

numerous

meration
enu-

Sea

South

equator.

from. east

direction

between

latitude.

south

of the

north

the

commence

of the

of the still active volcanoes

the

on

different tems
systhe area
ovei

ously
particulartime the openings are simultaneany
active,probably depend, from the extremely limited
of such
number
openings,on entirelylocal disturbances,to
the conductingfissures are
which
subjected. The attempt to
simultaneous
draw lines through three now
volcanoes,whose
2-400 and 3000
to between
respectivedistances amount
graphical
geoof
miles
cases
asunder, without
any intervening
in a state of ignition
eruption(I refer to three volcanoes now
which

at

"

one

The

as
epithetscattered,
applied to
of the groups), conveys
a

the arrangement
positions. There
as

and

grand

vol.

States

islands

very

continent,and
as

as

(in

ocean

idea

of their
in the

regular as

of elevation

ranges
continent

any

of the

incorrect

system in their arrangement

extensive

United

Dana,

is

heights of

mountain

the

are

indicated

presents." Geology,hy

ExploringExpedition,under

command

J.

of Charles

Dana
calculates
that there are
in the
(1849),p. 12.
whole
of the South
Sea, exclusive of the small rock islands,about 350
basaltic or trachyticand
divides
coral islands.
He
them
into
290
twenty-fivegroups, of which nineteen in the centre have the direction
of their axis N. 50""
60" W., and the remaining N. 20""
It
30" E.
is particularly
remarkable
that these numerous
with
few
a
islands,
ceptions,
exsuch
the Sandwich
as
Islands and New
tween
Zealand, all lie be23" 28' of north
and south latitude,and that there is such an

Wilkes,

immense

x.

space

Nukahiva

as

groups
likewise draws

Dana

the

to

that

if,as

basaltic

of islands

far

the

as

eastward

American

attention

to

number
insignificant

is

probable,the

islands,have

submarine
than

devoid

and

thousand

likewise

subaerial

(p. 17

Coral

now

and

the Sandwich
which

forms

the

Peru.

and

of Mexico

circumstance

of the

trast
con-

active volcanoes, namely,

entirely
Islands, when
lying between
of
basaltic foundation, the number
a

volcanic

and

from
shores

2t).

openings

may

be

estimated

at

more

366

cosmos.

its eastern
on
Loa, with Kilauea
declivity
; the
of Tanna, in the New
Hebrides ; and Assumpmountain
tion
would
afford
Island in the North
formation
inus
Ladrones),
no

Mouna

"

cone

in
basin

the

of the

general formation

the

regard to
South

Sea.

The

is

case

of volcanoes

in

quite different

if

singlegroups of islands,and look back

the numerous
to remote, perhaps pre-historic,
epochs when
extinct,craters of the Ladrones
linearly-arranged,
though now
the New
ands
IslHebrides, and the Solomon's
(Marian Islands),
were
active,but which certainlydid not become
ally
graduwest
extinguishedin a direction either from southeast to northfrom north to south.
canic
or
Though I here name
only volisland chains of the high seas, yet the Aleutes
and other
General
true coastian islands are
clusions
conanalogousto them.
of
to the direction
as
a
cooling process are deceptive,
limit ourselves

we

the

as

state

to

of the

conducting medium

upon it,accordingas
Mouna
Loa, ascertained

must

it is open

operate temporarily

interrupted.

or

measurement*

of the
by
American
exploringexpeditionunder Captain Wilkes to be
13,758 feet in height,and consequently1G00 feet higher than
the exact

of Teneriffe,is the

the Peak

of the

largest volcano

South

Sea

that stillremains
reallyactive in
only one
Sandwich
the whole
volcanic Archipelago of the Hawaii
or
The
summit
Islands.
craters, the largestof which is nearly
13,000 feet in diameter,exhibit in their ordinarystate a solid
out of which
bottom, composed of hardened lava and scoria?,
of eruption,exhaling vapor.
summit
rise small
The
cones
in
June,
openings are, on the whole, not very active,though
of
emitted
al
eruptions sever1832, and in January, 1843, they

Islands,and

weeks'

the

duration,and

even

of lava of from

streams

20 to 28

geographicalmiles in length,extending to the foot of Mouna

connected
fall (inclination)
of the perfectly
ing
flowKea.
The
stream! was
6", frequently10", 15", and even 25".
chiefly
conformation

The
the

remarkable, from
of ashes,like the Peak

is very

Loa

of the Mouna
of its

having no cone
of Teneriffe,Cotopaxi, and so many
other volcanoes ; it is
likewise
almost
entirelydeficient in pumice,J though the
*

circumstance

See

Cosmos, vol.

Geologyof the

X Dana,

p. 193

very remarkable
Reliable
lava.
from
may

he

v., p.

t Dana,

and

in those

t.

note

States

The

201.

Explor Exped.,\".208

volcanoes

of the

the mouths

of

Eifel which

eye-witnesses,
proves
from

told that, during the

war

the summit
carried

and

210.

of cinder-cones

absence

information,however, received

occur
notwithstanding
was

238,

United

on

by
that

emit

the

is likewise
streams

of

ble
missionary Dib-

eruption of ashes
crater
Loa, for
by Kamehameha
against
an

of Mouna

367

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

lavas of the
trachyticthan basaltic,
of
abound
in feldspar. The
summit
extraordinaryfluidity
the lavas of Mouna
Loa, whether
issuingfrom the summit
ern
crater
(Mokua-weo-weo) or from the sea of lava (on the eastdeclivityof the volcano, at a height of only 3969 feet
the sea),is testified by the glass threads,sometimes
above
and sometimes
smooth
crispedor curled,which are dispersed
and
blackish-gray,

by the wind

thrown

likewise

hair

Petes

all

over

out

the island.

by

the

This

volcano

hair
of

Hawaiians, after the

the

by

the country.
has
Dana

more

ably

demonstrated

of the

that

glass,which

is

Bourbon, is called
tutelarygoddess of
Loa

Mouna

is not

the

Islands,and that Kilauea is

The basin of Kilauea
is 10,000 feet (about
not a solfatara.*
its long diameter,and 7400 feet
2" geographicalmiles)across

central

volcano

Sandwich

steaming,bubbling,and foaming
the true
mass
pool does not, however, under
fill
of this cavity,
but merethe
whole
ly
ordinarycircumstances,
feet
diameter
and
whose
its
a
measures
14,000
long
space
feet.
breadth 5000
The descent to the edge of the crater
is
graduated. This great phenomenon produces a wonderful
The
impressionof silence and solemn repose.
approach of
nean
an
eruptionis not here indicated by earthquakes or subterraof the
noises,but merely by a sudden risingand falling
its shorter

across

which

surface

one.

The

forms

lava

of the

of from 300 or
to the extent
lava, sometimes
400 feet up to the complete filling
of the whole
basin.
If,
difference in size,we
to comwere
pare
disregardingthe immense

giganticbasin of Kilauea with the small side craters

of Stromboli,
described by Spallanzani)on the declivity
(first
four fifths of the height of the mountain, the summit
at
of
the

the

by

insurgentsin the year 1789, an eruption of hot ashes,accompanied

earthquake, enveloped the surrounding country in the darkness
night (p. 183). On the volcanic glassthreads (the hair of the goddess
Pele,who, before she went to settle at Hawaii, inhabited the now
an

of

extinct

volcano

Dana,
is

and

of Hale-a-Kala

the House
of the Sun
the island
or
on
and
179
199-200.
p.
"The
term
fatara
Solfatarais wholly misapplied. A solp. 205.
with streaming fissures and escaping sulphur vapors,
area

of Maui)

an

without

extensive

"

"

see

Kilauea
proper lava ejections
; while
lava ejectionsand
no
sulphur,except

is

that

vast

crater

of the

with

sulphur
necessarilyaccompanies, as at Vesuvius, violent
volcanic
action."
The
of Kilauea, the mass
structural frame
of the
lava
ashes
great
or
basin, consists also,not of beds of
fragmentary
rocks,but of horizontal layersof lava, arranged like limestone.
Dana,
(Compare Strzelecki,
p. 193.
Plujs.Descr. of New South JVales,1845,
banks, beyond

p. 105-111.)

what

368

cosmos.

which

has

lava

forgetthat

30

200

to

"

fierygulfson
great height,and

the

of Stromboli

slope

throw

lava.

even
Though
pour
of
lake
lower
and
lava
Kilauea
ter
(the
secondary cragreat
of Mouna
of the active volcano
sometimes
threatens
Loa)

out

overflow

from

it

margin, yet

its

produce

to

"

the

ashes to

the

to

that is to say, with basins of boiling

feet in diameter
only we must not

opening

no

of from

actuallyruns

never

of lava.

streams

true

out

These

occur

channels, and

below, through subterranean

so

over

by

as

currents

tion
forma-

the

eruptiveopenings at a distance of from 16 to 20

geographicalmiles,consequentlyat pointsvery much lower
than
the
basin.
After these eruptions,occasioned
by the
of

new

mass
pressure of the immense
the fluid surface sinks in the

Of
and

the

other

two

Wilkes, 190

feet

mountain

whose

on

of

former

the

there

Loa.

Kea

Captain

to

It is

conical

longer exists

inal
any termof scoria?. Mouna

no

only long extinct mounds

is fully10,000 feet high, and is still burning. In
the lava
1801 an eruption took place,during which

crater, but
Hualalai*

the year
reached the

sea

mountains
the

Kilauea,

Hawaii, Mouna

is,according

Mouna

higher than
summit

of

basin.*

mountains

high

Hualalai,

Mouna

of lava in the basin

the western

of

Loa, Kea,

of the

bottom

In

origin.

on

the

that

sea,

Hualalai, which

and

the

island

given of

accounts

It is to the three

side.

the

sal
colosfrom

rose

of Hawaii

its

owes

ascents

numerous

of

expeditionof Captain
of twenty-eightdays'duWilkes
based on investigations
ration,
was
of
falls
of
of snow
is made
mention
with a degree
cold
from 23 to 17 ^ Fahr. above zero, and of singlepatches of
with the aid of the teleswhich
could be distinguished
snow,
Mouna

This

by

remarkable

the relations

las to the

of numerous

it,was
forth

as

to

surface

of the lava

is confirmed

from Ellis,Stewart, and DongWilkes's

Strzelecki,
expedition and the
missionary Coan.
During the great eruption of
voyagers,

Count

observant

June, 1840, the connection

the sudden

of the

sinking

meritorious

remarkably

that of the

which

Loa, among

inflammation

of the rise of the lava

of the

decidedly shown.
from Arare, its renewed
in greater quantity,do

The

most

identitv,because

crater

of

Arare,
disappearance

subterranean
not

numerous

in the Kilauea
situated

course,

quite admit

of

an

lava-vieMing

so

with

far below

of the lava

poured

and

final ance
reappearabsolute conclusion

longitudinal fissures

opened simultaneouslybelow the line of the floor of the Kilauea basin.

the internal
It is likewise very worthy of observation,as bearing on
of this singular volcano
of Hawaii, that in June, 1832,
constitution
and that of Kilauea, poured out and
both craters, that of the summit
occasioned

of lava, so

streams

(Compare Dana,

p.

that thev

181, 188, 193, and

were

196.)

simultaneouslv

active.

370

cosmos.

occurring every
periodical,

been

times, as

on

teaux, the

crater

of the

itself and

the

from
tinguishable
In

Solomon's

the

sarga*is

in

in this
of the

end

Cruz

Santa

each

column

of vapor

were

undis-

island

of Se-

other.

the volcano
of the
group
of ignition. On the coast

state

minutes, and at other

expeditionof D'Entrecas-

ten

occasion

the

of Guadalcanal

neighborhood,and therefore also at

the
long range of islands toward
group, volcanic eruptiveaction has

the southeast
Vanikoro

or

likewise

been

observed.
In

the

Marian

Ladrones, or

Islands,at the north end of

the range, which
to have
been upheaved from a meseems
ridian
fissure,Guguan,* Pagon,* and the Volcan grande of
Asuncion, are said to be still in a state of activity.
of the

direction

The

Holland, and

the
particularly

in

the

east

Hervey

and

Moreton

seen

of the

coast

stretch from

the

hand, the

Zealand

New

Guinea,

and

attention

the

not

Coral

are

Sea.

as
deficient,

both

zone

and
great southern island Tonga groups,

northeast; while, on

the

of New

donia
Cale-

New

Hebrides, the Solomon's

Britain,run in a direction from
W.

this relation

to

neighboringislands

Australian

(between Cape

portionof the north island

Bay of Plenty to Cape Oton), New

New
Isles,
Ireland,and New
S.E. to N.W., chiefly
N. 48"
drew

the

to

direction

northern

(fromthe
and

The

the Kermadec

southwest

of New

be reflected in the

to

islands.

Zealand, and

that

latitude

south

Bay), seem

continent

from

deviation

in 25"

neighboring eastern

of New

other

of the small

coasts

in the
The

Leopold

continental

between
Greek

islands

Forster

Buchf)

von

Archipelago

first

masses

and

the

of the

latter sea, too,

(Cook'scompanion) and La

Billardiere

formerly observed, in graniteand mica-slate,the

has
wise
likequartzose rocks formerly called primeval. Dana
the northern
collected them
island of New
on
Zealand,
of Tipuna, in the Bay of Islands.!
to the west
New
Holland
exhibits only on its southern extremity(Australia
Felix),at the foot and to the south of the Grampian
Mountains,fresh traces of former igneous action,for we learn
from Dana
of volcanic cones
that a number
and depositsof
(*) Leop.
and

von

Buch, Description
Phys. des

f See Dana, Ilrid.,

438-44G, and
action
columns
and

lies

Canaries,183G,

p. 893

403-405.

E. de

in New

in New

Holland,

p. 453

Wales

and

South

Strzelecki,
Phys. Descr.

on

the fresh traces

and

457 ; also
Van
Diemen's

of New

South

on

of ancient

the many

Land,

Wales,p.

canic
vol-

basaltic

p. 495-510;
112.

lava

found

are

of the

Murray

Britain*

there

the direction
New

On

coast, which

west

era,
state

of Port

northwest

the

to

371

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

have

River

been

least three

observed

within

by Tasman, Dampier, Cartaret,and

of ignitionand throwing out lava.

There

active

two

are

La

in New

volcanoes

coast, oppositeNew

northeastern

also in

(Dana, p. 453).

at

are

Philip,as

Britain

on

cones

the

historical

in
Billardiere,

least has

been

illustrated

Dieffenbach, and

island

important work of Ernst

of Dana, basaltic
investigations
various
points break through
and
This
sedimentaryrocks.
the Bay of
limited area
near

by

admirable

the

Guinea,* on the
and the Admiralty

Islands,which abound in obsidian.

In New
Zealand, of which the geology of the north
at

the

the

trachyticrocks at
diffused Plutonic
the generally
example is the case in a very
the ash-cones, crowded
with distinct
Islands (lat.35" 2'),where
rise ; and again,more
and Poerua
to
craters, Turoto
the
where
canic
volthe southeast
(between 37 J" and 39^" lat.),
of
the
north island,a
floor runs
the centre
quiteacross
from
miles
distance of more
northeast
than 160 geographical
the Bay of Plenty,on
the east, to Cape
to southwest, from
of volcanic
action here
This
zone
Egmont, on the west.
traverses
(aswe have alreadyseen it to do on a much larger
scale in the Mexican
Continent),in a diagonal fissure from
and

northeast

to

southwest,

lengthwise in a
to give its form

runs

seems

this chain

stand, as it

the interior chain

north
to

and

at

which

and which
direction,
island.
On the ridgeof
the
pointsof intersection,

south

the whole

were,

of mountains

the

of

is found
crater
on
Tongariro^ (6198), whose
the top of the ash-cone,Bidwill, and, somewhat
to the
more
south, Kuapahu (9006 feet). The northeast end of the zone
is formed
in the Bay of Plenty (lat.38^) by a constantly
smoking solfatara,the island volcano of Puhia-i-wakati(*)*

loftycone

(White Island). Next follow to the southwest, on the shore

the extinct volcano
of Putawaki
itself,
(Mount Edgecombe),
feet

8838

Zealand
the

high,probably the highestsnowy

and

in the

of

mountain

on

New

Mount

Edgecombe and
burning
poured forth some
of lava, a lengthened chain of lakes,partlyconsisting
The lake of Taupo, which is surroundboilingwater.
;

still

streams

between
interior,

(*) Evnst
355, and

Tongariro,*which

Dieffenbach, Travels

401.

Dieffenbach

but still in volcanic

continual

in New

calls White

activity"(p. 358

ignition."

and

has

Zealand, 1843, vol. i.,p. 337,

"a
smoking solfatara.
407), and on tbe cbart, in

Island

"

372
ed

cosmos.

by
by

as

beautiful
of

mounds

leucite and sanidine sand, as well

glistening
is
pumice, nearly24 geographicalmiles long,
of the

lies in the centre

and

elevation,according

an

surface

the

of the

island of New

north

Zealand, at

Dieffenbach,of 1337

to

The

for

ground

feet above

English square
solfataras,
vapor holes,
of
the
which
thermal
latter
at the Geyform,
as
springs,
ser,
in Iceland,a varietyof silicious precipitates.
ward
West(*)

miles
and

round

of

is

sea.

chief seat

of volcanic

action,whose
stillejects
tance
vapors and pumice-stoneashes,and at a disof only sixteen miles from the western
shore, rises the

crater

of Taranaki

volcano

first ascended

was

with

entirelycovered

Tongariro,*the

two

November,

1840.

and

measured

The

summit

resembles

more

of which

plain,out
such
activity,
Island*

and

and

Tolima
rises
as

by

The

the

composed

having
ringing sound,
from
like
fish-bones,
sharp points
same

manner

as

on

one

No

volcano

visible,nor

which

Dieffenbach

in

in its outline

Cotopaxi, terminates

on

substance

high,which

which

cone,

steep ash-cone.
seen

are

feet

8838

Dr. Ernst

of the

than

Tongariro,*are

on

of lava.

stream

(Mount Egmont),

is

of present
of the White
connected

of very thin

scales,
projectingwith

the

in the
scoriae,
of TenerifTe,
bles
resem-

porphyriticschist,or clink-stone.
A narrow,
long-extended,uninterruptedaccumulation
island groups, erupted from northwestern
such
fissures,
New

Solomon's

the

direction

from

the

Easter

as

New

and

great Ocean

in the

Southern

west

of the

meridian

east

of Australia

coast

the rock of Sala

Island,and

hemisphere

in

to east, for a length of 5400

ical
geographof
o
f
latitude
12"
the parallels
and 27",

miles,between
from

of

Hebrides
and
Guinea, the New
Island,Pitcairn,Tahiti,and the Paumotu
Islands,

Caledonia

traverses

traces

any

seen

among
side of the Peak

in

y Gomez.

The

as

far

as

western

portions of this crowd of islands (New Britain,*the New

Hebrides,*Vanikoro* in the Archipelago of Santa Cruz, and
the Tonga group*)exhibit at the present time, in the middle
of the nineteenth
and igneous action.
century, inflammation
New
Caledonia, though surrounded
by basaltic and other
has nevertheless nothing but Plutonic
volcanic islands,
rock,f
is the case
with Santa MariaJ in the Azores, accordingto
as
(*) Dana,
On

Mount

p. 445-448

Egmont,

see

Dieffenbach,vol. i.,p. 331,

339-341

and

397.

vol i.,p. 131-157.

f Darwin, Volcanic Islands,p. 125 ; Dana, p. 140.

On the three islands here
t L. de Buch, Deser. des I. (Jan.,
p. 3G5.

named, however, phonolite and basaltic rock

are

also found

along with

Leopold
Count

to

Buch, and with Flores and

von

sedimentary formations
the

discovered,that

latelybeen

of coal have

Graciosa,according
of volcanic

It is this absence

Bedemar.

Caledonia, where

New

373

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

of living;coral reefs
Archipelago of the Viti,or

its shores

on

action

with

in

seams

ment
great develop-

is ascribed.

The

FeejeeIslands,is at once basaltic

and trachytic,
though distinguishedonly by hot springsin
Lebu.*
The
Samoa
the Savu Bay on Vanua
gator's
(Navigroup
of the Feejee Islands,and nearly
northeast
Islands),
saltic,
north of the still active Tonga Archipelago,is likewise bacharacterized
and is moreover
by a countless number
of eruption craters
linearlyarranged,which are surrounded
with
The Peak
piecesof coral baked into them.
by tufa-beds
of the Samoa
of Tafua, on the island of Upolu, one
group,
of
remarkable
interest.
It
must
degree
geognostic
presents a
not, however, be confounded

with

the

stillenkindled

of

Peak

Tafua, south of Amargura, in the Tonga Archipelago. The

of Tafua

Peak

measured, has

of lava

stream

which
Apia (2576 feet),
of Fao

the Peak

on

as

of any

trace

no

of

crowned

and
here

which
Dana
ascended
and
first|
feet),
est,
large crater entirelyfilled with a thick forThere is
by a regularlyrounded ash-cone.

(2138

yet

the conical mountain

on

is likewise

(3197 feet),we

on

meet

Upolu,
with

as

well

fields of

(Malpais of the Spaniards),the surface of

which
is,as it were, crimped, and often twisted like a rope.
The lava-fields of Apia contain narrow
subterranean
cavities.
the
in
of
far
the
centre
chytic
tramore
Tahiti,
SocietyIslands,
the
than basaltic,
ruins
exhibits,strictly
speaking,only
of its former volcanic frame-work, and it is difficult to trace
of the volcano in those enormous
the originalform
masses,
w
ith
and
like
ehevaux-de-frise,
looking
lar
perpendicuramparts
feet
in
o
f
several
thousand
depth. Of its two
precipices
first
highest summits, Aorai and Orohena, the former was
ascended
and investigated
Dana.J
by that profound geologist
The
trachyticmountain, Orohena, is said to equal JEtna in
ands,
Islheight. Thus, next to the active group of the Sandwich
the
Tahiti contains
highest rock of eruption in the

scoriaceous

whole

lava

of the

range

Plutonic

and

ocean

sedimentary

between
strata.

the continents

But

these

their appearance
above the surface of the sea
of the island from the bed of the ocean.
have
*

been

found

Dana, p.
t Leop. von
Reefs, p. 138

of

fieryeruptionsor

Buch,
Dana,

of extinct

t Dana,

343-350.
p.

383; Darwin,

p. 28G-305

and

rocks
on

p.

the

No

of America

made
have
may
first volcanic upheaval
said to
are
traces

volcanoes.

312, 318, 320, and

323.

Vole. Isl.,
p. 25 ; Darwin, Coral
3Gt.

374

cosmos.

is

There

Asia.

and

and

of Borabora
travelers with

Maurua,

the

quartz, which,

lava

and

mountain

The

immediately forth

be

to

now

question

occurs

Are

did

the

with

met

the

on

the craters

on

ancient

and

high

transformed,continue

riven and

dome, while

not

are

destroyed; or

tops

structures, now

top like

nesian
Poly-

graniticaggregate of feldspar
of the breaking out of porous,

immediate

streams

Society Islands.
the

neighborhood,merits a
complete mineralogicalinvestigation.Extinct

more

craters

as

islands

Ellis in his

syenite,and by

account

on

in the

basalt

scoriaceous
much

of

name

the small

on

Tahiti, designated by late

near

described

researches
and

rock
feldspathic

closed at the

the veins of basalt and

trachytepoured
earth,as has probably

fissures in the

from

tremes
Expointsof the sea's bottom?
in the matter
of great viscidity
or
poured
great fluidity
of
sures
fiswidth
the
narrowness
or
out, as well as the varying
through which the effusion takes place,modify the shapes
tion
of the self-forming
volcanic mountain
strata, and, where fricion,
produces what is called ashes and fragmentary subdivisgive rise to small and for the most part transitorycones
of ejection,
with the great
which
not
to be confounded
are
the

been

other

at many

case

permanent structural frames.

Close by the Society Islands,in an easterly
direction,are
ands,
These
the Low
are
Islands,or Paumotu.
merely coral islterminal

of the

cinder-cones

with

exception of

remarkable

the

Islands.*

and Pitcairn's
group of Gambier's
similar to the latter,is also found
25"
farther

and

27"

south

to

Waihu,

where

the

east, in the

loftiest conical

feet

thousand

craters, none
In the

Sea

the New
east, toward
Island terminates with

of all island groups, the

of five great islands.

extinct
the

craters

thousand.

or

countless

rocks

Sala

peaks

earth

calculates

scarcelya

are

When

and

that
*

be

of

range

burning.

Continent, the range

one

of the

most

of conical mountains

number

the

to

y Gomez.

ive
act-

posed
Archipelago of Galapagos, comelse,on a
Scarcely any where
eter,
140 geographicalmiles in diam-

of former

(thetraces

interior of the
Darwin

two

barely120
a

rock,

same

high, Captain Beechey

of which
appeared,however,

space of
has such

Volcanic

remarked

extreme

of the South

small

in the

basaltic

tween
parallel(be1260
latitude),
geographicalmiles
Easter Island (Waihu), and probably

the east, in the

also 240 miles farther

On

small

the

the

communication

atmosphere)

number

of the

talented observer

Dana,

p.

137.

between

remained

craters

and

at

ble.
visi-

nearly

visited the Gala'

expeditionof the Beagle,under Captain Fitzroy,

craters
were
simultaneouslyin a state of igneous

in the

pagos

of the

two

On

eruption.
be

may
and

375

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

which

seen

often

have

augite and

olivin

forked

have

the

into

run

very fluid lava

different channels,

off into

Almost

sea.

which

some,

of

islands,streams

all the

are

all
of

more

are
a

rich

in

trachytic

character,are said to contain albite* in large crystals. It

would
be well, in the perfectionto which
ence
mineralogicalscifor the purbrought, to institute investigations
pose
of discoveringwhether
oligoclaseis not contained in
and
at Teneriffe,
as
porphyritictrachytes,
Popocatepetl,

is

these

now

Chimborazo,
Pumice

or

else

labradorite,as

at

iEtna

and

Stromboli.

is

entirely
wanting on the Galapagos,as at Vesuvius,
be present, it is not
where, although it may
produced,nor

is hornblende
them

any

consequentlythe

and

Junghuhn

some

of the

has sent

for examination
the

mentioned

where

by

me

to

have

trachyte formation
volcanoes

some

Gustav

of

Rose, does

of

Java,

well-selected
not

been

from

found

Toluca,
which

in
zaba,
OriDr.

piecesof lava
On
prevailhere.
Galapagos group,

solid

westerlyisland of the
are
Albemarle, the cone mountains
sequently
ranged in a line,and confissures. Their greatestheight,
on
however, reaches
only to 4G36 feet. The Western Bay, in which the Peak of
Narborough, so violentlyinflamed in 1825, rises in the form
of an island,is described by Leopold von
Buch| as a crater
of upheaval, and compared to Santorino.
Many margins of
formed
of beds of tufa,which
craters
the Galapagos are
on
is
remarkable
stance,
circuma very
slopeoff in every direction. It
the
simultaneous
operation of
seeming to indicate
some
great and wide-spreadcatastrophe,that the margins of
all the craters
are
disruptedor entirely
destroyedtoward the
A part of what
in the older descriptions
is called
south.
tufa, consists of palagonitebeds, exactlysimilar to those of
Iceland
and Italy,as Bunsen
has ascertained
by an exact
largestand

most

Darwin
"When
Darwin, Vole. Is!.,
says
p. 104, 110-112, and 111.
it
is because
is
that
the
there
no
on
decidedly
Galapagos,
trachyte
he limits the term
i. e., to orthoclase,
trachyte to the common
feldspar,
orthoclase
and sanidine
or
ments
(glassyfeldspar). The enigmaticalfragof
imbaked
in the lava of the small and entirelybasaltic crater
James
Island
contain
no
quartz, although they appear to rest on a
*

so

Plutonic

cone
et seq.). Several of the volcanic
the
orifice
have
at
narrow
a
indrical,
cylIslands,
Galapagos
"
in
I
annular
like
what
on
saw
Cotopaxi
addition, exactly
;
wall
the
is
surmounted
or
parapet perpendicular
ridge
by a
parts

rock

mountains

some
en

both

f L.

on

(see above, p.

sides."
von

367

the

Buch,

Darwin, Vole. IsL,

p. 376.

p. 83.

Or*

O/

COSMOS.

analysisof

Island.(*) This island,the

easterlyof the whole

most

by

tufas of Chatham

the

careful astronomical

accordingto
Quito (78"
Nueva

my

44'

Granada

the Punta

group, and
observations
of the

determination

whose

by Captain Beechey, is,

longitudeof the cityof

and according to
8//),
of

situation is fixed

Acosta's

Mapa

de

la

1849, 536 geographicalmiles distant from

de S. Francisco.
IX.

Mexico.

volcanoes,Tuxtla,* Orizaba,Popocatepetl,*
Toluca, Jorullo,*and Colima,* four of which have been
in a state of igneous activity
within the historical era, were
former
enumerated
in a
place,!and described in their geogremarkable
relative position. According to recent
nostically
Gustav
Pose, the formation of Chimborazo
investigations
by
is repeatedin the rock of Popocatepetl,or great volcano
of
of
and
This
rock
also
consists
Mexico.
oligoclase
augite.
Even
in the almost black beds of trachyte,resemblingpitchis recognizablein very small acute-an-*
stone, the oliglocase
Chimborazo
tion
and TenerifFe formagledcrystals.To this same
belongsthe volcano of Colima, which lies far to the west,
the shore of the South
Sea.
I have not myself seen this
near
indebted
to Herr
are
(since the
volcano, but we
Pieschelj:
The

six Mexican

(*) Bunsen, in
Poggend., Annahn

Leonhard's
der

1851
Jdhrb.fCrMincralogie,
s. 223.
Physik,bd. Ixxxiii.,

s.

856 ; also in

"pSee above,
% See

p. 279-281.
Pieschel, Ueber die Vulkane

Mexico,

in the

Zeitschrift
far
489-532.
assertion
The
allgem.Erdkunde,
vi.,1856, s. 8G
mortal
has ascended
there made
the steep summit
(p.86),"that never
of the Pico del Fraile,"that is to say, the highestpeak of the volcano
of Toluca, has been confuted
made
measurement
by my barometrical
that
summit
feet
10
in
(which is,by-the-way,scarcely
width)
upon
very
the 29th of September, 1803, and published first in 1807, and again
on
volume
of the journal above
recently by Dr. Gumprecht in the same
raised on
doubt
this point was
referred to (p. 489). The
the more
of the Pico del Fraile,whose
singular,as it was from this very summit
sides are
tower-like
certainlynot very easy to climb, and at a height
600
than that of Mont
feet
less
Blanc, that I struck off the
scarcely
hollowed
of trachyte which
out
masses
are
by the lightning,and which
the
vitreous
inserted
inside like
tubes.
An
are
glazed on
essay was
lx. of his Annates
der Physik,
so
early as 1819 by Gilbert, in volume
(s.261), on the specimens placed by me in the Berlin Museum, as well
collections (seealso Annates
in several Parisian
de C/rimie et de Phyas
sique,
In some
t. xix., 1822, p. 298).
places the lightning has bored
three
tubes (as much
inches in length),that
such regularcylindrical
as
and
looked
from
end
in those cases
be
the
to
end,
through
they can
rock surrounding the openings is likewise vitrified. I have also brought
with
in which
the whole
me
surpieces of trachyte in my collections,
bd.

von

and

378

cosmos.

less active volcanoes

or

the
as

known

has become

seventy or eightyyears, but

and unconnected
it were, isolated,

to mariners

within

this group
lay hitherto,
with the volcanic range

last

of the Mexican

tropicalregion,or with the volcanoes which

believed
the peninsulaof California.
to exist on
were
If we
include the range of extinct trachyticcones
intermediate
as
portant
links,we may be said to have obtained insightinto their imthan 28"
over
a
geologicalconnection
gap of more
of latitude,
between
tory,
Durango and the new Washington terriof West
northward
Oregon. The study of the physical
condition of the earth owes
this important step in advance
to
the scientifically
which the governwell-preparedexpeditions
ment
of the United
States has fitted out for the discoveryof
the best road from the plainsof the Mississippi
to the shores
of the South
Sea.
All the departments of natural
history
have

derived

from

advantage

those

undertakings.

of country have been

tracts
incognitaof this intermediate

found,in the

Mountains

slope,to

their

their eastern

on

still active

(as,for

volcanoes

long way

Sunda

and

then

of extinct

evidences

instance,in the Cascade

New

northwest

or

ains).
Mount-

Zealand, and ascending

through New
Guinea, the

Islands, the Philippines,and

Aleutians;
the

the

to

with

Thus, settingout from

first a

exploredterra
the Rocky
very near
great distance beyond
now

space, from

descent, covered

western

Great

Eastern

Asia, to the
south
through

the

descendingtoward

northwestern, the Mexican, the Central

American, and
South American
territories to the terminatingpoint of Chili,
find the entire circuit of the basin of the PacificOcean,
we
of 2G,400 geographical miles, surrounded
throughout an extent
of
of volcanic
by a range
recognizablememorials
Without

action.

enteringinto the details of exact

of the perfectednomenclature,

bearingsand
view

such

Of the

this could

as

earth, we

portions

it remains
extends

South

The
Sea

term

by

Fleurieu,the

for
from

"Grand
that
editor

chand, confounds
misapprehension.

say the
of it which

us

to

to

now

Rio

Gila

Ocean,"

learned

to

used

whole

Norton's

to

between
tract

and

friend

Historiqueau

part, and

the whole
of the

designate the

geographer, my
with

over

penetrate
the

indicated

here

circumference

describe

of the Introduction

the

basin

of water

mass

cosmical

obtained.

been

great oceanic*
united

one

rather

ought

of those

which

never

circuit of the

(or,as there is but

have

ical
geograph-

est
largnents)
conti-

of country
Kotzebue's
basin

of the

Contre-amiral

Voyage

de

de Mar~

consequently leads

to

Analogiesdrawn

Sounds.

Europe from

in

chain, and in South

Alpine

the

379

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

the

from

America

Pyrenees

or

the Cordilleras

Andes, from South Chili to the fifth degree of north

latitude in New
Granada, supported by fanciful delineations
have
in maps,
opinion that the
propagated the erroneous
Mexican
be
mountains, or at least their highest ridge,can
of the Sierra Madre,
traced along like a wall,under the name
of the

from

southeast

part of Mexico

is

from

height of

the

though the mountainous

nectedly
mighty swellingof the land running con-

direction

in the

But

northwest.

to

above

stated

to 7000

5000

between

feet,yet

on

two

the top of this,

in Central Asia,

in the Caucasus
and
same
as
way
loftier
still
and
ranges of mountains, running in partial
various
directions,rise to about 15,000 and 17,800
in the

The

of

the

with

most

be

the

strengthenedby
The

country.
seem,

pictorial

colossal mountains
it were,

as

spectator confounds

land, the
and it is

is

perpetualsnow,

The

which

drawn
may
flattened
undulating
ridge.
in the formation
of the soil give

features

effect of the beautiful

axis

sures
fis-

of the

deceptionwhich

plain.

ideal

swell

remarkable

rise to

partialgroups, erupted from

other,is in its bearingsfor the

to each
parallel

part independent
through the entire
These

very
feet.

of these

arrangement
not

to

seas

the

rise out

to

ridge of
plainof

ered
cov-

of

the soft swelling

the low lands ;

plain,with the
the change of climate,the loweringof the

elevated

only from

degree of latitude,that he is reminded

temperature, under the same
he
has
of the height to which
ascended.
The fissure
of
before
of upheaval, frequently
the volcano
of
mentioned,

(running in a direction from east to

19^" lat.)intersects* the general axis

Anahuac
19"

and
land

almost

of the

careful

by

here

of the

surface

be

met

with

described

of

earth, which

with

considerable

only began

since

inclosed between

two

as

"

Kuen-liin.

The

which
*

On

the

at

Essai

Pol.

Nature, p.

of
sur

37.

the

same

portion

be

lished
estab-

chains,which bound
in Bolivia, at the Lake
of

mountain

of

the

these,the South

time

forms

of the greatest elevations

axes

tropicalzone

former

to

the

it were, like walls

as
Titicaca; and in Central Asia, between

them,

ing
swell-

year 1853, must

those swellingsof the soil which
are

measurements

confounded

not

of the

right angles.

at

conformation

The

between

west

the
and

Himalaya

American

bottom

of

and

tion,
elevaa

of the volcanoes

valley,
in the

Mexico, see above, p. 26t and 300.

Compare
Esp., t. i.,p. 257-268, t. ii.,
p. 173 ; Views

la Nouv.

also

of

380

cosmos.

according to Pentland, 12,847 feet above

or
sea
Thibetian, according to
the
; the latter,
son,
ThomCaptain Henry Strachey, Joseph Hooker, and Thomas
half a
The
wish expressedby me
is upward of 14,996.
century since,in my circumstantial "Analyse de V Atlas Gcographiqueet Physiquede Poyaume de laNouvelle Espange ("xiv.),
and GuMexico
of the elevated plainbetween
that my profile
over
Durango
anaxuato
might be continued by measurements
is

average,
level of the
an

on

Mexico, is now
completelyrealized. The length of way, reckoning only one
than 1200
amounts
to more
fourth for the inflections,
graphical
geoof
feature
this
characteristic
so long
miles,and the
of
undulation
soft
earth
of
the
unobserved
(the
configuration
in a transverse
the swelling and its breadth
section,amountChihuahua

and

ing sometimes

to

from

that

as

or

difference

comprisinga
same

240

Fe

Santa

as

fact that the

the

by

far

as

ed
geographicalmiles)is manifestto Santa
distance (from Mexico
Fe),
the
of fully16" 20' about
of parallels
280

Florence, is traveled over in

out
ridge of the table-land,with-

Stockholm

to

the
on
carriages,
prepared roads.
advantage of artificially

four-wheeled
the

of such

known

was

to

century, when

of the 16th

the end

bility
possi-

The

the
the

de Monterey,*planned the first settlements

viceroy,the Conde
Zacatecas.

of what

In confirmation

relative

respectingthe

I take

1803

Juan
and

in 1816
internal

parts,

t In
Santa

this
Fe

Memoir
(Bate, 1594.
1817, by Dr. Wislizenus.

been

pleted
com-

in the direction from

of

Tour

to

Mexico

Northern

of the configuration
On
the influence
the
of the table-land)on
soil (the wonderful
extent
-with the
of the tropicalzone
and the intercourse
civic order, legalfreedom, and industry increase in

once

Pol., t. iv.,p. 38,

Essai

see

survey

del Neuvo

table which

of tbe

elevations

Mexico,

I have

as

given in

well

scientific Memoir

the

of
as

and

in the

p. 612.
Mexico
soil between

Dana,

similar

but

Views

and

fect
imper-

more

of Nature, p. 208, the

numerals, denote the names

the

Ws, Bt, and Ht, attached to the

observer.
Thus, Ws stands for Dr.
and

have

ments
chief ele-

northerly,placedat the top

readilywith the bearings of

de

commerce

north, when

them

the

\\

of the

these

to 1847.

insert

from

charts

By

here

which
levelings,

to

of the

the

of the barometrical

south, so that the most

correspondmore
list,
may

north

our

Mexico, I

generalway
capitalof Mexico

stated in

has been

heightsbetween

del Nuevo

Fe

Santa

and

of intercourse

medium

Spaniards so earlyas
from

del Nuevo

letters
of the

structive
Wislizenus, editor of the very inTour to Northern
Mexico, connected

of a
with Colonel
Doniphan's Expedition in 181G and
of Mines, Bnrkart
1848) ; Bt the Chief Counselor

1847
; and

(Washington,
Ht

for my-

Fe

Santa

del Nuevo

381

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

Mexico

(lat.35" 41'),height 7047

feet,Ws.
self.

At

the time

when

was

occupied, from

March, 1803,
of places in

to

ary,
Febru-

the trop1804:,with the astronomical determinations

ical
Spain, and ventured, from the materials I could dis^
of that country, of which
and examine, to design a map
spected
my reof the United
friend Thomas
Jefferson, then President
States,

part of Xew
cover

in Washington, caused
a
copy to be made, there
interior
of
the
the road to Santa Fe,
in
the
on
as
country,
yet
cording
determinations
of latitude north of Durango (lat.24" 25'). Ac-

during

my

residence

existed
no

to the two
manuscript journals of the engineers Eivera, Lafoin the
Mascaro, of the years 1724 and 1765, discovered by me
directions of the compass
and
archives of Mexico, and which contained
the
careful
calculation
showed
for
portant
ima
distances,
computed partial
station
of Santa Fe, according to Don
Pedro
de Rivera, lat.
52' 30".
36" 12', and long. 105
(See my Atlas Geogr.et Phys. du MexPol.,t. i.,p. 75-82.) I took the precaution,in the
ique,tab. 6, am\Essai

ra, and

analysisof my map, to note this result as

of the distances,
that in the valuations
as

one, seeing
very uncertain
well as in the directions of
a

uncorrected
the compass,
for the magnetic
destitute
of human
objectsin treeless plains,

variation,and unaided by
tent
habitations,over an exbe
than 1200
not
of more
can
geographical miles, all the errors
compensated (t.i.,p. 127-131). It happens that the result here given,
astronomical
recent
as
observations, turns
compared with the most
in
the
latitude
than
in the longitude
out
erroneous
to be much
more
and
the
latter
former
about
in
thirty-one,
scarcelytwenbeing in the
"

tv-three

minutes.

was

likewise

fortunate

enough

to

determine,

near-

ly correctly,the geographical positionof the Lake Timpanogos, now

of Timpanogos
generally called the Great Salt Lake, while the name
into
river
which
falls
the
littleUtah
the
is now
to
Lake, a
only applied
lake.
In the language of the Utah Indians
fresh-water
a river is called
and
rock, so that
by contraction ogo alone ; timpan means
og-xcah.be,
Timpan-ogo signifiesrock-river (Fremont, Explor. Exped., 1815, p.
can
explains the word timpa as derived from the Mexi273). Buschmann
termination
of
tetl,stone, while in pa he finds a substantive
attributes
he
the
to
the native North-Mexican
languages;
general
ogo
his work, Die Spuren der Aztehischen Sprache
of water
: see
signification
and 351.
im nordlichen Mexico, s. 351-356
Compare Expedition to the
Stansbury,
Valleyof the Great Salt Lake of Utah, by Captain Howard
My map gives
1852, p. 300, and Humboldt, Vieics ofNature, p. 206.
of the Laguna de
somewhat
to the east
to the Montagues de Sel gemme,
first
40"
Ill0
lat,
48'
7', long.
30"; consequently my
Timpanogos,
in
in
The
39
differs
minutes
and
17
longitude.
latitude,
conjecture
of the positionof Santa Fe, the capitalof
determinations
recent
most
I am
New
Mexico, with which
acquainted, are, 1st, by Lieutenant
astronomical
observations,lat. 35" 44'
Emory (1S46),from numerous
(1848),perhaps in another
6"; and, 2d, by Gregg and Dr. Wislizenus
35" 41' 6". : The
longitude,according to Emory, is 7h 4' 18",
locality,
cle
and
106"
5' in the equatorialcirtherefore
in time from
Greenwich,
and
Mexico
from
22'
Paris
108"
to
(Xew
Wislizenus,
; according
Most
No. 41, p. 36; Wish, p. 29).
California,
by Emory, Document
of places in the neighborhood of
in making tbe
latitudes
err
maps
The
Fe too
far to the north.
Santa
height of the cityof Santa Fe

382

cosmos.

Albuquerque* (lat.35" 8'),height 4849 feet,Ws.

del Norte (lat.
del Norte,f on the Eio Grande
29" 48'),
Paso
feet,Ws.

height3790

feet,Ws.

(lat.28" 320, 4638

Chihuahua

6273
feet,Ws.
Cosiquiriachi,
25" 540, 4782 feet"
Mapimi, in the Bolson de Mapimi (lat.
Ws.

(lat.25" 320, 4986 feet,Ws.

Saltillo (lat.25" 100, 5240 feet,Ws.
Durango (lat.24" 250, 6849 feet,accordingto Oteiza.
Fresnillo (lat.23" 100, 7244
feet,Bt.

Parras

(lat.22" 500,

Zacatecas

9012

feet"Bt-

(lat.22" 80, 6090 feet,Bt.

Aguas Calientes (lat.21" 530, 6261 feet,Bt.
Lagos (lat.21" 200, 63"6 feet"BtVilla de Leon
(lat.21" 70, 6134 feet,Bt.
Silao,5911 feet,Bt.
San

Luis

Potosi

(lat.21" 0' 15'0,6836 feet,Ht.

Salamanca
(lat.20" 400, 5?62 feet,Ht.
Celaya (lat.20" 38/),6017 feet,Ht.
Queretaro (lat.20" 36/ 39"), 6363 feet,Ht,

Guanaxuato

San

Juan

del

Rio,

in the state

of

20" 300,
Queretaro (lat.

feet,Ht.
Tula
(lat.19" 570, "T33 feet,Ht.
Pachuca, 8140 feet,Ht.
Real del Monte, 8511
feet,Ht.
Moran, near
extremity of the great plain
Huehuetoca, at the northern
of Mexico
(lat.19" 480, 7533 feet,Ht.

6490

Mexico

(lat.19" 25' 45'0, 7469

feet,Ht.

(lat.19" 16"),8825 feet,Ht.

de Chalco, at the southeastern
Venta
extremityof the great
plain of Puebla, 7712 feet,Ht.
San Francisco
extremity of the
Ocotlan, at the western
great plain of Puebla, 7680 feet,Ht.
Cholula, at the foot of the ancient graduated Pyramid,
(lat.19" 20, 6900 feet,Ht.
Toluca

above

the level of the

Wislizenus, fully7046

according to Emory,
(mean

measurement

is 6844

6950)

;
;

according to
it therefore

Spltigenand Gotthard
passes in the Swiss Alps.
*
latitude of Albuquerque is taken from
the beautiful special
The
the
New
entitled
of
Map of
Territory
Mexico, by Kern, 1851.
map,
is
4749
Its height, according to Emory
feet; according to
(p. 166),
4858.
Wislizenus
(p. 122),
the latitude of the Paso del Norte
t For
Wisliz.,p. 125,
compare
Met, Tables
8-12, Aug., 1846.
resembles

that of the

sea,
feet

383

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

Ht.
Angeles (lat.19" 0' 15"),7201 feet,
(The villageof Las Vigas marks the eastern extremityof
the elevated plain of Anahuac, lat. 19" 37/; the height of
the villageis 7814 feet,Ht.)
of the 19th
Thus, though previousto the commencement
taken
century, not a single altitude had been barometrically
of New
in the whole
Spain, the hypsometricaland in most
observations for thirty-twoplacesin
also astronomical
cases
of nearly 16^"
the direction from north to south, in a zone
of Santa Fe and the capitalof
the town
between
of latitude,
thus see that the surface
have been acomplished. We
Mexico
an
of the wide elevated plain of Mexico
assumes
undulating
form, varying in the centre from 5850 to 7500 feet in height.
to Albuquerque
The lowest portionof the road from Parras
the
is even
1066 feet higher than
highestpoint of Vesuvius.
The great though gentle*
est
swellingof the soil,whose highfrom
south
and
which
toportionwe have just surveyed,
of 42" and 44",
north, from the tropicalpart to the parallels
in extent

increase

so

de los

Puebla

La

westward

from

east

to west

that the Great

of the Mormons, has

of the great Salt Lake
of upward of 340
geographicalmiles, with a

Basin,
ameter
di-

a
mean

from
nearly 5800 feet,differs very considerably
mountain
the rampart-like
chains by which it is surmounted.
of the chief points
Our knowledge of this configuration
is one
of Fremont's
in the years
great hypsometricalinvestigations
elevation

1842

and

ferent

of

1844.

epoch

from

This
that

swellins;of the soil

late

chains and systems of varied

about 32" lat.,the mountain

upheaval which
direction.

At

belongs
we

to

dif-

call mountain

the

point where,
mass
Chihuahua, according
the western
to the present settlement of the boundaries,enters
of the United
States (in the provincestaken from
territory
Mexico), it begins to bear the not very definite title of the
in
Sierra Madre.
A decided bifurcation,!
however, occurs
of

Fremont, Report of the ExploringExped. in 1842, p. GO;

Dana, Geologyof the United States Expl. Exped., p. 611-613; and for
South America, Alcide D'Orbigny, Voy. dans V Am'criqueMcrid., Atlas,
De Geologiespiciale,
pi.viii.,
fig.1.
*

Compare

f For

this bifurcation

chains

and

the correct

denomination

of the east

and

Territoryof Neiv Mexico,

Johnson's
by Parke and Kern, 1851 ; Edwin
Map of Railroads, 1851 ;
John
Bartlett's Map of the Boundary Commission, 1851; Explorations
and Surveysfrom the Mississippito the Pacificin 1853 and 1851, vol. i.,
and comprehensive work of Jules
p. 15 ; and, above all,the admirable
the
Pacific R. R. Survey, under
Marcou, Geologist of the Southern
Carte
cVune
of Lieutenant
command
explicatif
Whipple, entitled Resume
des Etats Unis et d'un ProfilGeologiqueallant de la Vallce du
Geologique
west

see

the

large specialmap

of the

384

cosmos.

neighborhood of Albuquerque,

the

the

Madre, while
10' forward

(a

north

the

little to

Mississippiaux

of Santa

the

from

Sierra
lat. 36"

Fe'),from

ican
Amer-

but
equally ill-chosen,

English travelers,the

and

bifurcation the

received

has

branch

eastern

at this

generaltitle of

the

still maintains

chain

western

and

now

de r Ocean

letin
Pacif que, p. 113-116; also in the Bulla
de
2e
813.
t.
In
France,
Gcologique
Serie, xii.,p.
closed
the
Sierra
or
Madre,
by
Rocky Mountains,
valley
cotes

cle la Socicte
the

elongated
38|",

lat. 35"

Madre

Sierra

of which
groups
chain of the
eastern

the

separate

and

the

the

To
Sandia) consist,bear different names.
the
de
Sierra
from
south
to
north,
reckoning
and
22
Mount
los Mimbres
54),
(Wislizenus,p.
and

S. de Jemez,

S. de

the

San

Juan

Mountains

the first chain

de

the

chain

western

Rocky

of the

(Sierra
belong,

las

Grullas,the
Taylor (lat.35"

; in

the

eastern

S. de

150,

chain

the

Peaks, or Sierra de la Sangre de Cristo, are distinguishedfrom

37" 32') and the northwesterlytending White
Spanish Peaks (lat.
and
Santa Fe.
close the elongated valley of Taos
Mountains, which
examination
of the volcanoes
of Central
Julius Frobel, whose
Professor
noticed
has
with
have
America
I
(Cosmos, above, p. 2G0),
already
of
erra
indefinite
much
geographical appellation Siabilityelucidated the
"on the older maps ; but he has at the same
ise
Madre
time, in a treatto the PhysicalGeography of the North
entitled Remarks
contributing
Continent (9th Annual
American
Institution,
Report of the Smithsonian
after
a
to
having
conjecturewhich,
1855, p. 272-281), given expression
unable
to assent
examined
all the materials within my reach,I am
to,
to be regarded as
a
tinuation
connot
are
namely, that the Rocky Mountains
of Anamountain
of the Mexican
range in the tropicalzone
chains, like those of the Apennines,
huac.
Uninterrupted mountain
a
Alps,
the Swiss Jura, the Pyrenees, and
great part of the German
44th
of
the
the
19th
to
exist
from
latitude,
degrees
certainlydo not
of Fremont's
far as to the north
as
from Popocatepetl,in Anahuac,
Peak, in the Rocky Mountains, in the direction from S.S.E. to N.N.W.
;
creasing
but the immense
swelling of the surface of the land,which goes on in-

Moro
the

tropicalMexico

the north

toward

in breadth

and

Oregon,

to

and
this

on

northwest, is continuous

swelling (or elevated

from

plain),

great geognosticphenomenon, separate groups of

mountains, running in often varying directions,rise over fissures which
is itself the

which

more
recentlyand at different periods. These superimposed
in the Rocky Mountains
of
mountains,
however,
which,
groups
of 8 degrees of latitude connected
for an
extent
together almost
are
distance
rendered
visible
and
to
a
like a rampart,
by conical
great
feet
high, produce
mountains, chieflytrachytic,from 10,000 to 12,000

have

an

formed

been

impression on
from

of the traveler which

the mind

the elevated

that

the circumstance

is only the
plateau which

more

found
prostretches

of a plain
in his eyes the appearance
him
around
assumes
of South
to the Cordilleras
level country.
Though in reference
spection,
of
which
is
known
considerable
to
me
by personal inAmerica, a
part

far and wide

of the

we

speak

of double

expressionLas Cordilleras
partitionof the chain),we
of the separate ranges
or

in consecutive
or

to

domes,

the direction

and

must

refers

by

no

such

to

forget that

not

of mountain
are

(in fact, the Spanish

and
a disposition

tripleranges

de los Andes

groups,

means

of the entire

swell

even

here

whether

in

either
parallel,
of the

land.

the

tion
direc-

long ridges
to

one

other
an-

386

cosmos.

9' 307/.

lono-. 112"

Even

this

point the chain of the

considerable height(5977 feet)
;

at

maintains
a
Rocky Mountains
head
but, from the many deep river-beds in the direction of FlatRiver (Clarke's
Fork), it soon decreases to a more
regular

Clarke's Fork

level.

Lewis

and

or

Snake

River

unite in

River, which will one day prove

forming the great Columbia
road
(Explorations
for a Railan
important channel for commerce.
in
River to the PacificOcean, made
from the Mississippi
1853-1854, vol. i.,p. 107.)
chain
As in Bolivia,the eastern

so

western

action

the

on

parts

at

distance

from

moved
re-

ignition,

canic
States, the vol-

of California

shores

the

of

state

United

and

Oregon
ains,
Rocky Mount-

of the

long chain

The

present very limited.

at

in

now

of the

chain

coast

farthest

(21,287 feet)and Illimani

from the sea, that of Sorata

furnish no
volcano
(21,148 feet),

also, in the

of the Andes

of the

South

Sea

is

ing
vary-

geographicalmiles,without any trace

of still existingvolcanic action,nevertheless- shows, like the
both of
chain of Bolivia, in the vale of Yucay,* on
eastern
closing
lavas inits slopes volcanic
rock, extinct craters, and even
from

480

to

800

obsidian, and
Mountains

Rocky

which

have

we

with

accordance

in

of scoriae.

beds

the

In

the

chain

of the

scribed,
degeographically

here

observations

admirable

of

Fremont, Emory, Abbot, Wislizenus, Dana, and Jules Marreckons three groups
a distinguished
geologist,
cou, the latter,
tices
of old volcanic rock on the two
slopes. For the earliest no-

vulcanicityof this district we are also indebted to

and
since the years 1842
made
the investigations
by Fremont
ains
1843 (Report of the ExploringExpeditionto the Rocky Mountin 1843-44,
in 1842, and to Oregon and North California
of the

164, 184, 187, and

p.

On

the

eastern

193).

slopeof

the

Rocky Mountains,

on

western
the south-

River, to
Fort, on the Arkansas
extinct
Fe del Nuevo
Santa
volcanoes,the
Mexico, lie two
Raton
Mountainsf with Fisher's Peak, and the hill of El
lavas of
The
Blanca.
Galisteo
and Pera
Cerrito,between
road

the

former
and

volcanic

from

cover

the

Bent's

the

whole

Canadian

which
scoriae,

are

above, p. 279.
f According to the road-map
*

kansas
Upper ArPerperino and the
in the prairies,
even

district between
River.

The

firstmet

with

the

See

of 1855, attached

to

the

generalreport

Pass rises to an
of the Secretary of State, Jefferson Davis, the Raton
level
of
the
above
the
feet
sea.
7180
Compare
as
elevation of as much
d'vne Carte GloL, 1855, p. 113.
also Marcou, Resume
explicatif

approaching the Rocky

perhaps to old eruptionsof
Spanish Peaks (37" 327).
on

the isolated Eaton

miles
36"

in

the

east, belong

of the

Cerrito,or

This

stupendous
district of

easterlyvolcanic

forms

; its

the

an

lies

centre

of 80

area

nearly

ical
geographin

latitude

o(K.
the

On

action

traversed

been

unmistakable

slope most

western

volcanic
has

from

Mountains

Mountains

diameter

387

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

discernible

are

wider

over

of

evidences

cient
an-

which

space,

by the important expeditionof Lieutenant

Whipple throughout its whole breadth from east to west.

This
though interruptedfor fully
variously-shapeddistrict,
120 geographicalmiles to the north of the Sierra de Mogoyon, is comprised (always on the authorityof Marcou's
logical
geo48/
33"
and
35" 40', so that
chart)between latitude
farther south than those of the
instances of eruption occur
falls nearly in the parallel
Its centre
of
Raton
Mountains.
here designateddivides into two
Albuquerque. The area
nearer
sections,that of the crest of the Rocky Mountains
terminates
which
the
Mount
Sierra
de
at
and
Zuiii,*
Taylor,
the

section,called the Sierra

western

of Mount

conical mountain

de San

Francisco.

The

feet

rounded
high, is surby radiatinglava streams, which, like Malpays still
with
scoriae and pumdestitute of all vegetation,
covered over
ice-stone,
of several miles,precisely
wind along to a distance
Ilecla.
About
miles
72 geographical
as in the district around
of the present Pueblo
to the west
de Zuiii rises the loftyvolcanic
itself.
of
San
Francisco
It
has
mountain
a peak which
than 16,000 feet high,and stretches
has been calculated more
from the Rio Colorado
southward
ther
Chiquito,where, faraway

Taylor, 12,256

west, the Bill William

Mountain, the Aztec Pass

and the Aquarius Mountains
(8526 feet)follow.
(6279 feet),
to the

The

volcanic

rock

Fork

the Bill William

of the
*

We

must

ridge of

does

careful

be

Zuiii

as

by

Mollhausen

de Zuiii.

on

Forty

there

the

at

confluence

of

the great

the village
Colorado, near
(lat.34", long.114"); for,on

distinguish,to

to

the Paso

feet,between

7943

with

terminate

Indians

Mohave

where
Zuiii,

not

the

de Zuivi attains

viejo,the

west

of the

elevation

an

old

mountain
of

as

much

delineated

dilapidatedtown
Whipple's expedition,and the stillinhabited Pueblo
Port Defiance,
geographical miles north of the latter,near

tween
and isolated volcanic district. Bea very small
Zuiii and the descent to the Eio Colorado
Chiquito
Mollhausen
(LittleColorado) lies exposed the petrifiedforest which
the

stillexists

villageof

admirably

delineated

in 1853, and

described
of

Berlin.

the Geographical Society

to
cfune Carte Geol.,p. 59), fossil
{Resume expiic.
sent

with

the silicified coniferse.

in

According
trees

which

treatise
and

to

ferns

he

Marcou
are

gled
min-

388

cosmos.

the

side of the Rio

other

Thus

still open

but

extinct

of

craters

the

at

Soda

Lake,

eruptionmay

here, in the present New

find

we

Colorado,

be

Mexico,

eral
sev-

nized.*
recog-

in the volcanic

and
group commencing at the Sierra de San Francisco,
of the Rio
Colorado
Grande,
ending a little to the westward
distance
over
a
(into which the Gila falls),
of 180 geographicalmiles, the old volcanic
district of the
and wide
Auvergne and the Vivarais repeated, and a new
del Occidente

or

field

opened

Likewise

for

up

the

on

geologicalinvestigation.
western
slope,but 540 geographicalmiles

north, lies the third ancient volcanic group

the Rocky Mountains, that of Fremont's.
Peak, and the
whose
the
Trois
Tetons
and
triplemountains,
names,
the

to

more

Buttes,f correspond

Three

former

The

lie

from

farther

with

Parallel

Lower, California
distant

Nevada

All

road-map
f The
are

San

with

rent, and

range,
land on
for the

shore

the

peninsula of Old,

the

part 80

most

of the

South

36"

to

authorityof

the

then

in the

again,

parallel

tains
range, which condistance
at
a
which,

the coast, extends from

parallelof the Fuca Strait.

the

40|"

Sierra

the

Cascade

from

this latter chain

or

geographical

Sea,

loftyShasty Mountains,
the
10'),

times
some-

Diego to Monterey (32^"

so
tinuation
called,a conspecially

Bay
peak, and
higheststill-ignited

the

on

then,
the

41"
(lat.

miles

to

They

several ranges in which

12',are still the seat of

lat. 4G"

from
California),

(de
commencing from

course

from

Alta

beyond

coast

ridge of

of the

of 104

quently
conse-

exhibit

Rocky Mountains,

double,run

First,from
is the

36f "),there

the

latter,and

much

the

forms.

conical

chain.

of the

chain

the

action.

of Trinidad

the

lava, very

portion,from

their northern

miles

than

mountain
of

singleand sometimes

to

their

two

surface.^

scorified

volcanic

with

west

the

banks

wide-spread,black
a

the

to

more

well

of

south

Similar

43"-46"), but
(lat.
profilesof

Marcou

to

and

280

north
in

far

their

miles dis-

the above-cited

of 1855.

introduced
appellations,

French

generallyused

the most

recent
are

as

in the

Fremont's

the Canadian

fur-hunters,
English maps.
According to
canoes
relative positionsof the extinct volPeak, lat. 43" 5',long. 110" 9' 30";

country and

calculations,the
follows:

by

on

Tetons, lat. 43" 38', long.110" 49' 30"; Three Buttes, lat. 43" 20',
long. 112" 41' 30"; Fort Hall, lat. 43" 0',long. 111" 24' 30".
Mullan, on Volcanic
X Lieutenant
Formation, in the Reports of Exand
330
vol.
i.
also Lambert's
and
(1855), p.
348; see
]"hr.Surveys,
the
Three
Tinkham's
Buttes,Ibid.,p. 167 and 226-230,
Reports on
and Jules Marcou, p. 115.
Trois

TRUE

from

taut

the

389

VOLCANOES.

the Blue

shore, are

Mountains,* which

rise in

height of from 7000 to 8000 feet. In the

central portionof Old California,
little farther to the north,
a
in
the eastern
the neighborhood of the
coast
or
near
bay
former Mission
of San Ignacio,in about
28" north
latitude,
their centre

the

stands

to

extinct

known

volcano

the

as

"

Volcanes

de las

This
given on my chart of Mexico.
volcano had its last eruptionin 1746 ; but we
liable
possess no reing
information
either regardingit or any of the surrounddistricts. (See Venegas, Noticia de la California,
1757,
Duflot de Moras, Explorationde V Oregon et
t. i.,p. 27; and
de la Californie,
1844, t. i.,p. 218 and 239.)
Ancient
volcanic rock has alreadybeen found in the coast
I have

Virgenes,"which

near

ran^e

the

Francisco, in the Monte

del

and in the
(3673 feet),
investigated
elongatedvalleyof the Rio del Sacramento, in a

Diablo, which
auriferous

of San

harbor
Dr.

Trask

fallen

Butt,
in, called the Sacramento
which
Dana
has delineated.
Farther to the north,the Shasty,
Tshashtl
or
Mountains, contain basaltic lavas,obsidian,of
the natives make
which
pentine
arrow-heads, and the talc-like ser-

trachyticcrater

which
earth's

now

makes

surface,and

formations.
action

is the

its appearance
to be
appears

But

the true

Cascade

with

eternal snow,
several
16,000 feet. I shall here

seat

Mountain
of the

points of the
many
canic
closelyallied to the volon

of the

ous
ignestill-existing

range, in which, covered

peaks rise to the height of

givea listof these,proceedingfrom

south
The
to north.
less active
now
or
ignited and more
volcanoes
will be (on the plan heretofore adopted ; see above,
The
*) distinguishedby a star.
high conical
p. 68, note
mountains
not
so
are
distinguished
probably partly extinct
volcanoes,and partlyunopened trachyticdomes.
Mount
Pitt,or M'Laughlin (lat.42" 30'),a little to the
feet.
Tlamat
west of Lake
; height 9548
Mount
Vancouver
or
Jefferson,
(lat.44" 35'),a conical
mountain.
Mount

Hood

covered

mountain,

45" 10'),
no,
(lat.
decidedlyan extinct volcacellular lava.
According to Dana, this
well as Mount
St. Helen's,which
lies more

with
as

northerly in the
*

volcanic

range,

is between

15,000

and

Butt,
Dana, p. 616-G20; Blue Mountains, p. 649-651 ; Sacramento
the
Monte
On
G30-613
Cascade
614
Shasty
Mountains, p.
p.
range.
;
;
Diablo
range,
perforated by volcanic rock, see also John Trask, on
the
and the Sierra Nevada, 1854, p.
Geology of the Coast Mountains
13-18.

890

COSMOS.

lower(*)than the latter.

August, 1853, by Lake, Tra-

16,000 feet high,though somewhat

Hood

Mount

was

Swalahos,or

fallen

in

Heller.

and
vaillot,
Mount

ascended

in, extinct

Saddle

Hill,S-S.E. of Astoria,!with

crater.

River (lat.
Helen's,*north of the Columbia
46" 12');according to Dana, not
less than
15,000 feet
mit
high4 Still burning,and always smoking from the sumA volcano
of very beautiful,regular,conical
crater.
There
form, and covered with perpetual snow.
a
was
cording
great eruptionon the 23d of November, 1842 ; which, acto Fremont, covered every thingto a great distance
round with ashes and pumice.
Adams
Mount
(lat.46" 18'),almost exactlyeast of the
of St. Helen's, more
volcano
than 112 geographicalmiles
Mount

St.

from

distant

coast, if it

the

stillactive mountain

and

is

be

only 76

Regnier,*also written
48'),E.S.E. of Fort Nisqually,on
Mount

connected

with
to Edwin

Fuca

the

Strait.

Johnson's

that

true

of those

Mount

last-named

the

miles

Rainier

inland.

(lat.46"

Puget'sSound, which
A burning volcano;

road-map of 1854, 12,330

is
cording
ac-

feet

experiencedsevere
eruptionsin 1841 and 1843.
47" 50'),only 24 geographical
miles
Mount
Olympus (lat.
in
south of the Strait of San Juan
de Fuca, long so famous
Sea discoveries.
the historyof the South
Mount
Baker,* a largeand still active volcano,situated
of Washington (lat.
48" 48'),of great (unin the territory
measured
a
nd
al
regular conic?)height(not yet determined),
high.

It

form.
Brown

Mount

east, Mount

(16,000 feet?)and, a little more

Hooker

(16,750 feet?),are

cited

by

to

the

Johnson

(p.6 15 and 610) estimated the volcano of St. Helen's at 1 6,000

Hood, of course, under that height,while according to
feet,and Mount
is said to attain the great height of 18,316 feet,
Hood
others
Mount
of Mont
which
feet higher than the summit
is 2521
Blanc, and 4730
Mountains.
ing
Accordin
the
feet higher than Fremont's
Peak,
Rocky
der
bd.
to this estimate
i.,s.
Vulkdne,
(Langrebe, Naturgeschichte
volcano
Mount
Hood
be
lower
than
the
Co571
would
feet
only
497),
exceeds
Hood, according to Dana,
topaxi ; on the other hand, Mount
of the Rocky Mountains
the highest summit
by 2586 feet at the utmost.
I am
always desirous of drawing attention to variantes lectiones such as
(*) Dana

these.

f Dana,

Geologyof the

United States

ExploringExpedition,p.

610

and

643-645.
at 10,178 feet by Wilkes, and
X Variously estimated previously

feet

by Simpson.

13,535

391

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

old volcanic trachyticmountains; under lat. 52J",

lofty,
and long.117" 40' and 119" 40'.
markable
reThey are, therefore,
than 300 geographicalmiles distant
as
being more

as

from

the coast.

Edgecombe,* on the small Lazarus Island,near

(lat.57" 3'). Its violent igneous eruption in 1796

Mount
Sitka

by
already been mentioned
ascended
who
Captain Lisiansky,

above, p. 255).
it in the first years of
the volcano then unignited. Its

has

me

see

present century, found

reaches,accordingto Ernst Hofmann, 3039 feet ;
height(*)
according to Lisiansky,2801 feet. Near it are hot springs
the

issue from

which

Aragua
Mount
to

from

the road

on

the Valles

de

Portocabello.

to

ing
Fairweather, or Cerro de Buen Tiempo ; accordMalaspina, 4489 metres, or 14,710 feet highf (lat.

35/).

58"

as
granite,

Covered

with

pumice-stoneand probablyignited

Elias.
back, like Mount
The volcano of Cook's
Inlet (lat.60" 8'); accordingto
Admiral
"Wrangel,12,065 feet high,and considered by that
ive
mariner, as well as by Vancouver, to be an actintelligent
to

up

short time

volcano.J
Mount
to

Malaspina'smanuscripts,which
of Mexico, 5441

to

is

Captain
only 14,970

in the Archives

17,854 feet; according

to 1856, the height

or

1853

in

of the Northwest

his account

of Franklin's

Bay

69"
(lat.

Passage,
57', long.127"),

of the Mackenzie

to be
River, seems
kind of earth-fire,
or
salses,throwing out hot, sulphurous

eastward
a

of the

ing
30''')
; accord-

I found

feet.

M'Clure,

calls the volcano

metres,

chart,from

Denham's

What

10/

(lat.60" 17',long.136"

Elias

mouth

the missionaryMiertsching,interpreter
eye-witness,
board the ship Investigator,
found
to the expeditionon
of smoke
from thirtyto fortycolumns
risingfrom fissures in
of claysof various
the earth, or from
small conical mounds
The sulphurousodor was
colore.
so strong that it was
ly
scarcetance
possibleto approach the columns of smoke within a disvapors.

An

of twelve

paces.

No

rock

or

other

solid

masses

bd. i.,1829, s. 243.

(*) Karsten's Archiv. fur Mineralogie,
Polit.
Nouv.
la
sur
t Humboldt, Essai
Esji.,t. i.,p. 2G6,

could

torn,

ii.,

p. 310.
in
X According to a manuscript which I was
permitted to examine
of Mexico, the whole
of Nutka,
coast
1803, in the Archives

the year
far as
as
the

what

was

afterward

expedition of Juan
1774.

called

Perez, and

"

Cook's

Estevan

visited during
Inlet,"was
Martinez, in the year

Jose

S92

cosmos.

discovered

be

from

at

night,

sulphuricacid were
and
investigation,

sea, and
observed.
the

The

district merits
stands

phenomenon

there, like the volcanic

action of the

careful

quite unconnected

Cerro

de Buen

Elias in the California!! Cascade

of Mount

or

seen
vicinity. Lights were
of
but
heat
ejections mud,
great
small pools of water
containing

no

of the

bed

of the

the

ship

the

immediate

in

Tiempo,
(M'Clure,

range

the Northwest

Passage, p. 99 ; Papers relative to

Discoveryof
the Arctic Expedition,
1854, p. 34; Miertsching'sReise-Tagebuch; Gnadau, 1855, s. 4C).
planet in their intimate

vital activities of

the volcanic

treated

hitherto

I have

connections

if forming

as

our

ing
ascend-

an

scale of the great and mysteriousphenomenon of a reaction

mal
its surface,clothed with aniof its fused interior upon
I
considered
in
have
next
and vegetableorganisms.
order

the almost

to

of

(the wave

effects of the

purely dynamic

and
'springs

thermal

concussion) the

earthquake
wises,that

phenomena produced,with or without spontaneous

nicated
ignition,
by the permanent elevation of temperature commuof gas, as well as
to the water-springsand
streams
The
by diversityof chemical mixture.
highest,and in its
expressionsthe most complicatedgrade of the scale is presented
into
action
the
the
which
call
volcanoes,
by
great and
rock-formation
varied
by the dry
processes of crystalline
method, and which consequentlydo not simply reduce and
destroy,but appear in the character of creative powers, and
is to say,

form

the

for

materials

combinations.

new

very recent, if not

of volcanic
is the work

portionof

of the

strata

action,whether

pointsof

many

elevated

open
In

earth

the

stages, or, as
the immediate

by
by the

rock

the

recent, mountain
in
as
effected,

present day, by the pouring forth of molten

the

to

most

considerable

side of the

without
fissures,

peculiarconical or dome-shaped
ence,
in the earlyyears of our
planet'sexistissuingforth of basaltic and trachytie
sedimentarystrata,from a net-work of
at

of any

the intervention

the

such

structures.

carefullyendeavored

I have

most
preceding pages
of the pointsat which
the locality
a
has long continued
fluid
between
the
open

determine

earth

and

the number

of the

the

atmosphere.

of these

historical

present day, and

into continental

which

have

periods those
to

and

It

consider
insular

out

been

which

these

remains

now

points,to separate

volcanoes

at

masses

are

interior of
to

sum

up
of the rich ance
abund-

active
still

accordingto

volcanoes.

cation
.communi-

in

very

mote
re-

ignitedat

the

their division

If all those

which,

394

cosmos.

VI.
VII.

South

Asiatic

Indian

Ocean

South

VIII.

and

(6) Peru

56

||at

note

Bolivia

p. 270-272)
(c) Quito and New

p. 272-274)

(p. 270-275,

24

"

note

at

14
18

(3)
(10)

29

(18)

(4)

24

(5)
(3)

Granada

(p.270, note J).

(2) Central America
(p. 245, 255-264, 270, 309,
note
X at p. 257, notes * and f at p. 263)....
(3) Mexico, south of the Rio Gila (p. 264, 266,
270, 291-309, note at 293-5, notes at p. 297,
298, 302, 303 ; 376-401, note % at p. 376, and
on
notes
p. 377-82)
(4) Northwestern
America, north of the Gila (p.

383-392)
Antilles*

Total

In the Antilles

Little

"

the
out

on

the volcanic

Antilles,"three

somewhat

of the

activityis

volcanic

considerations

407

confined

what

to

four stillactive volcanoes

or

curvilinear
the

nearly parallel to

(26)
(53)
(26)
(13)

115

(1) South America

(a) Chili (p. 270,

The

(56)
(5)

40

Continental

"

120

note

America

IX.

(p. 281-391, 354-358)

(p.358-363, and note * at p. 361, 362)
(p. 363-376 ; 361, note f ; 365, note * ;

S^a

366,

Islands

fissure

running

fissure of

induced

from

Central

the

(225)
called

are

havingbroken
south

north,

to

America.

In

simultaneousness

the

of the

by
and Arkansas,
Ohio, Mississippi,
with those of the Orinoco, and of the shore of Venezuela, I have
with
already described the little sea of the Antilles,in its connection
and the great plain of Louisiana, between
the Althe Gulf of Mexico
leghanies and the Rocky Mountains, on geognosticviews, as a single
ancient basin (Voyage aux
Regions Equinoxiales,t. ii.,
p. 5 and 19 ; see
18"
also above, p. 10). This basin is intersected in its centre, between
mountain
from
of
the
and 22" lat.,by a Plutonic
Cape Catochc,
range
peninsula of Yucatan, to Tortola and Virgen gorda. Cuba, Hayti,
to east, parallelwith
and Porto Rico form a range running from west
On
the other hand, the
the granite and
gneiss chain of Caraccas.
unite together
Little Antilles, which
for the most
volcanic,
are
part
the Plutonic
chain just alluded to (thatof the Great Antilles)and that
of the shore of Venezuela, closing the southern
portion of the basin
course

earthquakes

the
from

south

The
and

valleysof

The

the east.

on

in the

volcanoes

13"

16|", in

north

volcano

sometimes

to

at

April, 1812.

of the
the

Little Antilles

lie between

followingorder, reckoning

of the island
5052

quiet,until
of

still active

parallelsof
to

the rivers

an

The

feet

of St.

Vincent,
Since

high.
ejectionof

immense

first commotions

stated

the

sometimes

at

eruption of 1718

lava took

commenced

3197

all

mained
re-

the 27th

place
as
early as May,
on

after the island of Sabrina, in the

the crater, three months
1811, near
They began faintlyin the mountain
Azores, had risen from the sea.
ber
valleyof Caraccas, 3496 feet above the surface of the sea, in Decemof the

same

the 26th

citytook
earthquake
destroyed
with justiceascribed
of December,
1796, was
of Guadaloupe (the end of September,
volcano

The
year.
of March,

place on
Cumana, on the 14th
to the eruption of the

complete

1812.

As

destruction
the

of the great
which

TRUE

result of this laborious

The

1796), in
the

like

reaction
The

of St. Vincent.

farther

on

ii.,
p. 14).

lava since

1718, but

heard

crater

on

volcano

and

of

had

of St. Vincent

basins

small

that

thundering
the

on

April

one

reached
that

noise

1800

periodicallyfilled

feet
with

high.

In

the

boilingwater.

was

near

It

was

to me

very much
the shore.

called
crater

In

no

from

confirmed

been

the

out

flowed

the sea-shore.
has

which

thrown

of lava

stream

the open sea, far from the island,than

stronger
of the island of St. Lucia, commonly
The
volcano
to

been
"

grass-plains(Llanos) of
Apure, 192 geographical miles
junction with the Orinoco
(Humboldt,

in four hours

scarcely 1200

have

Antilles

the latter volcano

on

fatara,is

long

the distant

intelligentcoasting mariners,

very

to

appears
of the

noise,like the

eruption of

on

the 30th

and

I have

of the Rio
its

The

striking circumstance,

very

by

violent

than

Voyage, t.
the summit

of Caraccas

southerlyvolcano

the shores

the West

to

of

which

on

frightfulsubterranean

of cannon,
produced by
30th of April, 1812, was

Calabozo, and

work,

the destruction

manner

effect of the

395

VOLCANOES.

only
are

the

sol-

several
1766

year

ejectionof scoiice and cinders is said to have been observed,which

is certainlyan unusual
phenomenon in a solfatara ; for,although the
Forbes
and
Poulett
careful investigationsof James
Scrope leave no
doubt
that
took
from
the
of Pozan
Solfatara
to
room
eruption
place
the
zuoli in
1198, yet one
might be inclined to consider that
year
effect produced by the great neighboringvolcano,
event
as
a collateral
Vesuvius
(see Forbes, in the Edinb. Journal of Science,vol. i.,p. 128,
and Poulett Scrope, in the IVansact.
of the Geol. Soc, 2d Ser.,vol. ii.,
and
the
Sunda
Islands furnish us with
p. 316). Lancerote, Hawaii,
of
analogous examples
eruptions at exceedingly great distances from
the summit
the solfatara
It is true
craters, the peculiar seat of action.
an

of Pozzuoli
of

was

Vesuvius

in

disturbed

not

on

the

occasion

of great

tions
erup-

the

1791, 1822, 1850, and 1855 (Julius

years
Schmidt, Ueber die Eruption des Vesuvs im Mai, 1855, p. 156), though
Strabo
(lib.v., p. 215), long before the eruption of Vesuvius, speaks
of

vaguely, it is true, in the scorched plains of DicaCumcea

and Phlegra. Dicaarchia
in Hannibal's
time received

fire,somewhat

archia, near
the

of

name

Puteoli

from

the

Romans,

who

colonized

it.

of the bad
account
Strabo, "on
smell of the water, that the whole
of that district,
far as Baias and
as
ter.
waCumcea, is so called because it is full of sulphur,fire,and warm
that on
Some
think
this account
Cumcea
(Cumanus
ager) is
called also Phlegra
;" and then again Strabo mentions
discharges
of fire and water
(" 7rpo%odcrov TivpbgKal rov vScltoq").
The recent
volcanic action of the island of Martinique, in the Monand
tagne Pelee (accordingto Dupuget, 4706 feet high), the Vauclin
the Pitons
du Carbet, is still more
doubtful.
The
great eruption of
the
22d
of
and
the
on
described
January, 1792,
vapor
by Chisholm.
shower
of ashes of the 5th of August, 1851, deserve
oughly
thorto be more
inquired into.
The
Soufriere
de la Guadeloupe, according to the older measurements
ing
of Amic
and Le Boucher, 5435 and 5109 feet high, but, accord"Some

are

to

of

opinion," continues

the latest and

Deville, only

4867

Sainte-Claire
calculations of Charles
very correct
feet high, exhibited
itself on
the 28th of September,

1797, 78 days before

the town

of Cumana.

as

the
a

great earthquake and

volcano

the destruction

ejectingpumice (Rapport

fait

of
an

396

cosmos.

General

la nuit

Voyage, t.

du

does

Lava

consulted

cases

et Hapel
Vendemiaire,

the

le Volcan

sur

de la Basse

46 ;

6, pag.

an

original

Humboldt,

lower

is dioritic rock;
part of the mountain
of which
is open, is trachyte,containing

the summit

cone,

labradorite.

au

The

i.,p. 816).

volcanic

all

par Amic

Hugues

Victor

Terre, dans
the

in

occupied,having

been

not

flowed

have

to

even

appear

in streams

condition,the Soulateral fissures,

hut
the ashes of the eruptions of Sept.,1797, Dec, 1836, and Feb., 1837,
lamented
examined
Dufrenoy, with his peby the excellent and much
culiar
found
be
were
to
finelypulverizedfragments of lava,
accuracy,
in which
feldspathicminerals (labradorite,rhyakolite,and sanidine)
(See Lherminier, Daver,
were
recognizable,together with pyroxene.
and Dufrenov, in the Cowptes rendus de I Acad, des
Elie de Beaumont,
Sc, t. iv.,1837, p. 294 ; 651 and 743-749). Small fragments of quartz
have also been recognized by Devi lie in the trachytesof the soufriere,
together with the crystalsof labradorite (Comptes ?-endus,t. xxxii., p.
found
of quartz
hexagonal dodecahedra
675),while Gustav Rose even
of Arequipa (Meyen, Beise um
in the trachytesof the volcano
die Erde,
bd. ii.,
s. 23).
The
phenomena here described,of the temporary ejectionof very
various mineral
productions from the fissure openings of a soufriere,
accustomed
remind
a
to denominate
are
us
very forciblythat what we
tain
denotes, properly speaking,only cersolfatara,soufriere,or fumarole
mountain

the

from

friere,either

called,on

the

from

of its usual

account

summit

crater

from

or

the

have once
ted
emitwhich
Volcanoes
of volcanic action.
ble
consideraof
loose
scoria}
when
that
have
lava, or,
failed,
ejected
the same
scoria pulverizedby trituration,
volume
pass,
; or, finally,
in which
thev vield
diminution
of their activitv, into a state
a
conditions

on

only sulphur, sublimates

sulphurous acid, and

of

aqueous

vapor.

If

it would

readily convey
the idea that they are a peculiarclass of volcanoes.
Bunsen, to whom,
Senarmont, Charles Deville,and Danbree,
along with Boussingault,
for their ingenious
for such
is indebted
science
important advances
to the
and happy applicationof chemistry to geology, and
especially
"
volcanic processes, shows
how, when in sulphur sublimations,which
of sulphur in
volcanic eruptions,the masses
almost
always accompany
in contact
with the glowing pyroxene
the form of vapor come
rocks,
the sulphurous acid is generated by the partialdecomposition of the
action then
If the volcanic
in those rocks.
oxyd of iron contained
as

such

sinks
enters

we

to

lower

into

perhaps

to

were

of

call them

semi-volcanoes,

the

temperature,

new

metals

phase.
of

the

The

chemical

action

sulphurous
and

earths

of that

combinations

alkalies

there

zone

then

of

iron, and
mence
produced, com-

ternate
the aqueous
operation
vapor, and the result of the alaction is the generation of sulphuretedhydrogen and the products

their

on

of its

The

decomposition, disengaged hydrogen

outlive the great volcanic
sulphur fumaroles
muriatic

The

They

seldom

acid
assume

fumaroles
the

to

sulphur vapor."
ries.
eruptions for centu-

different and

of permanent

later period.

phenomena.

generated in this way : the

in volcanoes,
common
so
product of sublimation
in
is
in
decomposed
higher temperaparticularly Vesuvius,
tures,
and forms
under the co-operationof aqueous
vapor and silicates,
muriatic
acid and soda, the latter combining with the silicates present.
The

muriatic

gases of
often occurs

belong

character

and

acid in the

salt which

is

craters
as

TRUE

of information

sources

Muriatic

acid

(the geologicaland
in

fumaroles, which,

the

397

VOLCANOES.

extensive

Italian

scale, and

geographicalac-

volcanoes,

are

not

unfre-

then

quently
generallyaccompanied
sublimations
of common
to be of a very
salt,seem
by immense
The concluding stages in the chronological
unimportant character in Iceland.
all
consist
in
of
these
series
emanations
mere
of
phenomena
in the volcanic
acid.
The
carbonic
has
hydrogen contained
gases
It is present in the vapor
hitherto been almost
entirelyoverlooked.
springsof the great solfataras of Krisuvik and Reykjalidh, in Iceland,
with sulphureted hydroand is,indeed, at both those places combined
gen.
in contact
with sulphuric acid,they are
the latter come
When
both mutually decomposed by the separationof the sulphur, so that
occur
together. They are, however, not unfrequently
they can never
and the same
field of fumaroles
with on one
in close proximity to
met
each other.
Unrecognizable as was the sulphureted hydrogen gas in
the Icelandic
solfataras just mentioned, it failed,on
the other hand,
the
condition
assumed
in
solfataric
the
of Hecla
crater
entirely
by
that is to say, in the first
shortlyafter the eruption of the year 1845
Not the smallest trace of sulphureted
phase of the volcanic secondary action.
could
be
either
the
smell
or
agents,
redetected,
by
by
hydrogen
while the copious sublimation
of sulphur,the smell of which
extended
of the
to a
great distance,afforded indisputableevidence
the approach of a lighted
of sulphurous acid.
In fact, on
presence
those thick clouds of smoke
were
cigar to one of these fumaroles
duced
proon

most

are

"

which
and
may,
when

Melloni

and

have

noticed

as

test of the smallest

PoggendorfFs Annalen, Erganzungsband, 1842,

however,
sublimated

it remains

be

easilyseen
with

doubtful

aqueous
whether

of Vesuvius

by experiment that
vapor, produces the
trace

any

the emanations

accompanied
and

Piria

sulphureted hydrogen (Comptes rendus,t. xi.,1840,

of

trace

in

1843

whatever

even
same

of

s.

p. 352;
511). As it

sulphur itself,
phenomenon,
sulphureted hydrogen

of Hecla
the crater
in 1815,
Bunsen's
admirable
Robert
and

from

(compare
of the
geologicallyimportant treatise on the processes of formation
bd.
in
volcanic
rock of Iceland,
lxxxiii.,1851, s.
Poggend., Annal.,
and rectification
241, 244, 246, 248, 254, and 256 ; serving as an extension
and Liebig'sAnnalen
der
of the treatises of 1847 in Wohler's
from
Chemie
%md Pharmacie, bd. lxii.,
s.
19). That the emanations
not
the solfatara of Pozzuoli
are
sulphureted hydrogen, and that no
with the atmosphere, as
them
is
from
by contact
deposited
sulphur
la Soufrierede Pozzuoli,
Breislak
has conjectured (EssaiMineralogique
sur
remarked
by Gay-Lussac when I visited
1792, p. 128-130), was
of the great eruption of
the Phlegraian Fields with him
at the time
lava in the year
That
1805.
acute
observer, Archangelo Scacchi,
likewise decidedly denies the existence of sulphureted hydrogen (Metnorie Geologichesul'a Campania, 1849, p. 49-121), Piria's test seeming
di avviso
"Son
to him
only to prove the presence of aqueous
vapor:
in chimica
che lo solfo emane
mescolato
a i vapori acquei senza
essere
"
combinazione
altre sostanze"
I am
of opinion that the sulphur
con
"

emanates

with

other

mixed

being in combination
aqueous
vapors without
An
actual analysis,
however, long looked for
ejectedby the solfatara of Pozzuoli,has been very

with

substances."

by me, of the gases

recentlypublished by Charles
has
completely established

Sainte-Claire
the

absence

Deville
of

and

Leblanc, and

sulphureted hydrogen

398

cosmos.

of

counts

225

have

is that,,
out of 407 volcanoes
travels),
exhibited proofsof activity
in modern

statements

sometimes

given

number*

of the
about

30

prepared
they were
made
by me, I have
which

and

confined

vapors, or
eruptionsin the 19th
There

extend

eruptionswhich
these phenomena

or

are

of very

about

had

50

have

cause
less,be-

those volcanoes
tain
cerhistorically

18th

of the intermission

four centuries
rare

vious
Pre-

latter half of the

instances

over

times.

vision
principles.In the di-

have

in the

by me,

volcanoes

myself to

which

doubtless

are

of

sometimes

different

on

still emit

century.

of active

cited

and

more,

We

occurrence.

are

but
quainted
ac-

suvius
lengthened series of the eruptionsof Vein the years 79, 203, 512, 652, 983, 1138, and 1500.
Previous
to the great eruption of Epomeo
on
Ischia,in the
are
acquaintedonly with those which occurred
year 1302, we
with

in the 36th
years

the

and

before

45th

years

before

eruption of

the

our

era;

that

is to say, 55

Vesuvius.

died at the age of 90 under Tiberius (99 years

occupation of Vesuvius
by Spartacus),and whom

Strabo, who
after the
no

historical account

describes
extinct

Vesuvius
volcano.

of any former

eruptionhad ever reached,

notwithstanding as an ancient and long
the
"Above
places"(Herculaneum and

d. Sc, t. xliii.,
(Comptes rendus de VAcad.
1856, p. 746). Sartorius
the other hand, observed
of eruption
on
von
on
cones
"YValtershausen,
of iEtna, in 1811, a strong smell of sulphuretedhydrogen, where
in
other years sulphurous acid only was
Nor
did
Charles
Deperceived.
ville discover any sulphureted hydrogen at Girgenti, or in the Macaof JEtna, in the
lube, but a small portion of it on the eastern
declivity
It is remarkable
that throughout the important
spring of Santa Venerina.
series of chemical
analyses made
by Boussingault on gas-exhaling
volcanoes

of the

plainsof Las

Pastos

Andes
and

(from Purace

Quito)both

and

muriatic

Tolima

to

the

vated
ele-

acid and

ed
sulphurethydrogen (hydrogene sulfureux)are wanting.
* The
are
following numbers
given in older works as those of the
volcanoes
still in a state of activity:By "Werner, 193; by Cassar 'von
Leonhard, 187; by Arago, 175 (Astronomie Populaire,t. iii.,
p. 170);
variations which, as compared with my
results,all show a difference
direction,occasioned
ranging from " to JL, in a downward
partlyby
diversityof principlein judging of the igneous state of a volcano, and
partlyby a deficiencyof materials for forming a correct judgment. It
is well known, as I have
previouslyremarked, and as we learn from
historical experience, that volcanoes
which
have
been held to be extinct
have, after the lapse of very long periods,again become
active,
and

therefore

rather

low

the result which

than

I have

obtained

must

be considered

as

high. Leopold von Buch, in the supplement

to his masterly descriptionof the Canary Isles,
and Landgrebe, in his
of
have
not
Volcanoes,
merical
Geography
attempted to give any general nutoo

result.

too

Pompeii),he
by

the

most

indeed

"
lies the Mount
says,
beautiful farms, except

for the
and

having an

of red-colored

that it

be

on

rock, as if it

supposed that this

saub.)
indicates

neither

of the
served

the

on

summit, such

corroded

placehad

Spartacusfand

his

fruitful,
un-

had

by fire,so

formerlyburned
died

away

when

247, Ca-

of Vesuvius

crater-like hollowing*

being walled
gladiatorsfor a
as,

is

It exhibits fissured

were

nor

round
This

the whole

primitiveform

of cinders

cone

ancient

but

(Strabo, lib. v., page

consumed."

descriptionof

This

summit.

the

ashy appearance.

might
had
gulfsof fire,which, however,

the fuel became

have

Vesuios, covered

part pretty smooth,

most

hollows

and

399

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

in, could
defensive

strong-hold.
*

This
descriptionis,therefore,totallyat variance with the oftenrepeated representation of Vesuvius, according to Strabo, given in
Poggendorff's Annalen der Physik,bd. xxxvii.,s. 190, tafel 1. It is a
very late writer,Dio Cassius,under Septimius Severus, who first speaks,
not
(as is frequentlysupposed) of the production of several summits,
but of the changes of form which
the summits
have undergone in the
of time.
He records (quitein confirmation
of Strabo) that the
course
mountain
His words are
as
formerly had every where a flat summit.
follows (lib.
vol.
ed.
"For
vius
Vesu:
lxvi.,
Sturz,
21,
iv.,
240)
1824, p.
cap.
is situated by the sea
of
near
sources
Naples, and has numerous
fire. The
whole
mountain
of
the
uniform
was
formerly
height,and
fire arose
from its centre, for at this part only is it in a state of combustion.
down
to our
Outwardly, however, the whole of it is still,
times, devoid of fire. But while the exterior is always without conflagration,
and
the

the centre
round

is dried

about

it have

ders,
into cinup (heated)and converted
stilltheir ancient height. But the

peaks
come
igneous part, being consumed
by length of time, has behollow by sinkingin,so that the whole mountain
pare
(ifwe may coma small
an
thing with a great) resembles
amphitheatre." (Comp.
Sturz,vol. vi.,Annot. ii.,p. 568.) This is a clear descriptionof those
mountain
the margins
masses
which, since the year 79, have formed
of the crater.
The
of
this
explanation
passage, by referringit to the
Atrio
del Cavallo, appears
to me
erroneous.
According to the large
and excellent hypsometrical work of that distinguishedOlmutz
omer,
astronJulius
Nasone
of the
Schmidt, for the year 1855, the Punta
Somma
is 3771 feet,the Atrio
del Cavallo,at the foot of the Punta
Nasone, 2661, and the Punta or Rocca del Palo (the highest edge of
the crater
of Vesuvius
to the north, p. 112-116) 3992
feet high. My
barometrical
1822
of
Views
measurements
(
of Nature, p. 376-377) gave
for the same
three points 3747 feet,2577 feet,and 4022
feet, showing
difference of 24, 84, and 30 feet respectively. The floor of the Atrio
a
del Cavallo
has, according to Julius Schmidt
{Eruption des Vesuvs im
Mai, 1855, p. 95), undergone great alterations of level since the eruption
of February, 1850.
f Velleius Paterculus,who died under Tiberius,mentions
Vesuvius,
it is true, as the mountain
which
tors
Spartacus occupied with his gladia(ii.,
30) ; while Plutarch, in his Biography of Crassus,cap. ii.,
The
entrance.
speaks only of a rocky district having a singlenarrow
whole

of the

400

cosmos.

Siculus,likewise (lib.iv.,cap. 21,5),who

Diodorus

and

Hercules

with

his battles

of the progress of
giantsin the Phlegreean

his account

Augustus, in

Cassar and

under

lived

the

called Vesuvius
is now
a
as
kocfrog,
Fields,describes "what
in
emitted
deal
of fire,
like
.ZEtna
a
once
which,
Sicily,
great
of its former

ignition." He calls the

Cumse
and Naples the PhlegrreanFields,
whole space between
as
Polybius does the still greater space between Capua and
scribes
Kola
ii.,cap. 17); while Strabo (lib.
246) de(lib.
v., page
local truth the neighborhood of Puteoli
with much
where
calls it
the great solfatara lies,and
(Dicaearchia),
rd
the
of
name
tyXeypala
'Hpalorov dyopd. In later times
Tisdla is ordinarily
confined to this district,
at this day
as
geologists
place the mineralogicalcomposition of the lavas
of the Phlegrasan Fields
the
in opposition to those from
The
same
cient
opinion that in anneighborhood of Vesuvius.
times there was
fire burning within Vesuvius, and that
is most
that mountain
had formerlyhad eruptions,
distinctly
of
Vitruvius
the
architectural
work
in
ii.,
(lib.
expressed
cap.
in
which
hitherto
has
not
been
garded
rea
sufficiently
6),
passage
and

shows
(still)

traces

"Non

minus

etiam

et abundavisse

ardores

circa agros

flammam.

Ideoque

Pompejanus vocatur,
redactus

excoctus

videtur

esse

Vesuvio

sub

antiquitus crevisse

memoratur,

ex

et inde

monte,

qui spongia sixe

nunc

alio

jmmex
in hanc
lapidis,

genere

Id

generisqualitatem.

autem

genus

locis

in omnibus

inde

evomuisse

nascitur,
eximitur, non
Graecis
nisi circum iEtnain, et collibus Mysiae,qui a
Karaiceancient
related
that
in
is
also
(It
Kavfievoi nominantur."
quod
spongiag,

times

the fire increased

and

So

vomited

that

baked

now

reduced

is

around

got

Greeks

some

other

on

the

beneath

thence

But

seems

that

to

kind

hills

it

can

Bockh

of
investigations

pumex,
have been
of

spongia
places,only

produced in all
of Mysia, which
are

is not

Now
fcara'cefcavfievoL.)
the

Pompeian

of stone,

kind

vius,
Vesu-

Mount

the fields around.

on

spongia,or

of substance.

of there

and

doubted, since
servile

from

is called

out

^Etna

flame

what

this kind

to

which
the

of

out

out

abounded

and

no

and

called

by

longer

be

Hirt, that

of

Spartacus took place in the 681st year of Rome, or 152

described
eruption of Vesuvius
by Pliny (24th of
years
that
A.
circumstance
The
writer who lived in
79
a
Florus,
D.).
August,
the time of Trajan, and who, being acquainted with
the eruptionjust
war

before

referred
calls

it

the

to, knew
"

its earlier

what

was

hidden

in the

interior

of the

have

mountain,

already observed,for
cavus," proves nothing, as
"Vesuvius
iEtnar
configuration{Florus,lib.i.,
mons,
cap. 16,

ignisimitator;"

others

lib. iii.,
cap. 20,

"

faucescavi

montis").

402

cosmos.

79, from the declivities of Somma;

year
Scacchi maintains, the newly-opened crater

whether,

or

of Vesuvius

as

has

ejectedpumice simultaneouslyon

Pompeii and on Somma?

was
as jnimex
Pompejanus in the time of Vitruvius,under Augustus, carries us back to eruptionsbefore the
time of Pliny ; and from the experiencewe
have respecting
known

What

variable

the

of the

nature

formations

in different ages and

should be as
we
activity,

of volcanic

different circumstances
in

little warranted

absolutelydenying that, since

Vesuvius
could have ejectedpumice, as we
absolutelytaking it for granted that pumice

in

its first existence,

should
that

"

say, the fibrous or porous

could only be formed

condition
where

"

of

is to

mineral

pyrogenous

obsidian

be

trachyte with

or

vitreous

were
feldspar(sanidine)
present.
Although, from the examples which have been cited of the
length of the periods at which the revival of a slumbering
volcano may
take place,it is evident that much
uncertainty
is
still remain, yet it
of great importance to verify
must
the geographicaldistribution of burning volcanoes
for a determinate
Of
the
225
period.
through which,
open craters

of the 19th

in the middle
earth

maintains

70,
tinents,and

volcanic

that is to say,

155,

or

communication

America,
portionof the

15 to

the

volcanoes,53, or
Asia, 1 to Europe, and

as

island

The

volcanoes

situated

Aleutian

in late historical times

South

America.

than

southeast
If
name

73"

between

we

and

south
to

Chili

and

in

to

In

us.

the

whole

of volcanoes

127"

west

and

66"

north

the great
suppose
of the South
Sea, or

of New

known

that

to

of

continent

is that

tract

which

tween
longitude,and bein a direction from
latitude,
east

northwest.

mically bounded
that

two

or

surface of the earth,the

the whole

On

containing the greatest number

47"

our

very limited
Isles contain, perhaps,more
volcanoes
are

space.
active

ranges

globe.
fourths,belong

one

hitherto

con-

(the Sunclas and Moluccas),as

and Kurile Islands,the greatest number

in the Aleutian

of the

of Africa

the

on

Islands

South-Asiatic

well

three

continent

the atmosphere,

the islands of

Of the 70 continental
to

with
situated

third,are

one

thirds,on

two

interior of 'the

century, the molten

the

gulf of
South

Patagonia,we

sea

Pacific

parallel of

by
Zealand, which

North

the

is also

known

under

Ocean,

to

cos-

Behring's Straits,and
the parallelof South

shall find

"

and

this result is

in the interior of the basin, as

very remarkable
it (on its Asiatic and American
around
continental
"

be

the

well

as

bounda-

eighthsof

198, or nearly seven

ries),
of the whole
far

as

are, so
the northern

403

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

earth.

still active volcanoes

the 225

volcanoes

The

nearest

the

poles

present geographicalknowledge goes, in

our

hemisphere the

volcano

Esk,

1',and

on

the

small

and
isl-

long.7" 30' 30";

and in the southern
hemisphere Mount
Erebus, whose red
visible even
flames are
by day, and which Sir James
Boss,*
of discoveryin 1811, found to
his great southern voyage
on
be 12,400 feet high, or about 240 feet higher than the Peak
of Teneriffe,in lat. 77" 33' and long.166" 58' 30" east.
of Jan

The

in lat, 71"

Meyen,

of volcanoes

number

great

of continents

shores

of the
by geologists
in

have

must

the islands

on

early led

of this

causes

west

to

and

on

the

the investigation

phenomenon.

I have

ready,
al-

another

place (Cosmos, vol. i.,p. 243), mentioned

theory of Trogus Pompeius under Augustus,
who
excited the volcanic fire.
supposed that the sea-water
for this supposed effect of
Chemical
and mechanical
reasons
The
the sea have been adduced
old hyto the latest times.
pothesis
of the sea-water
focus
the
into
volcanic
penetrating
the

confused

seemed

to

acquire a

of the metals
himself

firmer

foundation

of the

earth

soon

abandoned

at

of the discovery

coverer
by Davy, but the great disthe theory to which
even
total
or
occurrence,
rather
or
dynamical

in spiteof the rare

Gay-Lussac inclined,!
of hydrogen gas.
absence
Mechanical,

sought foi in the contraction of the upper

cally
earth and the risingof continents,or in the lo-

whether

causes,

of the

crust

the time

thickness

diminished

of the

inflexible

portion of

the

might, in my opinion,offer a greater appearance

It
is
difficult
not
to imagine that at the
probabilty.
form the
margins of the upheaving continents which now
the
less precipitouslittoral boundary visible over
more
or
taneous
surface of the sea, fissures have been produced by the simulsinkingof the adjoiningbottom of the sea, through
earth's

crust,

of

which

the

communication

On

the

depression in
existence

ridgeof

the

of such

the

oceanic
rents

interior is moted.
proof
far from that area
elevations,

with

the

molten

basin, the

does

not

same

exist.

sometimes
present sea-shore in single,
even

parallelrows.
tripleSir James

220, and
de

Ross, Voyage

These

to

occasion

Volcanoes

double,and
are

the Antarctic

connected

for the

follow the
sometimes

by short

Regions, vol. i.,p.

217.

361.

t Gay-Lussac, Reflexionssur ks Yolcans in the Annates de Chhnie et

Physique,t. xxii.,1823, p. 429; see above, p. 1G3, note *; Arago,

(Jiavres

comjdetes,t. iii.,
p.

47.

404

cosmos.

of

chains

mountains, raised

in0- mountain

The

nodes.

quently(but by

no

distant, those

more

in the

thought that, in

same

ran"-e

of renewed

perceptionvery

interior of the

increase

an

or

is fre-

shore

active,while

most

approaching
a
particulardirection

of volcanoes,
the

the

to

the

country, appear

extinction.

or

limes

frequencyof

nearest

always) the

more

extinct

be

to

range

means

and formfiussres,

transverse

on

It is

in

some-

and

one

the

in the

diminution

but the phenomena

eruptionsmay be perceived,
after long intervals of rest render this
activity

uncertain.

incorrect
many
from the sea
activity
As

of volcanic

either through ignorance

circulated,

are

to, the

of,or inattention

of the distance

statements

exact

localities both

of the volcanoes

points of the coast, I shall here give the

followingdistances in geographicalmiles (each being equal
2030
to about
yards, or 60 to a degree): In the Cordilleras
ruptedly,
of Sangay, which
of Quito, the volcano
dischargesuninteris situated in the most
easterlydirection,but its
of the

and

nearest

from

distance

Alto

the

de la

Rio

is still 112

sea

attached

monks
at

the

to

Fragua,*

assured

me

smoke
Ceja,they had seen
of no
great height,and whose

must

coast

have

been

very

that

160

miles.

The

the
to

issue from
distance
Mexican

gent
intelli-

Andaquies,

on

tributary of the Caqueta,

of the
mountain

Some

of the Indios

the mission
have

Putumayo,

miles.

upper

the
a

ward
east-

conical

from
volcano

the

of

elevated above the surface in September,

Jorullo,which was
1759, is 84 miles from the nearest
point of the sea-shore (see
of Pococatepetl is 132
above, p. 296-303); the volcano
miles

an

near

extinct

volcano

S. Pedro

de

in the eastern

Cordilleras

of Bolivia,

Cacha, in the vale of Yucay

(see

of
miles;
upward
the Siebengebirge,
near
Bonn, and of the Eifel (see above, p.
221-227), are from 132 to 152 miles; those of Auvergne,
into three separate
them
Velay, and Vivarais,f distributing

above, p. 279),

is

of 180

the

volcanoes

de ia Fragua, as reduced
at Timana,
positionof the Volcan
the
Carte
30'
75"
nearly. Compare
Hypso48', long.
in the large atlas
de Montagues dans les Cordil/eres,
metriquedesNaiuds
This mountain
in my travels,
ly
1831, pi.5 ; see also pi.22 and 24.
ing isolated and so far to the east, ought to be visited by a geologist
capable of determining the longitude and latitude astronomically.
f In these three groups, which, according to the old geographical
nomenclature, belong to Auvergne, the Vivarais, and the Velay, the
those of the northernmost
distances given in the text are
parts of each
the
Golfe
Mediterranean
the
Sea
from
taken
(between
d'Aigues
group as
Mortes
and Cette). In the first group, that of the Puy de Dome, a
crater
erupted in. the granitenear Manzat, called Le Gour de Tazena,
*

is N.

The

lat. 1"

TRUE

405

VOLCANOES.

of the Puy de Dome, near

Clermont, with
groups (the group
the Mont
the
the
of
and
the group
of
Dore,
Cantal,
group
the

and

Puy

distant from
of the

the

severally148, 116,

are

The

sea.

of

Pyrenees, west

sometimes
from

Mezenc),

lava

divided

the Catalonian

extinct volcanoes

G'erona,with

streams,

shores

of

their

distant

are

and

miles

84

Olot, south

distinct

of the Mediterranean

miles

28

only

and

while,on

hand, the undoubted, and to all appearances

very
latelyextinct,volcanoes in the long chain of the Rocky
of America, are
situated at a
Mountains, in the northwest
the

other

distance

of from

600

to

from

miles

680

the

shore

of the

Pacific.
A

very abnormal
of volcanoes
and

the

liin. The

existence

Abel-Remusat
aid

burning volcanoes in the

(the Celestial Mountains),

Julien, to

was

Klaproth, and

I have

and

able

of the

of the Altai

of these volcanoes

and

of them

treat

of active,

of

parallelchains

two

bution
geographicaldistri-

in historical times

of the Thiari-shan

chain

between

the

is the existence

partially,
perhaps,even

mountain

by

in the

phenomenon

laborious

fullyin

and

the Kuen-

firstmade
been

known

enabled,by

investigations of Stanislas
my

work

on

Central

Asia.*

northerlypoint (Rozet, in the Man. de la Sodcte

L, 1814, p. 119). Farther south than the group of
the Cantal, and therefore nearest
the sea-shore,lies the small volcanic
district of La Guiolle,near
of Chirac,
the Monts
d'Aubrac, northwest
and
distant scarcely72 geographical miles from
the sea.
Compare
de la France, 1811.
the Carte Gcologiqite
CosHumboldt, Asie Centrale,t. ii.,
p. 7-61, 216, and 335-361;
The
mountain
lake
of
the
northern
vol.
215.
on
Issikul,
i.,p.
mos,
latelyvisited for the first time by
slope of the Thian-shan, which was
the famous
Catalonian
I found marked
of
Russian
on
travelers,
map
the manuscripts of the
1374,a which is preservedas a treasure
among
nordliche und
entitled Der
Paris library. Strahlenberg, in his work
Asien
bstliche Theil von
urid
s.
(Stockholm,
1730,
327), has the
Europa
dependent
inmerit of having first represented the Thian-shan
as
a peculiarand
its
volcanic
action.
of
chain,without,however, being aware
the Bolor
He gives it the very indefinite name
of Mousart, which
as
was
designated by the general title of Mustag, which particularizes
has
for a whole
sioned
nothing,and merely indicates snow
century occaabsurd
and
and
confused
an
an
menclature
noerroneous
representation,
of the mountain
north
of
the
the
to
founding
Himalaya, conranges
is a
and
meridian
parallelchains with each other. Mousart
with our
corruptionof the Tartaric word Muztag, synonymous
sion
expresin
the
the
Nevada
of
Sierra
the
Himalaya
chain,
Spaniards,
snowy
of snow
the Institutes of Menu
(hirna),
signifyingthe habitation (alaya)

is taken

as

the most

Geol. de France,

t.

"

"

"

[a This

curious

relations which
and

India.

See

Spanish

existed
a

more

map was
at that time
full notice

the

result of the

between

great commercial

Majorca and Italy,Egypt

Centrale,loc. cit. Tr.]

of it in Asie

"

406

cosmos.

Blanc)

lenberg wrote,

under

the

the

Eleven

of the Chinese.

the Sineshan

and

volcano

the

streams, and

its lava

with

of

distances

relative

The

dynastyof

of Pe-shan

plcnt

still burning

igneous

hundred

Sui,in the time

years before Strahof Dagobert, King

possessed maps, constructed

Franks, the Chinese
by order of
the Yellow
River and
the government, of the countries
lying between
and
the Thian-shan
which
the Kuen-lun
the Caspian Sea, on
were
of the

chains,but especiallythe first,

as
place (Asie Centr.,t. i.,p. 118-129,
the march
and
of the Macedonian
t. ii.,p. 413-425), which, when
194-203,
Greeks
into closer acquaintance with
had brought the
army
their geographers the knowledge
the interior of Asia, spread among
of a belt of mountains
extending from Asia Minor to the eastern
sea,
and Scythia to Thins, thus cutting the whole
from India
continent
halves (Strabo,lib. i.,p. 68 ; lib. xi.,p. 490). Dicaearchus,
into two
this chain the elongated
and after him Eratosthenes,denominated
rus
Tauunder
this appellation. "That
chain
is included
; the Himalaya
the north," we
bounds
India
which
are
on
expressly told by Strabo
the
Ariane
from
eastern
to
(lib.
sea, is the extremest
tions
porxv., p. 689),
called
of the Taurus, which
are
separately
by the natives Parobut which
the Macedonians
pamisos, Emodon, Imaon, and other names,
the
ing
describof
in
In a previous part
call the Caucasus."
book,
last porand Sogdiana (lib.xi., p. 519), he says, "the
Bactriana
tion
is called Imaon, touches the Indian (eastern)
of the Taurus, which

marked.

It

I think

undoubtedly

was

I have

in

shown

these

two

another

"

Sea."

The

what

to

; that

west

he

"

terms
was

is to

say,

this side and

on

believed
a

be

to

half

Strabo

the Greeks
says,
north this side the Taurus, and

of the

the

half

had

side the Taurus"

running

single range,

parallelchain.

call the

"

that

on
a

was

region

aware

of Asia

toward

the

east

erence
refand

of

this,for
looking to the

south

that side''

merce
com(lib.ii. ]". 129). In the later times of Ptolemy, however, when
in general, and particularlythe silk trade,became
animated,
transferred to a meridian
the appellationof Imaus
was
chain, the Bothe
6th
book
of
show(Asie Centr.,t. i.,p. 146lor,as many
passages
the
equator, the Taurus
162). The line in which, parallelto
range
intersects the whole
region,according to Hellenic ideas,Avas first called
a Diaphragma
wall),
(partition
by Dicajarchus,a pupil of the Stagirite,
from
drawn
the
lines
of
it,
means
ical
geographbecause,by
perpendicular
The
width
of other points could be measured.
diaphragma was
the
the
west
to
the parallelof Rhodes, extended
on
pillarsof Hercules,
in Hudson's
of Thinas {Agathemeros
and on the east to the coast
Geogr.
of Dicaearchus,equally
line
divisional
The
Gr. Min., vol. ii.,
4).
p.
interestingin a geologicaland an orographical point of view, passed

it in the 3d book
of his
mentions
of Eratosthenes, who
of
table
the
inhabited
of
his
in
illustration
earth,
Strabo places so much
importance on this direction and partition

into the work

descriptionof the
world,
"that

on

Atlantic
even

of

they will
remarkable

(lib.i., p. 65)

thinks

it

possible
at Thinae
extension,which
passes through the
inhabited
world, or
Sea, there might be the site of another
several worlds;" although he does not
exactly predict that
Sea" may seem
be found to exist. The
expression "Atlantic

line

of Eratosthenes

that

he

its eastern

used

as

(the Pacific)is
is called

instead

of

the

usuallycalled,but

in Strabo

as

the Atlantic

"Eastern
our

Indian

South

Sea," as the South Sea

BenOcean, south of gal,

Sea,

so

were

both

seas

to

(Hotschen) of Turfan, from

mountain
and

Sea

Indian

the

and

1480

407

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

Ocean,

miles.

1520

almost

are

On

the other

eruptions of

Pe-shan, whose

lava

of the Polar

the shores

equallygreat, about
distance

the

hand,

of

separatelyrecorded

are

nese
era
up to the 7th century in Chiyear 89 of our
lake of Issikul to the
works, from the great mountain
descent of the Temurtutagh (a western
portionof the Thian-

from

the

172

shan), is only

miles;

from

while

the

northerly

more

Balkasch, 148 miles in length,it is 208 miles

distant.*
The
great Dsaisang lake, in the neighborhood of
I was
which
during my stay in the Chinese Dsungarei in
1829, is 360 miles distant from the volcanoes of Thian-shan.
situated lake of

Inland

waters

in such

not

bears

not wanting, but they are

tainly
certherefore,
propinquityas that which the Caspian Sea

are,

of

the still active volcano

to

Demavend,

in the Persian

Mazenderan.
oceanic or inland,
While, however, basins of water, whether
of volcanic
be requisitefor the maintenance
not
may

activity yet, if
"

abound
of the

only

inclined

am

because

and
at

Atlantic

and

eastern

sides,run
one

Thus

favored

most

the

southern

considered

together.

into

country,
South
sides

which

Sea"

again,
India, which are

the Atlantic
is

even

terminates

and

Sea;"
of

panied
accom-

of the

sea,f

to be connected,and were
frequently
read, lib. ii.,p. 130, " India,the largest
at

the Eastern

Sea

lib. x\\, p. 689, "the

much
larger than the

Sea," in which

quoted regarding

above

"Eastern

we

lieve,
be-

to

the elevation

neighboringdepressionin the basin

of India

confounded

in the

coasts, as

in volcanoes

more

the southeast

other

and

latter,produced by internal elastic forces,is

by

and

islands

passage,

as

well

as

Thinaj

avoided.

(lib.i.,p. 65), the expression,

Having been uninterruptedly

the year 1792 with the strike and

inclination
of the
relation
and
their
the
of
the
of
to
bearings
strata,
ranges

occupied since
mountain

thought it right to point attention to the fact that,

the equatorialdistance of the Kuen-lun, throughout
taken in the mean,
its whole
prolongationby the Hinduextent, as well as in its western
Sea and the Straits
Kho, points toward the basin of the Mediterranean
of Gibraltar (Asie Centr., t. i.,p. 118-127, and t. ii.,
p. 115-118), and
in a great basin which
is volcanic,
that the sinking of the bed of the sea
northern
in
the
be
nected
conespecially
margin, may very possibly
with this upheaval and foldingin.
mont,
My friend,Elie de Beauings,
so
thoroughlyacquainted with all that relates to geologicalbearis opposed to these views on loxodromical
principles(Noticesur
les Systbnes de Montaqnes, 1852, t. ii.,
p. 667).

mountains, I have

See

de
in

above, p. 336.

de la depression d'une grandee parte de

Arago, Sur la cause
le
sur
pheuomene que les pentes les plus rapides des chaines
la mer
la plusvoisin",
vers
sont
tourneee
fge'ne'ralement)
montagnes
his Astronomie
Populaire,t. iii.,
p. 1266-1274.

t See
l'Asie et

408

cosmos.

that

so

that

and

this

at

fissures and

the

are

on

an

Asiatic

of

large number

lakes,whether

the

otherwise, between
have
chum, may

depression,

deeply penetrating

produced it may
the
between
zone,
area

of

area

be

"

great Aralo-Caspian

the

48",

borders

bordering-line
large and

rents

central

the

of elevation

area

an

that

supposed

in

parallelsof 41" and

of depression,
well as
as
disposed in ranges or
the

and

Thian-shan

Altai-Kurts-

We
phenomena.
small basins now
know
from tradition that many
ranged in
once
a
a
(lacsa chapelet),
row, like a stringof beads
upon
time formed
a
singlelargebasin.
Many largelakes are seen
from the disproportion
form smaller ones
to divide and
tween
beand
precipitation
evaporation. A very experienced
the
of
observer
Kirghis Steppe, General Genz of Orenburg,
has conjectured
that there formerlyexisted a water
nication
commuthe Sea of Aral, the Aksakal, the Sarybetween
ning
Kupa, and the Tschagli. A great furrow is observed, runfrom
southwest
be traced by
to northeast,which
may
of Omsk, between
Irtisch and Obi, through the
the way

given

rise to

steppe of Barabinsk, which

plains of

moory
shore

of the

connected

the

eastward

of the
Dr.

ancient

Gobi,

Bunge's careful

von

feet above

2558

whose

island.*

It is

its due
those which
are

found

the

small

of

inhabit the

Beresow

the

this furrow

from

Hami, and

salt and

reedy

barometrical

and

probably

is

of

centre

upward

Caspian Sea
miles
of

lake

to

extended
a

tion
por-

found

was

be

to

by

only

isolation of these animals

there
and

are

the Baikal

and

the east
with
no

of the
few

the

shoals,
Baikal,in

Witim,

seals.f

their distance

The

from

it be

that

the

in circumference.
a

tary
tribu-

present

the mouth

Volga (fully3600 geographicalmiles)form a

phenomenon, indicative of an ancient
geological
Can

ceived
re-

in

miles

of the

of waters.

an

seals,exactlysimilar to

Oron, only a

lake is connected

Lena, in which

connection

Bitter

in which

measurement

attention,that

of 400

fresh-water

of the

the

of
in the form
the level of the sea, rose
geologicalfact,which has not hitherto

share

The

lakes,toward

wide-spread tradition
Lake, Hanhai), which

and

southward

and

in

With

Ocean.

(calledalso the Dried

Lake

abounds

Samoiedes, toward

the

Arctic

littoral

able
remarkand

tensive
ex-

numerous

relatifsa FAsie
Klaproth, Asia Potyglotta,
p. 232, and Mcmoires
command
the
Chinese
of the Emperor
(from
Encyclopedia,published by
Asie
in
t. ii.,
Centrale,
1711), t. ii.,p. 342; Humboldt,
Kanghi,
*

p. 125

and

135-143.

t Pallas,Zoographia Rosso-Asiatica,
1811, p. 115.

410

COSMOS.

We

of Jorullo.

volcano

the

indebted

are

from

the

for these remarkable

Mantschurei

to the industry
geognosticaccounts
P. "Wassiljew(Geog.Bote, 1855, heft v., s. 31),and
to an
(the learned translator of Carl
essay by M. Semenow
Hitter's great work
on
Geology), in the 17th volume of the
Geographical Society.
Proceedingsof the Imperial Russian
In the course
of the investigations
into the geographical
distribution of volcanoes, and their frequent occurrence
on
that
is
to
islands and sea-coasts
the
of
on
tinental
con;
margins
say,
the probablegreat inequality
in the depth
elevations,

of W.

to which

mass

believe that the

earth's

the volcanoes
that

there

the

are

surface

under

surface

forth.

burst

But,

if

prehensivecapacityof the external

the chief

shell be

supposed to be
fissures,
upheavals,and
be

allowed

earth's

in

as

what

pointsat

it may

be

which

conceived

clear idea of any

change in the com-

alreadysolidified
subversions,

depressions. If

might

we

is called the thickness

arithmetical

molten

consistencyin

of all the

cause

One

firm and

basin-like

determine

to

those

degrees of

matter,

penetrated

of the internal

it is difficult to form
molten

been

consideration.

to

intermediate

many
of the

hitherto

has

lies nearest

body

have

solidifying
mass,

such

earth

frequently
brought

disposedto
of the

of the

crust

also been

has

is

the

of the

from

ratio deduced

ments
experifusion-point
of granite that is to say, by taking equal geothermal degrees
of depth* we
should
find it to be 20^ geographical
of
the
miles, or g^th
polar diameter. t But the influences
crust

an

from

drawn

Artesian

wells

from

and

the

"

"

shown
so
early as the 7th century of our era, by minute descriptions
given under the Dynasty of Sai (Klaproth, Tableaux Historiques
de VAsie, p. 201), an
independent chain running east and west, parallel
of about 1\ degrees of latitude.
to the Himalaya, at a distance
The
brothers Hermann
and Robert
Schlagintweitare the firstwho have had
the courage
and the good fortune to traverse
the chain of the Kuen-lun,
settingout from Ladak, and reaching the territoryof Khotan, in the
of July and September, 1856.
months
According to their observations,
which are always extremely careful,
the highestwater-sheddingmountain
chain is that on which
is situated the Karakorum
pass (18,301 feet),
to the oppowhich, stretchingfrom southeast to northwest, lies parallel
site
southerly poi'tionof the Himalaya (to the west of Dhawalagiri).
was

as

The

rivers Yarkland

water

system

and

of the Tarim

of the Karakorum

chain.

small

From

Lake

way
mountain
lake

of

Lop,

this

of Kissilkorum

arrived,by
the

Karakasch, which
and

form

rise

on

part of the great

the northeastern

the
region of water-springs

and

the hot

slope
elers
trav-

springs (120" F.),at

of the Kuen-lun,
Kiuk-kiul,
No.
viii.,
(Report
AgraT 1857, p. 6).
*
Cosmos, vol. i.,p. 16, 171; see above, p. 37-10.
t. iii.,
t Arago (Astron.Populaire,
p. 218) adopts nearly the same

which

stretches

east

and

west

on

the

chain

411

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

of the pressure and of the power of conductingheat exercised

by various kinds of rock render it likelythat the geothermal
in value

degreesof depth increase

in

the

proportionas

depth

itself increases.
the

Notwithstanding
which

with

communication

the

of gas
of the atmosphere,and
in mind

and

much

surround

what

must,

portant
unim-

the

tion
composi-

veloped
organiclife defirst place,

in the

the summit-craters
the

ive
act-

an

extent

chemical
the

on

ejectionand

selves
them-

fumaroles,which

and
springs,

of

state

constant

those which

amons;

Zealand

hibit
ex-

activitythrough solfataras,
naphtha

Volcanic

salses.

so

Islands,and New

Sandwich

Galapagos, the

as

so

of

cones

points at

volcanoes, that
many
of country in Icewhole
land,
tracts
gases ; and that even
in the Caucasus, in the high land of Armenia, on Java,
a

ed

that

large spaces

occupy
exhale

the

it is not

the small

as

through it
We

to

the

operate on

earth's surface.

the

on

and

manner

exhalations

volcanic

of

number

maintains
planetnow
atmosphere,it is still not

inquire in what

to

bear

limited

very
the fused interior of our

are

which
districts,

extinct, are

are

likewise

ed
reckon-

now

to

be regard-

of gas, and the silent working of the subterranean

destructive or formative,
within them
whether
is,
forces,
sources

productive than the

regard to quantity,probably more
rare
eruptionsof volcanoes,although
great, noisy,and more
either visibly
their lava fields continue
to smoke
or
invisibly
with

for years at a time.

If it be said that the effects of these
small chemical
be but little regarded,for that
processes can
of the atmosphere,constantlykept in
the immense
volume
motion

by

of

currents

air,could only be affected in its primitive

of such
through means
it will be necessary
to
apparently unimportant additions,*
mixture

to

very

small

extent

"

thickness

miles;

of

Elie
the

the

earth's

de Beaumont
thickness

at

namely, 40,000 metres, or about

{Systhnes de Montagues, t. iii.,
p. 1237)

crust

about

"

one

fourth

more.

The

oldest

22

culates
cal-

tion
calcula-

of Cordier, in mean
value 56 geographicalmiles,an amount
mathematical
would
to
according
Hopkins's
which,
theory of stability,
between
have to be multipliedfourteen times, and would
688
and
give
I quite concur,
860 geographical miles.
in
on
geologicalgrounds, the
raised by Naumann
in his admirable
doubts
Lehrbucji der Geognosie
distance of the
(vol.L, p. 62-64, 73-76, and 289), againstthis enormous
of the active volcanoes.
interior from
the craters
fluidx
*
A remarkable
example of the way in which perceptiblechanges of
but continuous
mixture
are
mulation
accuproduced in nature
by very minute
is afforded b}rthe presence
of silver in sea-water, which
was
discovered
by Field.
by Malaguti and confirmed
Notwithstandingthe
of the ocean
and the trifling
immense
of surface preamount
extent
is that

412

cosmos.

in mind

boar

the

powerfulinfluence exerted,accordingto

of
investigations

admirable

or
Liebig,by
acid in our
atmosphere

and

the

on

example,
in

Hecla) yield from

at

lava

the

of the

streams

of the

work

that

gas, it appears
and
of different stages of activity
of volcanic

kinds

parts of carbonic

existence

excellent

Bunsen's

From

organism.

Percival,Saussure, Boussingault,

four ten-thousandth

three

the

0'81

the

among

local

different

fumaroles

some
diversity
(as,for
0-83 of nitrogen,and

to

mountain

vegetable

the

on

0*78, with

traces

mere

(OOl to 0*02) of carbonic acid ; while others in Iceland,as,

for instance, near
Krisuvik, on the contrary, yieldfrom 0*86
of carbonic

0-87

to

scarcely0-01 of nitrogen.*
likewise,in the important work on the emanations
Southern
Italy and Sicily,
by Charles Sainte-Claire

find

AVe

acid,with

of gas in
Deville and

Bornemann,
of nitrogengas (0-98) in
in the

down

low

show

vapors

that

there

is

immense

an

exhalations

the

of

of

while

proportion

fissure situated

Vulcano,
sulphuricacid
of 74-7 nitrogen gas and 18*5 oxygen,

crater

mixture

the

proportionwhich approaches pretty nearly to the composition

the other hand, the gas
of the atmospheric air.
On
rises from the spring of Acqua Santa,f in Catania, is
which
also the gas of the Voleancitos
de
pure nitrogengas, as was
a

Turbaco
Are

of my
American
journey4
conclude
that the great quantity of

the time

at

to

we

dispersedthrough the
alone

that

water

which

It must

nitrogen *?
solved

in rain-water

of

0'79
0*69.
sented

Nitrogen is a
it

to

the

by

does

to

borne

in mind

traverse

become

times

that the

contain, like

not

consists of

volcanoes

air dis-

the

atmosphere,
experiments,only
fertility,"
by the form-

own

of increased

source

action

by meteoric
of
deeply-seatedsources

and

internal
also be

shipswhich

in recent

has

it,jTetthe
observable

of silver in the

trace

the copper

on

ing
sheath-

ships.

Bunsen,

liklungen,in

Ueber

die chemischen

Poggend., Annalen,

t Comptes rendus
689.

imparted

the

nitrogen,but, accordingto my

sea-water

of

there

are

or

is

of volcanic

medium

nitrogen

The

firstcorrect

de I'Acad,

des

analysisof the gas which

24 -5
(acidesnlf'areux),

t See above, p. 202, 208.

" Boussingault,Economie
permanency
tropics)is

important

of
an

storms

Rurah

in the

242

Gcstcins-

246.

p. 366 and
with noise from

rushes
collected

was

with

ficulty
great dif-

the

oxvgen,

phurous
following results : Sul14-5; and nitrogen,61*4.

"The
(1851), t. ii.,p. 724-726:
atmosphere (within the

interior of the

interesting fact, being connected

questionsin the

and

lxxxiii.,
Sciences,t. xliii.,
1856,
s.

the great solfatara of Poz7,uoli,and which

by M. Ch. St.-Claire Deville, gave
acid

der Yulkanischcn

Prozesse

bd.

with

physical historyof the

one

of the

globe,namely,

most

that

of

ation

413

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

through the medium

explosionsin tropicalcountries.

ammonia,

electrical

nitrogen

vegetation is similar

on

atmospheric carbonic acid.

In analyzingthe different

to

of the
The

almost

daily
of

influence

that of the

of

substratum

gases of the volcanoes

which

lie

equator (Tolima, Purace, Pasto,Tuqueres, and

Cumbal), Boussingault has discovered,along with a great
to the

nearest

gen
vapor, carbonic acid and sulphuratedhydromuriatic
acid,no nitrogen,and no free hydrogen.*

deal of aqueous

gas, but no
The influence still exercised

by

the

interior of

our

drawing
compositionof the atmosphere in withthis matter, in order to give it out again under other
forms, is certainlybut an insignificant
part of the chemical
the atmosphere must
revolutions which
have
undergone in
of rock from open
remote
ages on the eruptionof great masses
of a very large
fissures. The conjectureas to the probability
portion of carbonic acid gas in the ancient aeriform envelope
is strengthenedby a comparison of the thickness of the present
the chemical

planeton

of coal with

seams

in

thickness)which, according to
thickest woods

our

soil in the

course

(seven lines

that of the thin coal-strata

Chevandier's

would
in the temperate zone
of one
hundred
years.f

calculations,
yieldto the

In the

infancyof geognosy, previousto Dolomieu's

ingenious
of volcanic action was
the source
not placed
conjectures,

of the fixation

of the

ever
nitrogen of the air in organizedbeings. Whenthe
humid
sparks passes through
atmosphere,
the production and combination
of nitric acid and ammonia
take place.
nitrate of ammonia
The
uniformly accompanies the rain during a
fixed it can
itself in a state
maintain
not
storm, and being by nature
series of electric

of ammonia
of vapor ; carbonate
is found
in the air,and
of the nitrate is carried to the earth by the rain.
Thus
be

fact,to

become

assimilated

throughout

the' whole

to

zone,

there

moment,
An

electric action which

an

observer

is

continual

stationed

at

disposesthe

it appears, in
of
the atmosphere
nitrogen

In the equinoxial
probably even
every
dischargesgoing on.

by organized beings.
year, every day, and
succession
of electric

endowed
the equator, if he were
hear without
intermission

sensitive,would
sufficiently
thunder."

Sal

time

from
streams

"

on

chain

organs
noise of

ammoniac,

time

found

of the Thian-shan.

Kutsch, Turfan,

China

with

the

however, together with common

salt,are
of
in lava
as
products
sublimation, even
Hecla, Vesuvius, and iEtna, in the volcanic chain of
canic
(the volcano of Izalco),and, above all,in Asia, in the vol-

to

Guatemala

the ammonia

and

Hami

The

inhabitants

of the

country

tween
be-

Emperor of
in Persian
nao-sha,
(in Chinese,

their tribute to the

pay
years in sal ammoniac
nushaden),which is an important article of internal
in certain

Centrak, t. ii.,p. 33, 38, 45, and 428.)

*
Viajesde Bonssingaidt(1849), p. 78.
t Cosmos, vol. i.,p. 280-282,

trade.

(Asie

414

cosmos.
.

rock

then
formations,which were
generallysupposed to be granite and gneiss. Resting on
it was
feeble analogiesof inflammability,
some
long believed
the

below

that

the

eruptions,and

of volcanic

source

they for

which

to

gas

ancient

most

sought for in the

of

emanations

centuries

to be
gave rise,was
silurian floetz strata, containing

many

later upper

generalacquaintance with
conducted
surface,profounder and more
strictly

combustible
earth's

the

matter.

the

more

investigations, together with

great advances

the

logical
geoinfluence

beneficial

by modern

made

chemistryhave
exercised in the study of geology,have
taught us that the
of volcanic
three
or
eruptive rock (trachyte,
great groups
w
hen
viewed
and basalt),
as
largemasses, appear,
phonolite,
of
be
different
when
compared together,to
ages, and for the
All three,however,
most
part widelyseparatedfrom each other.
the

which

have

later to the surface

come

than

later than

the quartz porphyry

and quartary
silurian,
secondary,tertiary,

diorite,and

the

and

that

"

and

ite,
granall the

ations;
form(pleistocene)

they frequentlytraverse

diluvial formations

the

Plutonic

the

the

loose

bone-breccias.

of

strata

striking vari-

intersections,
compressed into a small space, is
exhibited,as we learn from Eozet's observations,in Auvergne.
of the Cantal,
the great trachyticmountain
While
masses
Mont-Dore, and Puy de Dome
penetrate the granite itself,
tween
time inclose in some
and at the same
parts (forexample, bede Mamon)
Vic and Aurillac, and at the Giou
large
the
find also
and limestone,we
fragments of gneissf
trachyte

ety* of

these

and the coal-beds

dikes the gneiss,
as
intersecting
of the tertiaryand diluvial strata.
Basalt
and phonolite,
closelyallied to each other, as the Auvergne and the central
and

basalt

of Bohemia

mountains
than

the

prove, are
trachytes,which

Rozet, Memoire

of

recent

more

tion
forma-

frequentlytraversed in
phonolitesare, oh the other hand,

The

layersby basalts.^

both
are

les Volcans d' Ativergne,in the Jfcmoires

sur

de la

"The
Geol. de France, 2me Serie,t. i.,1844, p. 64 and 120-130:
the
basalts (like the trachytes)have
penetrated through
gneiss,the
the
coal
and
the oldest
the
formations,
granite,
tertiaryformations,
Soc.

diluvian

bed.

The

of basaltic bowlders

find craters

similar

to

t Resembling the
Jorullo.

X Also

See

above,

in the

director,Yon

are

of scorice

cones

are

issued

from

an

overlyingmasses

infinite number

still perfectlyrecognizable.

more

those

or

less

which

considerable,but
given

have

graniticfragments

out

imbedded

of openings,

Many

of them

nowhere

do

streams

in the

we

of lava."

trachyteof

p. 303.

Eifel,according to

Dechen.

frequentlyseen

even

they have

of which

several
exhibit

basalts
;

See

the

above, p.

important testimony of
22G.

the mine

ancient

more

tbe

basalts

where

they probably never

dikes, but on the contrary dikes of basalt

the porphyriticschist (phonolite).In

form

the

than

415

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

belongingto Quito

Andes

great distance apart from

I found

the

intersect
frequently
the

chain

of

basalt formation

the

prevailingtrachytes; almost
solelyat the Rio Pisque and in the valleyof Guaillabamba.*
As in the volcanic elevated plain of Quito every thing is
and tufas,
covered with trachytes,
it
trachyticconglomerates,
endeavor
to discover,if possible,
earnest
some
was
my most
point at which it might be clearlyseen on which of the older
and bell-shaped
mountains
rocks the mighty cone
are
placed,
precisely,
through which of them they had
or, to speak more
fortunate
forth.
broken
Such
cover
to disa point I was
so
as
a

in the

when

(9483
attempted

side of the Cuchilla

de

from Rioon
my
way
the surface of the South Pacific),

June, 1802,

feet above

Nuevo

bamba

of

month

ascend

to

Guandisava.

the

Tunguragua, on the
I proceeded from the
swinging rope-bridge

the
delightfulvillageof Penipe over
(puentede maroma) of the Rio Puela to the isolated hacienda
of Guansce
where
to the southeast,oppositeto
(7929 feet),
falls into the Rio Chamthe point at which
the Rio Blanco
of black trachyteresembling
bo, rises a splendid colonnade
pitch-stone. It looks at a distance like the basalt quarry at
Unkel.
At Chimborazo, a little higher than the basin of
of trachyticcolumns
of
similar group
a
Yana-Cocha, I saw
east
greater height,but less regularity.The columns to the southfourteen
of Penipe are
inches
mostly pentagonal,only
bent
foot
and
and
At
the
in diameter,
frequently
diverging.
of this black trachyteof Penipe, not far from the mouth
of
the Rio Blanco, a very unexpected phenomenon presents itself
in this part of the Cordilleras
mica-slate with
greenish-white
in it; and farther on, beyond the shallow
garnets interspersed
of Bascaguan, at the hacienda
of Guansce, near
stream
"

de

See above, p. 313.

las Esmeraldas.
The

the isolated oliviniferous

An

Rio

de Guaillabamba

flows

villageof Guaillabamba, near

basalt,is only 6430 feet above

into the Rio

which

I found

the level of the

prevails in the valley,which is still more

in the Valle de Chota, between
and the Villa de Ibarra,
Tusa
the sole of which sinks to 5288 feet,Avhich is rather a chasm
ley,
than a valbeing scarcely9600 feet wide and 4800 feet deep (Humboldt, Rec.
d' Observations Astronomiques,vol. i.,p. 307). The
rubbish-ejecting
Volcan
de Ansango, on the descent of the Antisana, does not belong
to the basalt formation
at all: it is an
oligoclasetrachyte resembling
basalt (compare, for the distances, Antagonisme des Basalt es et des Trachytes,
le
des
Gisement
Roches, 1823, p. 348
my JEssai Giognostiquestar
and 359, and generally,p. 327-336).
sea.

intense

intolerable

The

heat

416

cosmos.

of the Rio

the shore

Puela,

and

probablydipping below the

dish
middling-sized
grain,with lightredof
small
a
and
feldspar,
quantity blackish-green
mica,
a
of
deal
w
hite
is
There
hornblende
no
quartz.
grayishgreat
it appears that the trachytes
is there any syenite. Thus
nor
of the volcano of Tungurahua, resemblingthose of Chimboin their mineralogical
ing
razo
condition,that is to say, consistof oligoclase
and
of a mixture
have
here peneaugite,
trated
mica-slate.
Farther
the
and
toward
granite
south,
and a little to the east of the road leadingfrom Riobamba
graniteof

mica-slate

ras
Ticsan, in that part of the Cordillewhich recedes from the sea-shore,
the rocks formerlycalled
and gneiss,
make
their appearance
mica-slate,
primitive,
every
of
toward
the
foot
colossal
Altar de los Collanes,
the
where,
Nuevo

to

G-uamote

and

the

Cuvillan,and the Paramo

arrival of the Spaniards,even
Incas
have

extended

of quartz
slate. At

before

beds

A littleto the

south

observed

the

Previous
dominions

north, the natives

metalliferous

worked

volcanoes.

far to the

so

del Hatillo.

in the

of San

are

to

of the
said to

neighborhood of
Luis

running through

numerous

the

the

dikes

the

greenishclayto the grassy plain of

G-uamote,at the entrance
found
of
of quartzTiocaxa, we
largemasses
rock,consisting
ites very poor in mica, of a distinct linear parallel
structure,
of
the
70
at
to
north.
an
running regularly
angle
degrees
Farther
Cerro

are

the

to

Cuello
in

de Ticsan

volcanoes
trachytic

strange.

observations

The

rather

or
overlying,

mica-slate

and

by

been

the

of

largemasses

Alausi,

the

bedded
sulphur im-

is

as

admirable
at

colossal

appears at first sightsomewhat

I made, however, of the
which

rare

breaking forth of trachytefrom

the foot of the Tungurahua (a phenomenon
in the Cordilleras as in Auvergne),

confirmed,after

Wisse
That

far from

of the

graniteat

which
have

shows

not

layerof quartz, subordinate to the neighboring

So great a diffusion of quartz in the neighborhood

mica-slates.
of

south, at Ticsan,

an

interval of

forty-seven
years,

of the French
investigations
the

bastian
geologistSe-

Sangay.

volcano, 1343

feet

higher than Mont Blanc,

clares
entirelydestitute of lava streams
(which Charles Deville dealso wanting in the equallyactive Stromboli),
but
are
least
at
since the year 1728, a black,
ejecting
uninterruptedly,
and frequentlybrightlyglowing rock, forms a trachyticisland
in the
of scarcelyeightgeographicalmiles in diameter,*
*

Sebastian

Wisse, Exploration chi Volcan de Sangay, in the Comptes

also above,
des Sciences,
t. xxxvi.,1853, p. 721 ; comp.

rendus de V Acad,
p. 239.

418

cosmos.

complicatedvariations,in

the

distant quarters of
in the previouscentury, when
the entire morthe globe than
phology
of volcanoes
limited to conical and bell-shaped
was

very

mountains.

There

are

altitude,and

volcanoes

many

(what

the

talented

range
calls the geotectonics)*
we

mann

manner,

regardingthe

while

Both

mass.

are

"

are

of

kinds

action

volcanic

know

configuration,
Friedrich
in the

Nau-

most

isfactory
sat-

continue

we

specieswhich characterize their

recognizableapart from the principal
the morpholknowledge, however
ogy
"

rocky pilesand
equallynecessary

of the

Carl

mineral

which

and
trachytes,

now

whose

in the greatest ignorance

composition of their different rocks and the

of the

association

most

the

nay,

the

oryctognosy of

their

sition
compo-

perfectunderstandingof
founded
on
latter,
crystallization
to

the

chemical

of the connection
with
analysis,on account
Plutonic rocks (porphyritic
and
quartz, green-stone,
ine)
serpentlittle
is of even
The
we
greater geognosticimportance.
of what
believe we
of the Moon
is called the volcanicity
know
of the knowledge, on configuration
depends too, from the very nature
and

alone.f
fullest information

The

actual

on

we

measurements

possess on any volcanic

of altitudes,angles of

ed
founddistrict,
and
inclination,

of the astronomer
in the beautiful work
of
profileviews, is contained
Monte
Nuovo, the
Olmiitz,Julius Schmidt, on Vesuvius, the solfatara,
Astroni, Rocca Monfina, and the old volcanoes of the Papal territory
Mountains, Lago Bracciano, and Lago di Bolsena).
(in the Albanian
im Mai, 1855,
See his hypsometricalwork, Die Eruption des Vesuvs
with Atlas, platesiii.,
ix.
iv.,
f The progressiveperfectionof our acquaintance with the formation
derived from numerous
of the surface of the Moon
as
observers,from
Tobias
to Lohrmann,
Madler, and Julius Schmidt, has
Mayer down
tended, on the whole, rather to diminish than to strengthenour belief in
of the earth and those
the volcanic structures
great analogiesbetween
of the
the

; not

moon

much

so

on

account

of the conditions

of dimension

of so many
ring-shapedmountains,
of the rillsand of the system of rays which

earlyrecognizedranging
of the nature

account

and
as

on

cast

than 400 miles in length and

(radiationsof light)of more
miles in breadth, as in Tycho, Copernicus, Kepler, and
Aristarchus.
It is remarkable, however, that Galileo,in his letter to
Father
Christoph Grienberger,Sulle montuosita clellaLuna, should have
ered
he considthought of comparing annular mountains, whose diameters
district of
greater than they actuallyare, to the circumvallated
Bohemia, and that the ingenious Robert Hooke, in his " Micography,"
attributes the type of circular formation
almost
universallyprevalent
of the interior of its body on
the moon
the exterior
to the action
on
vol.
With
and
the annular
to
(vol.ii.,p. 701,
iv.,p. 496).
respect

no

shadows

from

2 to

mountain

with

16

ranges

the relation

of the
between

of the circumvallation

or

moon,

I have

been

height
margins of the crater, as
the

interested

of late much

of the central

mountain
well

as

by

and

that

the exist-

the

hope, what

fain

I would

If,as

craters
parasitic

of

rocks

"

circumvallation

the

on

propound regarding

I here

volcanic

classification of the

ence

419

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

or, to

speak

itself.

The

more

result of

occupied with
and
Topography of the
the continuation
completion of Lohrmann's
mountain
attains the height
central
"that
establishes
no
single
Moon,
it probably even
lies,
together
of the wall of its crater, but that in all cases
surface
of
the
from
that
below
moon
with its summit, considerably
the crater

which

of Julius

observations

careful

all the

is

erupted."

While

Schmidt,

the

cone

who

is

of ashes

in the crater

of

Vesuvius, which rose on the 22d of October, 1822, according to Briosdel

exceeds
in height the Punta
chi's trigonometricalmeasurement,
above
the
toises
the
north
the
crater
of
on
the
(618
edge
highest
Palo,
about

sea),by

30

feet,and

mountains
lie

fully6400

was

measured

of the moon,

feet lower

visible at Naples, many

of the central
Olmiitz
Madler
and
the
mer,
astronoby

than

the

mean

be
what
100 toises below
may
nay, even
to which
level of that part of the moon

tion,
of circumvalla-

margin
taken

as

the

mean

face
sur-

they respectivelybelong
's
Jahrbuch
Schumacher'
in
fur
1841,
(Madler,
p. 272 and 274; and Jul.
In
Der
general the central mountains,
Mond, 1856, s. 62).
Schmidt,
of
have several summits, as in
central
mountain
the
masses
or
moon,
In Copernicus there are six central
Theophilus, Petavius, and Bulliald.
mountains, and Alphonsus alone exhibits a true, central,sharppointed peak. This state of things recalls to mind the Astroni in the
central masses
Leopold von
Phlegrasan Fields,on whose dome-formed
he
much
"These
Buch
stress.
masses,"
justlylays
says, "like those
in the
forth.

of the

centre

existed

There

annular

mountains

permanent

no

of the

connection

did

moon,

with

break

not

the interior

"

no

of the great trachytic

volcano, but they rather appeared like models
so
unopened domes
abundantly dispersedover the earth's crust, such
and Chimborazo."
the Puy de Dome
as
Annalen, bd.
(Poggendorff's
The
circumvallation
is of an
of
the
Astroni
xxxvii.,1836, p. 183.)
all
830
closed
and
in
rises
than
no
round,
form,
elliptic
part higher
feet above

the

level of the

than

660

feet lower

more

sea.

than

The

tops of the central

the maximum

summits

of the southwestern

lie
wall

summits
The
form
two
parallelridges,covered with
(JuliusSchmidt, Eruption des Vcsuvs,s. 147, and Der Mond,
of the most
and 103). One
remarkable
s. 70
objects,however, on the
surface of the moon
is the annular
Whole
mountain
range of Petavius,
in which
internal floor of the crater
the whole
expands convexly in
of the

crater.

thick bushes

the form
mountain.

of

tumor

The

or

cupola,and

is crowned

besides

with

central

In our
form.
trial
terresconvexity here is a permanent
volcanoes
the flooringof the crater
is only temporarily raised by
the force of internal vapors, sometimes
almost to the height of the margin
of the crater, but as soon
the
their
force
as
vapors
way through the
floor sinks down
again. The largestdiameters of craters on the earth
the Caldeira
toises
de Fogo, according to Charles
Deville 4100
are
de Palma, according to
(4*32 geographical miles),and the Caldeira
Leop. von Buch 3100 toises ; while,on the moon, Theophilus is 50,000
52 and 45 geographical
toises,and Tycho 45,000 toises,
or
respectively
miles in diameter.
Parasitic
craters, erupted from a marginal wall
The
of the great crater, are of very frequent occurrence
the moon.
on
base of these parasitic craters
the great rent
is usually empty, as on
a smaller
cenmargin of the Maurolycus ; sometimes, but more
rarely,

420

cosmos.

of the

trachytesaccordingto
interest,the merit
their composition excites any particular
friend and Siberian
of this classification is entirelyclue to my
on
precisely,

the

arrangement

"

Gustav
fellow-traveler,
of nature, and

the

His

Rose.

happy

tion
observa-

accurate

which

combination

he possesses

edge,
and
geologicalknowlchemical, crystallo-mineralogical,

of

have

views

new

on

well qualified
to promulgate
peculiarly

him

rendered

that set of minerals

varied

whose

quently
but fre-

tion.
recurringassociation is the product of volcanic acwith
has
This great geologist,
partlyat my instigation,
since the year 1834, repeatedly
greatestkindness, especially
the
from
I
which
the fragments
examined
slopes
brought

the

of the volcanoes

high

of

land

Mexico, and

compared them
globe contained

other parts of the

collection of the Berlin Cabinet.

from

separatedfrom
von

of my
examined

those
had

Buch

Pastes,Quito, and

Granada, Los

of New

with

the

the

specimens

in the rich mineral

Before

my
Aime

collections

were

pold
Bonpland, Leocompanion
with perthem
microscopically
severing

diligence(inParis, 1810-1811, between his return

had also at
to Teneriffe).He
from Norway and his voyage
with
residence
earlier period,during my
Gay-Lussac at
an
in
afterward
of 1805), as well as
Rome
(in the summer
noted
I
had
what
himself acquainted with
France, made
down
in my
travelingjournal on the spot, in the month of
July, 1802, respectingcertain volcanoes,and in general on
tute
volcanoes
and certain porphyriesdestithe affinity
between
I consider
which
of quartz.* I preserve, as a memorial
tral

mountain, perhaps

gomontanus.

In

of

cone

beautiful

eruption,is

sketch

of the

seen

crater

in

them,

system

as

in Lo-

of JEtna,

(now in Albany,
North
Flensburg,
August, 1854, the paraAmerica), sent me
sitic
formed
in
di
Fuoco, which was
marginal crater, called the Pozzo
lent
viohad
several
side,and which
January, 1833, on the east-southeast

which

my

friend

Christian

Peters, the

from

astronomer

in

'

recognizable.
eruptions of lava,is distinctly
"
which
indefinite
and
term
trachyte" (Rauhstein),
unspecific
break
which
the
volcanoes
the
rock
in
to
is now
so
generally applied
in
the
of
rock
first
Auvergne
given to a
out, was
year 1822, by Hauy, in
Traite
de
edition of his
the second
Mineralogie,vol. iv.jp. 579, with a
of the word, and a short descriptionin
notice of the derivation
mere
the older appellationsof granitechanffeen place of Desmarets,
which
mentioned.
It was
not
are
even
only by
trap-porphyry,and domite
oral communication,
originatingin Hauy's Lectures in the Jardin des
propagated previous to 1822;
"trachyte" was
Plantes, that the term
basaltic islands and
Bach's
treatise
in
on
von
for example,
Leopold
eralogie,
Daubuisson's
Traite de Minin
in
1818;
cra-ters of upheaval, published
work, Voyage en Hongrie.
important
1819; and in Beudant's
From
letters latelyreceived
by i .3 from M. Elic de Beaumont, I find
*

The

of the
the
that

with

sheets

some
invaluable,

elevated

remarks

plateaux

great geologistcommunicated
the

Hauy,

Member

now

"trachyte"

term

of the term

"

occurred

have

of M.

recollections

and

421

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

of

on

the volcanic

Quito

and

to

for my

me

Delafosse,formerly

of the

ucts
prod-

Mexico, which
information

Aide-Naturaliste

to

Institute,fix the application of the

181G.
the years 1813 and
The
publication
Buch
according to Ewald, to
by Leop. v.
seems,
in the third letter
year 1809 ; it is first mentioned

between

domite"
in the

und
(Geognost.Beobacht. avf Reisen durch Deutschland
bd. ii.,
porphyry of the Puy de Dome,"
1809, s. 244). "The
Italien,
hitherto nameless
it is there stated, " is a peculiarand
rock,consisting
with
ina?
a
of crystals
of feldspar
glassy lustre,hornblende, and small lamclefts
of
this
kind
the
of
which
In
I proviof black mica.
rock,
sionally
the walls of which
term
domite, I find beautiful drusic cavities,
with crystalsof iron-glance. Through the whole
covered
are
length
alternate
with cones
of cinders."
of domite
The
ot the Puy cones
second
of the Travels, containing the letters from
volume
Auvergne,
was
printed in 1806, but not published till 1809, so that the publication
of domite
It is singuof the name
properlybelongs to the latter year.
lar
Buch's
that four years later,in Leopold von
treatise on the trap
mentioned.
In referringto a drawing
is not
even
porphyry, domite
in the journal of my travels
of the profileof the Cordilleras, contained
between
of July, 1802, and included
the 4th degree north
in the month
under
and 4th degree south latitude,
the inscription"Affinite entre
le
that
feu volcanique et les porphyres," my
only object was to mention
canic
this profile,
which
represents the three breakings through of the volof Popayan, Los Pastos, and Quito, as well as the erupgroups
tion
of the trap porphyry in the granite and mica-slate of the Paramo
de Assuay (on the great road from Cadlud, at a height of 15,526 feet),
led Leopold von
to ascribe to me
Buch, too kindly and too distinctly,
all
of
noticed
"that
merit
first
the
volcanoes
of the chain
the
having
have their foundation
in a porphyry which
is a peculiar
of the Andes
kind of rock, and belongs essentially
formations"
to the volcanic
(Abder Wissensch.
Jahren
den
zu
Berlin, aus
handlungender Ahademie
1812-1813, s. 131, 151, and 153). I may, indeed, have noticed the
in a general way, but it had already,as early as 1789,
phenomenon
been remarked
by Nose, whose merits have long been too little appreciated,
in his Orographical
Letters,that the volcanic rock of the Siebengesalt
kind of porphyry, closelyallied to babirge is "a peculiarlyRhenish
and porphyriticschist."
is especialHe says "that this formation
ly
characterized
by glassyfeldspar,"which he proposes should be called
sanidine, and that it belongs, judging from the age of its formation,to
floetz rocks (Niede?-rheinische
the middle
Beise, th. i.,s. 26, 28, and 47;
th. ii.,
I
do
find
Buch's
s. 428).
not
jecture
conany grounds for Leopold von
that Nose
considered
this porphyry formation, which
he not
granite porphyry, as well as the basalts,to be of
very happily terms
to

later

Karsten

date

than
the

the

most

recent

floetz rocks.

"The

whole

of

this

from
us,
great geologist,so early removed
among
"should
be named
after the glassy feldspars(thereforesanidine
phyry),
porhad it not already received the name
of trap porphyry" (Abh.
der Berl. Akad.
den
Jahren
aus
1812-13, s. 134). The historyof the
of a science is so far of importance as the
systematic nomenclature
of prevalentopinions is found
succession
reflected in it.

rock," says

422

cosmos.

where*
forty-sixyears ago.
Travelers,as I have elseof
bearers
the
the
edge
said,beingmerely
imperfectknowlof their age, and their observations
deficient
in
being
of the leading ideas,that is to say, those discriminating;
than

more

many

marks

which

materials

the

are

which

fruits of

the

have

been

arranged will almost

an

advancing

knowledge,

carefullycollected
alone

maintain

an

and

graphically
geo-

enduring

value.
confine the term

done (on account

trachyte,as is frequently
of its earliest application
to the rocks of Auvergne and
the Siebengebirge,
ing
near
Bonn), to a volcanic rock containWerner's
vitreous feldspar,
Nose's and
feldspar,
especially

To

of

to break
sanidine,is fruitlessly

Abich's

concatenation

of volcanic
Such

views.
"

that in

singleindividual

own

which

leads

that intimate

higher geological
might justifythe expression
Labradorite, no trachyteoccurs."
to

limitation

.iEtna,so rich in

Indeed,my
of

rock

asunder

collections

of the countless

that,in

said to prove that

volcanoes of the Andes
are

fact,the substance

"

no

sists
con-

of which

trachyte;
they
is
and
that
albite,
was
as
therefore,
composed
oligoclase
at that time (1835) always erroneouslyconsidered
bite,
to be alall kinds of volcanic rock should be designatedandesite
of albite with a small quantityof hornblende)."!
(consisting
has taken the same
Gustav
Rose
view that I myselfadopted,
from the impressionswhich
from my
I brought back with me
of all volcanoes,notwithnature
standing
journeys,on the common
variation in their internal
a mineralogical
tion
composithe principledeveloped in his admirable
; on
essay on
the feldspargroups, J in his classification of the trachytes,
he
Somorthoclase,sanidine,the anorthite of Mount
generalizes
as
albite,Labradorite,and oligoclase,
forming the feldma,
Brief appellations
spathicingredientof the volcanic rocks.
scurities
which
are
supposed to contain definitions led to many obin orology as well as in chemistry. I was
myself
for a long time inclined to adopt the expressionsorthoclase
are

Humboldt, Kleinere Schriften,bd. i.,Vorrede,s. iii.-v.

t Leop. v. Buch, in Poggend., Annalen, bd. xxxvii.,1836, s. 188, 190.
X Gustav
Rose, in Gilbert's Annalen, bd. lxxiii.,1823, s. 173; and
Annates cle Chimie et de Physique, t. xxiv.,1823, p. 16.
Oligoclasewas
first held by Breitbaupt as a new
mineral
species (PoggendorfPs Annalen,bd. viii.,
1826, s. 238). It afterward appeared that oligoclasewas
in a granite
identical with a mineral
which
Berzelius
bad observed
dike restingupon gneiss near
and
of the
account
Stockbolm,
which, on
in
its
resemblance
chemical
Spocomposition,he had called "Natron
dumen."
(Poggendorffs Annal, bd. ix.,1827, s. 2S1.)
.

423

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

Labrador
thus
or
or
trachytes,
oligocJase
trachytes,
trachytes,
of
the
account
on
comprehending
glassyfeldspar(sanidine),
its chemical
composition,under the speciesorthoclase (common
least
The
terms
at
were
well-soundingand
feldspar).
simple; but their very simplicitymust have induced error;
for,though Labrador
trachyte pointsto .ZEtna and to Strombination
boli,yet oligoclase
trachyte,in its important two-fold comwith augiteand hornblende, would
nect
erroneouslyconof
the widely diffused and very dissimilar formations
Chimborazo
of

of

of Toluca.

volcano

feldspathicelement

forms

here

the

and

one

or

as
feature,

characteristic

the

others

two

it does

tion
associawhich

tion
in the forma-

dikes.

mineral

some

with

It is the

followingis a view
Rose, subsequentlyto the
The

in reference

to

of the divisions into which

winter

the

Gustav

of

chytes,
1852, distributes the trainclosed
in
crystals
them, and

separatelyrecognizable. The chief results of this work, in

which
there is no confounding of oligocJase
with albite,
were
obtained
the

friend discovered,in
years earlier ; when
my
of his geognosticinvestigations
in the Eiesenge-

ten

course

there formed
essential ingredient
an
birge,that the oligoclase
of the granite,
and his attention being thus directed to the
as
an
importance of oligoclase
ingredientof that rock, he was
induced

to

led

1845,

look for it likewise

to

109)

s.

the

albite

compositionof

This

ination
exam-

never

forms

part in

the

contains

only crystals
in general

mixed

rock.
"

"

of

rocks.*

important result (Poggend.,Ann., bd. lxvi.,

that

any
First Division.

in other

The

principalmass

which
glassy feldspar,

are

laminar, and

and mica either do not occur

in it at all,
large. Hornblende
in
small
and
unessential
or
as
an
extremely
quantity,
entirely
admixture.
To
this division belongs the trachyte of the
Pozzuoli),that of
Phlegrasan Fields (Monte Olibano, near
Ischia and of La Tolfa, as also a part of the Mont
Dore
(the
*

dorff

See
s

Gustav

Ann., bd.

his "Natron

the granite of the

Berzelius
1842, s. 617.
lvi.,
Rose

on

Riesengebirge, in Poggenhad found

the oligoclase,
granite ; in the treatise just
ingredientin the composition

Spodumen," only in a dike of

cited it is for the first time spoken of as an
of granite(the mineral itself). Gustav
Rose here determined
the
oligoclaseaccording to its specificgravity,the greater proportion of
lime contained
in it as compared with albite,
and its greater fusibility.
The
the specific
with
which
he
had
found
same
compound
gravityto
be 2*682 was
der
Mineranalyzed by Rammelsberg (Handworterbuch
alog.,supplem. i.,s. 104; and G. Rose, Ueber die zur Gramtgrvppe
in the Zcitschr. der Deutschen
qehorenden Gebirgsarten,
geol.Gesellbd. i.,1849, s. 3G4).
schaft,

424

cosmos.

cade). Augite is but very rarelyfound in small

Dore*
in the Phlegrasan
in trachytesof Mont
never
crystals
is leucite,of which
hornblende
Fields together with
; nor
collected some
pieces on the Lago
last,however, Hoffmann
the
Averno
on
(on the road to Cumae), while I found some
of 1822). Leucite
slope of the Monte Kuovof (in the autumn
frequentin the island
ophyr in loose fragments is more
of Procida
and the adjoiningScoglio di S. Martino."
contains
tached
deThe
Second Division.
some
ground mass
of glassyfeldspar,
and a profusionof small
crystals
snow-white
crystalsof oligoclase.The latter are frequently
overspread with the glassy feldsparin regular order, and
form
is so frequently
a
as
seen
covering about the feldspar,
of
Rose's
the
G.
in
granitite(the principalmass
Riesengeand
o
f
with
red
feldspar,
Isergebirge,
consisting granite
birge
in
but
and
r
ich
out
withparticularly
magnesian mica,
oligoclase
and mica, and in
any white potash mica). Hornblende
modifications
some
augite,occasionally
tity.
appear in small quanTo this division belong the trachytesof the Drachenfels and of the Perlenhardt, in the Siebengebirge,
\ near Bonn,
Caf

Grande

"

"

"

Rozet, Sur les Montagnes de l'Auvergne, in

Giol. de France, 2me
Serie,t. i.,partiei.,1844,
t Fragments of leucite ophyr, collected by me
described
are
by Gustav Rose in Fried. Hoffmann's
On the trachyte of the
1
839,
s. 219.
bachtimgen,

the

the

island

of the

Monographic
the

island

vitreous

(s.528),

des

same

name,

Vesuvs, 1857,

of Ischia

contains

feldspar,brown
but

no

and
s.

the

rock

mica,

green

or

de la Soc.

at

the Monte

Nuovo,

BeoGeognostischen
Monte

di Procida

of

Martino, see Roth,

viii. The
trachyte of

of San

519-522, tab.

in the Arso,

Man.

p. 69.

stream

of Cremate

(1301),
olivin

augite,magnetic iron,and

leuche.

conditions
of the Siebengebirge near
geologico-topographical
ness
Bonn
have been developed with comprehensive talent and great exactthe
9th
annual
director
of
in
friend
H.
mines,
von
Dechen,
by my
of the Verhandlungen des Natiirhistoriscken Vcreines der Preuss,
volume
All the chemical
ses
analy1852, s. 289-567.
Rheinlande,und Westphalens,
have hitherto appeared
of the trachytesof the Siebengebirge which
of the trachytes
is also made
there collected (p.323-356) ; mention
are
and Rottchen, in which, besides the large crystals
of the Drachenfels
of sanidine, several small crystalline
particlesmay be distinguishedin
the fundamental
These
mass.
portionshave been found by Dr. Bothe,
in
chemica
lanalvsis
Mitscherlich's
on
laboratory,to be oligoclase,
holm)
(near Stockcorresponding exactly with the oligoclaseof Danvikszoll
The
Wolkennoticed
(Dechen, s. 340-346.)
by Berzelius."
burg and the Stenzelbergare destitute of glassyfeldspar(s.357 and 363),
but to the third ; they contain
a
and belong,not to the second
division,
bengebirge
section of the geologicaldescriptionof the SieToluca
rock.
That
of the relative age of trachyte conglomerate
which
treats
views (p.405-461).
With
contains
and basalt conglomerate
new
many
dikes of trachyte in the trachyte conglomerates, which
the more
rare

X The

"

"

426

cosmos.

nitz

;* of Nagyag, in Transylvania; of Montabaur, in the

of Nassau

Duchy

of the

Stenzelbergand the Wolkenburg,

Bonn
; of the Puy de Chaumont,

near
Siebengebirge,

in the
near

Clermont, in Auvergne

also

the

of

Kasbegk,
and

Tolucaf

Orizaba
of

splendidcolumns
the

latter

in the

of the

and

Caucasus
;

the

the Mexican
of

volcano

Pisoje,Jnear

Liorant,in Cantal
Purace,

and

the

Popayan, though whether

trachytes is very uncertain.

are

volcanoes

The

domites

of

belong likewise to this third division. In

of the trachytesof
fundamental
the white fine-grained
mass
found
which
the Puy de Dome
are
were
stantly
conglassycrystals,
for
b
ut
which
taken
are
feldspar,
always streaked on
and
distinct
blende
the most
are
oligoclase
cleavagesurface,
; hornalso
mica
from
the
and some
are
present. Judging
the royal collection is indebted
volcanic specimens for which
to Hcrr
Mollhausen, the draughtsman and topographistof
the third division,
Lieutenant
Whipple's exploringexpedition,
also includes those
that of the dioritic Toluca
or
trachytes,
Fe del Nuevo
Mexico
and
of Mount
Santa
Taylor, between
the western
on
Albuquerque, as well as those of Cieneguilla,
slope of the Rocky Mountains, where, according to the able

Leopold

von

observations

Buch

of Jules

formation."

Jura

which

Marcou, black lava

The

same

in

saw

mixture

the Azteck

streams

overflow

of

and hornblende
oligoclase
highlands,in Anahuac

of South
in the Cordilleras
America,
proper, but not
the
of
far
Mountains
and
to the west
also found
Rocky

River, a tributaryof

Zuni, near the Mohave

(see Marcou, Resume
*

See

the admirable

of

the Rio

of the district of Schemnitz

von
Peltko, 1852, and the Abhandhngen der
Bergrath,
bd. ii.,
Reichsansta.lt,
1855, abth. i.,s. 3.
geoloyischen

Johann

are

of

Colorado

reconnaissance from
geological

geological
map

the

the

by
k. h.

f Cosmos, see above, p. 375-6.

has
of Pisoje,the feldspathicpart of which
X The basaltic columns
been analyzed by Francis
1841, s. 471), near
(Poggend., Annal, bd. lii.,

plain of Amolanga (not far from the

fied
modiMarmato), consist of a somewhat
beautiful
a
nd
small
of
in
blende.
crystals,
crystals hornoligoclase large
this
mixture
the
ritic
allied
are
to
Nearly
quartz, containing dioof
the
spathic
feldMarmato, brought home
by Degenhardt,
porphyry
tute
named
the rock, destiby Abich andesine
part of which was
tion
of quartz, of Cucurusape, near
Marmato, in Boussingault'scollecrock
the
29)
(Charles Ste.-Cl. Deville, Etudes de IJtholor/ie,
;
p.
of Chimborazo, below
I found
twelve geographical miles eastward
which
Kleinere
b
d.
the ruins of ol.dHiobamba
Schriften^
(Humboldt,
i.,
partment
of the Esterel
the rock
s.
Mountains, in the de1G1); and, lastly,
of the Var
(Elie de Beaumont, Explic.de, la Carte Glol. de
France, t. i.,p. 473).

the

banks

Pueblos

of the

Cauca,

of Sta. Barbara

in

the

and

"

Arkansas

to

427

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

California,
July, 1854,

See

p. 46-48.

also two

treatises
oVune Carte
Resume
explicatif
important French
and
1855, p. 113-116,
Geologiqueties JEJtats-ZJnis,
Exquisse
cle
Chaines
de
oVune Classification
des
Montagues
VAmerique du
"

1855

Nord,

de S.'Francisco

Sierra

trachytesof

Java,

for

et

Mount

Taylor,p. 23).

specimens of which

Among

the

indebted

Junghuhn,
my
those of the third division in three volcanic
friend Dr.

to

have

we

likewise

am

ognized
rec-

districts ;

namely, Burung-agung, Tyinas, and Gurung Parang (in the

Batugangi district).
"
The leadingmass
contains angitewith
Fourth Division.
volcanoes
oligoclase the Peak of Teneriffe,*the Mexican
"

"

Colima, the South

Popocatepetl!and
*

The

feldsparin

the

trachytesof

American

Teneriffe

was

volcanoes

first recognized in

Islands

in the autumn
Canary
see
distinguishedgeologist's
Voyage Geologiqueaux
lies de Teneriffeet de Fogo, 1848, p. 14, 74, and 169;
also Analyse du Feldspath de Teneriffe,in the Comptes rendus de VAcad.
labors of Messrs. GustavRose
des Sciences,
"The
t. xix.,1844, p. 46.
contributed
and II. Abich," he says, "have
in no small degree,both crysand chemically,to throw lighton the numerous
ties
varietallographically
the
of minerals
under
denomination
which
were
comprised
vague
in submitting to analysiscarefully
of feldspar. I have succeeded
lated
isocrystalswhose densitv in different specimens was very uniformly
'This is the first time that the oligoclase
2-593, 2-594, and 2-586.
feldsparhas been indicated in volcanic regions,with the exception,
of the Cordillera
of the Andes.
of the great masses
perhaps, of some
in
least
with
the ancient
It was
not
at
detected,
except
any certainty,
eruptive rocks (Plutonic,granite,syenite,syeniticporphyry ....;)
but in the trachytesof the Peak
of Teneriffe it plays a part analogous
of JEtna."
in the doleritic masses
to that of the Labrador
Compare
bd.
also Rammelsberg, in the Zeitschr. der Lleutschen Geol. Gesellschaft,

1842

Charles

by

Deville, who

of that year;
Antilles et aux

v.,

1853,

Chem.

that

691, and

s.

the

Mineralogie,s.

f The

visited the

4th

of his Handworterbuchs

Supplement

der

245.

first determination

of

height of

the great volcano

of Mexico,
the trigonometricalmeasurement

aware,
Popocatepetl,is,so far as I am
already mentioned
(see above, p. 43, note f),executed by me on
the 24th of January, 1804, in the Llano
de Tetimba.
The
summit
was

found

to

be 1536
1234

toises,or
The

higher

than

I have

1807, p. 148, and

which

measurements

calculation

lead
made

me

ometrically
the Llano, and as the latter lies barof Vera
Cruz, we obtain 2770
the absolute
height of the volcano.

the coast

17,728 English feet,as

barometrical

metrical

toises above

toises above

to

conjecture that

it in the Essai

in the Essai

succeeded

have

sur

Politiquesur

la

the

my

volcano

trigonois still

Geographicdes Plantes,

la Nouvelle

Espagne,

t.

i.,

William
Glennie, who first reached the margin of the
1825, p. 185.
calculation
the 20th of April, 1827, found
crater
on
it,according to his own

(Gazeta del Sol, published in Mexico, No. 1432), 17,884 feet,

equal to 2796 toises ; but, as corrected by the mining director,
Burkart,
who has acquired so high a reputationin the department of American
hypsometry,and who compared the calculation in Vera Cruz with baro-

428

cosmos.

Tolinia

the Paramo

(with

metrical observations

18,01 7 feet.

On

de

Ruiz),Purace

Popayan,

near

taken

nearlyat the same

time, it comes
measurement
hand, a barometrical
Nov., 1827), calculated according to the

the other

out

by

fully
uel
Sam-

Birbeck
tables of
(10th of
of Alex. DoigOltmanns, gave only 17,854 feet ; and the measurement
non
(Gumprecht, Zeitschrift
far Allg.Erdkunde, bd. iv.,1855, s. 390),
almost
too
coinciding
preciselywith the trigonometricalmeasurement
of Tetimba, gives 5403
The
talented
metres, equal to 17,726 feet.
Herr
Von
embassador
in Washington,
Gerolt, the present Prussian
of PopocateGros, likewise visited the summit
accompanied by Baron
petl
urement,
meas(28th of May, 1833), and found, by an exact barometrical
the Roca
the crater, 16,896 feet above the
del Fraile, below
sea.
Singularlycontrasted with these chronologically-stated
hypsometrical
results appears
barometrical
a
carefullyconducted
ment
measurein his valuable Mittheiby M. Graven, published by Petermann
neue
lungen uber icichtige
Erforschungen der Gcographie,1855 (heft x.),
The
traveler found, in September, 1855, the height of
358-361.
s.
the highest margin of the crater, the northwest, compared with what
he considered
the mean
height of the atmospheric pressure in Vera
is 555
feet (^ of the
Cruz, only 5230 metres, or 17,159 feet,which
under
whole
less
than
found
I
it
height
measurement)
by trigonometrical
half a century previous. Craveri,likewise, makes
measurement
the height of the cityof Mexico
above the sea
196 feet less than Burkart

and

only

found

I have

it to be

at

very

different

times ; he reckons

it at

feet,instead of 2277 metres, or 7471 feet.

metres,
In Dr. Petermann's
periodicalabove referred to, p. 479-481, I have
explained myself more
particularlyon the subject of these variations
plus or minus, as compared with the result of my trigonometrical
which
been repeated. The 453
unfortunatelyhas never
measurement,
determinations
of height which
I made
from September, 1799, to February,
1804, in Venezuela, on the woody shores of the Orinoco, the
Rio de la Magdalena, and the River Amazon
of
; in the Cordilleras
New
and
and
in the tropicalregion of Mexico,
Granada, Quito,
Pern,
all of which, recalculated
ing
by Professor Oltmanns, uniformly accordof Laplace and
the coefficients of Ramond,
have
to the formula
been published in my Nivellement Baromctriqne et Gcologique,
1810 (Recueil d'Observ. Astron., t. i., p. 295-334), were
performed without
with
Ramsden's
cistern
barometers
niveau
"a
exception
constant,"
and

2217

not

or

with

7274

apparatus in which

be inserted

after

several

fresh-filled Torricellian

tubes

instrument,projectedby
Journal de Physique,t. iv.,p. 468,
myself, described in Lametherie's
and occasionallyused in Germany
and France
during the years 1796
and 1797.
and
made
of
I
mutual
to
our
Gay-Lussac
satisfaction,
use,
Ramsden
a
barometer
in
cistern
similar
portable
construction,
exactly
in the year 1805, during our
journey through Italyand Switzerland.
The admirable
observations
of the Olmutz
Julius Schmidt,
astronomer,
the margins of the crater
of Vesuvius
on
der Eruption
(JBesclireihung
im Mai, 1855, s. 114-116) furnish, from
their similarity,additional
may

motives

one

of satisfaction.

Popocatepetl,but measured
whatever

for

the

another, nor

As

never

by

the

have

ascended

there
it trigonometrically,

extraordinary

criticism

the
is

(Craveri, in

summit

no

of

foundation

Petermann's

heft x., s. 359), " that the height of the mountain

Geogr. Miltlteilungcn,
described
as
because, as I myself stated,
by me is unsatisfactory,

Pasto

and Cumbal

I had

made

ciallv

(accordingto specimens collected by

of fresh-filled Torricellian

use

with several

tubes

ought

the summit

on

of

For

barometer.
rare

one

had

be

may

feels anxious

part, I have

own

my

The

to

recourse

it

only

at

of his

state

still recommend

nevertheless

espe-

which,

employed

the

to

as

Bous-

apparatus

open air, more

of those means

by large towns,

operator

occasions, but I would

tubes."

in the

It is

mountain.

the

long intervals,when

be used

to

never

furnished

the conveniences

from

429

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

on

it to

very

ers,
travel-

in

my

comparison with the boilingpoint,as warmly

Observations Astro7iomiques
(vol.i.,p. 363-373): "As

it is better

not

to

accompanied
as

I did

ought
out

observe

us

seemed

at

bad

observations, we

determinations

of

putting it

times

ersed
trav-

which

ly
chief-

different

doubtful.

which

qfMulis, in

apparatus

make

to

the

Andes,

repeated

were

places which

all than

of

of the

Cordilleras

interested

at

than
breakingthe barometer
Bonpland and I having four different

M.

of order.
the

the

less afraid

be

to

by

times, as we returned to
occasionallyemployed the
primary experiment is performed,
four strongly-heated
tubes,

AVe

Torricelli's

by applying successivelythree or
When
crucible.
recentlyboiled in a stone-ware
mercury
there is no possibility
of replacing the tubes,it is perhaps prudent not
in the tubes themselves.
In this way I have found,
to boil the mercury
istry
in experiments made
in conjunctionwith Lindner, Professor
of Chemof
of Mines
in Mexico, the height of the column
at the School
filled with

mercury

in six tubes,
259-7

lines

as

follows

(old Paris foot)

259-5

2G0-0

259-9

259-9

(old Paris foot)

lines

250-9

of heat,been deprivedof air

"The
last tubes alone had, by means
two
maker
As the exactness
of
at Mexico.
by Bellardoni,the instrument
the experiment depends partlyon
the perfectcleanliness
of the inside
of the empty
tubes, which are so easilycarried, it is a good plan to
seal them
hermetically over a lamp." As the angles of altitude can
the sea-shore,and
districts be taken
from
the
not, in mountainous
of a mixed
and to a considnature
erable
are
trigonometricalmeasurements
extent
i or 1-2-7 of the whole height)
as
(frequentlyas much
the
determination
of
the
height of the elevated plain in
barometrical,
is of great importance. As corwhich the base line may be measured
responding
baromatrical

observations

at

sea

seldom

are

for the most

part only at too great a distance, travelers
induced
obtained from a few
to take the results they have
conducted

by

them

height of the pressure

"
the sea-shore.
In

at

different

atmosphere
wishing to know whether
on

too

or

often

tions,
days' observa-

of the year,
the elevated

seasons

of the

obtained,
are

as

the

plain

measurement

mean

and

at

made

of the barometer
the exactness
of trigonometrical
by means
possesses
operations,it is only necessary to ascertain whether, in a given case,
the two
kinds of measurement
have
been taken under
able
equally favorcircumstances,that is to say, by fulfillingthose conditions which
both theory and long experience have prescribed. The
mathematical
while
the physdreads
terrestrial
the
effect
of
refraction,
ical
experimenter
and
far
from
the
taneous
simulhas
fear
to
reason
unequal
experimenter
distribution
extremities

of which

of the
the

two

temperature
barometers

in the
are

column

placed.

of air at

It is

the

probable

430

cosmos.

Rucu-Pichincha, Antisana, Cotopaxi,Chimborazo

singault),
that

enough

than

slower

the

density of

mean

in

ascend

to

balloon

stratum

the whole
so

as

or

in

order

decrease

of caloric

ascertain

to

of air it would

column
examine

to

layer of the

the

earth

greater elevations, and

at

successive

of the

surface

the

near

the

with
he

superimposed

(Humboldt, Reappendix

cueil cf Observ. Astron.,vol. i.,p. 138 ; see, also,371, in the

While
the
refraction and barometrical
measurements).
on
of MM.

measurement

of

summit

the

to

find that

the

Truqui and
Popocatepetl,whereas

Craveri

rical
baromet-

givesonly 17,159

Glennie

measurement
lately-published

cision
pre-

sary
neces-

of each

temperature
air"

is

feet

gives 17,889 feet,I

of Professor

Carl

Heller,
thoroughly
surrounding
and Chiapa, corresponds
Mexico, as well as the provinces of Yucatan
32 feet of my own.
to within
(Compare my Essay on the Height of the
of Olmutz,

investigatedthe

district

Volcano

Mexican
Justus

has

who

Perthes

in Dr. Petermanns
Popocatepetl,
Mitlheilungencms
s.
Anstalt,1856,
Geographischer
479-481.)

possible,as in the ^Etna rock,to

crystalsfrom the ground mass
separate mechanically the feldspathic
in which
tains,
they lie,but the largeproportion of silicic acid which it conconnected
therewith
small
with
the
of
the
fact
specific
along
it apparent that the feldspathicconstituent
gravityof the rock, make
is oligoclase.The
quantity of silicic acid which a mineral contains
and its specific
gravity are generallyin an inverse ratio ; in oligoclase
*

and

In the Chimborazo

Labradorite

the

rock

it is not

is 64 and

former

53

per

cent., while

the

latter is

acid,has
per
This
the great specificgravity of 2-76.
inverse
proportion between
the quantity of silicic acid and the specificgravitydoes not occur, as
Gustav
Hose
remarks, in the feldspathicminerals,which are also isoThus
feldspar and
morphous, but with a different crystallineform.
parts potash,alumina,
leucite,for instance, have the same
component
The
and silicic acid.
feldspar,however, contains 65, and the leucite
silicic
of
56
cent,
acid, yet the former has a higher specific
only
per
the
than
latter,whose specific
gravityis only 2-48.
gravity,namely, 2*56,
Being desirous, in the spring of 1854, to obtain a fresh analysis of
the trachyte of Chimborazo, Professor
Rammelsberg kindly undertook
I here give the
the task, and performed it with his usual accuracy.
communicated
to me
results of this analysis,as they were
by Gustav
2*66

and

Anorthite, with

2-71.

only

44

of silicic

cent,

"

Kose, in

letter in the

month

rock, submitted
broken

from

brought

home

was

you
more

had

than

to
a

He says: "The
borazo
Chimof June, 1854.
berg,
Eammelscareful analysis by Professor

specimen belonging to your collection,which

the narrow
from
rocky ridge at a height of

19,000 feet above

the sea."

's Analysis.
Rammelsberg'
2-806.)
(Height, 19,194 English feet; specificgravity,
Oxygen.

Silicic acid

59-12

Alumina

13-48

Protoxyd

of iron

30-70

...

2-33

6-30)

...

7-27

1-61^

Lime

6-50

1-85

Magnesia

5-41

2-13

Soda

3-46

0-89

Potash

2-64

...

...

J"

6-93

-,

"

ooo

97-88

0-45

Tunguragua,

and

431

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

trachyte rocks, which

AbicWs

covered

are

by

the

Analysis.

2685.)
gravity,
(Height, 16,179 English feet; specific
Oxvgen.

Silicic acid

65-09

Alumina

15*58

3381

...

...

Oxydofiron
Protoxyd

3-83

Lime

2-61

Magnesia

4*10

Soda

4-46

Potash

1-99

1'73

Chlorine, and

loss

by

2-68

1-2T
1-16

...

0-39

.,.

073

...

1-58

...

114

...

0-33.
'"

...

0*41

heat...

99-80
In

explanationof
gives the

these

figuresit

must

be observed

a
percentage, the
them.
second
The

contained
in
oxygen
the
of
oxyds
stronger
oxygen
the

and

third

shows
space
contain
atom
one

(those which
is recapitulated,
so

third space this

that of the alumina
earth

In the

that the first series

second

ingredients in

is

as

to

offer

weak

only

give
the

of oxygen).

a
ison
comparand of the

oxyd)
(which
of
gives the proportion of the oxygen
of the aggregate
the silicic acid to the oxygen
bases,which latter are
fixed
In the trachyte of Chimborazo
1.
this proportion is
2*33 : 1.
and
differences
between
the
"The
of
of
Rammelsberg
analyses
Abich
borazo,
ChimBoth
minerals
from
are
certainlyimportant.
analyzed
from
the relative heights of 19,194 and
16,179 feet,which
off by you, and were
broken
tion
taken
from
were
your geologicalcollecCabinet
in the Royal Mineral
mineral
the
The
from
at Berlin.
lower
of Mont
elevation (scarcely400 feet higher than the summit
Blanc), which Abich has analyzed,possesses a smaller specific
gravity,
and
in correspondence therewith
a
greater quantity of silicic acid,
the mineral
taken
from
than
a
point 2918 feet higher, analyzed by
Assuming that the argillaceousearth belongs only to
Rammelsberg.
the feldspathic
berg
ingredient,we may reckon in the analysisof Rammelswith

silicic acid.

The

fourth

space

"

Oligoclase
Augite

58-66
34-14

Silicic acid
As

thus, by

is

the

and
oligoclase,

rock, a
A

assumption

uncombined,

over

4-08

not

of

it is

mains
oligoclase,a portion of silicic acid rethat
the
feldspathicingredient
probable

Labradorite.

The

latter does

not

occur

silicic acid, and if we

Labradorite
to suppose
were
over."
greater quantity of silicic acid would remain

careful

with
in

combined
un-

the

comparison of several analyses for which I am indebted to

able
the valufriendshipof M. Charles Sainte-Claire
Deville,to whom
collections
of
mutual
friend
cessible
geological
our
Boussingault are acfor chemical
experiment, shows that the quantity of silicic
acid contained
in the fundamental
of the trachyticrocks is genmass
erally
The
table
they contain.
greater than in the feldsparswhich
of
to me
kindly communicated
by the compiler himself in the month
June, 1857, contains only five of the great volcanoes of the chain of

the

the Andes

432

COSMOS.

of Old

ruins

"

These

of the
"will

differences,as

ground
appear
rock en

In

Riobamba.

far

as

still more

Tungurajrua, besides

regards the

relative

feldspar),"continues

the

mass

the

(and
strikingwhen

it is considered

the

richness

in silica

Charles

Deville,
ing
analyz-

that, in

analysis,along with the

basis properlyso called,not only fragments of feldsparsimilar to those
such minerals
as
which
have been extracted, but even
amphibole, pyroxene,
less rich in silica than the
are
and especiallyperidote,which
itself sometimes by the presof silica manifests
ence
feldspar. This excess
in the
Abich
has detected
which
M.
of isolated grains of quartz,
Bonn), and which I
(Siebengebirge,near
trachytesof the Drachenfels
have
surprisein the trachyticdolerite of
myself observed with some
Guadaloupe."
synopsis of
If,"observes Gustav Rose, " we add to this remarkable
a

masse,

there

included

are

in the

"

contained

the silicic acid

in Chimborazo

the

May, 1854, we
Rammelsberg
obtained
by Deville occupies exactly the mean
Thus
and Rammelsberg.
:
that

in

of

Chimborazo
Silicic acid

65-09

Abich

63-19

Deville

62-66

do.

59*12

result of the

latest analysis,

shall find that the

between

those

result

of Abich

Hock.

2-685)
(specific
gravity,

2-806)."
Rammelsberg (specific
gravity,

Pacifique,of the 5th of January, 1857, published at

is given of a French
er,
travelCalifornia,an account
Francisco,
the 3d of November,
M. Jules Remy, having succeeded, on
named
with an Englishman, Mr. Brencklay, in reaching the
1856, in company
of Chimborazo, which
summit
was, "however, enveloped in a cloud,so
ascended
without perceivingit." He observed, it is stated,the
that we
at 171"-5
F., with the temperature of the air at
boilingpoint of water
these
On calculating,
data, the height he had attained,
31"-9 F.
upon
him
in repeatedjourneys in the Hatested
rule
by
by a hypsometrical
astonished
the result brought out.
He
he
at
was
Archipelago,
way
of
that
is
elevation
to
at an
21,467 feet;
found, in fact,that he was
In the Echo

San

du

in

434

cosmos.

Stromboli

and, according
the trachytesof the Antilles by
works
on
to the admirable
loupe,
Charles Sainte-Claire Deville, the Soufriere de la Guade-

doleritic trachyte: JEtna,

a
gite,*

well

as

Sixth Division.

"
"

ground

The

crystalsof

in which

surround

the

Bourbon."

Salazu, on

de

Pic

great cirqueswhich

the three

as

and

Vesuvius
very little olivin :
of Vultur, Kocca
volcanoes

color,

gray

augite lie imbedded,

and

leucite

of

often

mass,

Somma

Monfina,

also

Albanian

the

the

with

extinct

Hills,and

(forexample, in the wall and

more
of Pompeii) the crystalsof leucite are
than
the
augite. In
considerable in size and more
numerous
the contrary, the augitespredominate,
the present lavas, on
and the leucites are, on the whole, very scarce, although the
them
of April, 1845, has furnished
of the 22d
lava stream
in abundance.! Fragments of trachytesof the first division,
Borghetto.
paving stones

Sartorius

In the

"

observations
maSses

the

Serra

auo-ite
from

the

"

and

white

are

1669

trachytes of
The

found

Black
side

those
(especially

in the
form

hornblende

carefully
years
following important

for many
the

to the older
belongs especially
well as the
del Bove, as
Val
in
JEtna
of
the ground mass
and
bright yellowish-green

lava streams,
recent
by side. The more
of 1787, 1809, 1811, 1819, 1832, 1838, and
latter seems
to be genhornblende.
The
erated

augite,but no
only after a longer period

1812), show

has
makes

there

veins

trachytes,which

Giannicola.
there

who

iEtna,

hornblende

green-stone

red

mass

Waltershausen,

von

investigatedthe

older

(Waltershausen, TJeber
In
Sicilien unci Island,1853, s. 111-114).
die vulkanischen Gesteine von
of the
the augitiferoustrachytes of the fourth division,in the chain
indeed
sometimes
have
abundant
I
the
with
augites,
Andes, along
elevation of 14,068
but sometimes, as at Cotopaxi (at an
found none,
of
at
a
height
15,301 feet,distinct black
feet)and at Rucu-Pichincha,
hornblende
crystalsin small quantities.
des Sc, t. xx., 1845,
f See Pilla, in the Comptes rendus de VAcad.
Pilla has found
of
the
Rocca
the
leucite
In
Monfina,
321.
crystals
p.
tubes (serpulce),
the surface covered with worm
indicatinga submarine
the leucite of the Eifel, in the trachyte of
On
volcanic formation.
the Burgberg, near
Rieden, and that of Albano, Lago Bracciano, and
Borghetto, to the north of Rome, see above, page 224, note *. In the
has generally
Buch
of large crystalsof leucite,Leopold von
centre
which
the leucite
found
the fragment of a crystalof augite,round
the
"a
circumstance
considering
has
which,
formed,
crystallization
is
the
of
and
leucite,
o
f
the
the
infusibility
ready fusibility
augite,
mental
fundathe
of
still
somewhat
are
fragments
singular. More frequently
vin
itself inclosed like a nucleus in leucite porphyry." Olimass
is likewise

of cooling"

in lavas, as in the cavities of the obsidian which

the Cerro del Jacal, in Mexico
(Cosmos, vol. i.,p. 266,
also
rock of Elf
the
in
to
hypersthene
strange
say,

found

I brought from
note
^f),and yet,

(Berzelius,Sechster Jahresbericht,1827, s. 302), which was

in the nature
similar contrast
considered
to be syenite. A
which
occurs
places where it is found is exhibited by oligoclase,
dal

long
of the
in the

TRUE

435

VOLCANOES.

containing glassyfeldspar (Leopold

proper),are

tufas

in the

imbedded

Buch's

von

of Monte

trachyte
; they

Somma

covers
layer of pumice which
leucite
of
The
the
sixth
division
ophyr trachytes
Pompeii.
be
must
carefullydistinguishedfrom the trachytesof the
in the
first division,although leucites occur
westernmost
part of the PhlegrseanFields and on the island of Procida,
has been already mentioned."
as
talented originatorof the above
classification of volThe
canoes,
according to the association of the simple minerals
which
that he
they present,does not by any means
suppose
has completed the grouping of all that are
found on the surface

also

in the

detached

occur

of the

earth,which

is

in
investigated

well

minerals,as

additions

as

law

for the

are

Here,

as

the

to

increased

the

most

part

so

and

only be

portionof

we

ical
chemlections,
col-

the

know

so

governing
by a

discovered
we

must

the ent
presis but a small

will

bring to light. The

of early acquiring this advantage lie in profusion
means
before us, but the investigation
of the trachyte portion of
the dry surface of the earth, whether
raised,depressed,or
has hitherto been very deficient in the
opened up by fissures,
employment of thoroughlyexhaustive methods.
Thoush
and

work,

each

near

what

think

science,we

more

incomplete and

can
investigations
of
individual
widely-extended comparison
cases,
in
the
that
on
which,
principle
proceed
every thing

of

from

of

number

where

cases

in cosmical

condition

ciated
asso-

tions
trachyteforma-

regard to form

with

all other

in

of the

ways, both
of mineralogy itself (in a

progressiveimprovement
distinction both
exact
specific
composition),and from
aimless.

so

expected in two

the

which

whole,

in the nomenclature

to be

themselves, are

the

perfectly
very imical
scientifically
geologicaland chem-

Modifications

sense.

on
still,

the

next

century

similar in form, in the construction

of their frame-

their

volcanoes
situated very
geotectonicrelations,
different
individual
other have frequentlya very

trachytes of still burning

paxi), and yet at the same

of Teneriffe

(the Peak

volcanoes

and

Coto-

granite and

granititeof
Schreibersau
and Warmbrunn,
Riesengebirge (Gnstav
Rose, in the minerals
belonging to the granite group, in the Zeitd. Deutsch. geol.Gesellsch.,
zn
Berlin,bd. i.,s. 864:). This is
schiiften
in

not

the

case

Avith the

in

also

time

the

leucite in the

the

Silesian

Plutonic

disseminated

rocks, for the

in the

mica-slate

statement

and

gneiss
has
Hauy
Pyrenees, near
after
been
found
years'investigation,
repeated), has
many
erroneous,
by Dufrenoy (Traite de Mineralogie,t. iii.,
p. 399).
that leucite has been
of the

found

Gavarnie

(an assertion

which

even

436

cosmos.

character
their

in

regard

mineral

which,

to

aggregate.

extending from

from

west

the

sea

composition and
On

the

to

entirelyin

almost

sea

east, intersects

to

great

association

chain

of

of

fissure

transverse

tion
direc-

mountains, or,
swell,

uninterruptedmountainous

properlyspeaking,an
in
running from southeast to northwest, the volcanoes occur
the following order: Colima
(13,003 feet),Jorullo (4265
and
Toluca
(15,168 feet),
Popocatepetl (17,726 feet),
feet),
situated nearest
to each other
Orizaba (17,884 feet). Those
characterizes
dissimilar in the compositionwhich
them,
are
of trachyteoccurringonly alternately. Colima
a
similarity
with augite,and conand Popocatepetlconsist of oligoclase,
sequently
the trachyte of Chimborazo
have
Teneriffe;
or
with
consist of oligoclase
Toluca
and Orizaba
hornblende,
and
consequently have the rock of ^Egina and Kozelnik.
of Jorullo, which
is scarcely
volcano
The
recently-formed
than
a
more
large eruptive hill,consists almost alone of
and
scoriaceous
lavas, resembling basalt and pitch-stone,
than that of Colima.
like the trachyteof Toluca
more
seems
the individual
In these considerations
on
diversityof the
mineralogicalconstitution of neighboringvolcanoes,we find
more

condemnation

of the

mischievous

attempt

to introduce

speciesof trachyte,derived from a mountain

than 7200
geographicalmiles
chain,chieflyvolcanic,of more
the
of Jura
in length. The
name
limestone, which I was
because
it is taken
first to introduce,*is unobjectionable,
of mountains
from
chain
rock
from
a
a
simple unmixed
whose
antiquityis characterized by its containingorganic
for

name

"

the
had
among

In the

course

of

tour
geological

which

made,

in 1705,
of

north

of France, western
Switzerland, and the
Werner
satisfied myself that the Jura limestone, which
a
his muschel-kalk, constituted
peculiarformation.

south

through
Italy,I

reckoned

brother, Wilhelm

In

my

on
gases, publishedby my
in South
America, tbis
Humboldt, in 1799, during my residence
for
Jura
limestone,was
designatedas
formation, which I provisionally
formation
of the new
the first time mentioned
(s.39). This account
ogical
mineralKarsten's
the
transferred
to
Oberbergrath
was
immediately
and
read
that
64,
preface,
time
so
at
(1800,
tables,
generally
p.
the
characterize
which
the
of
I
named
petrifactions
none
p. vii.).
Buch
has
which
quired
acvon
and
in
relation
to
Jura formation,
Leopold
ascribed
the
in
I
erred
likewise
much
credit (1839) ;
by
so
age
formation, supposing it to be older than muschel-kalk,
me
to the Jura
older
considered
to the Alps, which
were
of its propinquity
account
on

treatise

subterranean

von

the SuperpoIn the earliest tables of Buckland, on

sition
Humboldt
of
limestone
the
Jura
British
in
the
Strata
Islands,
of
is reckoned
as
belonging to the upper oolite. Compare my Essai
Gcoyn. sur le Gisement des Bodies, 1823, p. 281.

than

Zechstein.

437

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

like

unobjectionableto
particularmountains
the
Teneriffe
of
use
to make
expression
trachyte or .iEtna
formations.
trachyte for decided oligoclaseor Labradorite
inclination among
to find
an
So long as there was
geologists
the very different kinds of feldspar
albite every where
among
which
are
peculiarto the chain of the Andes, every rock in
called andesite.
I
albite was
which
supposed to exist was
It

remains.

would

in

with

first meet

the

after

of this

name

be

manner

designatetrachyte formations

mineral, with

"

the

distinct

composed of a preponderating
quantity of albite and a small quantity of hornblende,"in
in the beginning of the year
the important treatise written
Buch, on " Craters of up1835, by my friend Leopold von
heaval
This
and volcanoes."*
tendency to find albite every
that

definition

"

andesite

of andesite

is

print in Leopold von Buch's

That
treatise,read on the 26th March, 1835, at the Berlin Academy.
limits
the
of
those
in
to
cases
geologist
appellation
trachyte
great
above
is
and
thus
in
the
which
feldspar
contained,
glassy
speaks
not
was
(Poggend., Annal., bd.
printed till 1836
treatise,which
discoveries
of Gustav
Rose
xxxvii., s. 188-190): "The
relating to
feldsparhave shed a new
light on volcanoes and geology in general,
and the minerals
of volcanoes
have
in consequence
presented a new
and totallyunexpected aspect.
After many
careful investigations
in
the neighborhood of Catanea
and at iEtna, Elie de Beaumont
and I
have convinced
ourselves
that feldsparis not to be met
with on JEtna,
and
All the lava streams,
consequently there is no trachyte either.
well as all the strata
in the interior of the mountain, consist of a
as
of augite and Labradorite.
mixture
Another
important difference in
of volcanoes
the minerals
is manifested
when
albite takes the place of
mineral
is formed, which
can
feldspar,in which case a new
no
longer
be denominated
gations,
investitrachyte. According to G. Rose's (present)
it may
be considered
most
tolerablycertain that not one of the alinnumerable
volcanoes
of the Andes
consists of trachyte, but
that they all contain albite in their constituent
This conjecture
mass.
*

The

seems

that

with

we

name

very
have

first occurs

in

bold

when
consider
we
one, but it loses that appearance
become
Humboldt's
acquainted through
journeys alone,

half

of these

volcanoes

their products in both hemispheres.

acquainted with these albitiferous
in Bolivia and the northern
minerals
part of Chili ; through Poppig,
far as the southernmost
limit of the same
as
country ; through Erman,
in the volcanoes
of Kamtschatka.
Their
being so widely
presence
diffused and
so
to justify the
marked, seems
distinctly
sufficiently
of
under
which
this
name
andesite,
mineral, composed of a preponderance
of albite and a small quantityof hornblende, has already been
sometimes
noticed."
that
Almost
at the same
time
this appeared,
into the detail of the subjectin the
enters
more
Leopold von Buch
addenda
with which, in 1836, he so greatlyenriched
the French
tion
ediof his work
The
volcanoes
the Canary Islands.
on
Pichincha,
desite,
Cotopaxi, Tungurahua, and Chimborazo, are all said to consist of anwhile the Mexican
volcanoes
called genuine (sanidinifcrwere
one

Through

Meyen

we

are

and

438

cosmos.

lasted for five

where

six years, until

or

renewed

investiga-

ous) trachytes {Descriptionphysiquedes lies Canaries, 1836, p. 486,

classification of the volcanoes
487, 490, and 515). This lithological
and
shows
those of Mexico
of the Andes
that, in a scientific point of
view, such a similarityof mineralogical constitution and the possibility
derived from a large extent
of country,
of a general denomination
be

not

can

Leopold
thought of. A year later,when
in Poggendorff's Annalen, of the name
of so much
been the occasion
confusion,I

made

mention

which

has

mvself

mistake

in the account

of it on
of making
use
of my
attempt to ascend

two

occasions

Chimborazo,

Buch

von

of

first

andesite,

committed

the

in 1836,
in Schumacher's
once

"

bd. i.,
Jahrbucli,1837, s. 204, 205 (reprintedin my Kleinere Schriften,
and
in
the
in
treatise
the
on
s.
1837,
again
highland of
160, 161);
bd.
times
have
xl., s. 165). "Recent
Quito (in Poggend., Ann.,
jecture
taught us," I observed, already strongly opposing my friend's conas
"

that

to

the

the different

constitution

similar

do

zones

not

of

all the

always present

Andes
the

the

volcanoes,

same

ogical)
(mineral-

Sometimes

we
same
composition, or
parts.
component
trachytes,properly so called,characterized
by the glassyfeldspar,
of Teneriffe and in the Siebengebirge near
as
at the Peak
Bonn, where
with the feldspar feldspathictrachytes,
little albite is associated
a
of obsidian and pumice ;
which, as active volcanoes,exhibit abundance
and augite,
doleritic
of
Labradorite
mixtures
sometimes
melaphyre,and
more
nearly resembling the basalt formation, as at JEtna, Stromboli,
in the
albite with hornblende
and Chimborazo
as
prevails,
; sometimes
latelyso-called andesites of Chili,and the splendid columns, described
cano
dioritic porphyry, at Pisoje,near
as
Popayan, at the foot of the volof Jorullo ; finally,
volcano
of Purace, or in the Mexican
they
of leucite and augite, as in
leucite ophyrs, a mixture
sometimes
are

find

"

of Vesuvius."
of elevation
the ancient wall at the crater
the Somma,
By an accidental misinterpretationof this passage, which shews many
of the then imperfect state of geologicalknowledge (feldspar
traces

being

still ascribed

Labradorite
talented

the

to

Peak
and

Chimborazo,
Abich, who
investigator
to

of Teneriffe

instead

albite to the volcano

and
is both a chemist

of
of
a

oligoclase,
Toluca), that
has
geologist,

erroneously attributed to myself the invention of the term andesite as

applied to a trachytic,widely-dispersedrock rich in albite (Poggend.,
of andesine
to a
Ann., bd. li.,1840, s. 523), and has given the name
but
still
somewhat
first
of
him,
new
matical
eniganalyzed by
species feldspar,
in its nature,

"

with

reference

to

the

mineral

(from Marma-

andesine
The
it was
Popayan) in which
position
(pseudo-albitein andesite) is supposed to occupy a middle
of 55"*7 its
and oligoclase;at the temperature
between
Labradorite
sine
specificgravityis 2*733, while that of the andesite in which the andedid
is 3-593.
occurred
Gustav
Rose
as
subsequently
doubts,
Deville
Charles
{Etudes de Lilhologie,
p. 30), the individualityof
andesine, as it rests only on a single analysisof Abich, and because
the analysisof the feldspathicingredientin the beautiful dioritic porphyry
from
South
of Pisoje,near
America,
Popayan, brought by me
which
was
1841, s. 472) in
performed by Francis (Poggend., bd. lii.,
shows
while
it
a
the laboratoryof Heinrich
semblance
certainly
Rose,
great rewithstanding,
notandesine
of
as
to the
analyzed by Abich, is,
Marmato,
is the
uncertain
of a different composition. Still more

to,

near

first observed."

tions of
the

profoundand

recognitionof
in the

andesine
and

more

the

less

prejudicedcharacter led to
trachyticalbites as oligoclase.*Gus-

syenite of

Coravillers,which

439

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

the

Delesse

Yosges (from the Ballon

has analyzed). Compare

de
G.

Servance,
Rose, in

der Deutschen
Gesellgeologischen
already often-cited Zeitschrift
It
is
for
369.
not
the
bd.
s.
mark
i.,
unimportant to reschaft,
year 1849,
introduced
here that the name
that of a
as
andesine,
by Abich
titled
simple mineral, appears for the first time in his valuable treatise, enBeitrag zur Zenntniss des Feldspaths(in Poggend., Ann., bd. 1.,
is at least five
s.
125, 341; bd. li.,s. 519), in the year 1840, which
the
instead
of being prior
of
after
the
name
andesite,
adoption
years
the
mineral
which
of
from
it
is
the
to
taken, as has been
designation
the
formations
In
of Chili,which
sometimes
erroneously supposed.
Darwin
so
frequently calls andesitic granite and andesitic porphyry,
Observations on South America, 1846, p. 174),
rich in albite {Geological
also
Gustav
likelybe obtained.
Rose, whose
oligoclasemay
very
the

allied to green-stone and

green-stone porphyry (inPoggendorfT's Ann., bd. xxxiv.,s. 1-30) appeared
in the same
Leopold von Buch employed
year, 1835, in which

treatise

the

name

on

the nomenclature

of

of the minerals

andesite,has not,

either

in the treatise

just mentioned

or

of this term, the true definition of which

later work, made
use
but in the Cordilleras
of South Ameralbite
with
ica,
not
hornblende,
is,
with
The
obsolete
of
the
account
now
augite.
nation
desigoligoclase
in any

I have
of andesite,of which
tially,
perhaps treated too circumstanother examples in the historyof the
helps to show, like many
ly
insufficientor
knowledge, that erroneous
development of our plrysical
for
the
to
enumerate
tendency
instance,
grounded conjectures(as,
varieties as species)frequently turn
out
to
advantageous
scieuce,by
observations.
exact
inducing more
*
described
So early as 1840, Abich
oligoclasetrachyte from the
summit
rock of the Kasbegk and a part of the Ararat
( Ueber die Natttr
vnd
die Zusammcnsetzung der VuUcan-Bildungai,s. 46), and
in
even
had the foresightto say that though "he
Rose
had not
1835 Gustav
hitherto in his definitions taken notice of oligoclaseand pericline,
yet
The
lief
bethat they probablyalso occur
as
ingredientsof admixture."
formerly so generallyentertained,that a decided preponderance
of augite or of hornblende
might be taken to denote a distinct species
of the feldsparfamily,such as glassyorthoclase (sanidine),
Labradorite,
shaken
to be very much
or
by a comparison of the
oligoclase,
appears
and Toluca
rocks,belongingto the fourth
trachytesof the Chimborazo
hornblende
and
and third division.
In the basalt formation
augite
is by no means
the case
often occur
in the
in equal abundance, which
have
isolated
in
but
I
with
Toluca
met
crystals
quite
trachytes;
augite
rock, and a few hornblende
crystalsin portions of the Chimborazo,
are
Olivins, which
so
Pichincha, Purace, and Teneriffe rocks.
very
in
the basalts,are
as
rarelyabsent
great a rarityin trachytes as the}'
sometimes
find in certain lava streams
in phonolites; yet we
vins
oliare
in great abundance
formed
by the side of augites. Mica is,on
in basalt, and yet some
the whole, very unusual
of the basaltic summits
first described
of the Bohemian
central mountains,
by Reuss,
Freiesleben,and myself, contain plenty of it. The unusual isolation
of their legitimate specific
of certain mineral
bodies, and the causes
still undiscovered
of
causes
association,probabl}*depend on many

440
tav

cosmos.

doubtful
a

has

Rose

to

come

whether

the

albite

general conclusion

occurs

essential element

real and

the

old

all among
of commixture
at

that it is very
the minerals as
;

consequently,

conception of

andesite,this mineral
according
would
actuallybe wanting in the chain of the Andes.
condition of the trachytesis imperfectly
The mineralogical
inclosed crystals
not be
can
recognizedif the porphyritically
and measured, in which
tigator
the invescase
separatelyexamined
have recourse
to the numerical
must
proportionsof
and metallic oxyclswhich
the result of
the earths,alkalies,
the analysis
furnishes,as well as to the specific
gravityof the
result is
to be analyzed. The
seemingly amorphous mass
to

obtained

in

convincing and

more

more

certain

if

manner

ture,
principalmass, as well as the chief elements of the mixbe
can
singly investigatedboth mineralogicallyand
chemically. This is the case with the trachytesof the Peak
of Teneriffe and those of JEtna.
The
suppositionthat the
consists of the same
ponent
small,inseparablecomprincipalmass
parts which we recognizein the largecrystals
appears
have
to be by no
well grounded, for,as we
means
already
in Charles Deville's work, the apparently
noticed,as shown
silicic
amorphous principalmass
generallyfurnishes more
acid than would
of the feldspar
be expected from the nature
and the other visible commixed
elements.
Among the leuHose
cite ophyrs,as Gustav
is
observes,a strikingcontrast
the
the
in
of
difference
exhibited,even
specific
prevailing
and
alkalies (of the potash containinginterspersed
leucites)
the almost
natroniferous
exclusively
principalmass.*
the

But

augite

along: with
with

these

associations

Labradorite, and

of au^ite with

hornblende

with

oligoclase,

oligoclase,

and rapidity
in cooling. The
specific
fluidity,
pressure, temperature,
differences of the association
are, however, of gi'eat importance, both
in the mixed

rocks

and

in the

masses

of mineral

veins; and

in geological

noted
down
in the open air,in sight of the object
descriptions,
described,the observer should be careful not to make any mistake as
to what
be a prevailing,
member
of
at least a rarely absent
or
may
the association,
and what may
be sparinglyor only accidentallycombined.
The
which
of a mixture
diversity
prevailsin the elements
for instance,in the trachytes is repeated,as I have already noticed,
in the rocks themselves.
In both
continents
there exist large tracts
of country in which
and basalt formations, as it
trachyte formations
repeleach other,as basalts and phonolites; and tbere are other
were,
countries in which
trachytes and basalts alternate with each other in
close
tolerably
proximity (see Gustav Jenzsch, Monographic der bohmischen Phonolithe,1856, s. 1-7).
*
See Bischof, Chemische
und PhysHcalische
Geologie,bd. ii.,1851,
s. 2288, 2297;
Roth, Monographicdes Vesuvs, 1857, s. 305.
"

"

442

cosmos.

Meronitz, of

of the

the

marly

Kausawer

Mountain, and espe"

of the central Bohemian

Gamayer summit*
well as in the doleas
chain ; more
rarelyin the phonolite,|
that
rite of the Kaiserstuhl
near
Freiburg. It is remarkable
lavas of both continents
not
in the trachytesand
only no
white (chieflybi-axal)potash mica is observable,but that it
is entirelydark-colored
(chieflyuni-axal)magnesian mica,
of the magnesia mica is
and that this exceptionaloccurrence
extended
other rocks of eruptionand Plutonic rocks,
to many
such
as
basalt,phonolite,syenite,syeniticslate,and even
contains
and the
at one
while the graniteproper
granitite,
time white alkaline mica and black or brown
same
magnesia
mica. J

cially of

the

Feldspar.

Glassy

which
feldspar,
plays so important a part in
the action of European volcanoes,in the trachytesof the first
and second division (forexample, on Ischia,in the Phlegraean
Bonn), is probably entirely
Fields,or the Siebengebirgenear
canoes.
wanting in the New Continent, in the trachytesof active volsanidine
is the more
This circumstance
as
striking,
to the argentiferous,
nonbelongsessentially
(glassyfeldspar)
porphyriesof Moran, Pachuca, Villalpanquartzose Mexican
of

kind

This

and

the

obsidians
the

See

first of which

Acaquisotla, the

do,

Jahrgang,
the Gamayer

connected

with

of Jacal."

Journal,von
Bergmannisch.es

bd.

are

i.,1792,
summit

244,

s.

in the

251,

265.

Bohemian

Kohler

und

Basalt

rich

centre

Hofmann, 5ter
mica, as on
mountains, is a rarity.
in

in the summer
of
this part of the
range
with Carl Freiesleben,afterward
companion in
1792, in company
my
exercised
influence
has
who
over
Swiss
so
an
great
logical
geotour,
my
my
Bohemian

I visited

central

doubts
Bischof
all production of mica
mining education.
it
and
considers
a
metamorphic product by the
igneousmethod,
and

the

by

moist
bd.

method.

See

his

ii.,s. 1426, 1439.

Jenzsch, Beitrage

t
der Deutschen

Lehrbuch

zur

Kenntniss

der

Chem.

der

unci

Physikal.Geologie,

Phonolithe,in

bd. viii.,1856,
Gesellschaft,
Geologischen

der
s.

Zeitschrift

36.

in
gehorigenGebirgsarten,
Rose, Ueber die zur Granitgrupjye
359.
bd.
s.
Zeitschrift, i.,1849,
and Regla (the latter
porphyries of Moran, Real del Monte

% Gustav
derselben

"

The

celebrated

for the

rich silver mines

of the Veta

Biscayna,

and

cinity
the vi-

the
pearl-stonesof the Cerro
Navajas), like almost all the metalliferous
er
of
are
quite destitute of quartz (on these and othAmerica,
porphyries
Essai
in
see
GeognosHumboldt,
Hungary,
analogous phenomena
phyries
tiquesur le Gisement des Roches, p. 179-188, and 190-193). The porthe road from Acapulco to Chilof Acaquisotla,however, on
panzingo, as well as those of Villalpando to the north of Guanaxuato,
of the obsidians and
Messerberg, Cerro de las

del Jacal

and

true

Hornblende
In

minerals

which

Attgite.

and

has been

occur

as

(forexample, hornblende
Toluca
rock) appear in other

alreadyobserved

essential elements
in the

third

divisions in

(as in the fourth

condition

of six different divisions

characteristics

it
trachytes,

of the
same

of the

this account

443

volcanoes.

and

of commixture
the

division,or
separate

or

radic
spo-

fifth

in the
divisions,
found hornblende,

of

-ZEtna). I have
in the trachytesof the volcanoes
though not in largequantities,
of Cotopaxi, Rucu-Pichincha, Tungurahua, and Antibut scarcelyever
augite and oligoclase,
sana, along with
the
minerals
on
slope of the Chimboalong with these two
than 19,000 feet.
razo
Among the
up to a height of more
blende
specimens which I brought from Chimborazo, hornmany
then
in small
is recognizedonly in two, and even
in the years 1822
quantity. In the eruptionsof Vesuvius
rock

which

and

the

how

of Pichincha

penetratedby auriferous

are

also

grains of brownish

quartz.

veins,along with
The

small

the sanidine

inclosures

of

tain
con-

grains of

glassy feldsparbeing, on the whole, rare in the volcanic

de Santiago, so
de las Navajas, and in the Valle
rocks at the Cerro
is traversed
rich in basalt and pearl-stone,
which
in going from Vallaastonished
dolid to the volcano
of Jorullo,I was
the more
at finding
at Capula and
Pazcuaro, and especiallynear
Yurisapundaro, all the
and sanidine.
ant-hills filled with beautifullyshininggrainsof obsidian
of September, 1803
This was
in the month
(NivellementBaromhtr.,
le Gisement
Essai
des Roches,
Gcognostique sur
p. 327, No. 366, and
such
amazed
that
small insects should be able to drag
p. 356). I was
the minerals
It has given me
to such a distance.
great pleasure to find
M. Jules Marcou, has observed
that an active investigator,
something
"There
exists,"he says, "on the high plateaux of
exactly similar.
the Rocky Mountains, and particularly
in the neighborhood of Fort
Mount
Defiance
the
of
west
Taylor),a speciesof ant which, instead
(to
wood
and
of
of using fragments of
for the purpose
vegetable remains
building its dwelling,employs only small stones of the size of a grain
brilliant fragments
of maize.
Its instinct leads it to select the most
of stones, and
thus the ant-hill is frequently filled with magnificent
transparent garnets and very pure grains of quartz." (Jules Marcou,
Resume
Carte Geogn. des Etats Unis, 1855, p. 3.)
explicatifd'une
is
Glassy feldspar very rare in the present lavas of Vesuvius,but this
is not the case
in the old lavas ; for instance,in those of the eruption
of 1631, where
it occurs
is
Sanidine
along with crystalsof leucite.
obsidian

and

also found

in abundance

Ischia,of

the

year
with the older

confounded
none

and

in the Arso

1301, without

Rotaro

( Cosmos,

stream,
see

lava stream, from

Cremate
but
this
must
leucite;
any
described

above,

p.

by Strabo, near

252, 399).

toward
not

be

Montag-

Glassy feldsparis

volcanoes
of the
Cotopaxi
in
the
subten-anean
pumice
equally so
generally,but
was
formerly described as
quarriesat the foot of the Cotopaxi. What
sanidine are crystalsof oligoclase.

not

only rare

Cordilleras

in the

trachytesof
it is

and

other

444

cosmos.

1850, augite and

and

lines in

nine Parisian

crystalsof hornblende
(these nearly
length)were
contemporaneously formed

fissures.*
of vapors
on
Sartorius von
Waltershausen

by exhalations

The

hornblende

of

pecially
observes,belongs esThat
older lavas.
remarkable
to the
mineral, so
Asia
and
at several points of
widely diffused in Western
Rose
has denominated
Uralite,being
Europe, which Gustav

jEtna,

as

form
and
to hornblende
crystalline
I here once
more
augite,"|"
gladly point attention to the first
of uralite crystalsin the New
Continent
occurrence
; they
stracted
were
recognizedby Rose in a piece of trachytewhich I abfeet
from the slope of the Tungurahua, 3200
below
and

allied in structure

the summit.
Leucites.

Leucites,which

Lachar

of the

found

Asiatic
them

Lake

in the

rock, as
yet been

Mountains
the Eifel

Breisgau,and

in the

Kaiserstuhl

in

Burgberg

in

in the

Rieden),have

treatise their

admirable

an

western

not

of the New

rocks

in volcanic

(in the

blocks, and
near

Rome, the

near

virons
en-

tiguous
connever

Continent, or

Leopold von
portionof the Old.
round an augitecrystalas earlyas

described

and

to Vesuvius,
Europe belong exclusively

Monfina, the Albanian

the Rocca

the

in

ered
discov-

Buch
the year

1798,

tion.:}:
frequentforma-

round
which, according to this
augite crystal,
the leucite is formed, is seldom
wanting, but
great geologist,
to be sometimes
to me
replacedby a small grain or
appears
tween
beof trachyte. The
morsel
unequal degrees of fusibility
of
cite
leuthe grain of trachyte and the surroundingmass
chemical
difficulties to the explanationof
raise
some
the
the mode
in which
integumental covering is formed.
Leucites,partly detached, according to Scacchi, and partly
in the recent
with
mixed
lava, were
extremely abundant
eruptionsof Vesuvius in 1822, 1828, 1832, 1845, and 1847.

The

Olivin.
Olivin

being very

of Vesuvius"

in the old lavas

abundant

Roth, Monographic des Vesuvs, s. 267, 382.

above, p. 434, note * ; Rose, Reise nach dem
bd. ii,,s.
3C9; Bischof, Chem. und Physik. G'eologie,
*

t See

X Gilbert's Annalen der Physik.,bd. vi.,1800,

yie,bd. ii.,s. 2265-2303.

"

The

lavas

recent

Roth, Mon.
the lava

stream

des

of Vesuvius

Vesuvs.,

of the Peak

s.

contain
139.

of Teneriffe

neither

According

s.

Ural.,bd. ii.,s.
528-571.

53; Bischof,Geolo-

olivin
to

nor

spar;
glassyfeld-

Leopold von Buch,

by Viera and

of 1704, described

445

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

ophyrs of the Somma), in the Arso

of Ischia,in the eruption of 1301, mixed
with glassyfeldspar,
brown
mica, green augite,and magnetic iron,in the
emit lava streams
volcanoes of the Eifel,which
(forexample,
of Manderscheid),*and in the
in the Mosenberge, westward
southeastern
portion of TenerhTe, in the lava eruption of
in the
(especially

Guimar

in the

but
diligently,

Mexico, New

leucite

for it very
year 1704, I have also searched
in vain, in the trachytesof the volcanoes
of

Granada, and

Quito.

Our

Berlin

collections

noes,
sixty-eight
specimens of trachyte of the four volcaTungurahua, Antisana, Chimborazo, and Pichincha
of which were
contributed
ty
alone,forty-eight
by me and twenof the New
by Boussingault.f In the basalt formations
World
olivin,along with augite,is as abundant
as in Europe ;
but the black, basaltic trachyteof Yana
Urcu, near
Calpi,at
the foot of the Chimborazo,J as well as those enigmaticaltracontain

contains
olivin (Descr. des lies Canaries,
Glas, is the only one which
suppositionthat the eruption of 1704 was the firstwhich
p. 207). The
had
taken
place since the conquest of the Canary Islands,at the
end of the loth century, has been shown
by rae in another place (Excle
VHistoire
la
tie
amen
Critique
Geographic,t. hi.,p. 143-146) to be
Columbus
the
saw
erroneous.
eruption of fire on Teneriffe,at the
time
25th

of his first voyage

the nightsof the 21st to the
of discovery,
on
of August, when
in search of Dona
he went
Beatriz de Bobadilla,

of the Gran

It is thus

Canaria.

the Rubric

of

"

the 2d of

noticed

in the

Jueves, 9 de Agosto," which

"

Vieron

admiral's
contains

der
journal,un-

notices

de la Sierra

salir gran

up to
de la Isla

September
fuego
alta en gran manera"
a
Tenerife, que es muy
"they saw
great
deal of fire risingwith a grand appearance
out of the mountain
of the
island of Teneriffe,which
is very high ;" Navarrete, Col. de los Viages
de los EspaTwles,t. i.,p. 5.
The
be connot
must
founded
lady above named
with Dofia Beatriz Henriquez of Cordova
the mother
of his
Fernando
Don
illegitimate
Colon, the historian of his
son, the learned
father
whose
the
in
to
pregnancy
year 1488 so materiallycontributed
detain
Columbus
in Spain, and
to the discovery of the New
to lead
World
of Castile
and
account
on
being made
Leon, and not for
t. iii.,
Portugal,France, or England (see my Examen
Critique,
p. 350,
*
and 367).
see
Cosmos,
above, p. 222.
f A considerable
can
portionof the minerals collected during my Amerihas
been
the
Mineral
to
sent
expedition
Spanish
Cabinet, to the
I do not refer to the geoKing of Etruria,to England, and to France.
logical
and botanical
collections which
my worthy friend and fellowlaborer,Bonpland, possesses, with the two-fold right of self-collection
and self-discovery.This extensive
dispersionof the material (which,
from the very exact
the places in which
account
of
given
they origindoes
the
maintenance
not
of the groups in their geographated,
prevent
ical
has this advantage, that it facilitates the most
relations)
hensive
compre"

de

"

"

"

and
habitual

exact

association

definition

of those

characterizes

minerals

whose

the different kinds

bd. i.,s.
I Humboldt, Kleinere Schrijlen,

139.

substantial
of rocks.

and

446

cosmos.

La

chjtes called
It

olivin.

no

with

track

was

of

volcano

Anzango*

great brown-black
surface raised like

followed

we

de

only in the

crisp,scoriaceous

whose

del Volcan

reventazon

in order

Jorullo,that

met

we

to

reach

with

lava stream,
a

the

prevailingscarcityof olivin
greater part of the trachytesseem

lavas and

the

when

recollect

that, essential

cauliflower,
of the

crater

grainsof

small

The

imbedded.!

contain

in the

less

olivin

modern

striking

olivin appears to be for

basalt in general,
Jsidda and Saryet (accordingto Krug von
torius von
Waltershausen) in Iceland and in the German
we

Mountains

Rhone

from
has

been

as

the

basalt

destitute

that

which

abounds

the custom

from

of olivin is not
in it.

the earliest times

times

in modern

The

tinguishabl
dis-

former

it

call trap and

denominated
Aneto

icacke,the latter we have

a man's
occur
as largeas
masite.% Olivins,which sometimes
head
in the basalts of Rentieres, in the Auvergne, attain
the object of my
also in the Unkler
were
quarries,which
first youthfulresearches,
to the size of six inches in diameter.
The beautiful hypersthenerock of Elfdalen, in Sweden, much

employed for ornamental

purposes, " a granulated mixture
of hyperstheneand Labradorite,
Berzelius has described
which
as
||as does also (though
syenite,likewise contains olivin,
more
rarely)the phonoliteof the Pic de Griou, in the Cantal.^f While, according to Stromeyer, nickel is a very constant
accompaniment of olivin,Rumler has,on the other hand,
discovered
arsenic in it,**a metal which
has been found in
diffused
the most
times
recent
in so many
mineral
widely
Humboldt, Kleiner eSchriften, s. 202; and Cosmos,^e above,p. 222.
I have
also found
f Humboldt, Kl. Schr.,vol. i.,p. 344.
a
great
*

deal of olivin in the tezontle

in
(cellular
lava,or basaltic amygdaloid?
from
tzontli,
stone-hair,
tetl,
hair)
stone, and
de Axusco, in Mexico.
the Cerro
Skizze von
von
"Waltershausen,Physisch-geographlsche
"

i.e.,
tetzontli,

Mexican,
6elonging to

% Sartorius

Island,s. 64.
[" It is there
other

ornamental

contrast

of its

cut

into vases, sometimes

the
objects. From

colors,it is

one

of

considerable

high polish

of the most

beautiful

it

size,and

takes, and

stones

in

the

ence.
exist-

Tr.]
||Berzelius,Sechster Jahresbericht,
1827, p. 392 ; Gustav Rose, in
Poggend., Ann., vol. xxxiv., 1835, p. 14.
% Jenzsch,Phonolithc,1856, p. 37 ; and Senft, in his important work,
der Felsarten,1857, p. 187.
Classification
According to Scacchi, olivin
with
and
mica
in
occurs
also,along
augite, the lime blocks of the Somremarkable
I
call
these
masses
ma.
eruptedblocks,not lavas,for the
Somma
have
to
never
ejectedthe latter.
appears
**
Poggend., Annal, bd. xlix.,1840, s. 591, and bd. lxxxiv.,s. 302;
Daubree, in the Annales des Mines, 4me Serie, t. xix., 1851, p 669.
"

TRUE

springsand

in sea-water.

even

stones*

meteoric

Seifstrom.fI have

in

and

447

VOLCANOES.

The

occurrence

artificial scoria?,
as

of olivin in

investigated
by

alreadymentioned.
Obsidian.

of 1799, while I
early as in the spring and summer
was
preparingin Spain for my voyage to the Canary Isles,
the mineralogists
in Madrid
there prevailedgenerally
among
the opinion that
Hergen, Don Jose Clavijo,and others
This opinion
entirelyderived from obsidian.
pumice was
fine
the study of some
collections
had been founded
on
geological
and
of TenerifTe,
from the Peak
a
comparison of them
with the phenomena which
Hungary furnishes,
although the
with
in accordance
latter were
at that time explainedchiefly
of the
Doubts
the Neptunian views of the Freiberg school.
of this theoryof formation,awakened
at an
correctness
early
in
in
observations
the
mind
period
by my
Canary Isles,
my
As

"

"

the Cordilleras

of

Quito, and

J impelled me

in the range

of Mexican

noes,
volca-

attention to
direct my
most
earnest
of the inclosures
the different nature
first,

to

groups of facts :
of obsidians and pumice in

two

quency
general; and, secondly,the freof the association or entire separationof them
in well
active volcanic structures.
My journalsare filled
investigated
definition of the
with notices on this subject,
and the specific
imbedded
minerals
has been ascertained
by the most varied
of my ever-readyand obliging
and most
recent
investigations

friend,Gustav

Rose.

in obsidian
as
glassyfeldsparand oligoclaseoccur
of
b
oth
them
As
well as
pumice,and frequently
together.
the
Mexican
of the Cerro
obsidians
be
cited
examples may
de las Navajas,on the eastern
slopeof the Jacal,collected by
those of
those of Chico, with many
me
crystalsof mica
Zimapan, to the S.S.W. of the capitalof Mexico, mixed with
small distinct crystalsof quartz, and the pumice of the Rio
road from Popayan
to Pasto), as
Mayo (on the mountain
well as those of the extinct volcano
of Sorata,near
Popayan.
The subterranean
pumice quarriesnear Lactacunga"contain
and (which is very rare
a
largequantityof mica, oligoclase,
in pumice and obsidian)hornblende
also ; the latter,
ever,
howof
the
of
the
volcano
is also found in
Arequipa.
pumice
Both

in

"

"

"

Cosinos,vol. i.,p. 131, and vol. iv.,p. 225.

f Ibid.,vol. i.,p. 267, note *.
X Humboldt, Personal Narrative,vol. i.,p. 113 (Bonn's edition).
" See above, p. 322.

448

cosmos.

in pumice along
occurs
feldspar(orthoclase)never
is augiteever
with sanidine,nor
present. The Somma, not
of Vesuvius
contains pumice, inclosing
the cone
itself,
earthy

Common

of carbonate

masses

of

of lime.

It is

by

this remarkable

ety
vari-

pumice that Pompeii was overwhelmed.*

in genuine lava-like streams
Obsidians are rare
; theybelong
of Teneriffe,
almost solelyto the Peak
Lipari,and Volcano.
to the association of obsidian
and pumice in
Passing now
calcareous

facts appear.
Pivolcano, the following
and no obsidian.
Chimchincha possesses largepumice fields,
however, have a totally
borazo, like JEtna, whose trachytes,
and

one

the

same

different

Labradorite
instead of oligocomposition(containing
ciency
deficlase),shows neither obsidian nor pumice ; this same
of
I observed
the
ascent
on
Tungurahua. The
my
has
volcano
a
Purace, near Popayan,
great deal of obsidian
in its trachytes,
has never
but
mixed
yielded any pumice.
of
The
which
rise
the
immense
out
Ilinissa,
plains
Carguaiwith
Altar
covered
The
and
nean
subterraare
pumice.
razo,
pumice quarries near Lactacunga, as well as those of
Huichapa, southeast of Queretaro ; and the accumulations
of pumice at the Rio Mayo,f those near
Tschegem in the
ive
Caucasus^ and near Tollo " in Chili,at a distance from actto belong to the phevolcanic structures, appear
to me
nomena
of eruption from the numerous
fissures in the level
surface
tuco

of the

Another

earth.

volcano, that of An-

ally
scientificas
Poppig has given a description
suvius,
important as it is agreeablywritten),produces,like Vebut
gives out no pum(sand),
ashes, triturated rapilli
ice,

||(of which

vitrified

no

or

obsidian-like

of either obsidian
with

Chilian

pumice

in

in many

Darwin

mineral.

Without

the ence
pressometimes
meet

we
glassyfeldspar,
of
dissimilar
though
trachytes very
composition,al-

cases

or

it is not

present.

Pumice,

Charles

as

observes,is entirelywanting in those of the Archi-

Vantica
Scacchi, Osservazioni critiche sulla vianiera comefu sep"llita
in
the
Carmine
to
proposed
by
opposition
theory
Pompei, 1843, p. 10,
shared
Lippi, and afterward
by Tondi, Tenore, Pilla,and Dufrenoy,
overwhelmed
that Pompeii and Herculaneum
not
were
by rapilliand
direct from the Somma,
ashes
but that they were
conveyed there by
water.
Roth, Alonogr. des Vesui's,1857, s. 458 ; see above, p. 401.
t Nivellement Baromctrique, in Humboldt, Observed. Astron.,vol. i.,
*

p. 305, No.
" For an

149.
account

days'journey from
ejecteda fragment

% See above,
of the

pumice

the active volcano

of such

pumice,

hill of
of
see

Tollo,at a
Maypu, wliich
Meyen, Relse

i.,s. 338 and 358.

IIPoppig, lieise in Chile -und Peru, bd. i.,s. 42G.

p. 324.
of two

distance
has
urn

itself never
die

Erde,

th.

450

cosmos.

they are in alkalies. It remains, however,

uncertain, according to Rammelsberg's researches,*

and

the

richer

very
whether

tumefaction

the

is to

ascribed

be

the volatilization

to

potash or hydrochloricacid. It is probable that

similar phenomena of inflation in trachytesrich in obsidian
basalts and amygdaloids, in pitchand sanidine,in porous
of

stone, tourmalin, and

have

very

themselves.

An

color,may

different

in the

causes

which
investigation

for in vain, founded

looked

flint which

dark-brown

that

different materials

has

been

now

long

sively
experiments,exclu-

accurate

on

loses its

volcanoes, if

lead to
would
escapinggaseous fluids,
of our
extension
knowledge of the geology of
time attention were
at the same
paid to the

operation of

the

directed
invaluable

an

the

to

to these

formations,and

in subterranean

sea-water

great quantity of carbureted

hydrogen belonging to

commingled organicsubstances.
The facts which I have brought togetherat

the

of those

section,the enumeration

pumice

obsidian, and

without

of obsidian

and

pumice

no

volcanoes
which

those
the

"

the end
which

produce
yielda great deal

remarkable, not

but very diversified association of obsidian and

certain other minerals, early led me, during my
of

the Cordilleras

Quito,

to

constant,

pumice

with

residence

that

conclusion

the

of this

in

tion
the forma-

a chemical
process, which may
of
be verified in trachytes
very heterogeneous composition,
of
the necessity
a
without
previous intervention of obsidian
in large masses).
its pre-existence
(that is to say, without

of

The

pumice

is the result of

under

conditions

which

such

perhaps founded

largescale are
of
the diversity

performed on
repeat)less

a
on

gradation of heat,
and the
by the depth,the fluidity,
solidification. The striking,
though

the material

pressure determined
lengthof time occupiedin
the

process is
(I would here
a

than

on

the

terraneous
subby the isolation of immense
phenomena presented
far from any volcanic structures
pumice quarries,
at the same
(conical and befl-shapedmountains),lead me
time to conjecture!
that a not inconsiderable
perhaps even,
of
the volcanic
number
in regard to volume, the greater
rocks have
been erupted,not from upraisedvolcanic struc-

rare,

"

"

Rammelsberg, in Pogpend., Annul, bd. lxxx., 1850, s. 404, and

fourth supplement to his Chemische Handicurterbuch,s. 169; compare
also Bischof, Geol, bd. ii.,2224, 2232, 2280.
For particulars
respecting
t See
above, p. 291, 311, 312-316, 322-325.
in
the
obsidian
and
of
the geographical distribution
pumice
of the New
Continent, see Humboldt, Essai Gcognostiqm
tropicalzone
k Gisement
des Bodies, etc., 1823, p. 340-342, and 344-347.
sur
*

of

trap

England,

of

of

the

in

these

Sir

Roderic
our

globe.

of

form

the

formation
determination
has

acquaintance

with

the

the

those

the

space
masses

southwest
of

so

of

strata

belong
of

Murchison,

surface

the

on

probably

chronometric

the

by

heightened

struction

silurian

lower

the

fissures

over

To

miles.

friend,

worthy
and

covering

square

many

of

net-work

frequently

earth
of

from

but

tures,

451

VOLCANOES.

TRUE

greatly

of

which

my

increased

geological

con=

INDEX

TO

V.

VOL.

Ghilan,' Antisana, the colossal mountain, described,

mount-!
311; its dikes, 312; lakes, 313.
ain
of, 273.
201, 3S3; analysis of the Antuco, volcano
system,
the
northern
Chimborazo
Aphron,
pole of the magrock, 431.
netic
volcano
of,
needle, 54.
of, measurement
Aconcagua,
for his
Apparatus
273.
employed
by Humboldt
205.
453 determinations
of height in the New
of Turbaco,
the volcancitos
Acosta
on
World, 428.
a
Mount,
volcano, 390.
Adams,
of Apes, 252.
Arabia, laVa eruptions in, 336.
iEnaria, the island
on
Arago
magnetic
inclination, 105; his
of, on Strongyle, 244.
iEoliis, residence
series of magnetic
within
a
observations, 75.
./Etna, eruptions of, usually occur
of six years,
243; periods of its Aiarat, as a volcano, 339.
space
of, SOS.
Arare, crater
greatest activity, 244; height to which
ytes,
Arequipa, volcano
attain, 251; its trachof, 270.
ejected matters
434.
Argpeus, the volcano, 237.
of
of the, 252.
the
Arimer, country
magnetic
Africa, determination
Aristotle
the fundamental
tion,
on
principles of
in, by Sabine, 102 ; its translaequator
mountains
canoes
1 04 ; snowy
phenomenon
9; volcanic
in, 333 ; volnature,
upon
described
Hiera
334.
by, 219.
in, 332 ; their small
number,
African
phenomena
magnetic
node, its varying
in, 329.
tion, Arran, volcanic
posi102.
Artesian
observations
wells, Walferdin's
island
of, 343.
Agaschagokh,
on, 38.
odor
diffused
from
certain
of the islcanoes,
voland
Ascension, volcanic
phenomena
Agreeable
219.
of, 331.
of the
de, described, 262.
Asia, situation
Agua, Volcan
principal volcanoes
determined
of the
and
western
by,
in, 2S1 ; volcanoes
Airy, density of the earth
terrestrial
central
35 ; on
79.
340 ;
magnetism,
parts, 834 ; of Kamtschatka,
of the
islands
of Eastern
on
Alaid, great eruptions of the volcano
Asia, 344 ; of
the
isle of, 349.
of Southern
the islands
Asia, 354; of the
Indian
Albite, 438.
Ocean, 35S.
of the
volcanoes
Aleutian
islands
islands, numerous
in, Atlantic
Ocean, volcanoes
of the, 330;
347.
submarine
cano,
volpresumed
of springs in the, 184.
332.
Alps, temperature
Central
See
Amei'ica.
America, Chili, Atlantis of Solon, 173.
and
Peru
America,
Mexico, Northwest
Atolls, or lagoon reefs, 363.
South
of the
Sea.
Attraction
known
to
the
Bolivia, Rocky Mountains,
magnet
of earthquakes,
the cause
162.
Greeks
and
51.
on
Ampere
Romans,
Augite, 443.
Ampolletas, 57.
volcanic
island
Aurora
of the
of, 3G0.
Amsterdam,
Borealis, 147 ; observations
series of volcanoes
black
in
observed
of, 266.
Anahuac,
148; colors
segment,
maxim
of, verified, 11.
Anaxagoras,
high latitudes, 149 ; accompanying
fleecy
Andaman
in the,
terrestrial
on
isles,volcanic
phenomena
clouds, 150; influence
netism,
magAnion

169

on

volcanic

; his views

359.

phenomena

on

the

in

Caucasian

152

; obsei-vations

at

Berlin

and

in the chain
153.
tute
at Edinburgh,
large spaces
of, destiof volcanoes, 267 ; groups
extinct
and
tances,Auvergne,
disvolcanoes
of, 227, 263.
26S ; special direction
of
in
of elevation
the Azores,
craters
the, 217;
three
of Pico, 236.
the volcano
Cordilleras, 276.
de
Azufral
visit tc
Andesite, 437, 439.
Quindiu, Humboldt's
Andrea
exhibit
of
served
obBianco, his early charts
the, 211 ; change
temperature
the magnetic
variation, 55.
by Boussingault, 212.
446.
Anemasite,
Annular
valleys, 221.
Baily on the density of the earth, 34.
lake
Ansango,
of, 313.
Baker, Mount, a volcano, 390.
volcanic
Ansogorri, Father
Joaquin, his description Banda,
a
island, 357.
of the rise of the
volcano
Jorullo, 292.
Barba, the volcano, described, 259.
Ant-hills
in
the
their Barile, earthquake
Rocky
at, 167.
Mountains,
remarkable
Barrancos
the
on
construction, 443.
slopes of volcanoes,
287.
of the, described,
Antilles, Little, volcanoes
394.
Barren
of the Andamans,
Island, one
ap-

Andes,

454
pearance
353.
Basalt-like

INDEX.

of,as described

by Horsburgh,

Cascade

mountain

range,

in

3S8.
California,

Castillo,Fray Bias del,explores the crate;1

of Masaya, 247.
columns
of Pisoje,426.
state
of navigation
described
Catalans, advanced
Beaufort, Admiral, the Chimsera
the, 54, 55.
among
by, 244.
of the, 199 ;
the magnetic Caucasus, volcanic phenomena
of, on
Beauvais, Vincent
of the Thian-schan, 33S;
a continuation
needle, 54.
its extinct volcanoes, 338.
by,
Belcher, Sir E. , magnetic observations
of the earthquake
111.
Cavanilles, his account
of Riobamba, 166.
Bell-shaped volcanic
mountains, 21S.
ing
Celebes, volcanoes
of, 357.
Berg, Albert, his description of the burnCentral
America, linear volcanoes of,255,
spring Chimaera, 244.
of volcanoes
observed
ommended
258; number
in, 259; recBerlin, aurora
at, by Humboldt,
for farther examination, 263.
153.
or
of the size and figure Chacani
Charcani, volcano
of, 270.
Bessel, determination
of the earth, 18, 29.
Chahorra, the crater of, on the Peak of
Teneriffe,249.
by, 26.
Biot, pendulum measurements
Chatham
See Peru.
Bolivia.
Island, its position,376.
of volcanoes
in, 272; their
Borda, his services in equipping the expedition Chili, group
of La Perouse, 62.
greatest elevation,where
attained, 280.
de, 273.
Borneo, the Giava Maggiore of Marco Polo, Chilian, Volcan
volcano
volcanoes
exist Chiloe, submarine
355; doubtful whether
near, 272.
of volcanoes
Chimsera, in Lycia, not a volcano, but a
there, 355; great number
in its vicinity,355.
alogous
perpetual burning spring, 203, 244 ; anin the Kuen-liin,
phenomenon
Bo-shan, eruption of the volcano, 409.
409.
Bouguer's experiments on the deviation of
the pumice-quarthe plummet, 33; on
Chimborazo, majestic dome, form of,419;
ries
the
ascent
on
of Lactacunga, 322.
of, 432 ; considerations
of the isle of,359.
height of the mountain, 432.
Bourbon, volcanoes
of determining the Chimborazo
rock, Rammelsberg's analysis
Boussingault's method
the
of
on
mean
of, 430; Abich's, 431; remarks
temperature, 42 ; on the cause
differences between
them, 432.
ed
ejectearthquake, 164; on the matters
from volcanoes, 315 ; on gases, 413.
Chifial,volcano of, 274.
ty
Chinese, early acquainted with the polariBove, Val del, on ^Etna, 215, 230.
52 ; rope-boring, 209 ;
of the magnet,
Bramidos
172.
de Guanaxuato,
of the, 405.
the
Bravais
Artesian
on
early maps
wells, 40 ; on
of the aurora,
14S.
black segment
of, 272.
Chuapri, volcano
of,wanting in several vol
Brisbane, Sir Thomas, his observatory at Cinders, cones
which
emitted lava streams,
canoes
once
Makerston, 120.
of the layers of, on San449 ; thickness
in the,
British isle:,volcanic
phenomena
329, 4o'\
gay, 251.
in Java, its crater-lake,Circumvallations, volcanic, 220; that of
Bromo, a volcano
2S5.
Oisans, in France, its great extent, 220;
of Mont
Blanc, 220.
Brooke, Rajah, on the volcanic
ances
appearin Borneo, 356.
Coal strata, 413.
of cold water
Brooks
said to be converted
Coan, the missionary, on the basin of Kil368.
into thermal
springs, 296.
auea,
Coast Range mountains, in California,old
Brown, Mount, a volcano, 390.
basaltic
volcanic rocks
of the, 389.
on
Buch, Leopold von, his work
islands
and
ascent
of elevation, 216; Cofre de Perote, Humboldt's
craters
of,307.
determines
the erupted matters
of Vesuvius, 224 ; Columbus
on
astronomically a lina
the trachytes of ./Etna,437.
of no variation,55; notice of an eruption
on
Buddhist
of earthon
quakes,
fancy as to the cause
Teneriffe,by, 445.
170.
Comangillas, Aguas de, a hot spring, 189.
Bunsen
on
of,in earthquakes, 165;
fumaroles, 396.
Commotion, waves
Burkart, his visit to Jorullo,300.
theory of,166; attempts to explain the
rotatory shocks experienced in Calabria,
166.
Calabria, earthquake in, in 1783, 166.
of the earth in earthquakes
Calamatico, el. an ancient
for the Commotions
name
often confined within
narrow
magnetic
limits,175.
pole, 57.
in the,
Comoro
Calbuco, Volcan de, 274.
Islands, burning volcano
Caldron-like
360.
depressions of volcanoes,
221.
See Mariner's
Compass.
Compass.
California,list of the volcanoes
of,389.
Compression, polar, 32.
Callaqui, volcano of, 274.
Conchagua, a volcano, 261.
Conical
volcanic
mountains, 228.
Canary Islands,eruptions in the, 445.
Capac-Ureu, an extinct volcano, 267.
Conseguina, eruption of, 260.
Cape of Good Hope, magnetic observations
Copiapo, destruction of the town of,272.
of, 272.
Coquimbo, volcano
at, 111.
acid gas, considerations
Carbonic
of, in the Pacific,
islands, number
on, 413. Coral
acid gas, jets of, 193.
Carbonic
according to Dana, 365.

455

INDEX.

Corcovado, Volcan
Cordilleras.

See

distinguished,but

de, 274.

and

Andes.
of, 353.

Corea, volcanoes
Cosima, small elevation

of

of the volcano

phenomena
of

of,

memorable

234.

A.,

Costa, Colonel
annual

mean

experiments

his

temperature,

Cotopaxi, mineralogical composition

one

which

174;

as

three

indicate

tonic
Plu-

groups

the

ence
exist-

general cause, 176; list of

examples of these phenomena,

176.

on

in volcanic

Earth-waves

43.

improperly,

Volcanic,

of, Eastern

Asia,

volcanoes

phenomena,
of the

165.
islands of,

344.

322.

elevation, 215; distinguished Edgecombe, Mount, a volcano, 255, 391 ;

in New
Zealand, 372.
from
true
See, also, another
volcanoes, 217.
observed
Volcanoes.
Edinburgh, beautiful aurora
at,
of

Craters

of former
volcanic
153.
traces
Crozet's
group,
Edrisi
the land of Gog and Magog, 337.
on
action in, 362.
of the, 221; two
volcanoes
its Eifel,extinct
on
of the earth, considerations
Crust
kinds
of volcanic
activity distinguishable,
varying thickness, 410.
222 ; Mitscherlich
of the Maars, 224;
the minerals,
on
Crystallized minerals
found on Vesuvius, 224.
227.
224; Ehrenberg on the infusoria,
Elburuz, as an extinct volcano, 339.
Antisana, 312.
phenomena in the, 254. Elevation, question of the influence of, on
Cyclades, volcanic
magnetic dip and intensity,111; craters
in
researches
true
of, distinguished from
volcanoes,
Dana, James, his valuable
saltic 217.
the Pacific,364 ; his grouping of the bacanoesElias,Mount, a volcano, 239, 391.
and coral islands,365: and the volof the Sandwich
Islands, 367.
Elliot,Captain, on the magnetic equator,
104.
on
Darwin, Charles, his enlarged views
of the earth, speculations of the
earthquakes and eruptions of volcanoes,jEllipticity
of obligaancients
272 ; general acknowledgment
tion,
on
tions
the, 29 ; Bessel's determina-

greater number

Cueva

de

of science

to, 364.

Dasar, sand lakes of,449.

Dechen, H. von, on volcanic
in the

Eifel,226.

29.
El

phenomena

El
El

Nuevo, a volcano, 260.

Viejo, a volcano, measurements
mountain
a
Volcancito, now

of

of,260.
ashes,

See Magnetism302.
from fumaroles, their nature,
Degree, table of the increase in length of Emanations
396.
the, from the equator to the pole, 21.
volcano
See Typhon.
of, 335; question of Enceladus.
Demavend,
its altitude,334.
England, volcanic phenomena in,329, 450.
See Magnetic Equatermine,
tor.
Density of the earth, experiments to deEquator, magnetic.
33; Airy's results, 35.
Detritus dikes, 311.
Erebus, Mount, the volcano, 101, 237.
the magnetic equator, 103; his
and color of the Erman
on
Deville, on the structure
the
of Kamtvolcanoes
in certain volcanoes, 432.
researches
on
mass
Devonian
schatka, 340.
slate,221.
Erupted blocks, 446.
Diablo, Monte del, in California,389.
of, considerations
Diamagnetism, its discovery by Faraday, Eruption, masses
on,
215; craters
of,216.
51, 77.
Dio Cassiii3 on the eruptions of Vesuvius, Eruptions of volcanoes, considerations
on
the general laws of,243; varying heights
399.
Declination.

Diodorus

Siculus

on

the

PhlegrasanFields,

to which

matters

are

cast, 251.

quake
Eubcea, Strabo's description of an earthin, 215.
Disturbances,magnetic, table of, 130.
of,328; extinct
Europe, active volcanoes
Djebel el Tir, a volcano, 334.
and
volcanoes
volcanic phenomena, 221,
Dome-shaped and bell-shaped mountains,
scape,
227, S29, 450.
peculiar aspect given by, to the land400.

218.

Domite, origin of the term, 421.

Fairweather, Mount, a volcano, 391.
of 17S3, 393.
Dry fog of the summer
Faraday's discovery of the paramagnetic
the mag78; important results
force of oxygen,
Duperrey, his observations
on
netic
ism,
expected from it,81, 98; on diamagnetequator, 103.
51, 78.
Earth, its size,configuration,and density, Feldspar, variety of minerals
comprised
under
the denomination
of, 427, 442.
14, 35 ; interior heat, 37, 234 : magnetic
activity,50 ; magnetic storms, 137 ; polar Ferdinandea, the volcanic island,328.
light,146: reaction of the interior on Figure of the earth, attempts to solve the
of Bessel,
the surface,157 (see, also, Earthquakes,
problem, 18; determinations
of the crust
Volcanoes) ; thickness
of, 19 ; earlier observations, 20.
canic,
Fissures caused
probably very unequal, 163.
by earthquakes, 166; volEarthquakes, variety of views as to their
216, 218; volcanoes
upheaved on
162 ; the
252.
See Volcanoes.
impulse, 162 ; transfissures,
cause,
71.
Fitzroy's magnetic observations,
latory movements,
167; subterranean
noises,171 ; velocityof propagation, 172; Floods in rivers,prognostication of,180.

456
Fogo,

INDEX.

volcano

Forbes,

on

the

of the Una
conductive

do,

249.

rocks, 41.
the turning-point of the

Formosa,

170; great number

of thermal
springs, 170.
Grenelle, the Artesian Well of,38.

quakes,

of different

power

lines

of

Eastelevation in the islands of ern

Asia, 346 ; its volcanoes, 353.
Foucault's
apparatus for demonstrating the

volcanic

Ground

observations

temperature,

See, also,Frozen

Guadeloupe,

the

on, 132.

Earth.

Soufriere

of, described.

395.

of the earth, 2S.

Guagua-Pichincha, its meaning, 231.
extinct volcanoes
of,227, 263.
Gualatieri,volcano
of, 271.
frozen earth in the northwest
Franklin
on
Guanacaure, a volcano, 260.
65 ; Guanahuca
of America, 50 ; his Arctic voyages,
(Guanegue ?) volcano
of,274.
Guettard's
extinct
observations
noes,
volcaon
search for him, 65.
310.
Franklin's
of, more
properly
Bay, volcano
rotation

France,

a salse,391.*
Lake
Fredonia, near

Gunung,
Erie, springs of

i;

the Javanese

term

for

mountain,

282.

Gunung
Tengger, a volcano in Java, vast
gas at, 204.
size of its crater, 2S4.
h3'psometricalinvestigationsin
Northwest
of the magGuyot of Proving, his mention
America, 3S3.
netic
Fremont's
Peak, 3SS.
needle, 54.
of the, 220.
French
Alps, highest summit
Frozen
earth, its geographical extension, Hair glass, a volcanic product, 367.
48.
termine
to deHall, Captain Basil, experiments
of places
the mean
Fse-nan, a Chinese
magnetic apparatus,
temperature
52.
of
Avithin the tropics,42 ; measurement
of Old Guatemala,
262,"
the volcanoes
Fuego, Volcan de, described, 262.
and,
his admirable
Fumaroles, various classes of, 396; Bundescriptionof Sulphur Isltheir products, 396.
353.
sen
on
of the Tuscan
Fummarole
202. Halley's theory of four magnetic poles,59.
Maremma,
his
Fused
interior of the earth, 234.
classification
of springs,
Hallmann,
flammable

Fremont's

196.

Galapagos, the,

countless

craters, 374;

there, 375.
Zamba,

Galera
and

and

cones

pumice

not

tinct
ex-

found

terrible eruptions of flames

terrestrial changes at, 20S.

Hansteen
66.

on

the

magnetism

of the

earth,

Harton, pendulum experiments at,relative

to the density of the earth, 35.
Hawaii, the volcanoes
of,described, 369.
Heat, distribution
of,in the interior of our
globe, 37; hypothesis of the depth of the

ter
Gandavo, Fray Juan de, explores the craof Masaya, 247.
exhalations
the
Gas, volcanic
of,inquiry into, fused interior of the earth below
412.
See, also,Springs.
present sea-level,234.
Gauss, his theory of terrestrial magnetism, Hecla, the volcano, its aspect, 232; in63.
frequency of its eruptions, 243 ; how
canic
of volclassified by Waltershausen, 330.
Gay-Lussac on the chemical causes
of commotion
phenomena, 163 ; on waves
phenomena
of,331.
Helena, St., volcanic
and
165.
oscillation,
Helen's, St., Mount, a volcano, 390.
of the height to Hell, the cold, of the Buddhists, 1S9.
Gemellaro, his estimate
which
from
na,
^Eterupted bodies ascend
Hepha?stos, Volcano, the holy isle of,244.
251.
Herefordshire, sedimentary rocks of,221.
of volcanoes, Hesse, on the volcanoes
of Central America,
Geographical distribution
25S.
ticed,
393; an abnormal
phenomenon
in, no405.
scribed
deHiera, volcanic
phenomena
upon,
Geological terms, origin of some, 421.
by Aristotle,219.
Geysers, the, of Iceland described, 191.
Himalayan chain, four highest mountains
of the, 271 ; known
the
Gilbert, William, lays down
to the Greeks
sive
comprehenas
views
the magnetic force of the
on
elongated Taurus, 406.
earth, 5S.
Hobarton, magnetic observations
at, 99.
Glassy feldspar. See Feldspar.
Ho-cheu, a volcano, also called Turfan,
de la, an
extinct
Godivel, Lac
335.
volcano,
227.
Hood, Mount, an extinct volcano, 3S9.
Gog and Magog, Oriental myth of, 337.
Hooker, Joseph, on the hot springs of MoGold, believed to be found in volcanoes,
891.
may,
of Hopkins on
248; descent into Masaya, in search
earthquakes, 162, 165, 16S.
it,248.
declination
not
of the
Horary variation
of the hourly vaascribable
Graham, his observation
of the sun, 81;
riations
to the heat
of the magnetic force,61.
maxima
and
minima, at various
netic
magGraham
formation
Island, temporary
of,
stations,107.
32S.
and
Homblenrle
augite, 443.
Grand
Ocean, a term for the basin of the Hornitos, low volcanic
cones, 176 ; farther
South
notices of them, 29S, 303.
Sea, objected to, 378.
See Hornitos.
Hornitos.
Granite, Mitscherlich's experiments on the Hornos
or
Island
melting point of, 234.
Horsburgh, description of Barren
Greece, has frequently suffered from earthby, 359.

458

INDEX.

Kuen-liin, fire-springs of the, 403; the Magnetic intensity,61 ; the knowledge of,
due
visited
to Bordr.
chain
62; inclination chart, 62.
by the brothers Schlagintto the Chinese,
Magnetic nee
early known
weit, 409.
introduction
52; Uo
to Europe,
Kuopho on the magnetic needle, 52.
soil of Northern
the frozen
54; declination,55.
Kupffer on
Magnetic observatories,63.
Asia, 50.
of the, Magno*'
volcanoes
Kurile
storms, 130.
islands, active
349.
Magnt^-- wagon,
the, of the Chinese, 52.
Magnetism, early researches
in, 56, 58;
lage
increased
in the
La Btirarde,remarkable
activity of observation
positionof the vil19th century, 62 ; table of magnetic
vestigations,
inof,220.
64 ; influence
of the
of the moon,
Lactacunga,
repeated destruction
84.
town
pumice quarof,322 : subterranean
ries
154.
Magnetism of mountain
of, 321, 447.
masses,
Sir
Thomas
Makerst"'T
Ladrone
Brisbane's
obof,370.
islands, volcanoes
202.
servat
Maremma,
at, 120, 121.
Lagoni of the Tuscan
deduces
the law of the period of Malpais, a term
Lamont
applied to lava fields,
2S9.
alterations of declination,83.
of the islands of, Mandeira, the volcano, 259.
Lancerote, destruction
218.
Mantschurei, extinct volcano
in, 409.
Polo, date of his travels, 54; the
Lava, recent, often perfectlysimilar to the Marco
mariner's
known
in Europe beformations
of eruptive rock, 216;
fore
oldest
compass
his time, 54.
therefrom,
important conclusion drawn
the ant-hills
in the Rocky
216.
Marcou, on
J" mn
Lava
various names
tains, 443.
for,305.
fields,
of the Maribios, los,a line of six volcanoes, 260.
in the volcanoes
Lava
rare
streams
in Europe in the
in Mariner's
known
Cordilleras of Quito, 263; discovered
compass
12th centurv, 55; English ships guideo.
chain
of the Andes, 279 ; also
the eastern
in Java, 2SS; their essential character,
by it in 1345, 57.
Island, traces of former volcanic
2S9; of Auvergne, 311; of yEtna, 434; Marion's
action on, 362.
of Hecla, 231 ; of Temate, 357.
Martinique, recent volcanic action in the
Lazarus, St.,Mount, volcano, 255.
island
of,395.
Lelanttts,in Eubcea, eruption at, 215.
Moscent
of, described, 245; deMasaya, volcano
Lemnos, destruction of the mountain
into the crater
of, 247.
sychlos in, 32S.
of the
Sandwich
Mauna
Letronne
earthquakes in Egypt, 171.
on
Roa, a volcano
Islands, 23S; its height greatly exaggerated,
Leucite, 435, 444.
23S; meaning of the name, 234;
of,272.
Limari, volcano
of
of Japan,
described, 366; the largest volcano
Linschoten, notices the volcanoes
the South
351.
Ceas, 366; called also Mouna
tity,
Loa, 366 ; its lava lake of Kilauea, 368.
Lipara, the volcano, question of its idenof,273.
243.
Maypu, volcano
of, 334.
Lipari, the ancient Meligunis, 243; lava Medina, volcano
found in, 320.
stream
Meligunis. See Lipari.
Llandeilo
fragments found Methone, volcanic phenomena of the penstrata, volcanic
insula
in the, 329.
of, 218.
Mexico, list of elevations of the table-kind
of, 274.
Llanquihue, volcano
of
portant
iman
introduction
of,376; considerations
of,382; volcano
the,
Log, ship's,
the mountain
in navigation, 57.
on
chains, 379.
See, also,
era
Mexico.
New
the isle of,357.
on
Lombok, volcano
Mica, 441.
of, 395.
Lucia, St.,the volcano
annual
Lunar-diurnal
temperature of,
Micuipampa, mean
magnetic variation,75.
of Kanit44.
Liitke,Admiral, on the volcanoes
Middendorf
two Siberian expeditions,45;
schatka, 341.
the frozen s 1 ui Northern
Asia, 49.
on
Luzon, active volcano
in, 232.
volcano
Minchinmadom,
of,274.
in, on magnetic dip
Maars, in Germany, 221; in Auvergne, 227. Mines, observations
and
See Sangay.
Macas.
intensity,114.
of the Eifel,
Mitscherlich
the minerals
on
MlLaughlin, Mount, its height, 389.
Madagascar, volcanic, indications
224; on the melting po;nt of granite,
in, 360.
234.
Madeira, volcanic
phenomena of,330.
by
grottoes of Java, described
Magnet, attraction,but not polarityof the, Mofette
51 ;
and
known
to the Greeks
Romans,
Junghuhn, 210.
the Momay,
hot springs of, 1S9.
to
variations
of the, early known
rary Momobacho,
the volcano, 259.
charts, 55; hoChinese, 53; variation
the volcano, 260.
Momotombo,
periodicalvariations,61.
the coal mine
at, 39.
Monkwearmouth,
Magnetic disturbances, table of, 131.
Plateau
of, 220.
Blanc, the Grand
Magnetic equator, its position and change Mont
of the
Mont
tions,
determinaof form, 101; Humboldt's
Pelvoux, the highest summit
French
102; Duperrey's observations,103;
Alps, 220.
Monte
del Diablo, in California,3S9.
104.
Elliot's,
".

.-"

459

INDEX.

of our
acquaintance with the Orthoclase, 44S.
and
of, 274.
the,41S; volcanoes
Osorao, volcano
sitic
paravolcanic phenomon
craters, 419 ; Kreil on the magnetOverweg's researches
ena
ism
in Africa, 334.
of the, S4; investigation of the sub-|
ject by General
Sabine, S4.
Ovid, volcanic phenomena clearlydescribed
Mormons, Great Salt Lake of the, 3S3.
by, 219.
See Hawaii.
Owhyhee.
Mortero, Cerro del, 302.
extinct
volcano, 222,
Mosenberg, the, an
227.
Pacaya, eruptions of,262.
Ocean"
of,Pacific Ocean, the term " Grand
Mosychlos, the mountain, destruction
improperly applied to the, 37S ; compar328.
atively
small
number
of active volcanoes,
Roa.
See Mauna
Loa,
Mouna
Mountain
magnetism of, 154.
364; grouping of its islands by Dana,
masses,
365.
Pacific Ocean,
Mountain
See, also, South
peaks, comparison of, with the
Sea.
South
bulging of the earth's surface, 31.
Mousart
(corruptionof Muztag), equivalent Panguipulli, Volcan de, 274.
storms
to Sierra Nevada, 405.
Papagayos, remarkable
so
called,
257.
of Pelileo,166, 207.
Moya cones
exhibited
Mud
Paramagnetism
by oxygen
springs of Iceland, 203.
gas,
51 ; importance of the discovery,78, SI,
Mud
volcanoes, 207, 255.
98.
Murchison, Sir IL, on eruptive trap masses,
Paramos, their elevation and vegetation,
329, 451.
acid fumaroles, 397.
27S.
Muriatic
Parasitic
of the moon,
craters
419.
Mutis, apparatus of,42S.
Parinacota, volcano
of,271.
Naphtha springs, 199.
Passuchoa, the extinct volcano
of,317.
See Eubcea.
Negropont.
Patricius, the bishop, his theory of central
of,with earthquakes, heat, 1SS.
Neptune, connection
173.
Paul, St.,volcanic island of,360.
Pele's hair, volcanic
New
of, 371.
Britain,volcanoes
glass so called, 367.
action
absent
New
Caledonia, volcanic
Pelileo,eruption of the Moya of,166, 207.
of the, applied to
from, 372.
Pendulum, vibrations
New
determine
the figure of the
of, 371.
Guinea, volcanoes
earth, 23;
New
Sabine's expedition,26 ; other observers,
Mexico, barometric
levelings in, 3S0 :
26 ; the form
of the earth
list of heights, 382.
not
exactly
New
Zealand, geology of,371 ; volcanoes, determinable
by such means, 29; Airy's
372.
experiments at Harton, 35.
in
Niphon, recorded volcanic eruptions in,350. Pentland, his discovery of lava streams
Node?, magnetic, their changes of position, the eastern chain of the Andes, 279.
102, 104.
Perlite,323.
from
Noises
volcanoes, differences observed
Pertusa, hot springs of, 1S3.
and
Peru
in,250: extraordinary distances at which
Bolivia, series of volcanoes
of,
276.
heard, 251.
the inclination
Norman,
Robert, determines
Peshan, volcano of,335, 406.
in London, Petermann's
of the magnetic needle
notices from Overweg, of volcanic
5S.
phenomena in Africa, 334.
Northwest
of, 377: Peteroa, volcano
America, volcanoes
of, 273.
hypsometry of,382.
Phaselis, flame of the Chimsera, near, 203.
of the, 232.
No variation
(magnetic), points and lines Philippines,volcanoes
of,55, 59.
Phlegraan Fields, ancient descriptionsof
the, 400.
of the
Obsidian, 447; its cavities and air-holes,Pic de Nethou, the highest summit
449.
Pyrenees, 220.
Oerafa, in Iceland, fearful eruptions of, Pic of Timor, formerly an ever-active voL

Moon,

extent

surface

of

330.

cano,
of the salt

358.

form of,230; ascent

spring Pichincha, remarkable
of,by Humboldt, 231 ; visited by Wisse,
at, 39.
231 ; its height, 238.
Oisans, natural
amphitheatre of, its vast
extent, 220.
Pichu-Pichu, Volcan de, 271.
Oligoclase,439.
Pico, the volcano, 236 ; eruptions of other
volcanoes
pendent
in the Azores
Olot, extinct volcanoes of,405.
apparently deOlympus, Mount, in America, 390.
on, 330.
Omato, Volcan de, 271.
Piedmont, trembling of the earth in, 176.
MonOmetepec, an active volcano, 259.
Pilla,on theleucite crystalsofRocca
Orinoco, high temperature of its waters at
fina,434.
certain
of,426.
Pisoje,basalt-like columns
seasons, 179.
of the Pithecusa?, Bukh
on
Orizaba, a volcano, measurement
the, 253.
peak of, 239 ; lava field of,305.
Pitt,Mount, in America, 3S9.
in Plato, on the Pyriphlegethon, 37, 254 ; on
lake of, seals found
Oron, fresh-water
the magnetic chain of rings,51.
the, 408.
Polar light. See Aurora.
Orosi, the volcano, 250.

Oeynhausen,

temperature

4G0

INDEX.

to the Richer, observations

force of, unknown
the pendulum, by,
on
23.
Romans, 51.
the proportion of
regarding, 56 ; Rigaud, Professor,on
Pole?, magnetic, traditions
and
water
terra firma,363.
Halley's variation chart, 60.
Polybius, his knowledge of Strongyle, 244. Rindjani, a volcano, its height, 357.
jected
Riobamba, terrible earthquake at, 161, 166,
Polynesia and similar divisional terms, ob-

Polarity, the
Greeks

and

to, 364.

167.

Rio Vinagre, described, 194.

of, 271.
Pomarape, volcano
Popocatepetl, a volcano, 239; meaning of Rock-debris, 311.
of the Rocky
the
22S; determinations
Mountains, the chain
described,
name,
volcanic
3S5; traces of ancient
height of,42T.
action,
3S7 ; parallelcoast ranges, still volcanic,
Porphyries of America, 443.
Porphyry of the Puy de Dome, its peculiar 3SS.
250.
Ronquido and bramido, distinguished,
character, 421.
Porto Cabello, hot springs of,190.
Rope-boring of the Chinese, 209.
the
solfatara of,Rose, Gustav, his classification of volcanic
Pozzuoli, eruption from
395.
rocks, 420, 423.
Procida
or
Ross, Sir James
Clark, his Antarctic
Prochyta, 252.
age,
voyProclus on earthquakes,173.
75, 141.
Pulu Batu, lava streams
Ross, John, his Polar voyages, 65.
of,353.
Pumex
Rucu-Pichincha, its meaning, 231.
Pompejanus, 402.
dant
found
at Jorullo,301 ; abunPumice
not
Ruido, el gran, 166.
in Lipari,320 ; the pumice quarries
pedition,
exof Lactacunga, 321; of Cotopa'xi,322; Sabine, Major-General, his pendulum
annual
in
26 ; on
the horary and
isolated
eruptions of, 323; found
of the
variations,81; on the influence
Madagascar, 360; and in the island of
of
terrestrial magnetism, S4.
view
moon
on
361; Humboldt's
Amsterdam,
Sacramento
its formation, 450.
Butt, an extinct crater, 3S9.
Pumice
Saghalin, called Krafto by the Japanese,
eruption of the Eifel,226.
345.
of,274.
Punhamuidda, volcano
de, 271.
Pusambio, the river, acidified by sulphur, Sahama, Volcan
Salses
and
194.
naphtha springs, 199.
of the,220, 221. Salt Lake, Great, of the Mormons, 3S3.
Pyrenees, highest summits
of the obelisk3
Pyriphlegethon, Plato's geognostic myth, San Bruno, rotatory motion
before the monastery
of,in Calabria, 166.
37, 254.
San Clemente, volcano
of,274.
Sandwich
Archipelago,
Islands, a volcanic
Quelpaert's island,a volcano, 353.
366 ; the volcanoes, 233 ; height of some
de, 262.
Quesaltenango, Volcan
ture,
greatly exaggerated, 23S.
Quetelet on daily variations of tempera41.
Sangai or Sangay, the volcano, 239; its
de Quindiu.
active *of the
See Azufral
Quindiu.
position,239 ; the most
the older rocks of
South American
on
volcanoes,249; its erupQuito, observations
tions
the volcanic
observed
elevated plains of, 415.
by Wisse, 175.
canoesSanidine, 443.
Quito and New
Granada, the group of volSan Miguel Bosotlnn, a volcano, 261.
of, 266.
San Pedro de Atacama, Volcan
de, 272.
cano, San
Rainier (or Regnier) Mount, an active volSalvador, a volcano, eruptions of, 261.
Santa Cruz, volcano
390.
of, 369.
and Santorin, volcanic
Rains, regions of summer,
eruption of, 219.
autumn,
San
Vicente, a volcano, eruptions of, 261.
winter, ISO.
of mountain
chains
Raking
explained, Saragyn, hot springs of, 325.
Sawelieff
278.
on
magnetic inclination,111.
Rammelsberg's analysis of the Chimborazo
Schagdagh, the perpetual fires of the, 201.
Schergin's shaft, at Jakutsk, 45.
rock, 431.
Ranco, volcano
Schiwelutsch, a volcano, its peculiar form,
of, 274.
237.
Rapilli,223.
Raton Mountains, extinct volcanoes
of the, Schlagintweit,the brothers,observations
on
386.
springs,1S3; traverse the Kuen-liin, 410.
Schrenk
the frozen soil in the country
on
Regnier, Mount, an active volcano, 391.
of the Saniojedes,48.
Rehme, the Artesian well at, 39.
Reich's experiments to determine
the density
Sea, distance of volcanic activityfrom the,
of the earth, 34; the
statements
subject more
of, examined, 404; volcanic
lately investigated by Airy, 35.
eruption observed in the, 354.
in the telluric por
Results of observations
Seals found in the Caspian Sea and the Sea
of Baikal, 40S ; also in the distant
water
freshtion of the physical description of the
lake of Oron, 40S.
universe, 13.
of the magnetic inclination,
Secular variation
islands of,266.
Revillagigedo,volcanic

Ribbed

of the volcanoes
and
109.
formation
of the islof Java, 286; analogous phenomona
Semi-volcanoes, 396.
of the mantle
of the Somma
of Vesuvius, iSenarmont,his preparation

288.

I minerals, 195.

of

artificial

461

INDEX.

on
volcanoes, 216.
Sulphur Island, described by Captain Basil
Hall, 353.
of, 370.
Sesarga, volcano
Shastv
Mountains, basaltic lavas found in Sulphureted hydrogen, question as to its
in certain fumaroles, 397.
existence
the, 3S9.
Minore
of Marco
Siebengebirge, trachyte of the, 226; geologicalSumatra, the Giava
Polo,
355.
topography, 424.
of Japan, 349.
Siebold on the volcanoes
Sumbava, violent eruption of the volcano
notions regarding
Sierra Madre, erroneous
of,357.
the, 379, 3S3 ; east and west chains, 3S4. Sun, magnetism of the, 84.
of the, 356, 357.
Sunda
volcanoes
Silla Veluda, volcano
islands,
of, 273.
Lower
Silurian
and
Silurian
formations, Swalahos, Mount, an extinct volcano, 390.
eruptive trap-masses of the, 329, 450.
fested, Taal, active
volcano
Silver in sea-water, its presence
how maniof, its singular position.
232 ; fcmall elevation,233.
411.
of South
of Mexico,
Table-land
Sitka or Baranow, 45, 255.
America,
and
Thibet, 380 ; list of elevations,382.
Smyth, Captain, on the Columbretes,329 ;
of the height of ..Etna,237. Tacora, Volcan
determination
de, 271.
mended
Tafua, the peak of, 373.
Society Islands, the geology of, recomfor investigation,373.
for
Tahiti, the geology of, recommended
of, 263.
investigation,373.
Soconusco, the great volcano
Tajamulco, the volcano
Soffioni,the, of Tuscany, 202.
of,262.
Asia, 44; its geSoil,frozen, in Northern
Taman, mud volcanoes of the peninsula of,
ographical
207.
extension, 4S.
in New
ter
Soifatara, the term inapplicable to the craTaranaki, a volcano
Zealand, 372.
of Kilauea, 367.
ing
Taurus, elongated, the Thian-shan, includof the, 355.
the Himalayas, known
Solo islands,character
as
the, to the
See Sesarga.
islands.
Solomon's
Greeks, 405.
Soufriere de la Guadeloupe, the, described,Tazenat, Gouffre
de, an extinct volcano,

Seneca

395.

227.
Pacific

canoesTelica,Volcan
of volOcean, great number
de, described, 260.
of the, 403.
Telluric phenomena,
servation
special results of obin the domain
South
of the, 364; its islands
of, 5.
Sea, volcanoes
incorrectly described as scattered, Temboro, a volcano, its violent eruption in
'"'"Grand Ocean"
364; the term
1815, 357.
objected
Temperature, invariable, stratum
to, 37S.
of, 41 ;
in
Southern
determined
the
Asia, volcanoes of the islands of, mean
annual, how
354.
of, in Mexico
tropics,42 ; observations
and
of,404.
Spain, extinct, volcanoes
Peru, by Humboldt, 43 ; frozen soil
campment in Northern
Spartacus and his gladiators, their enAsia, 44; Schergin's shaft,
45.
See Interior of the Earth.
on
Vesuvius, 399.
in the domain Temperature, rise of, in springs, during
Special results of observation
of telluric phenomena,
5.
earthquakes, 169.
in, during Teneriffe,the feldspar of the trachytes of,
Spring-, rise of temperature
427 ; notice of an eruption on, by Columbus,
ing
earthquakes,169; difficultyof classify444.
into hot and
cold, 17S ; method
posed,
proon
Ternate, violent eruptions and lava streams
17S; considerations
ture,
temperaISO: heights at which
in, 357.
they are
in Java, 2S1.
found, 1S3; boiling springs rare, 1S9; Tertiary formations
the
with
springs, their connection
Geyser and
Strokkr, 190; gases, Thermal
por
earthquakes, 170.
classification,
196; va193; Hallmann's
chain
and
Thian-schan, the volcanic mountain
gas springs, salses,198.
of,337 ; peculiarityof the position of the
Stokes,on the density of the earth, 35.
known
lava
to the
Stone
streams
volcano, 405; the chain
distinguished from
Greeks
the elongated Taurus, 405.
as
streams, 2S9.
Strabo,on the figure of the earth, 30; on Thibet, hot springs of, 189 ; geyser, 191.
mode
of producTierra del Fuego, volcanoes
of, 280.
lava, 216; on a double
tion
cano,
of islands,252.
Timor, Pic of,formerly an ever-active vol35S.
Strokkr, the, of Iceland, described, 191.
Stromboli, description of, 243; periods of Tollo, the pumice hill of,44S.
its greatest activity, 244.
[TongaIslands, active volcanoes of the,369.
Strongyle, described by Polybius, 244.
iToronto, magnetic observations
at, 99.
quently
Strzelecki,Count, on the basin of Kilauea, Trachyte, origin of the word, 421; fre-

South

36S.

used

in

too

confined

sense,

422; farther remarks, 437.

Tractus
chalyboeliticos,what, 60.
source, 195.
in
Submarine
lantic
earthquakes,
volcano, presumed, in the AtTranslatory movements
observed
in the
167.
Ocean, 332 ; one
of, Sir R. Murchison
Pacific,near
Trap, masses
Chiloe, 272.
on, 329,
Subterranean
termine451.
noises,171 : attempts to deof their transmission, Trass
the
rate
formation, 225.
172.
Trincheras, hot springs of, 189.
Styx, the

waters

of, 194; visits

to

their

462

Tristan
Tshashtl

INDEX.

Cunhn,
Mountains,

da

volcanic
basaltic

Volcanic
island, 831.
of the,

lavas

Volcanic

3S9.

of, 273.
Tucapel, volcano
measuiement
Tupungato,

Ocean,
of

the

districts, different
by, 214.
islands

in

the

aspects

South

sented
pre-

Atlantic

332.

of, Volcanic
of, 170.
reaction, bands
intended
under
the
Volcano, what
term,
272.
of, 204.
Turbaco, the Volcancitos
by Humboldt,
Tuscan
of Volcano,
volcanic
the
island
Maremma,
phenomena
styled "the
holy kle
of Hephastos,"
244.
the, 202.
fable
ference
of, 253.
Typhon,
Volcanoes, considered
according to the difof their
and
formation
activity,
island
volcanic
of modern
L mnack,
ence,
sciof, 220.
214; definite
language
volcano
217 ; number
Unalavquen,
of, 274.
of, on the earth, 393 ;
in the tropics,
their
Under
of cold water
number
the
Eastern
in
currents
chipelago,
Argreat
355 ; hypsometry
136.
ear
of, 235; linUnited
States
scientific
fits
ences
expeditions, benearrangement
of, 254; table of differin structure
of the
and
color
to natural
mass
history from the, 378.
in
Uvillas
or
Uvinas, Volcan
de, 271.
certain, 432; the Mexican
system,
latitude, and
264; sequence,
elevation,
Val
ence,
inferdel Bove, on
266 ; particulars of the five groups
^Etna, remarkable
of, in
the New
regarding, 215.
Continent, 270; list of active,
of active, examined,
Valleys of elevation, what, 193.
263; geography
328;
distribution
of, 402; open
Vancouver,
Mount, 339.
geographical
in
historical
Vapor and gas springs, 212.
periods, list of, 330; semiVariation
charts, their early date, 55.
volcanoes, 396.
418.
of the moon,
Vegetation, limit of, in Northern
Asia, 45. Volcanoes
of an
Vesuvius, phenomena
eruption of, as Vulcanicity, definition
oi, 158.
observed
cal
174; barometriby Humboldt,
measurements
in, 329.
by the same,
235; Wales, volcanic
phenomena
of eruptions
series
Artesian
on
lengthened
of, 393 ; Walferdin
wells, 38.
described
his
of the
classification
by Strabo, 398 ; by Dio Cassius, Waltershausen,
of Iceland, 330;
his
399:
volcanoes
remarks
by Diodorus
Siculus, 400; by Viof constitution
of eruptions
the period of recurrence
on
truvius, 400 ; difference
of the old and
the
the recent
in various
chytes
tracampment
lavas, 444; envolcanoes, 243; on
of Spartacus
and
his
of
433.
tors
gladiaJEtna,
of the Ameri399.
can
Wilkes, Captain, commander
on,
the mantle
of
Vesuvius, valley furrows
on
expedition, 102, 364.
the
288.
ca
AmeriSommaot",
Wislizenus, positions in Northwest
ascertained
Vidua, Count
death,
by, 3S1.
Carlo, his melancholy
of the
357.
eruptions of
Wisse, his observations
of Sangai, 175, 251 ; his visit
the
volcano
Vilcanoto, peak of, 279.
231.
to Pichincha,
Villarica, Volcan
de, 274.
Vincent, St., the volcano
of, 394.
his
volcanic
Vincent
of Beauvais,
mention
of the Yana-Urcu,
a
hill, 1S5.
Yanteles
needle, 54.
of, 274.
magnetic
(Yntales), volcano
volcanoes
in Old California,
Virgenes, las, extinct
of the
crater
339.
extinct
Zapatera,
island,
259.
Vitruvius, notice of Vesuvius
by, 400.
volcanoes
of the, 263.
Vivarais, extinct
Zohron, the southern
pole of the magnetic
Volcan
in
Southern
Viejo, a crater
needle, 54.
Peru,
Zone
271.
of volcanic
activity, 170.
of Turbaco, described, 204
Volcancitos
337.
Zuni, petrified forest near,
neak

273.

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