The

Collected

Works

of

Board

Editorial

Philip

Bright

William

Darnell

Regna

Golla

Victor

Richard
Judith

Sapir
Chief

Editor-in-

Eric

Edward

P.

Hamp
Handler
Irvine

Sapir

The

Collected

Works

of
Edward

Sapir
VI

American

Indian

Languages

Volume

Victor

Editor

Golla

1991

deGruyter

Mouton

Berlin

"

New

York

?
The
Hague)
de Gruyter (formerly Moulon.
Division of Waller de Gruyter " Co., Berlin.

Mouton
is

537

Printed

ANSI

acid-free paper

on

to ensure

permanence

fallswithin the guidelinesof the

which
and

durability.

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication

Data

(Revised for vol. 2)

Sapir,Edward, 1884-1939.
American

Indian

languages.

Sapir : 5 6)
(The Collected works of Edward
Vol. 1 edited by William Bright.
Vol. 2 edited by Victor Golla.
Includes bibliographical
references and index.
of North
America
1. Indians
Languages. I. Bright,
II. Golla, Victor. III. Sapir,Edward,
William. 1928"

"

1884-1939.

Works.

PM108.S26

1990

1990

89-13233

497

ISBN

0-89925-654-6

(v. 1)

ISBN

0-89925-713-5

(v.2)

Deutsche

IV. Title. V. Series.

; 5-6.

Bibliothek Cataloging in Publication Data

Sapir,Edward:
(The collected works]
The

collected works

ed.-in-chief.

of Edward
Berlin

"
...

ISBN

3-11-010104-1

ISBN

0-89925-138-2

NE:

Sapir.Edward:

6. American

Indian

; New

Sapir / ed.
York

board

Mouton

PhilipSapir
de Gruyter.

(Berlin)
(New York)

[Sammlung]
languages.

"

2. Vol.

ed.

Victor

Golla.

"

1991
ISBN

(f)Copyright
All

3-11-012572-2

1991

by

Walter

de Gruyter "

Co.. Berlin

30.

rightsreserved, includingthose of translation into foreignlanguages.No part of

be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by
electronic
may
any means,
mechanical,
or
including photocopy, recording, or any information
storage and
retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the publisher.
Gerike GmbH,
Berlin. Binding:Luderitz " Bauer, Berlin. Printed in Germany.
Printing:
this book

Edward
University

of

Sapir,

Michigan, Ann
taken
by Kenneth

1937
Arbor,
Pike

( Courtesy of Sapir family )

Michigan,

of

the

classic

His
in

papers

of

The

be

ignored
which

Harris).

culture

basis
He

music,

as

and
for

and

his
been

in

is

and

(Franklin

and

linguistics,

and

his

"The
of

development
the

including

non-literary

of

many

Language"
The

as

languages,

tion
adopmarily
pri-

was

Native

on

American

They

and
of

are

has

languages

includes

descriptive,

continuing

and

importance

in

studies

is

he

as

of

"masterpieces

recognized

as

and

Semitic,

Indo-European,

forefather

African

brilliant
of

tion"
associa-

ethnolinguistic

studies.
contributed

of

and

of

criticism.

poet,

as

and

and

the

humanistic
contributed

statement

Boas

on

in

(1916).
for

proponent

society

today

known

Franz

Culture"

American

pioneer

classic

the

school

American

the

addition,
social

out

characterized

Further,

personality,
what

was,

Boas)

use,

in

"monumental"

studies.

Aboriginal

in

was

in

classics.

as

of

study

the

still

Patterns
also

brilliant

most

scholarship"
is

structural

and

Sapir
of

methodology
Perspective

"Sound

the

(Franz

country"

our

(1921),

carried

he

are

anthropology

however,

work

have

sociolinguistic
In

in

of

"one

scholars.

today's

(Zellig
and

of

as

humanistic

stand

school

comparative

and

to

of

body

to

Not

as

Phonemes,"

"ground-breaking"

languages,

in

American

such

to

him.

large

historical,

referred

Language

principles

to

called

relevance

of

descriptive

phonemic
due

been

book,

Reality

American

the

in

linguistics,

general

Psychological

been

anthropology

figures

greatest

Edgerton).

has

and

linguistics

in

scholars
"one

(1884-1939)

Sapir

Edward

his

His

studies

individual,

on

the

"Time

monograph,

major
the

providing

and

theory

contribution,
interrelation
the

theoretical

anthropology.
papers

on

aesthetics,

literature,

of

Note

newly

the

of

his

possible,
work,

the

around

brackets
The

page

corrected

form.

pagination
original

the

page

Editorial

contains

work

an

not

are

notes

citations

all

of

to

works

will

the
be

discontinuous

archives

to

and

noted

the

tographically
pho-

where
the

to

editorial

is

publication's

point

conform

notes

them

the

works

original

in

in

any

by
is

to

reprint
editorial
that

appended

volume,

given

single

Sapir

have

the

existing
those

are

been
the

the

cited,

in

appears

References.

list

these

throughout

matter

appropriate,

here.

work

the

as

each

for

endnote
where

and,

here

appear

first

letters

references.

volume's

to

The

publication

the

bibliography

master

cited

publications

endnotes.

as

permission

within
materials

holding

of

Sapir's

of

conform

unpublished

and

original

the

appear

citation

the

acknowledgment
All

in

appeared

which

Footnotes

footnotes.

confusion
introductions

the

the

publications.

original

the

in

in

original
at

into

this

retained

text

personal

Where

error,

the

the

within

avoid

To
cited

numbers

endnotes.

are

been

additions

and
the

material,

reset

numbers

bracketed

occurred.

break

page

literature,
of

as

appears

in

material;

reproduced

has

Sapir's

corrections

publication

original

the

from

in

proofreading

material

typographical

obvious

an

of

numbers

his

acknowledged

are

and

other

worked

have

incorporating

corrected

have

themselves

editors

All

whose

publications

typesetting

new

editors

the

those

Sapir,

made

reproduced.

emendations

Such

text.

reset

by

When

published

typeset.

copies

Edward

of

have

photographically

been

have

difficult

would

complexity

typographic

Works

Collected

The

Throughout

Reader

the

to

Volume

the

XVI;

following
In

of

items

umes
volsince

volumes

cited

the

dates
where
and

the

Contents

Edward
Frontispiece:

Sapir

Preface

13

Introduction

Section

Volumes

to

and

Six: Athabaskan

VI

15

Na-Dene

and

Languages

Introduction
Notes

21

Chasta

on

Phonology and Morphology

Costa

Corrigenda to Father Morice's "Chasta Costa

Dene
Languages of the North" (1915)
The

Na-dene

The

Sino-Dene

Languages,

Tone

letter to A. L.

Phonetics

Pitch Accent
The

of Haida
in Sarcee,

of Berard

of 1927

an

Problems

in

Puns

151

Athabaskan
and

Indian

Haile, Manual

Language (1925)
Languages (1925)

of Navaho

Grammar
the

among

(1926)

169

191

193

Hupa,
195

(1928)

Concept of Phonetic
Bloomfield
by Leonard
Navaho

143

(1923)

The

Two

133

Kroeber] (1921)

(1923)

Report of Field Work

Summary
Summer

105

141

Relative

Similarityof Chinese

Review

95

(1922)

Type of Athabaskan

The

the

Preliminary Report (1915)

27

Hypothesis

[excerptsfrom
Athabaskan

and

(1914)

Law

as

Tested

in Primitive

[excerpt](1931)

(1932)

Athapaskan Linguistics

Languages
199

203

205

10

Contents

of A. G. Morice, The

Review
Internal

Carrier

Language (1935)

of
Evidence Suggestive
Linguistic
Navaho
of
the
(1936)
Origin

207

the

Northern

209

Osgood, The Distribution of the Northern Athapaskan Indians

Classification within the
Linguistic
by Sapir]:
[contribution
Area
Northern
(1936)
Athapaskan

221

Cornelius

Section

Seven: Penutian

Languages

Introduction

225

PreliminaryReport on the Language and Mythology of the

Upper Chinook (1907)

231

Boas, Chinook

[contributions
by Sapir](1911):
in Wishram
Consonantism
Augmentative
in Wishram
Post-positions
Text and Analysis
Wishram

Franz

Diminutive

Modal

and

243

Elements

Characteristic Penutian

Chinookan

Phonetic

Form

Law

of Stem

275

(1926)

L. S. Freeland, The

[withnotes
(with Morris

263

(1921)

Relationshipof Mixe
by Sapir](1930)

to the Penutian

Family
283

Swadesh) Coos-Takelma-Penutian

Comparisons (1953)

Comparative Penutian Glosses

Section

Eight: Wakashan

and

299

Salishan

Languages

Introduction
The

Some

The

Hunt

Aspectsof

Abnormal
Noun

319

Rival Chiefs,a Kwakiutl

by George

291
....

Story Recorded
323

(1906)
Nootka

(1911)
Language and Culture [excerpt]

Types of Speech in

Reduplicationin Comox
Rival Whalers,

Nitinat

Nootka

(1915)

(1915)

Story(1924)

353
357
381
435

1 1

Contents

Words

Nootka

Baby

Morris

Swadesh

Other

American

Review

of

Bibolotti,

B.

Comparison

467

(1949)

Languages

471

(1913)

Vocabulary

Tutelo

Salish-Wakashan

(ed.),

Nine:

Section

465

(1929)

and

Vocabulary

Moseteno

Treatises

(1918)

475

Appendix

A.

G.

G.

G.

E.

Sapir,

Phonetic

and

of

the

and

Corrigenda

Key

to

Costa
481

485

(1915)

Addenda

Publications

of

Dene

Corrigenda

Would-be

to

Edward

Takelma

Sapir

Morphology:
(1917)

Texts

(1914)

499

513

515

525

References

Index

Chasta

Concerning

Sapir's

Dr.

on

on

the

North

Misconceptions

Morice,

Remarks

Notes

(1915)

Costa

Languages

Dene

A.

Chasta

Morice,

Sapir,

Morphology

and

Phonology

A.

of

Review

Morice,

to

Volumes

and

VI

543

Preface

Volumes

and

shorter

works

including

VI

of

The

Collected

American

on

Works

Indian

previously unpublished

some

Bright, contains

of

papers

general

of Edward

languages

followed

family, and

relationship of Algonkian,

edited

Victor

by

written

papers

index

combined
The

editors

be

the

within
for

which

one

the

the

Tattooing [IV]; 1936h,

Navaho

Pottery (with

Comox:

Legend

1913b,

The

Social

of the
des

Southern
realite

Kutchin

Girls'

G.

Paiute:

Takelma:

1907b,

des

Notes

[IV]; 1907d, Religious

[IV].

ologically
chron-

of articles

in

languages appear
listed

are

below,

nized
orga-

is to

paper

be

in brackets.

Sarcee

Pottery [IV]; 1924d,

Painting

it

making

La

sonal
Per-

realite

psychologique
[IV]; 1936e, Hupa
on
[IV]; 1930, A Note

Blanket

Terms

Sandoval) [IV].
Dance

of the

West

of Vancouver

Mask

(editedby
the

among
Coast

Tribes

Island

Leslie

Nootka

Spier)[IV].
[IV];

Indians

[IV]; 1919e,

[IV]; 1933c,

La

Flood

realite

chologique
psy-

[I].

1910d, Song

psychologique

One

adopted

them

number

in which

[IV]; 1933c,

Sand

Puberty Ceremony

Indians

phonemes

These

Relationship

Organization

Nootka

volumes,

numeral
on

entire

proximity.

Indian

volume

roman

Note

the other,

believe, of

we

the

considered.

arranges

in close

Works.

two
tain
con-

by Sapir. A

planning

were

advantage,

The

Indians

Navaho

1939e, SongsforaComox

Nootka:

1915h,

in

then

two

plus

latter.

material

and

guages,
lan-

volumes

in papers

together

papers

group.

Sarcee

Albert

the

Collected

1923c,

in the

VI,

Na-Dene

in both

discussed

in these

appropriate

[I];1935b,

Salishan

and

Volume

families,

the

William

Uto-Aztecan

and

specificAmerican

language

by

among

phonemes

has

the

Yurok.

considering topic;

related

The

Languages:

Names

des

This

and

and

topical divisions

more

of

or

is indicated

Athabaskan

or

IV

through

by language
found

worked

the articles contained

to

discuss
I

appears

without

consult

to

VI

by

Athabaskan

were

have

America),

V, edited

Appendices

organizing

into

division.

reader

the

In addition

Volumes

of

ways

articles

each

which

and

purely chronological,

here, separates
easier

authors

to

typology, classification,

Wiyot,

on

groups.

devoted

are

North

languages, on

Wakashan

volumes

two

possible

articles

of other

Volumes

to

Hokan

on

the

on

other

by

of these

Two

sequence.
would

and

languages

on

papers

by

contains

Golla,

Penutian,

on

short

the

of

Volume

on

phonetic notation,
on

work

material.
nature

Sapir

(mainly

Recitative

phonemes
on

Ideas

the

Mythology

[IV]; 1933c,

La

[I].

Takelma

of the

in Paiute

Takelma

Indians
Indians

of Southwestern
of Southwestern

Oregon
Oregon

14

VI

Tsimshian:
Indians

[IVj;

Kinship

Term

Luck-Stones

Three

Indian

American

language
in

languages
in

as

each

the

Relationship
1923m,

Unconscious

of

Nass

River

1921c,

Terms

of

Haida

tionship
Rela-

[IV];

Text

Patterning

American

editor

by
in

article

also
Jane

chief

of

also

inventories

are

should

of

1922d,

Analyses

of

Behavior

in

index

volume

Philosophical
the

McGary

and

Mouton

de

Volume

Andrew

the

in

W.

of

part

the

contributions

help

Gruyter.

II)
Time
of

American
all

each

that

spective
Per-

which

Indian

references

to

individual

cites

is
guages
lan-

specific

volume,

as

XVI.

Society,

the

acknowledges

that
of

(Volume

one-third

of

noted

indices

supported

was

and

be

Note

monograph,

IV),

dozens

closely

analyses.

Speech

1916

(Volume

the

in

of

his

on

scope

shorter,

some

textual

Study

cites

monographic

include

and

also
in

of

and

the

linguistics,"

listed

work

cultures,

Culture

It

groups.

this

Sapir's

to

American
from

BNS-8609411),

no.

volume

editor

1916g,

of

[IX];

Yana

The

[IV];

Terms

languages,

comprehensive

the

Preparation
of

lexical

Indian

"evidence

to

or

The

Yana

Introduction

An

American

Aboriginal

in

devoted

(grant

Yana

Northern

and

containing

Language:

thirty

Fund

[IV];

Relationship

the

contain

languages

articles

related

well

the

[IV].

1928j,

which

VII-XV,

Volumes

some

of

[III].

Society

Sapir

[IX];

Dialects

Yana

Organization

of

1918j,

of

Elements

Fundamental

The

[IV];

Languages

Social

among

Levirate

the

and

the
Terms

Tsimshian

the

among

1908a,

Yana:

River

Nass

1920c,

of

Sketch

1915g,

Indian

American

Dr.

by

National

Mellon

from

grants

Science

the

Phillips

Foundation

Foundation.
to

Marie-Louise

the

preparation
Liebe-Harkort,

of

this

Introduction

said that Franz

It has often been

America,

in North
linguistics

research
his

American

on
as

career

Indian

student

century in both

languages
in which

did

he

became

particularthe
surely Edward

the most

influential

the

Consider

fields

diversityof

did

initiator of serious

Sapir,who

and

began

of the twentieth

scholar

American

the Native

Yana,

"

ground-breaking comparative work

Algonkian, Athabaskan,

of anthropological

Chinook,
Takelma,
originalresearch
and
the
or
others;
Sarcee, Navajo,
language

Sapir

Paiute, Nootka,

Southern

But

which

on

and in

VI

the father

is to be considered

languages.

of Boas,
these

Boas

and

Volumes

to

Penutian;

or

Hokan,

"

the types of studies

families

Uto-Aztecan,

he carried

out

"

be
now
descriptive,historical, comparative, ethnolinguistic,and what would
achievements
his
Even
before
called sociolinguistic.
untimely death, Sapir's
Americanist
after 1939, his stature
as an
only grew, as many
monumental;
were
and
in
edited
of the materials he left
published by his students.
manuscript were
of these Collected
in subsequent volumes
His stature
Works,
grows yet more
of
collections
texts
of several major
with the publication
(Sarcee,Kutchin, and
edited by students of his
Hupa) and other important longer manuscripts, now

students.
of
about the overall course
general comments
possibleto attempt some
is
in
the
Indian
languages as it reflected
Sapir'swork on North American
ent
presthe
from
1906-1910
volumes.
Publications
are
of
period
primarily
pair
kelma,
TaChinook,
including the first results of field work on Wishram
descriptive,
in
"The
Problem
of
and Yana.
In 1911, typological interest
emerges
bly
Noun
Languages" (1911c)and is pursued most notaIncorporation in American
guistic
of
works
Uhlenbeck.
in the two reviews
Comparative lin(1917k, 19171)
by
remote
relationships
research, aimed at establishingrelatively
linguistic
the fore in
to
and
of
both
the
basis
lexical
comes
on
grammatical comparisons,
Paiute and Nahuatl, a Study in Uto-Aztekan"
1913 with "Southern
(19131,19151)
of
California"
and "Wiyot and Yurok,
(1913h).During
Algonkian Languages
tionships
relaenthusiasm
for
remoter
the following half dozen
tracing
Sapir's
years,
"The
"The
Na-Dene
is manifest in such papers
as
Languages" (1915d),
It is

Hokan

and

its culmination
formulated

Languages" (1920b, written

Coahuiltecan

Penutian

Form
in

by

John

based

on

of S-tem"

drastic

(1921b,

written

reduce

proposal

to

Powell

1891) to

in

in

in

1915), and

1918). This

58 North

"A

interest

reached

"stocks"

American

justsix "great groups.

teristic
Charac-

"

This

(as

fication,
classi-

Wesley
spondences,
grammatical and typologicalrather than lexical correwhich
for
in
1920
in
lecture
notes
at Chicago
(the
a
was
presented
are
Relating to Sapir'sClassification of North
published here in "Materials
for
the core
With
little change, this formed
American
Indian
Languages").
North
and
"Central
article on
Sapir'sinfluential Encyclopaedia Britannica

American

VI

15

Indian

Languages 2

Languages" (notpublisheduntil 1929, 1929a).After the early1920s,

to have cooled; however, his last major
Sapirs interest in these problems seems
Hokan
in this genre, "The
Affinityof Subtiaba in Nicaragua" (1925b),
work
of the far-flung Hokan
extension
American
for a Central
argues
detailed argumost
ment
(-Coahuiltecan)
group, and presents what is perhaps Sapir's
for the importance of "submerged" structural features in recognizing
remote
relationship.
linguistic
American

itconstituted,
sixfold classificationand the methodologysupporting
Sapir's
ican
duringhis lifetime,the most controversial part of his work on North Amerlanguages(itwas never accepted,for instance,by his onetime teacher
Boas). It should be remarked, however, that what Campbell and Mithun

(1979: 26) have called the "reductionist zeal" of this classificationwas

not

regroupingof North American languages

genetic
uniqueto Sapir.Large-scale
B. Dixon, who, in a series
initiated by Alfred L. Kroeber and Roland
was
of the Powellian
of papers beginningin 1913, proposed assigningmost
"stocks,"
language families of California to one or the other of two new
and
Kroeber
Penutian and Hokan
1913,
1919).
Sapirjoinedin this
(Dixon
work
only after the groundwork had been laid,and at Kroeber's urging
with the
(GoUa 1986: 178).Sapirbrought to the task a thoroughfamiharity
and
after a
methods and data of Indo-Europeancomparativephilology,
brief periodof skepticism he became convinced that a rigorous
application
would
American
of philological
new
to
yield
important
languages
principles
bold synthesis
from one
to another, and his comprehenHe moved
sive
insights.
than a report on
be regardedas littlemore
classificationof 1920 must
little
did
that
is
in
work
relatively
Sapir
noteworthy,however,
progress. It
"

"

revise that classification.His 1925 paper

structural arguments for Hokan,
some
new
on
Subtiaba, while introducing
is based on essentially
the same
group of cognate sets as in his earlierwork,

after 1920 either

and

it refers

to

support

to
only briefly

or

the

to

largerHokan-Siouan

groupingintroduced

in

his 1920 lecture.

wide-rangingcomparative work that had absorbed him

duringthe precedingdecade, Sapirs research duringmuch of the 1920s focused
stock of his
on
one
narrowlyand intensively
group of languages:the "Na-Dene"
Athabaskan
and
the
classification
1920
Haida,
widespread
(comprisingTlingit,
field work,
his Takelma
1906
he
had
worked
A
s
as
briefly,
during
family). early
in
with a speaker of Chasta Costa, an Oregon Athabaskan
language; preparing
this material for publication
he saw
Athabaskan
as a familyhaving the
(1914c),
it
for his skills
and the relatively
to make
a match
diversity
good documentation
with older
in controversy
embroiled
as
soon
a comparativist. He
was
and
VI
Athabaskan
scholars (e.g. Father Morice, 1915c, see Volume
Appendix
of
his
1915
to Volume
VI); this was exacerbated
by
proposal(1915d) a genetic
and Haida. Sapirconcluded that only
Athabaskan, Tlingit,
relationship
among
the eviextensive
field
work
of
his
could
he hope to accumulate
own
through
In contrast

with

the

17

Introduction

dence

for

completed.

never

in

with

deal

of

but

working

to

and

culture;

from

turn

the

names

Li

teacher,

context

of

is

has

inves-

major

and

XIII).

published

humously,
post-

Sapir planned
be

never

and

prepared

was

Volume

see

been

which

Na-Dene,

his

significantlyrepresented

(Li 1930,

illness)will

and

in 1927;

published study

Navajo

Yale

he

of it

other

from
until

"

"

field

written.

Sino-Dene,

an

of

of

He

All

enthusiasm

(and

Of

his
have

we

to

remained,

of

his

Hoijer,

Benjamin
these
for

research.
Morris
L.

American
the

study

We

will

figure

pre-eminent
the

study
progeny

up

do

no

F.

Trager,
their

linguistics, but,

language

and

Voegelin,
to

within

the

own
even

est
broad-

understanding.
William
Victor

of

here

more

George

transmitted

Indian
of

he

scholarly

Charles

have

of

when

central

took

their

to

end

and

Swadesh,

Whorf,

scholars

to

and

his interests

psychology

an

in status

students

important
them,

to

in American

1925

the

nonetheless,

Boas

to

teaching

exclusively

came

During

years.

Ottawa

almost

virtually

left to

Sapir's commitment

human

33

or

study, particularly

only

all his
was

Harry

Haas.

1938,

from

move

engaged

research

facets

many

to

descriptive linguistics.After

in 1931.

It

1905

his

was

types

Fang-Kuei,

Mary

only

not

important,

of
last

period

Nearly

the

Stanley Newman,
students

work

by Sapir

extended

bulk

languages.

continue

mention

own

to

influence.

Indian
to

his

linguistics,second

Indian

American

in turn,

the

linguistic

Chicago

in intellectual

more

was

phonetics (1923d),

involving four

major

grammar

Chicago

toward

his

in American

Haida

Fang-Kuei

collected

career

of

research,

began

Li

Athabaskan,

of this

University

the

Indian

our

Sino-Tibetan

an

notes.

research

decades

first two
at

into

into

Sarcee

the

student

during

insights

the

here

material

even

Sapir's active

than

that

suspect

Ingalik, in 1923; Hupa,

and

Only

definitive

the

only fragmentary

moved

and

of such

necessity
to

extraordinarily ambitious,

was

Athabaskan,

to

even

his

the

on

comparative

post

the

came

Na-Dene

foray

Kutchin

1922;

Sapir's bibliography;

good

for

Except

principally in 1929.

in collaboration

the

he

1920,

between

entirely devoted

was

Navajo,

was

about

feeling

field research

Na-Dene

tigafions:Sarcee,

His

around

possibility.

field work

in

when,

connection

genetic

Sapir's plan
was

his critics.

stronger

even

intercontinental
distinct

it

convince

to

necessary
became

work

Bright
Golla

Section

Athabaskan

and

Six:

Na-Dene

Languages

Introduction

with Hokan
and Penutian
Sapir began his involvement
languages as a
field linguist,
studies only after completing
turning to comparative and classificatory
several major descriptiveworks, with Athabaskan
the reverse
the
was
case.
unsystematic notes on Chasta Costa collected during his
Except for some
Takelma
in 1906 (publishedas 1914c; see
field work
below), Sapir had had no
first-hand experience with Athabaskan
what came
languages when he launched
of
his
historical
the
to be the most
absorbing
hypotheses:
geneticrelationshipof
of this "Na-Dene"
Athabaskan,
Tlingit,and Haida, and the deep connection
stock.
the
Sino-Tibetan
to
family
Neither
the Na-Dene
of connections
with Asiatic
hypothesis nor the possibility
the
to
of
discussion
speaking, original Sapir (see
languages were, strictly
earlier speculation in Krauss
1973),but there is little doubt that Sapir was the
first to explore these questions in the lightof modern
comparative linguistics.
from
The evidence
Sapir'scorrespondence and manuscripts is that he probably
late in 1912 or early in 1913, shortly after completing a
took
up this work
detailed study of Uto-Aztecan
1912, in GoUa
(Sapirto Kroeber, 23 December
1984: 71).In the ensuing months
he apparently read through all the extant
rial
mateand on Tlingitand Haida.
both on comparative Athabaskan
In the spring of
Lowie
1913 we find him complaining in a letter to Robert
that Pliny Earle Godover-cautious:
was
dard, a leading student of comparative Athabaskan,
While

He

does

not
.

the
the

to

seem

parallelgrooves.

The

get very much

emphasis on essential ones, seem

has had
experiencethat Goddard

this time

to a

remotely,to

serious

consideration

Athabascan.

afraid that Goddard

Three
A

to

me

unifyingreconstructive

later he

months

propos

I have

of

been

collected

may
timid

lacking,on

with Athabascan

to

seem

A.

It seems

have

sketches

secondary
to

me

cast

features

in

and

that with all

felt irresistably
drawn

and

in these

wrote

the whole.
he would

of

by
related, though
Tlingitas possibly
genetically
eventuallyas far-fetched as itdoes now. But I am

of Haida
not

elimination

matters.

(Sapirto Lowie,

March

1913.)

L. Kroeber:

in favor justnow,
to be somewhat
I may say that
units,which seem
largerlinguistic
Tlingit,and Haida, and that I have
occupying myself of late with Athabaskan,

enough

evidence

(Sapirto Kroeber,
It was

This

is rather

be

to

beyond descriptiveAthabascan
the
spirit,

30

to

convince

May 1913, in

myself at

Golla

1984:

least of the

of
geneticrelationship

these three
.

104)

during this period that he went back to his Chasta Costa notes and worked
them up into a short monograph with a distinctly
comparative emphasis. Notes on
Chasta
Costa Phonology and Morphology
(1914c).The publicationof this work
of
immediately brought him into the small circle of serious Athabaskanists,
whom
the most
established
and productive was
the French-Canadian
Oblate
reviewed
Father
Morice
priest,A. G. Morice.
Sapir s Chasta Costa monograph
in glowing terms
but
followed
his review
with a more
critical
(Morice 1915a),

V7

22

American

Indian

Languages 2

and the Dene

Costa
(Morice
Languages of the North"
appraisal,"Chasta
1915b).Sapirrepliedto Morice's strictures in "Corrigenda to Father Morice's
'Chasta Costa and the Dene
Languagesof the North'" (1915c),to which Morice
Dene
on
Morphology: Remarks
gave rejoinderin "MisconceptionsConcerning
Dr. Sapirs Would-be
Corrigenda" (Morice 1917).Morice s review and papers
of at least one
In the assessment
in the Appendix to this volume.
are
reprinted
Morice
and Sapir turned
the interaction between
scholar, "in the long run
with
the
two
out to be productive,"
showing "grudging respect for each other"
(Krauss 1986: 153-154). The relationship,stormy or not, was essentially
a man
between
two
thoroughly familiar
generationsof scholars, and between
.

with

the concrete

details of several

Canadian

Athabaskan

interested in historical reconstruction.

primarily
parativist

dialects and
As

the nature

com-

of his

from

tive,
comparative to descripof
Athabaskan
extensive
ture
strucof
Morice's
s
knowledge
Sapir appreciation
of
review
ice's
but
his
short
(1935c) Morappreciative
by
grew, as is evidenced
and dictionaryof Carrier (1932).
massive grammar
and
1915
1913
Between
Sapircontinued to devote much of his research time to
of Northern,
the Na-Dene
project,combing the published documentation
material
for
Athabaskan
to be compared
Pacific Coast, and Southwestern
languages
and Tlingit.By 1915 he had
with Swanton's
descriptions of Haida
300 lexical comparisons and had begun writinga "systematic
about
amassed
of the material (Sapirto Radin, 17 July 1918, quoted in Krauss
presentation"
1986: 156; see Dallaire 1984: 169, letter no. 263).At this point,at Goddard's
guages,
Lanrequest, he prepared the shorter paper reprintedhere, "The Na-Dene
pologist.
AnthroAmerican
iox pub\\cdi\\on'mi\\Q
a PreliminaryReport" (1915d),
been
has
of
full
the
lost,
The manuscript
although
unfortunately
study
lexical comparisons have survived
the ledgersin which
Sapir entered his Na-Dene
American
and
vols.
B63c
4,
497.3
3,
Na20a.3,
1,
ical
Philosoph(manuscript
SocietyLibrary).
remained
evidence
Boas and Goddard
after the publicationof Sapir's
Even
methods
in
a heated
skepticalabout Na-Dene, and Boas challenged Sapir's
AnthropologicalAssociation
exchange at the annual meeting of the American
of
Boas's
The
the followingDecember.
strength
opposition(which reached
print in 1920 in a scathing attack on the misuse of genetic classification),
of Boas's own
study of Tlingit(Boas
descriptive
togetherwith the appearance
He
out of Sapir's
sails,at least temporarily.
to have taken the wind
1917),seems
1916
Athabaskan
Na-Dene
from
time
devoted
1920,
or
to
through
hardly any
which was
in generala periodduring which he was
more
occupied with literary
research.
than with linguistic
and artistic matters
Late in 1920, as he was
completing his generalbook Language (1921d),Sapir
Athabaskan

work

shifted

in the 1920s

and

1930s

of
recrudescence
experiencedwhat he described to Kroeber as a "considerable
On
work.
in
interest in linguistics"
(Golla 1984: 347), particularly classificatory
scheme
the one
hand, this led to Sapir's
working out of a generalclassificatory
six
into
of
them
for all North
American
most
"great
languages, grouping

Athabaskan

Six:

Stocks"

and

it also led him

(1921a).But

to

Na-Dene

23

Languages

reconsider

Na-Dene.

As

he

put it

to

Kroeber:
I am

interested in another

now
just

carried the

germinalidea

with

me

American

I tremble
biglinguistic
possibility.

to

speakof it,thoughI've

for years. I do not feel that Na-dene

belongsto the other
that has perhaps rupturedan old
a great intrusive band

languages.I feel it as
Eskimo-Wakashan-Algonkin continuity In short, do not think me an ass ifI am seriously
offshoot into N.W.
America.
I have
entertainingthe notion of an old Indo-Chinese
and Foucaux) and find in
alreadycarefullygone over two Tibetan grammars
(Jiischke
Tibetan pretty much
the kind of base from which a generalized
Na-dene
could have developed,
also some
(Sapirto Kroeber, 4
very tempting material points of resemblance.
October
1984: 350; reprinted
in volume
V: 81-83).
1920, in GoUa
...

guistics,
ensuingmonths Sapirdelved deeplyinto Chinese and Sino-Tibetan linunder the guidanceof the anthropologist
extent
and
working to some
of 1921 Sapirhad developed
orientalistBerthold Laufer. By the end of the summer
In the

the outlines of his "Sino-Dene"

lengthin

1,1921,and

October

(a copy
here
almost
printed
of this and

The

completetext
(1984:374-384).
More

than
pressing

side of the

and
hypothesis,

letter to Kroeber

the need

he discussed
was

in itsentirety
as "The

short

the matter

also sent

to

letter can
follow-up

the need

Sapirfelt for

at some

Laufer),dated
esis."
Hypoth-

Sino-Dene

be found

himself thoroughlywith
acquaint

to

however,
relationship,

of which

in Golla

the Asiatic

completeand
documentation
of Athabaskan, Tlingit,
and Haida. Seeing them now
accurate
clear
it
that
Sino-Dene
a
to
lens,
was
through
Sapir
importantaspects of Namany
had been missed by previous
Dene phonology and grammar
Late in
investigators.
1921, he drew togetherextensive comparativeevidence on the morphophonology
This paper, "A Type of Athabaskan
of relativization in Athabaskan.
Relative"
attention
c
alls
the
distinctive
clause-like
Athabaskan
of
to
nature
(1923n),
polystructure
far
for
and, as Sapirwrote to Kroeber, "insidiously
synthetic
prepares
its
than
theme"
November
ostensible
24
t
o
biggerthings
1921,in
(Sapir Kroeber,
Golla 1984: 386).
information on the presence of
accurate
importantin Sapir's
Especially
eyes was
tonal systems, which

the Sino-Dene

throughoutNa-Dene.

was

connection
had

made
been

him

more

certain

was

tal
fundamen-

reportedfor

pitch
Tlingit
by Boas
with a speakerof Haida in March
and Sapirhimself,workingbriefly
(1917),
1920,
had noted tonal and other phenomena of potential
historical importancein Haida,
later described in "The Phonetics of Haida" (1923d).
Tone had not, however, been
and
in
sight.
definitely
Sapirwas certain that this was an overreported Athabaskan,
had
To his delight,
the firstAthabaskan
he
the
work
t
o
language
opportunity
out
to have a well developed system of pitchaccent.
In an
on, Sarcee, turned
immediate
in the American
announcement
"Athabaskan
Tone"
Anthropologist,
he flatly
of his Sarcee observations "it is well nigh
stated that in the light
(1922a),
inconceivable
This

view

Athabaskan

theoryof

was

that

accent

[tone]should

reiterated

be absent

in any

other

Athabaskan

dialect."

"Pitch Accent
in Sarcee, an
Sapirs full analysis,
w
hich
is
less
than
a
a general
descriptive
Language" (19251),
study

Athabaskan

tone

in

illustrated with Sarcee

data. The

paper,

moreover.

VI

24

ends

with

from

the

listof

Languages 2

that Sapirfeltcould
questions

standpointof Na-Dene

His wife's

Indian

American

declininghealth

be answered

satisfactorily
only

(1925f:204-205).

forced

the

1936), and

from

was

the students'

able to

postponement

notes

much

of

Sapirs planned visit to

of that year
summer
spend
Hupa
field work with two young Alaskan
Athabaskans, speakersof
doing productive
who
in Pennsylvania.
In
at
and
were
a
Kutchin,
working
camp
Ingalik(Anvik)
the turmoil followinghis wife's death earlyin 1924, and his subsequentmove
work during
from Ottawa
to Chicago in 1925, Sapircarried out littleAthabaskan
the next two years. That the Sino-Dene
hypothesisstillstronglyattracted
he
shown
interview
is
him, however,
by an
gave to Science shortlyafter arriving
of Chicago,printedunder the title"The Similarity
of Chinese
at the University
and Indian Languages" (1925o).
the beginningof his teachingat Chicago until his death 14 years later,
From
other involvements.
research had to vie for time with his many
Sapir'sSino-Dene
of his manuscriptsis that he did littlefurther with the
The evidence
largerhistorical questions,althoughhe continued the serious studyof Tibetan
after 1925 show
littledirect concern
and Chinese. Certainlyhis publications
with Na-Dene,
with the Sino-Dene
or
even
relationship,
except insofar as the
classification
of
Central
and North American
in
his
stock was
represented
general
languages(1929a).The major area in which he continued his comparative
the
Athabaskan.
"A Summary
research was
Report of Field Work
among
and the Athabaskan
of 1927" (1928i)
portionsof "The Concept
Hupa, Summer
Primitive
Tested
in
Bloomfield"
of Phonetic
Law
as
Languages by Leonard
(1931b)give brief glimpses of Sapir'sprogress in working out the intricate
details of comparative Athabaskan
phonology in the late 1920s. (In the latter
work with Bloomfield's
paper, written in 1928-29, Sapirequates his Athabaskan
Algonquian in a methodological discussion.)Even here, however, his work
in Comparative
slowed
considerablyin the followingdecade. He offered a course
Athabaskan
twice during his teachingat Yale (in1931-32 and againin
in 1923, but he

that survive

of the

there

is little evidence

that

in
Sapir'sviews had evolved much after 1930. A short survey of "Problems
from
found
Sapir's
Athapaskan Linguistics"
papers, apparentlydating
among
about 1932 and publishedhere for the firsttime, contains littlenot found in his
earlier publishedwork. The statement
of "Linguistic
Classification within the
Northern
which SapirprovidedCornelius Osgood
Athapaskan Area" (1936i),
for inclusion in his ethnographicsurvey of the Northern
Athabaskan
Indians, is
also unremarkable.

foray into Chasta Costa in 1906 through major field work on

data
Navajo beginningin 1929, Sapircollected a very largecorpus of descriptive
material
that
several
Athabaskan
o
f
this
It
the
on
came
analysis
languages. was
oration
and more
of itdone in collabattention after 1925, much
to occupy
more
Sapir's
with his students, Fang-Kuei Li and Harry Hoijer (also,more
briefly,
ments
Mary Haas),and with his Navajoistcolleague.Father Berard Haile. Only fragof this work
has
remained
saw
printduring Sapir'slifetime,and some
unpublishedto the present day.
From

brief

Athabaskan

Six:

The

and

Na-Dene

25

Languages

materials from

Sarcee field work in the summer

of 1922, his first
Sapir's
of
Athabaskan
have
an
been
more
synchronicstudy
language,
fully
publishedthan most later materials. Sapirhimself, in addition to preparinga
largelycomparative paper on the Sarcee tone system (1925f,see above),had
nearlycompleted a volume of Sarcee texts when he left Ottawa in 1925. This
XIII of The Collected
manuscriptis beingpublishedfor the firsttime in Volume
Works.
Also in that volume
are
rials:
reprintedtwo studies based on Sapirs mateLi's
"A
Sarcee
of
Verb-Stems"
written
Fang-Kuei
Study
(1930),
originally
thesis at the Universityof Chicago under
as
a masters
direction,and
Sapir's
Harry Hoijer and Janet Joel's "Sarsi Nouns" (1963).
Sapiralso wrote two short
papers on ethnographicaspects of his Sarcee work, "A Note on Sarcee Pottery"
the Sarcee" (1924d);both are found
in
(1923c)and "Personal Names
among
extensive

Volume

IV.

Kutchin
materials, collected from John Fredson at Camp Red Cloud,
Sapir's
of 1923, are much
more
Pennsylvania,
duringthe summer
poorlyrepresentedin
his publishedwork. Sapirextracted the kinshipterms
for inclusion in Cornelius
Osgood'sEthnography of the Kutchin (Sapir1936h, printedin Volume
IV), but
otherwise publishednothingof his Kutchin data. As with Sarcee, he had begun
preparinga volume of Kutchin texts while stillat Ottawa, and duringthe 1930s
worked
list.In 1961-62
on
stem
a Kutchin
Mary Haas, as his research assistant,
Victor Golla completed a preliminarystem
listbut did not publishit.The texts
and a stem listare being publishedin Volume
XIII of The Collected Works.
The Anvik
that
obtained
from Thomas
notes
(Ingalik)
Sapir
Reed, also at

Camp

Red

Cloud

in 1923,

Essentiallya wordlist, of
material

was

are
no

utilized

never

far less extensive

than

great descriptive

or

by Sapir and

is not

his Kutchin

materials.

comparative interest,the
published in The Collected

Works.

Sapircollected
tripin the summer
and Chimariko.
who

carried

out

extensive

Hupa

data

during a

of 1927, duringwhich
He
his

was
own

northwestern

he also worked

California field

Yurok
on
briefly
accompanied by his Chicago student, Fang-Kuei Li,
work
Mattole
and Wailaki.
on
(For Sapir'slively
more

of this tripsee Volume

IV [1927b].)
Other
than a short "summary
description
of
his
i
report"
linguistic
findings(1928i) containing,nter alia,the (toSapir)
information
that Hupa lacks a tonal system
and the Hupa data
distressing
into
the
method
in
American
Indian linguistics
incorporated
comparative
papers on
(1931b)and on the northern originof the Navajo (1936f,sec below),
Sapirpublishedonlyone paper based on his Hupa work, a largely
ethnographic
study of Hupa tattooing(1936e) written for A. L. Kroeber's Festschrift.
Sometime
during the 1930s he began work on a volume of Hupa texts, with
extensive ethnographicnotes, but it was far from complete at the time of his
death. The texts and notes, edited by Victor Golla, are beingpublishedin Volume
XIV
of The Collected Works, togetherwith a lexical index to Sapirs data.
Sapirregarded his Navajo work, begun with a native speaker in Chicago in
1926 but largely
carried out in the field in 1929 and in later collaboration
with
Berard
Father
extensive and important linguistic
Haile, as "by far the most
"

"

COSTA

CHASTA

ON

NOTES

PHONOLOGY

MORPHOLOGY.

AND

INTRODUCTION.

In

large

in

territory
of

covered
embraced

river) ;

Smith

Umpqua

J\kwa})

the

known
of

of

dialects

of

Athabascan.

fragmentar}'least

'

Outside

found
*

My
The

writer
with
Orton

was

Mr.
and

few

to

way
^

denotes

material
at

work

Wolverton
the

writer

the

points

been

yet

the

these

dialects

southeastern

and

is the

only

of

following

in

southern

and

Chetco)

Creek

and
While

the

Klamath

been

branch

way.^

this

and

published

California

preliminary

Canal)

river, Portland

their

of

of

one

creek

have

Kato,

and

made

linguistics, practically

as

that

hoped

on

in

value

some

of Copper

notes

has

Oregon-

the

is

It

and

coast^

interior.

south

spoken

American

linguistic interest

nothing
the

of

students

to

the

these

Umpqua

Galice

as

to

Hupa

tory
terri-

Pacific

Tolowa

as

(such

dialects

of

Chetco

river,

confined

The

(Upper

east

(such

others

particularly

California,

well

tribes

were

Athabascan

strip

Rogue

people,

coast

or

of

some

the

the

to

lower

of

some

strictly

were

interior

the

rivers,

Coquille

Upper

in

of

number

villages speaking

considerable

contiguous

dialects.

of

groups

or

only

not

much

also

but

tribes

by

and

spoken

were

Athabascan

distinct

quite

Oregon

CaUfornia

northwestern

apparently

dialects

southwestern

of

part

region in

of

any

Pacific

imperfect

may

Alaska
which

on

of

prove

(Cook

and

Inlet,

Athabascan

at

mouth

tribes

have

Pacific.

nasalization.
for
on

these

notes

Orton,
whiled

was

in

Takelma
a

away

the

latter

full-blood
the

in

secured

part

Chasta
time

with

(273)

very
of

Costa
Chasta

the

incidental
summer

Indian.
Costa.

While

manner.

of
At

1906,
odd

he

was

moments

the

living
Mr.

VI

28

Languages 2

Indian

American

274

of

occupied part
coast

identical
Takelma.''

Among

speech

the

dA/ne

of

of

dA/nl, the Ml/klu/nu"* dA/nl, and

linguisticunit

tribes") or,

"lower

Indians

coast

tribes

with

Chetco.

are

"salt

thus

probably

was

less distinct,

or

more

intelligiblewithout

dialects

of

speakers

Costa

It has
there

already
is

villagesabove

III, p. 228).

On

be

least

been

but
these

"drawn

three

other

have

purposes

Athabascan

and

to

seem

mutually

Upper

dialect

coast

out"

to

Athabascan

differed

partly understood,
are

of these

Umpqua,

much

so

if at

all^

Upper

Creek.

believe

those

p. 234

to

pointed

been
to

reason

At

latter;

the

Galice

Coquille, and

that

as

and

difficulty,the

region, however,

Costa

Chasta

from

by

of this

have

to

seem

Jargon

dialect

Coast

the

by

Chinook

the

and

"strange"

Costa.

Chasta

of

they

much

very

somewhat

sounding merely
speaker

Costa

Chasta

While

called

all intents

to

formed

people {d/yds/ta

people;

Du/Vil

All these

commonly

identical

Tee' /me

river, the

coast

Indians,

coast"

water,

unrelated

people, the

Rogue

the

now

are

Chuck"

Siletz, "Sol

of

meaning

term

they

as

the

quite identical

or

GwA/sd.

the

with

contrasted

as

the

were

Creek

mouth

the

east

nearly

Euchre

YiV^/gwl or

and

villages of practically

or

of

them

between

the

to

tribes

these

"Joshuas"

or

them

above

speech,

were

tribes

Athabascan

now

Oregon, formerly

western

river;

Rogue

lower

other

were

in

Reservation

Siletz

in

gathered

(or Cis/ta qlwAs/ta) Indians,

Costa

Chasta

The

of the

out

that

(American Anthropologist, N. S., 9, p. 253,

in assigning the
incorrect
O. Dorsey was

J.

Takelma

Dorsey gives a

(see his map

list of Chasta

in
Costa

Journal

of American

villages.

note

2)

Chasta

Folk-Lore,

Six:

Athabaskan

and

Na-Dene

Languages

29

PHONOLOGY.

Vowels.

vowels

The

met),
0,

of

(like u

variant

of

Vocalic
not

whole,

long

much

and

syllable

of

one

in

Sohn),
I, and

German

velars

cezkhehkhe

dren").
"chil-

in

Chasta

phonetically.

interchange

On

consonants

to

of

thus

this
the

"he

when

the
the

are:

won't

fly" (cf.

fly")

won't

sitting

"we

in

makes

with

varying

fly;" do/ydt/tla

vowel
vowel

the

ical
mechan-

regular

on

voll)

after

occurs

importance
as

lish
Eng-

{sxo/ld "five,"

Carrier^

shorten

won't

is

German

as

of

hat)

considerable

Examples

"he

open

regularly

more

dd/yd/t!a

as

in

as

syllables (that is, syllables ending

or

"I

in

variant

cf.

(open

a,

(generally open),

and

English

vowels

vowel

long

closed.

/da

u,

etymologically

open

do/ydc/tla
dad

is of

as

in

a,

(close

(short

(as

short

principles;
suffixing

o),

{tsxci/xe"child,"

so

with

are
o

velars

quantity

Costa,

vowel)

hut)\

tcwo/la),

Hupa^

of

after

occurs

variant

Costa

open),

and

EngHsh

sometimes

as

Chasta

(long

(apparently

cf.

of

down"

(cf. da/

6 Ad

/da

"I

sitting

am

down")

tcIdsL/se "he

cries;"

tc!a/ydsL/se "they

'

Hupa

Language,"
*

Carrier
of

"I

examples
Univ.

the

"I shall

cry" (cf.tcla/Bil/se

cry")

"you
nac/tlb

tcldch/se/Ve

of

examples
Canadian

swim"

are

Cal.
are

taken
Publ.
taken

cry"

(cf. tc!a/yd/6il/se

(cf. nd/tcll/tlo "you

from
Amer.

from

P.

E.

Arch,
Rev.

Institute, I, pp.

Goddar^l,
and

A.

G.

170-212.

(275)

Ethn.,
Morice,

"The

"we

cry")

bathe")
Morphology

of

the

Hupa

3.

"The

D^n^

Languages,"

actions
Trans-

^f

30

Indian

American

Languages

276

of

example

An

shortened

"I
7ies/ts!Al/l

preceded by

and

lose

may

their

is

seen")

quantity

in

even

general, however,

Costa."

Chasta

in

said

be

cannot

accent

stress

marked

particularly well

{na/dit/t!d is phonetically
ld\ contrast
7id/dit/t!d/Ve

bathe;"

bathe")

will

"you

Such

seen"

strongly accented

to

or

cry;" tc!a/ydsL/se "they cry"

"we
are
ne/7id/ts!Al/l
Id na/dit/t!d "don't

enclitic

an

in:

7ie-

tc!a/ya/dil/se"we

In

(cf.lie'/ts!Al/l"he

followed
immediately
they are
syllable with relatively strong accent.

tela-,na-,

are

is:

seen"

am

Original long vowels

syllable, provided

open

to

Each

to

be

syllable

phonetic unit tending to hold its own

flow
against others, so that an approximately level accentual
and
Such
few
with
but
writings as 7id/dit/t!d
peaks results.
accent
preceded by long vowels,
tc!d/dil/se,with
apparent
level
with
but
doubtless
imperfect renderings of forms
are
second
first and
stress
on
syllables(they might perhaps better

is

fairlywell-defined

syllable).

second

on

tc!a/Bll/sewith

and

nd/dU/t!d

written

be

It does

not

seem

that

secondary
every

accent

in

vowel

an

syllableis organically long; thus e in future -Ve and in

such
-de of Vwl/de
Many
"everything" is regularly short.
however,
cases
probably only apparent, the short vowel
are,
by a glottal stop; thus plural ya- of ya/dAl/ni
being followed

open

"they make
Short

thus

from

dulled

"I

VAc/yAc/Ve
Hupa
'

goes

Weak

so

far

stress
as

to

becomes

doubtless

syllablesis

closed

originalshort

a;

of

of

should

sound"

/i

originala
shall

go"

in

be

ya-.

from
long
regularly reduced
closed syllable. Examples
a

are:

(cf.t't/dic/ya"I

go;"

-yAc

-yauw)
accent

say,

"there

characteristic

seems

is

no

accent

of

in Den^"

Athabascan

generally.

{op. cit.,p. 173).

Father

Moric6

Six:

Athabaskan

Na-Dene

and

31

Languages

277

nd/xAn/do

"eight,

less"

two

{;nd/xA-

Kato'^

nqk/ka"

"two")
do/na/yAct/xwl

"I

VAl/dAc

"he

runs"

jAn/na/'Ac

"he

{-dAc=

will

Ve/A7i/yit/lAl"we

be

determined

(such
by

by

borrowed

drown;"

is

by

reason

other,

or

after

verb

c,

with

signs I,
this

may

value

I)

t,

immediately

consonant,

mologically
ety-

syllable

etymological

class

if it is

or,

begin

words

This

of

is not

must

other

it.

consonant

vowel

in

inorganic,

inorganic
definitely

preceding syllable,it

singular

definite

this

followed

not

-vowel
a

syllable beginning

-aiiw)

with

some

an

by

first person

followed

the

takes

.completed

as

is

to

meaningless,
be

confused

yet, for

and

syllable and

either

Hupa

sinking" (cf.Ve/nit/lat'"we

consonant

vowel

own

bring" {-'ac

are

phonetically appended
its

-dauw)

Hupa

etymologically

Whenever

A.

(cf. na/yd/dAdt/xwf

-lat,-la "to float")

Hupa
to

vomit"

not

vomit")

"I

Not

do

never

followed
is

consonant

inorganic syllable (-/ closes inorganic

syllablespreceding d-, tl-, dj-, tc!-, ts!-, tdf-, tc'-, lI-), so that
a

to

doubled

the

complete

significance.
and

in

rapid speech
such

completed
mechanical
and

of

dialects
definite

Amer.

Hupa

These

Kato

and

are

Ethn.,

-a-

may

be

with

taken

from

5, 65-238;

P.
and

tendency

these

E.

secondarily lengthened from

-a-.

limit

characteristic

Goddard,

"Elements

other

to

"Kato
of the

Mr.

Orton
with

Chasta

general phonetic tendency

further

doubtless

of

Texts,"
Kato

7-.

is not

inorganic

The

the

and

only

before

consonant

syllables with
not

mologic
ety-

no

consonant

syllabifying words

1-176.
'

inorganic

is of
as

Kato

syllables explain

examples

Arch,

however,

and

syllablesand

closed

yet

in

characteristic

are

well.

as

cases,

generally, this

regularity.

also

to

some

first half

the

inorganic syllables

consonant

but

In

distinctly heard;

always

of which

results

consonant

vowel
Costa

Athabascan
to

speak

short

in

vowels

Athabascan

Univ.

Language,"

Cal.

Publ.

ibid., II,

32

VI

Languages 2

Indian

American

278

Creek,

identical

(probably

(s

x/V/lal;

third

X-,

by

(verb prefix V- reduced

-/'-

with

combining

from

by / borrowed

followed

Chasta

not

needs

turn

Other

alone

-/'-,while
of

capable

syllabifying a

examples

of

following inorganic consonant,

without

and

A, with

Galice

in

stand

Ve-, therefore

-lal.

or

etymologically equivalent
from

in

xaV-)

into

x-

from

il

w,
e

/ borrowed

and

well

as

Carrier.

in

plural prefix,cannot

person

followed

is therefore

and

voiceless

a)

varies

Kato

apparently

our

is

in

a{u)
or

Hupa,

sleep"

xAt/VAl/lal "they

Costa

it is

with

vowel

inorganic

voiced

in

post-palatal^-sounds)

before

to

{u before

Costa,

Chasta

in

as

the

dialects;

Athabascan

different

for

of

quality

The

developments.

inorganic

are:

from
V- reduced
Ve-)
VAc/yAc/Ve "I shall go" {t"Ax-)
dd/ya/xAt/t!a "they won't fly" {xAtx/d-, d- reduced
{xAt/dAnd/xAt/dAl/nic "they work"
=

de-)

from

"they

dd/xAn/uAt/VAc

considered

In
a

all such

not

been

-yAc

has

-Vac

contains

shown

from

-Ve, and

suffix

Inorganic

i have
s

and

is not
this
been

6)

and

found
5

a,

as

it

fuller

some

elements.

where

with

at

last

element

analysis

Thus,

vowel.

seems

bascan
Atha-

other

organic

an

must

while

original-yac (Hupa -yaiiw),

by comparison with Hupa

an

shown

-V, reduced

is doubtless

-Vac

-c).
available

material

place.

takes
before

derived

palatalized

becomes

sometimes

enough
change

of

(ultimately

lie down"

"to

of a;

plausible that

represent

primary

-tuw

when

to

form

consider

to

vowel

a-

unanalyzable

by comparison

it remains

form

reduced

and

least

reduced

best

seems

syllable,though

it is but

x/n-)

y-)

consonant

at

or

shown

as

dialects, it

there

is

cases

vowel,

primary

in the

final

radical

as

{xAn/nAt-

sinking" (jaI-

syllables with

Many
be

is

"he

t'e/An/yAl/Ul

bed"

to

go

from

(but
tc

to

(but

of

before

not

not

before

i, though

it certain

make

Examples

to

this

its

just

secondary

developments

original5

or

its

Six:

Na-Dene

and

Athabaskan

33

tankages

279

7,

itself

when

development)

tends

however,

preceded by m,
a). Examples
preserve

to

mis/ki''"gull" (cf.Kato butc/k'ai')

cessative
{nicnic/ya "I come"

are:

first person

and

7z-

(preceding

or

n,

singularc)
nic/dac "I dance"
drown"

"I
t'e/nic/lat

t'e/dic/ya"I go" {6iccf. t'ed/ya"he goes"

"I

vowel

without

(cf.c/ycd/l "he

him"

saw

and

6-

prone

minal

c;

6)

after

eat"

tclAy/ye/6ic/ya "I
ye/ die /I

durative

me")

saw

Bid/ si "I let him"

With
"I
and

original*-sac-)in da/ 6 Ad /da

-sasI- (from original-*sAdam
sitting;" with -0zc/- contrast
-*sAd- respectively)in tcId/sAsi/se"I am
crying." -yic-die- contrast

(both from

-OaO-

yd/yic/tia "I fly,"but as this

(contrast -yAc- in nd/da/yAct/tlo "I bathe"
heard

was

it

"I

sneezed"),

for

yd/yAc/tla.

"I go

in these
"she

bed"

to

forms

goes

of -nic-.

{-yAc

"to

"I'll

yic

shall
into

to

seems

Besides

dard, "Kato

-nAc-

is

bed")

go")
not

found

further

-yic
"he

probably

be

ihis-t'Ac Kato

Texts," Univ.

probable that

tcin/ne/tuw
with

a,

has

in

-ni-

one

case

directly preceding

t'A-

go.^^
ai

has

Examples

(cf.Kato

it is

dd/nAc/t'Ac

(cf.Hupa

from

with

contracts

won't

with:

palatalized to i: do /Vac/
go!" (cf.t'Ac/yAc/t'e"I

"don't

go," Id/n/yic

misheard

was

directly comparable

not

itself reduced

A,

form

is met

ne-

example
-yAd- in yAd/Az

and

this

of

isolated

an

stop him;"

form

thus

and

been

"I

An

reduced

Unaccented

strikingagreement.

-nic- also

-nA-

l/gl "white"
Should

that

nd/nAc/

go"); this
-Vac:
do/ Vac

''With

possible

and

Original Athabascan
monophthongized to i.

'"

is

in

in

Chasta

Costa

become

are:

i/gai)

miskH'.

ta/cac in dd/la/co* ta/cac "not

Cal.

Puhl.

Amer.

Arch,

and

anywhcrt'

Ethn., 5, No.

I went"

3,

p.

182,

(P. E. God1.

17) is in

35

Languages

Na-Dene

and

Athabaskan

Six:

281

nel/l "you
cf. Kato

It

-in'

closed
I, i is

inorganic

oil

"

regularly developed to I
often seems
thus
as
though

-'?*,

Lzw,

Carrier

palatal

i in

open,

Costa

in second

instance

equivalence,

to

secondary phonetic developments.

an

77,

as

person
has

just

Examples

Ve/Bi/ya "you go" {61are

going about")
ni/dac

Chasta

Athabascan

are

in

of

due

"

acquired

have

to

seems

syllables. It
the morphologic equivalent, for

shown,

been

-I

/'m,

i then

this

singular forms,

*n^l- ;

loe^'n}^)

//,old form
Nasalized

{nel-

//'/w, Loucheux

I'in, Hare

Montagnais

*/?, "^li-q;cf. Hupa

(originalAthabascan

"dog"

coloring i\

are

him"

looking at
"to see")

are

from

*yqt-, cf. ydvomiting")

{yat-

na/yd/dit/xwl "you

in

*yq-

vomit!"

"don't

id/na/yat/xwl

dance"

"you

; cf.

Hupa

*W4-;

cf.

*S4-

{ni-

na/sin/ya "you
Hupa

nin/yauw

"go!")
3'w/u'wf/x/wi"you
"run!"

"come

{di*

from

assimilated

*d4-\ ci. Hupa

cf.

"you

take

stem

-si

verb

'^

to
are

Morice, op. cit.,p.

that of Chasta
taken
'*

are

from

Costa.
R.

P.

k^l is "fortis"

E.

na/kin/-

ye/win/ya "you

Hupa

Hupa na/win/tau "it

from
assimilated
down"
^na/win/tau)
cf.
Hupa tin/xaiiw/ne
sleeping" (/'I- */'4-;
cf.

Vi/lal"you

/din/ La

eat!")

yd/yi/tla "you fly" (7t- *74-;

are
going in")
yd/yi/tla "it flies" (7^- *74-;
will settle

da

/din/ La

da

cf. Hupa
{tcli-^'^'kylA-'}^

swim"

na/tcll/ilo"you
yun

whistle"

along")
"to

make"

210.

Carrier

All northern

Petitot,

"

has

evidently undergone
forms

Athabascan

Dictionnaire

palatal k, Hupa

-tcwiii)

(cf.Hupa

^1, Morice's

de

la
q.

except

development parallel
(and Chipewyan)

Carrier

langue Dcnc-Dindji^."

36

VI

Indian

American

Languages 2

282

in closed

Examples,

of i"i"4
syllables,

tc!d/Bil/se"you
sil/en/^''

are

{9il- *s4-l-;

cry"

cf.

na/dil/we/-

Hupa

na/dit/t!d/Ve "you will bathe"

{dit- *d4-t-', cf. third
nd/dAt/t!d/t'e)
person
t'd/yit/nd "you drink"
{yU *y4-t-; cf. third
person
t*d/yAt/nd)
=

yd/yil/gAd "you climb"

yd/yAl/gAd)
t'il/xwAd "you cough"

{yil- *y4-l-;

cf.

third

person

(tHl- *t'4-l-; cf.

third

person

t'Al/xwAd)

ne/cli/l"look
Hupa

-;7

-?z, but

dialects indicates

Thus,

{cil- *c4-l-)
=

(that is, our

Costa

Chasta

me!"

at

that

rj)seems

with

comparison
in such

times

at

cases

we

to

correspond

northern

Athabascan

dealing with

are

"you," despite Hupa nin, is shown

Loucheux
and
original -n by Montagnais nen
7ia7i;
dink
to
"four," Hupa
{=dir)k^!),does not go back
*d4/k^!i but to *dAn/k^!i or *dA7]/k^!i(rjassimilated
-n.

as

Loucheux

original

Loucheux

by

la/cAn

tan;

del-zen; similarly,dAn

despite Hupa

din

Chasta

*dl).

Costa

and

Kato

"black"

"in, at"

dAn/tdi
original
from

n),

corresponds
have

must

to

original-n
given

would

(original*d4

dun

have

to

?iAn

evidenced

to

have

Consonants.
The

consonantal

Athabascan

though

system

of

dialects, is characterized
is common;

b has

Costa, like that

Chasta

been

by

found

from
words

English pussy, but seems

(yet cf. tcA/pd/yu "flower").

Costa

are:

dental

nasal

"

Costa

In

is

Hupa

the
7t;

labi'al nasal
the back

the

m;

stops

g,

transparent
normal

than

in
not.

The

of labial

bo/di "cat,"
to

stops,
word
loan-

in

occur

native

of Chasta

consonants

dental

/', d, t!, and

stops

q' (or qx),q!, voiceless spirant

(or nasalization) disappears in closed

etymologically more
-A-, whereas
Hupa -t- is the

lack

of most

Hupa

inorganic vowel.

syllables.
insofar

as

In

-i- is

such
a

forms

reflex

of

Chasta

original

Six:

Athabaskan

Na-Dene

and

Languages

37

283

(as in German

Wagen)

Bach)
labiahzed

the

(sometimes

weakened

ship),6 (as

in

between
ative

back

ts, tsl, and

laterals /, I

spiranty (as in

the

sibilants
z

in

North

German

q!w, and

stops k'w, gw,

hw)

to

palatalconsonants

consonants

voiced

Enghsh thin),and
English z, heard

and

and
,

spirant xw
(as in EngUsh

s,

(voicelesslenis, intermediate
"to sneeze"); the affric-az

tc\ dj, and

tcl; the

affricative

dental

(voiceless spirantal/,

with

affricative

alveolar

tdl; the

consonant

l,

dorsal

followed

by /, as variant),and l/; the glottal stop ('); the aspirate h

the semivowels
('at the close of a syllable)
w.
; and
y and
Of these /',q\ k'w, and
/c' (English ch) are
aspirated surds
and may
be con(^' is not found, k'w has been found but once
sidered
of doubtful
but

occurrence);

lenis, intermediate

sonants^^

ql,td, ts!,td!,and
words, they
but

and

q!, gw,

velar

taken

q!w {g has

k' in

does

acoustic

weak

of

g.

It

d and

variant

that

one

been

not

lack

of

to

is

occur,
y

dj

of

as

j) ; //,
in other
of

glottis
q\

likely exists)
its place being
found,
syllabicallyfinal / and
very
^^

been

not

and

and

glottal chords.

but

found,

surds

closure

the

less
voice-

are

consonants,

simultaneous

release

considered

their

labialized

the

k! has

frequently

not

with

"fortis"

secondary origin are

be

may

equivalent to
or

before

by g/.^" Of

/' and

are

consonants;

k, which

so-called

pronounced

released

are

are

are

l!

and

g, gw,

acoustically between
between
English ch

is intermediate

{dj

(b),d,

voiceless

stops differingfrom

aspiration; they are etymologically

is highly probable that also w, which
is but
a
secondary development

after

y'^, in which

constantly

after

o-vowels;-^

in

both
doubt

and

y
as

to

o-vowels
elements

whether

y
are

he

comes
beso

hears

of releass.
at their moment
possiblethat these "intermediate"
stops are sonant
misheard
for k!.
as
seems
possible,k of mis/ki "gull" was
^"
forcible a sound
as
as
ql corresponds to Hupa kz, g is Hupa k-z. q! is by no means
illusive
about
Chinookan
There
is
it; the velar stop
is, e. g.,
something decidedly
q!.
element
is very
the glottal catch
to a minimum,
element
to be reduced
seems
strongly
velar
weak
times
the
and
to
(e.
x
seems
at
a
marked,
precede
stop
g., '^qld/xAO"arrow").
in pronouncing Chasta
q!,I did not often succeed
Despite my familiaritywith Chinookan
'"

It is

"

Unless,

Costa

ql so

talized
"'

In

as

to

satisfyMr.

Orton's

car.

It may

(x/); cf. Tlingit 5/.

Hupa

has

become

in every

case.

well

be

that

ql is really"fortis"

or

glot-

38

VI

Languages 2

Indian

Atnerican

284

or

what
w

do/y'^e-,dd/'^we-\ similarly,
as
do/wa- may
really be do/y'^a-). However,
in
sa'
"sandhill
also
crane;" wAs/xe "good."
/wAs/ts!e
is only in part a faithful
consonant
system
sentative
repre-

occurs

This

of

of

the

original Athabascan

have

become

kept

distinct

but

have

Chasta

y,

I,i, lI, ',h, and

to

these

with

merged

articulation.

in

seem

k\

been

t\ d, tl,

practicallyevery

nants
conso-

consonants

regard

n,
case

place
g, q! (kl), q!w,
to correspond
to

sounds.
also

as

in

become

has

Hupa,

in

Chasta

xd'/tc'ii
"goose"-^ (cf.Hupa
tc'u; Kato
k'a')
nd/xi "two"
(cf.Hupa nax;
(cf.Carrier
ts!d/xe"woman"
tsxd/xe "child"

Analogously
k'w

other
in

changed

m,

Some

system.

others, while

Costa

Athabascan

same

Athabascan
Costa

becomes

heard

was

have

do/ ye-

(thus

This

sound

Costa

this

to

become

has

is

with

hwd

change

preserved

original k\

however,

"I

k'wAs/Vd/7ie "six"
Etymologically
Chasta

and

Hupa

hw) in Chasta

Kato

have

k'w

Costa, from

and

Costa.
Chasta

together in

other

are:

ne-khe;

khu

Loucheux

"vomiting")

in:

xos/tan)

(cf.Hupa
not

{k'w)

fallen

(cf. Carrier

vomit"

but

as

phonetically distinct,
these
secondary x and

both
xw

is

-Ic

"

See

"

Petitot's

**

Father

to

original Athabascan

x,

kwe*"; Carrier

persist as

to

to

in

such

Examples

(cf. Kato

cekpe)
na/yd/dAdt/xwi

k'
heard

generally

seems

"foot"

It seems,

as

Montagnais nak'e^^)
tsekhe-'")
cezkhehkhe)

of

(sometimes

xw

(yXw),but

dialects

(cf.Carrier

k'q'/-

xa-^; Applegate Creek

augmentative.
Texts,"
Goddard, "Kato
'

represents

Morice

note

32.

aspiration.

represents

"fortis"

stops

by

means

of

points belovv

characters.

in
are

39

Languages

Na-Dene

and

Athabaskan

Six:

285

originalAthabascan

and

of the

good example

xw.

latter

is:

cough"

"to

-xwAd

have

sounds)

has

Original s

Costa.

regularly become

noun)

as

{ts and

affricatives

modifications

various

undergone

"cough,"

xwces

sibilant

and

sibilants

Athabascan
tc

(cf. Carrier

in

Chasta

6:

bear")
Ba/^aI "grizzly bear" (cf.Carrier sces-e^oel "brown
"I
going away")
am
t'e/dic/ya"I go" (cf.Hupa te/se/ya/te
VeB/ya "he goes" (cf.Hupa tes/ya/te"it is about to come")

Before

cough"

"to

-xwaB

-k2s)

(cf.Hupa

-gAB "to climb"

xwces)

(cf.Carrier

l), however,

(or its variant

is

cry;" tddsL/'se "he

forms
cry" (with these

ts!a/sASL/se^^"I
"they

regularly retained:
cries;"

tc!a/ydsL/se
tc!d/Bil/se

contrast

"you cry")
na/yesL/sl "he tells" (contrast nd/BU/sl "you tell")
(contrast Bid /si "I let him")
cAsl/sl"he lets me"
(contrast Bid /Veil"I kicked him")
cAsl/Val "he kicks me"
qlwAi/dasL/na

"it

Athabascan

would,

develop
found

into

is

IB

(as in

have
B

been

seems

to

expected
be

to

regularly

of

of

following -5-

*-sacl-,

(before l) of

Petitot's th is td.

kfw, perhaps

to

''

Petitot's tch is

**

Petitot's

Montagnais
-sV

"head"

also, at least initially,

in Kato

that

head;"

-tchir^. Kato

together.
head"
(cf. Montagnais

from

is assimilated

i. e., -tei.

"your

ts fell

and

Ba/^^cl"hair

-SASL-

n-tsi

-kjwi\ Loucheux
indicate

to

seems

writes

analogy,
Chipewyan), but
by

(cf. Carrier

"head"

-ihif Hare

"

it"

instead:
Bi

^*

lying on

was

is 7.

be
our

understood
Ic.

-s-

being

here

ethi-pa^^)

prevented from

becoming

-6-

cause
be-

syllable.

same

In

Hare
as

/5

(or its reflex 16) developed into what

i. e., k plus bilabial/.

k(t",

Petitot

Languages 2

Indian

American

VI

40

286

l/do "yellow, green" (of. Montagnais del-thop "yellow;"

Hare
de-kfwoy "yellow," Hupa u't-tso "green;" Kato

"blue")'

L-tso

In

se

have

(cf.Kato

"stone"

become

Hupa

se\

s:

Montagnais

tse;

tchi; Carrier

Loucheux

kfwe;
As

to

ts seems

cases

some

the; Hare

tse)

regularlybecome

ts! has

might be expected, Athabascan

Costa:

td! in Chasta

dd/de/dil/tB!i"we

i. e., -tsle,"they

na/ya/del/tse,

sitting" (cf. Hupa

as
before")

are

lived

teiAd/dd"story"
Athabascan

However,

is

normally preserved

it is assimilated

to

before

such

as

and

(e.g.,

ct

"I").

tsl:

s/tsli/de"my sickness" {c- "my")

seen
{-c-"I")
nes/tsUi/l "I am
"I
shall
As/se/t'e
cry" (from *ac-)
s

will

I tslAn I na I 'Ac "he

Assimilation

of *sac to

bring it
taken

has

sas

to

place

to

OaB, unless,

cry")
to

die:

eat"

after

being

as

have

we

shall

regularly developed

Original *sAc"*sic, however,

Original *sac,

in:

"I

tc!a/sAsL/se"I cry" (cf.tddci/se/Ve

tclAy/ye/eic/ya "I

(c-"me")

me"

assimilated
seen,

it

was

to

*sas, regularly shifted

protected by immediately

following I:

sitting"(from *dd/sAc/da)
Ve/BAB/lal "I have been sleeping" (from *re/sAc/lal)
for tcIe/dAd/tfo)
across"
"I swim
tcfed/t.'d
(probably misheard

da/ 6 AS /da "I

Original

s,

assimilate;

immediately

when
ss,

am

which

thus

following

results, is then

c,

also

"I

threw"

it

regularly shifted

66:

yd/yA6/6el

causes

(from '^yd/yAc/sel)

to
to

Six:

Athabaskan

and

Na-Dene

Languages

41

287

Athabascan

Costa, but

(sometimes /cw?)
regularly as s:

tc

appears

in Chasta

retained

is not

l/sAk "red" (of.Kato L/tcik\ Loucheux

ditssigY^
mis/k{!)i(')"gull" (of.Kato butc/k'ai*)
crane"
sd'/wAs/tsIe "sandhill
tcd'/(cf.Applegate Creek
wdc/tc{!)e)
make"
-si "to
(cf.Hupa -tcwin; Kato
-tcl; Chipewyan
-tsl'')
"to
-se
-ke';
cry" (cf. Chetco
Hupa -tcwen; Kato
-swe;
Carrier
-ssd)
Costa

Chasta

is found

sx

sxo/ld "five"

(cf.Hupa

Athabascan
to ts!

in:

sa/so/la/yai^)

tcwo/la; Chipewyan

tc! remains,

tc! often

being shifted, however,

:
(or 5'22)

prefix "across

tele- verb

td.e-,"down
-ts!An

the

to

Chipewyan

tce-\

water"

beach,

ts'e- "to

to"

"toward,

the

out
a

of

body

the
of

e.,

Kato

house;"

water")

-tcin, i. e., -tdit); Kato

(cf. Hupa

-tc'uiV; Chipewyan

tee-, i.

(cf.Hupa

-ts'un)

ts!i/de"sickness"
-s'at' "to
to

There

be

become

is still another

go back

which

rule, with

Chasta

*"

dialects,

affricative

become

Petitot's tss is

our

become

from

Petitot

are

referred

It is quite likelythat

between

and

in

Costa,

Chasta

c).

however,

te\ k^! has

these

Costa,

te-

have

fallingtogether,
In

consonants.

become

tc!

(this te!

tsl.

Chipewyan forms are taken from P.

Mus.
Chipewyan," Anthr.
Papers Amer.
^-

Chasta

original Athabascan

k^ has

Costa,

in

as

sibilants,without,
the

"

taken

sibilants

sick,

originalpalatalized(anteriorpalatal)^-sounds
In
Kato,
Navaho,
Apache, Chipewyan, and

Athabascan

other

of

set

be

to

(gy, k^, k^!).

as

tssik, i. e., tsUk)

(cf.Loucheux
hurt"
(cf.Hupa -teat, i. e., -te!at,"to
ill")

In

to

as

tcl and

Kato

tc'
,

E.

Goddard, "Analysis of Cold

Lake

Dialect,

Hist., vol. X, pt. II.

Chipewyan forms
Montagnais.
ts! are
here merely auditory variants of ts! (i is midway
ts' and 5' also interchange.
Nat.

Six:

Athabaskan

Na-Dene

and

43

Languages

289

suffix

augmentative

-tc'u

"big dog") (cf.Hupa

of tc!

Examples

(e.

Kato

-kyo;

back

going

W/tc'ii "horse," literally

g.,

-ted)

Athabascan

to

k^I

are:

dAn/tdi "four" (cf.Hupa dink, i. e., di-qkyf)

sic!At Ide "seven"
(cf.Hupa xo/kit,i. e., -k^Ht)
tddsL/se
i. e.,
tc!-

cries"

"he

prefix indicating

k-, ky-, i.

k^!-; Kato

e.,

indefinite

possessed sonant
{dz,dj). Of these sounds

as

"to

-Az

shall

we

in

see

dj.
in Kato

sneeze;"

dz has

and

Hupa,

ia/cAn

"black"

been

not

has

Costa

eats;"

found

dj

results

"to

-ya

lateral

appears

as

in these

forms, but,

back

go

it may

to

bascan
Atha-

exist.

Kato

7,

as

i/cmi^;
del/zun;

(unaspirated) plus

y:

"whereon

one

eat")
ashamed"
"I

Costa.

{"*ya/da/yit/ya;
ashamed")

am

(/,I,

only three
Original dl
did

may

heard

was

and

lI) have

have

rather

cf.

been

served
pre-

pirated)
(unas-

as

Id:

yAct/lo "I laugh" (cf.Chipewyan

is very

several

{"*qIwAt/tc!At/ya

Athabascan

also, but

-/-

in Chasta

Ll/jin; Chipewyan

from

consonants,

in Chasta

plus

in

found

Lu/hwin"*-cin;

Nav.

are
ya/da/yit/dja "we
yAc in ya/dAcl/yAc

been

not

been

sibilant

c:

(cf. Hupa

qlwAt/tc/At/dja "table"

the

has

and

del-zen)

Loucheux

Of

(2,j)

found, though

become

Jicarilla Ll/zl;

Chasta

does

moment,

sibilants

is illustrated

dj

object (cf. Hupa

tc'-)

Athabascan

Costa

cried,

k^Ia-)

verb

affricatives

kya/teL/tcwii "it

(cf. Hupa

probably
-Id.

After

third
c

and

modal
s,

-/-

I becomes

-did, -dldk' "to

here;

while

-did

/:

(cf.nd/dAl/nic
nd/dAcl/nic "I work"
nd/xwAcl/ye "I play" (cf.nd/xwAl/ye
qlwAt/dasi/nd "it was
lying on it"

"he
"he

laugh")

works")

plays")

really

VI

44

Languages 2

Indian

American

MORPHOLOGY.

Pronouns.

personal

Independent
ci

pronouns:

"I"

"we"

ne

(probably

nAn

"you"

yu

"he, that

ne/he)

Hupa

nd/ne "you" (plur.)

yu/ne, yun/ne
"they,

one"

possessive pronouns

of

those"

(reallydemonstrative)

(reallydemonstrative)
Examples

cf.

*ne/he;

from

contracted

are:

with

{cic is independent cl combined

possessive prefix c-\ literally,"I my-hand")
hand"

cic/la "my

your-hand")

"you

n-,

{hi is demonstrative)

hand"

hi la "his

(that is, nAn

hand"

/la "your

nAn

c/na/yd "my

eyes"

s/tsH/de "my

sickness, I

n/ts!l/de "you

are

sick"

sickness,

nd/ts!l/de "our

sick"

am

no/tsll/de/ha "your

are

we

sick"

(pi.) sickness?

are

(pi.) sick?"

you

{-ha is interrogative)

xd/ts!l/de"their
Many

suffix -e,

as

nAn/mAne
noun
as

dAne'

by

are

Thus,

from

pronouns,

"house:"

mAn

house"

"your
followed

sick"

preceding possessive

regularly in Athabascan.

cic/mAne "my

limited

when

nouns,

sickness, they

house"

by another

genitively related

to

with

it.

IIItele "person's dog"

(290)

suffixed

Examples

-e

is to

be

stood
under-

are:

{ll/tde from

ll

"dog,"

with

Six:

Athabaskan

and

Na-Dene

Languages

45

291

"dog," xo/lin/ke,
voicing of /- to /-; cf. Hupa Lin
i. e., xo/lirj/kyfe
"his dog")
"bow's
tAkAc^'^ hlci^/le
"bowstring" (literally,
string;" cf.
"rope," possessed form Vu/le)
Chipewyan Vul
ga/yu ts!i/de"baby's sickness, baby is sick"
As

reflexive

possessive is
Carrier
:
cedced-)

a/d- ;

Hupa

xd/dAt/lt/tc!e"his
demonstrative

Of

xd/dAt- (with -d/dAt- cf.

used

dog" (used reflexively)

own

pronouns

there

have

been

found:

(cf.Hupa hai, indefinite demonstrative

"that
article);hi'/tli
thing"
one"
"that
(cf.Hupa yd "that")
yii
"those,
yu/ne, ytin/ne
they"
"it"
m(cf.Hupa m-; Kato b-): niAl "with it"
"that, he"

hi*

de

de
This

Hupa

used

be

to

seems

as

ucL/Ve "what

element

is

de in ded

and

relative in:
I want"

perhaps demonstrative
"this," hai/de "this."

Totality is expressed by Vwl

with
/tin "all"). Compounded

in force

and

related

to

"all, everything" (cf.Hupa

this element

are:

Vwl/de "everything" {-de is very likely related to Hupa

di- in dl/hwd "something," dl/hwe/e "nothing")
do IVwl/de "not everything"
^'all-at;"cf. Hupa a//iw/Vwi/dAn "everywhere" (literally,
din "every place")

Nouns.
Primitive
are

as
non-descriptivenouns,
relativelyfrequent in Chasta

nouns

are:

Body

Parts.
la "hand"

**

Probably

to

-/a; Kato

(cf.Hupa
be

understood

as

lAk/gAc.

in all Athabascan

Costa.

-/a*)

lects,
dia-

Monosyllabic

yi

46

Languages 2

Indian

American

292

(cf.Kato

61 "head"

(in

"hair"

-ya

Chipewyan

cf.

"head-hair;"

-ca,

-61, -t6i)

Chipewyan

-si';

6 Ay

-ke)

-kwe*; Chipewyan

(cf.Kato

"foot"

hwd

i. e.,

Kato

-ga' "hair;"

-ya)

Animals.
"bird"

tdac
ll

Objects.

Natural

(cf.Hupa

"stone"

se

"sun"

cd

lAt "smoke"

tse; Kato

se)

(cf.Hupa hwa; Kato ca)

(cf.Hupa hit; Kato uit)

Objects.

Culture

"fire-drill")

L'eL

"bulbs")

"(its) string" (cf. Hupa

Primitive,
one

kos

(cf.Hupa

gd6 "camass"

L'ilL

"hut")

"fire-drill;"cf. Chipewyan

(originallydoubtless

Llel "matches"

LloH-e

min-tc

diminutive

(cf.Hupa

"house"

mAn

than

Ll)

Lin; Chipewyan

"dog" (cf.Hupa

Lol

"strap;" Chipewyan

"rope")
at

rate

any

easily analyzed,

not

nouns

of

more

syllableare:

Persons.

(cf.Chipewyan de/ne, dun/ne;

dAtt/ne,dAne' "person, man"
Carrier
tcene)
"woman"
(cf.Carrier tsekhe; Kato tc'ek)
ts!d/xe
(with -ne cf. probably -ne of dAne')
dis/ne' "male"
sd/sAs "white
tsxd/xe "child"

man"

(cf.Carrier

oe'zkhehkhe; Kato

skl-k

"boys,

children")

(perhaps
kel/'e "boy"
k'il/lek"boy")

misheard

for

k!el/'e; cf.

Kato

gd/yu "baby"
Body

Part.

na/y" "eye" (cf.Hupa

-na/ce)

-na;

Kato

-7ia*\

Chipewyan

-na/ca,

Six:

Athabaskan

47

Languages

Na-Dene

and

293

Animals.
sces-e^cel "brown

(cf.Carrier

BAyAl "grizzly bear"

or

cross

bear")

biitc/k'ai')

mis/ki!)i{')"gull" (cf.Kato
"fawn"

dis/dac

dA/meV /ke "pelican"^^

nat/qH "duck"
(cf.Kato

nd'/qH'')

ml/tc'd/tsUl/fil"deer"

Ve/q!d/lec/re"mink"
crane"

"ruffled
tclal/tchis/dje

grouse,

'

tcd'/-

"

'pheasant'

6d/gi "kingfisher"
flicker"
dAs/nAl "red-shafted
teiAB/nd/yal/tetde'hummingbird'
0c Iid

Creek

(cf. Applegate

sd'/wAs/ts!e "sandhill
wdc/tc{!)e)

'

"bluejay"

lark"

nd/ts!d/le"horned
so's/ga/ga "robin"
ts!d/ts!uk"wren"
kAsis

"barn

swallow"

ga/lal/'e"crow"
of

Many
follow,

these

are

animal

well

as

names,

probably descriptive verb

as

some

forms

of

that

those

have

that

become

stereotyped.
Plants.

tcA/pd/yii "flower"'"
mt/tlal/tdAd"arrow- wood"
(probably compounded
do'/de "tar- weed"
do'
"grass;" cf. Hupa Lo/da-itc
"sunflower
(?)"
tc!Al/yat/ts!s

"This

word

exhibiting some
'*

This

form

"

This

word

is

was

used

humorously

similarityin
obtained

is remarkable

to

refer

to

Democrats,

with
"an

Democrat

bascan
Atha-

herb")

and

dA/mel' /ke

sound.

independently.
as

containing p,

sound

that

is

normally

absent

in Athabascan.

American

^f

48

Indian

Languages 2

294

dAl/si "pine" (cf. Kato

"red")
nd/ife "pine-nut"
dA/nAc "manzanita"

dul/tcik "yellow pine,"

(cf. Hupa

berries;"

"manzanita

Galice

din/nuw;
Creek

Kato

from

-tclk

tun/nuc

de/rec)

mAt/tcfi "cat-tail"

cAc/dd' "oak"
Objects.

Culture

"canoe"

xAnAd

at/tea "pipe"
arrow-shaft
scraper"
tclA/BA/gAl"sandstone
(probably VAk/gAc\ cf. Kato
tA/kAc "bow"

gqc

"yew")

*q!d/xA6 "arrow"
det/t!e"arrow-point"
Abstract.

tdlAd/dd "story"
yA/wls "whistling"
noun)

(used with

tsli/de"sickness"
"to

be

(cf. Carrier

ytiyuz

"whistling,"

possessive pronouns

to

as

cate
indi-

sick")

ending in -tc'u,
designated by words
animal
and
an
augmentative suffix, "big" (cf. Hupa and Kato
in -kyo and
-ted respectively). Such
are:
plant names
Several

animals

are

ii*/te'u"horse"
Lln/teo)
xd'/te'ii"goose"
words

are

dog;"

(literally,"big
(cf. Applegate

formed

from

ka')
"goose;" Kato
dAe/te'u, des/te'ti "grouse"
"grouse")
Vet/mo/tc'u "pigeon"
eu/dc'/tc'u "bald eagle"

Creek

Athabascan

cf.

Chipewyan

k'q'/te'u.

These

xa:

Chipewyan

due

/ted, dus/ted

xa

BAe/dA/li/tc'u"owl"
H/tcIe/tc'u"red-headed
"raven"
ga/sd'/te'ii

(cf. Kato

woodpecker"

Six:

Na-Dene

and

Athabaskan

49

Languages

295

in -til

ending

Nouns

or

-ne

in many

is found

-n

"person."

related

enough,

-ni is, Hkely

so."

-tllni denote

or

Examples

to

who

"one
of

-ne

and

so

dAn/ne "person;"

dialects

Athabascan

has

suffix denoting

as

-t!i{ni)are:

of

U/t!l/ni"dog-owner"
"not-wife-havdo Iailtill
ni, do Jat I ill "bachelor"
(literally,
ing-person." do- "not;" at-, i. e., ail "wife," cf.
Hupa ui "wife," Kato aV "sister")
noun

compounds

"head-hair"

(shortened

of

Examples
stems

of

two

noun

are:

6a

/yd

"hair."

Cf.

ga/lal gwd/yu

of

example

61

"head"

and

-ya

blackbird"

"crow('s)
(literally,
With
this cf. Chipewyan
da/tsa/crow,"
literally,"crow
younger-

"red-winged

tcel/le "a small

brother"3").
An

from

6l/Ga)

Chipewyan

brother-in-law."

compound

consisting of

noun

verb

and

is:

noun

aI/Az dAn/ne
An

example
adjective is:
iclac
A

been

listed
verb

"he-sneezes
(literally,

compound

l/66/e "bluebird"

characteristic

refer

has

of

"sneezer"

type

noun

consisting of

"bird
(literally,
of

noun

noun

and

blue")

in Athabascan

is formed

by

remaining strictlyverbal in form, are used

As
to objects, in other
words, are
logicallynouns.
of more
than
one
already noted, several nouns
syllable

above
forms.

as

unanalyzable

are

Quite clearlyverbal

doubtless, strictlyspeaking,
in form

are:

nd6/Ll6 "paper" (cf.nal/ilo "he writes")

"it
ql'wAt/da6t/gAc"table-cloth"
(literally,
^

person")

which, while

verbs
to

consisting

Goddard,

op. cit.,p.

1 10.

lies

or

is thrown

Athabaskan

Six:

Na-Dene

and

51

Languages

297

AL/tcd/yt "big thing"

-tcac)

(cf. Hupa

l/gi "white"

-L/kai;

la Ic An

(cf. Hupa

l/sAk "red"

-L/tso "blue")
"White," "black," "red,"
Athabascan

lit/tsd "green;"

(cf. Hupa

l/do "yellow, green"

other

del/zun)

-h/tclk)

(cf.Kato

"yellow, green"

and

is

by prefixed I {a)-,which

Kato

-h/gai)

Kato

-L/cun^\ Chipewyan

(cf. Kato

"black"

-kya/o "large;"

common

as

Kato

characterized

are

adjectival prefix also

in

dialects.

Adverbs.
Adverbs
xun

of

place

"there"

third

(cf.Hupa

xiin
hV

txun/la

are:

t'e/Bi/ya"there
xiin

(i^y^/ge
"up"

"where

do-

is

goes"

md'^/dAn

of time

"then"

kicked
is

(-dAn

edge"

*mq-"*marj-;

-dit-

in

him

up"

hai/dai/dit/din

/eg^):

(cf.Hare

"on

going?"

you

negative)

dAk/ge Bicl/Vdl "I

cf.

postposition "at;"
side")

"each

ntL/man

Hupa

md^-K

are:

(cf. Hupa

xat

"quickly" (cf.Hupa

xun/de

go"

are

(cf. Hupa

"nowhere"

"where;"

xd

he

xon?):

pronoun

"where?":

do/dAt

xat

you

"there

Ved/ya

txun/la VejBi/ya

Adverbs

personal

"tomorrow"

xa

"yet, right")
"yet")

(cf. Hupa

xun/de do/wa/yAc/l
xun/de
ycu

xun/de

td/Ad/dd

nAl

yis/xiln/de "tomorrow"):
"I'll

him

see

ndcl/si

tomorrow"

"tomorrow

I-shall-tell"

t'Ac/yAc "tomorrow

I'll

go")

story

to-

52

VI

Languages 2

Indian

American

298

"all-at"):
t'wt/dAn "always" (literally,
Vwi/dAti t'Al/dAc "he always runs"

t'wt/dAn As/se
"this

xAi/tsH/dAn
-dAn

is

"I

always cry"

evening" (doubtless
"at."

postposition

Cf.

for xal!-',

misheard

Hupa

"in

xu/Le

the

night"):
xAL/tsH/dAn

"I'll

do/wan/yAc/l

see

this

you

evening"
adverbs

Modal
do

are:

negative (cf Hupa

do) :

do/t'Ac "he

won't

do/rAc/yic

"I'll not

do/yd/t/a
dd/As/se

"he

"I'm

dd/yAc/l
do/ned/l

"I'm

"I'm

didn't

dd/ucL/t'e "I

do

not

working"

him"

see

looking

not

do/na/yAct/xwl
la

fly"
crying"

not

"I

go"

won't

do/nd/dACL/nic

go"

want"

not

"I

him"

at

do

vomit"

not

prohibitive:
Id "don't!"

Id/n/yic

"don't

la/yi/i "don't
Id/nd/xwil/ye

go!"
see

him!"

"don't

ld/na/dit/t!d"don't
Id/na/yat/xwi
doldd/qle
dol LAn
do

"don't

play!"
bathe!"

vomit!"

"unable"

much"

"not

I wi I la "of

(cf.Hupa

course"

Lan

(cf. Hupa

"much,"

do/ian "little")

ddii

is," he I don

"it

"at

least")
do

lid emphatic
cf.

Hupa

negative (really verbal

-lan, -lun

with

"to

negative prefix do-

leave, desist") :
do

inform,

/Id c/yl/i "you didn't

see

me"

cease;"

"to

quit,

Six:

Athabaskan

Na-Dene

and

53

Languages

299

"all right" (cf.Hupa

cd'*/djl

cAl/q!we

"to

be

nil/hwdn/^x "properly"?)

accustomed

to":

cAl/qlwe na/dAct/t!d "I'm

t!V/xun

"to

BAk/gwe
ho

future

to

bathing"

on:"

keep
tlV/xun ne/cAl/l "he

"in

keeps looking

me"

at

fragments"

prefix (more properly intentive):

hd/ya/yic/t!a

"I'll

hd/tc!AsL/se "he

fly"

wants

to

cry"

IillI yit/lo"stop laughing!"

ho

do/wa

used

prefix (probably with

do/wa/c/yl/i^/Ve "you'll see

future

me"

"I'll

s/ts!l/de do/wa/ aI/W

coloring):

dubitative

sick"

get

(Hterally,

"my-sickness will-become")
do/wa/ncL/yan/nAl "he will upset them"
will go

dd/wa/it'dt/nTii"they

pieces"

to

Postpositions.
Athabascan
of

use

force.

numeral,

-dAn

or

they

case

examples

characterized,

considerable

chiefly local
which

is

number

They

to

nouns

less often

stems;

subordinating

to

force.

of

elements
or

verb

inal,
pronom-

forms,

Chasta

in

Costa

are:

"at"

(cf.Hupa

-din):

xAL{!)/tsH/dAn
Vwi/dAn
md^/dAti

"this

"on

tell-him

in

Hupa

-miL

plus postposition -/. "witli."

(hterally,"all-at")

(cf.la- "one")

edge"
al/dAc/ni/dAn "when

"Similarly

evening"

"everywhere"

Idt/dAn "once"

"mi-

postpositional

appended

are

adverbial
have

of

features, by the

other

among

tell him"

(hterally, "I-

at")*"

"when,"

as

verb

suffix, is doubtless

simply pronominal

VI

54

Languages 2

Indian

American

300

"with, to"

(cf.Hupa

-l):

Kato

-l;

"canoe(literally,

xAUAd/l 7idc/xe"I paddle canoe"

I-paddle")
tdlAd/dd riAl ndcl/sl "I
with

story" (literally,

tell you

"story you-with I-make")

tells

"he

na/yesL/si

caI

td/Ad/dd

story"

me

he-makes")

"story me-with
(literally,

"wherewith
it-is-smoked,
mAl/Ve/tc!At/ts!Al/lec
for smoking"
{mA-l- "therewith;"

This
a-

-I is

same

(used in verbs

"toward"

prefix

(cf. Hupa

ah/-

to")

talked

"toward;"

-tcin

(cf. Hupa

verbal

to

I tell him"

al/dAc/ni/dAfi "when
tcit/den/ne"he
-tslAn

attached

found

probably also
of saying):

cf.

"with, in")

mil

it;" Hupa

"with

buL

Kato

terials
ma-

Kato

-tc'un*

"to, toward"):
"to-me

s/tslAn/na/'Ac
"in"

-me

(cf.Hupa

"in

mAn/me

-me/q!e "in,
cf.

"in;"

-me

house"
of

(compounded

in"

around

he-will-bring-it"
-hV "in"):
Kato
-q!e\

and

-me

"on"):
Chipewyan
in house"
mAn/me/q!e "around
la/me/q!e/ca "all in one time" (cf.la, Wjca
-k'e

"one")

Verbs.
As

Costa

in
verb

be

may

"class"
are

ends

then
the

elements

of

in

first modal
person

one

order

prefix, a

second

modal

subjective element, and

sign; these,
followed
verb

typical Chasta
adverbial
more
or
prefixes,which
ment,
by a deictic or third personal eledialects, the

Athabascan

consists

followed

second

other

not

by

form, but

of modal

or

all of which
the
may

Terb
be

third
of

need

stem

followed

syntactic force.

element,

itself.

by
The

one

modal
course

The
or

verb

first

element
be
stem
more

form

or

or

present,
often
enclitic
is fre-

Six:

55

Languages

Na-Dene

and

Athabaskan

301

quently preceded by
considered

best

close

rather

if present,

comes

B-,
-6-, second
a

third

it.

elements:

seven

yd-,

second

of

element

Vd-,

an

adverbial

durative

verbial
adment;
ele-

significance;

-/-,
plural subjective pronominal element;
in force; -nd,
element, probably intransitive
drink;" and -hd, an enclitic interrogativeelement.

modal

stem

The

various
up

person

verb

taken

modal

second

verb, forms

pronominal object,
adverbial
after an
prefix but before a first
form
Vd/yd/Bot/nd/hd "do
Thus, the verb
with

unit

of
consists
(plur.)drink?"
prefixreferringto water;

you

while

postposition which,

or

non-integral part of the

syntactic

element.

modal

as

adverb

an

"to

in the

order

and

go

make

to

up

verb

forms

will be

verbs

of saying,

indicated.

Prefixes,

Adverbial

doing,

that

elements

a-,

being (cf Hupa

a-,

and

'a- used
Kato

with

a-):

d/dJAn "he says"

I tell him"
(for -1-, see
al/dAc/ni/dAn "when
under
Postpositions)
dd/dAt 'An/tie "there is not anywhere"
thing,"
probably equivalent to an indefinite object, "someuttered
is said or
without
definitely
indicating what
rather
out
clearly on comparison
referringto it. This comes
"I
whistle" (literally,
with a form like yu/wls dAcl/ni
"whistling
is
is
indefinite
no
required, what
I-utter"),where
object auttered
being specificallyreferred to by yu/wls "whistling."
is somewhat
in a class by itself as compared with other
That
ain forms
adverbial
by its being followed
prefixesis indicated
with indirect object by postpositive-/-.
This

a-

is

yd-, ya-

It is not

"up (in the air)" (cf.Hupa

yd/yAcl/gAd "I climb"
yd/ y Ad /del "I threw"
yd/yic/lla "I fly"

clear what

is
significance

ya/dAcl/yAc "I am
ya/da/yit/dja "we

to

be

ya-\

attached

ashamed"
are

ashamed"

ya^-):

Kato

to

ya-

in:

56

VI

Languages 2

Indian

American

302

enclosed

"into

ye-

ye-]

(including mouth)"

space

(cf. Hupa

ye'-, yV-)

Kato

ye/ydt/ne/la "he

bit it"

da-, da-

above

"sitting or lying on
something
and
Kato
da-) :
(cf Hupa
sitting down"
da/ 6 Ad /da "I am

ground"

"we
dd/de/dil/tB!i

dd/nAc/Vac "I go to
q!wAt/dadt/gAc "it
i.

e.

"in

bed"
lies

"it

water"

sinking in
and

Vd/yAct/nd
"across

ta-):

Kato

"out

tc'e-

"I drink"

stream"

of;"

(cf. Hupa

Chipewyan

An-

tee-

"out

"used

ts'e-

of;"
of

Kato

approach

of

water") :
body
"I swim
tcle/Bii/tlo
implies disappearance

to

water"

the

tde-

top,"

/e'-):

ie-; Kato

Ve/nic/lat"I drown"
(cf Hupa
referringto water

Vd-

on

it"

lying on

was

(cf.Hupa
Ve/An/yAc/lAl "I am

the

down

thrown

"table-cloth")

qlwAt/dash/nd
Ve-

sittingdown"

are

across"
or

undoing

(cf. Chipewyan

"desertion

or
abandonment"):
"away," implies
water"
"I
in
the
am
sinking
Ve/An/yAc/lAl
do/wd/ An/nd/yan/nAl "he will upset them"

*a-, an-

"back,

an-

hither"

(cf. Chipewyan

home"):
an/yi/al "come

'5-

\in-,

ai-

"back,

toward

here!"

tdd-, tela- of unknown

:
significance(cf Hupa kya-"^^)
tcld/sAsh/se "I cry" (cf.Hupa kya/teh/tcwe "she
heard
it cry")
.

cries"

tddsi/se "he
se'- used

with

verb

of

smiling:

se' /yAt/lo "he

^'

Goddard

however,

to

lists forms

keep

them

in

smiles"

kya-, i. e., k^ta-,under

apart.

(cf.yAt/ld

ky-;

see

"he

op. cit.,p.

90.

laughs")

It

seems

better

57

Languages

Na-Dene

and

Athabaskan

Six:

303

:
significance(cf Hupa kyo-^^)
"he pointed with his finger"
tcfo/yit/siL/la
ne/tc!uc/lec"I'll bet you""
unknown
significance(cf.Hupa verbs in o-**)

tclo- of unknown

of

u-

dd/ucL/t'e "I do
de/ucL/t'e"what
nd-,

indefinite

na-

water;

want"

not

I want"

movement

and

horizontality (cf.Hupa

fiAn/ndd/yd/la "he

around

went

ground

of

surface

on

na-):

Kato
it"
me"

s/tslAn/na/'Ac "he'll bring (it)to

yAn/na/Ac/t'e "he will bring here"

nd/ni/An "stop him!"

nd/ya "is going about, living"
"high,
i/t'iyAn/na/'d "he brags" (literally,
he-has")
nd/xwAcL/ye

"I

or

portant
im-

play"

"I work"

nd/dAch/nic
do/wa/nd/yan/nAl

"he

will upset

them"

"I write"

ndcl Lib

xatiaBU ndc/xe
nac/t!d "I swim,

paddle canoe"

"I

bathe"

na/tc!il/de"you wash"
myself"
nd/dAcl/de "I washed
nd/dAt/t!d/Ve

"he'll bathe"

nd/xAt/dAl/el "they'llbathe"
tdlAd/dd caI nd/Bil/sl "story

to-me

"you-told,

caused"
"back

na-

third

again" (cf.Hupa
modal

lists forms

in

compounded

of k^l- and

o-.

"'

M-;

This

see

tclii- is

note

"Goddard,

by

probably

"I vomit"

significance(cf. Hupa

of uncertain

Goddard

*^

is

na-), followed

Kato

-/-:

na/yd/dAdt/xwi
yAn-

and

kyo,
better

86.

op. cit.,p. 115.

i. e.,

kyjo-,under

explained

as

ky-;

sec

"to

wun-

op. cit.,
p.

deictic tcl- followed

90.

pursue

Perhaps

k^lo

by future imperative

Six:

Athabaskan

Na-Dene

and

59

Languages

305

quasi-pronominal

of

number

which
these

regularly

head

elements

of

after

come

They

present.

are

this

Under

Prefixes.

Deictic

cannot

personal subjective elements,

these;

from

Of

deictic

there

elements
lack

td- denotes

as

or

"I

tdAy/ye/dic/ya

of

"it

win/yan

eat"

na

I k^ lis I hi on

"we

Allltd

na/kis/Lon,

baskets")

(cf.Kato

te'/na/tc'ih/deG

ourselves"

wash
"it

heated

was

doubtful,

sucks"

(cf.Hupa

but

it

id-

as

wa/-

through")

"wherewith

prefix Ve-\
"he

made

bathe"

I V e I tclAt I tslaI I lee

(somewhat

td

specific
yik/kyu/-

it")

washed

modal

Hupa

(cf. Hupa

wash"

kin/nin/seL
mAl

):

without

e.

verb

eats, table"

"she

swim,

na/tcHl/de "you
tdAt/Vit/dAl

between.

of transitive

cf.

one

write"

nd/tc!l/t!d"you
"he

second

or

ate")

na/tc!il/L!d "you
e.

of

quite distinct

come

tc'-

(i.

q!wAt/tc!At/dja"whereon
i.

object

being designated;

object

is

position

k^!-\ Kato

e.

first

ence
refer-

if any

found:

indefiniteness

^-, ky-, i.

(cf. Hupa

prefixes,

prefixes may

been

have

small

personal

with

grouped

their

modal

second

first and

adverbial
be

grouped

are

third

here

note

see

(cf.Kato

is

smoked"

follows

first

77)

tc'lh/Vot"[make]

it

suck")
It

is

possible

in

that

plausible
available,

however,

case,
so

of

example

td-;

third
in

is third

personal

tc'-,ts'-, 5'-),as

Kato

its lack

td-

of td-

personal
Chasta

prefix.

subjective

Costa

must

gested
sug-

other

No

td-

be

is

sidered
con-

yet.

as

third

by the

e.

with

its existence

that

doubtful

Generally

suck"

"I

last

tc-, i.

subjective (cf. Hupa

by Ad/tlo

this

person

lack

of any

singular subjective
pronominal

forms

prefix,but

are

tinguished
dis-

in certain

^^

60

Indian Languages 2

American

306

deictic elements

cases

in
(subjective)

are

These

value.

which

found

clearlythird personal

are

are:

dj- (cf.Hupa tc-,i. e. tcf-; Kato tc'-,ts'-,s'-):

d/dJAn "he says" (verb-stem -n; cf. Hupa ai/tcit/den/ne"he talked to them")
tcin "they say;"
djAn/la "he says" (cf. Hupa
Kato
tc'in)
quite likely,however, that dJAn is to be explained as from
dj), in which d- is first
*dyAii {dy, as we have seen, becomes
modal
prefix(cf.dt/nl "you make a sound") and *yAn is reduced
from
*yen {ye-as below; -n to say).
It is

(cf.Hupa

ye-, ya-

y-, yl-

referringto

to

seems

with
Were

it not

subjects,one
below)
Among
prefixesthat

have

no

third

person

that

-t!d "to

might

across"

swims

tcIe/xAd/tfo"he
Bit/t!d"you
X-

than

adult

Hupa;

yl-):
uaI na/yei/si "to-you he-tells"
(contrast ndcl/sl
"I tell")
he-tells"
caI
(with second
na/yesi/sl "to-me
modal
nd/dU/sl "you
prefix s-, 6-; contrast
tell")
eats"
"he
(contrast tclAy/ye/6ic/ya
ya/qled/ya'^^
"I eat")

Kato

This

other

swim

(contrast tcfe/-

across")

parallelin Hupa or Kato

objectivexo- of Hupa, kwswim,

of

nected
con-

Kato?).

only of singular
nc-'is really plural xA(see

bathe"

that

surmise

(is it

is Used

deictic
serve

elements
to

are

indicate

further
either

to

(cf Hupa
.

ims

qlc-was

very

such

certain
or

more

are:

ya^-):
whistle"
ya/dil/ni "we
dAcl/ni "I whistle")

ya- ; Kato

yu/wis

"

reckored

pluralityas

third personal plurality. These

specifically
ya-

be

likelymisheard

for

te-.

(contrast yil/-

Six:

Athabaskan

Na-Dene

and

Languages

61

307

yu/wls ya/dAl/ni "they whistle"

dAl/nl "he whistles")

(contrastyn/wls

ya-

ya-,

tc!a/yd/dil/se "we

cry"

(contrast tcfd/sAsL/se

"I

cry")
tcIa/ydsL/se "they
"he cries")

crying" (contrast tcfdsL/se

are

tc!d/ydl/se/t'e
"you (pi.)will cry" (contrastIcldl/se/t'e"you (sing.)will cry")
third

XA-

Hupa

person

plural (apparently

Kato;

but

cf., without

found

not

in

either

doubt,

Chipewyan
plural of verbs in third person"):
yd/xAy/yi/tIa "they fly" {yd/yi/tia "it flies")
dd/yd/xAt/t!a "they won't
fly" {do/yd/tfa "he
won't fly")
or

he- "used

for dual

or

XAs/se/re/ha

"will

they cry?" {As/se/t'e/ha"will

he

cry?")
do/xAs/se "they're

crying")
nd/xAt/dAl/nic "they

{do/As/se "he's

crying"

not

not

works")
c/xA/yee/l "they

work"

me"

saw

{nd/dAl/nic

{c/yeS/l "he

na/xAt/da/yAl/el "they are

t"e/An/xAy/yAl/lAl "they

"he

me")

saw

bathing"
sink

in

the

water"

{Ve/An/yAl/lAl "he sinks")

xAt/t'Al/lal"they are
sleeping" {VAl/lal "he is
sleeping")
dd/xAn/nAt/VAc "they went
to bed"
{dd/nAt/t'Ac
"he

bed")
/VAI/xwaB'' they cough.''{VAI/xwaB''he coughs')
xa/AI/az "they sneeze"
(aI/Az ''he sneezes")
x

First
a

small

regularly

come

but

to

At

Modal

number

went

Prefixes.
of rather

after

precede

Under

this term

frequently occurring

both
another

adverbial
set

of

are

elements

prefixes and
modal

comprised

elements

which

deictic

ments,
ele-

(second

VI

62

Languages 2

Indian

American

308

modal

which
prefixes)

is rather
in
peculiarity
tense
or

W-) and
t'e-

are

thus

as

Their

have

second

no

reduced

this

modal

in indefinite

prefixes: d-,

single consonants.

to

ing
mean-

position they have

they lose their vowel

that

common,

shortly.

up

their

Besides

colorless.

(such

forms

taken

be

to

are

They

y-,

are:

to indicate
(definitetenses), t'- (indefinitetenses) seems
te-, t-):
te-; Kato
durative activity(cf.Hupa

do/rAc/yic "I'll
re/dic/ya "I go;" indefinite:
not
go"
"you must
go;" t'l/yAc/t'e
run"
"I
(indefinite)
VAci/dAc
nite)
yourselves" (indefitclAt/Vo/dAl"you (pi.)wash

note

(indefinite;but

around"

looks

t'/yi/l "he

see

69)
"I've

Ve/BAd/lal/la

sleeping;"

been

indefinite:

sleeping"
cough" (indefinite)

VAc/lal "I'm

VAcl/xwAd "I
"wherewith
mAl/t'e/tc!At/ts!Al/lec

is deictic, it is

(as following tdthat

modal;
de-

note

see

da-

(definitetenses;
meaning

here

Ve-

smoked"

is
more

prefix, not

adverbial

is

likely
first

77).

before

(cf.Hupa

unknown

it

7-), d-

(indefinitetenses)

d-, du-\

Kato

de-, d-)\

I tell him"
(indefinite)
al/dAc/ni/dAn "when
(indefinite)
yu/wis dAcl/ni "I whistle"

c/na/yd

di'/s'aV "my-eyes

hurt"

(definite; cf.

Iwin Ileal"it got sick")

indefinite:
nd/dAct/nd/da/yAct/l!d "I bathe;"
Ud'/Ve "I'll bathe"
nd/na/da/yil/el "we are bathing;" indefinite:
Hupa

du

dil/el"we'll bathe"
(indefinite)
nd/dAci/nic "I work"
washed
"I
myself" (indefinite)
na/dAcl/de
ashamed"
"I
am
(indefinite)
ya/dAcl/yAc
ashamed"
"we
are
(definite)
ya/da/yil/dja
down"
"
we
(definite)
are
sitting
dd/de/dil/lB!i

Athabaskan

Six:

Na-Dene

and

63

Languages

309

tenses) meaning unknown

tenses) 7- (indefinite
(definite
tclAy/ye/dic/ya'1 eat"
ya/q!eB/ya "he eats" {q!e-is probably misheard

ye-

for

ye-)

indefinite: do/wa/yl/i/him;"
IBill "you saw
him"
Ve "you'llsee
into
breaks
laughter;" indefinite:
yedt/lo "he
yAt/lo "he laughs"
ye

an/yi/al
This

ye-,

should

y-

on!"

"come

with

confused

be

not

second

modal

7-,

first modal

Two

presently.
prefixes
that
"he
looks
is not
around;"
7-) occur
V/yi/l
7modal
here is indicated
second
by paralleldefinite forms with
form
V- of first prefix
(see ye/di/l above), further by weak
ye(definitetenses require t'eY"^
will

which

taken

be

up

in

(/'-and

tenses)meaning unknown
tenses),n- (indefinite
(definite
(cf.Hupa ne-, n-; Kato ne-, n-; Chipewyan we-, nil-):
xwAn/ne/dii/ya "you win" (cf.Kato kun/ne/sli/-

ne-

"you win")
(indefinite;cf. Hupa
dd/nAc/VAc "I go to bed"
definite: tcin/nes/ten''hQlSiy')
yan

n/dd" "it is, stays" (indefinite; cf. Kato definite:

tc'n/nes/dai"he sat down")
nd/ni/An "stop him!"
nd/nAc/An "I stop him;"
(indefinite)
n/dd*/ye
n/do "it is not"
(indefinite;cf. Kato
"there is none")
This

n-

ne-,

is not

only in definite

occurs

Second

Modal

elements
definite

*'

7-.

to

Moreover,

Yet

-I-

te-

of yl-

or

second

modal

n-,

which

tenses.

s-\

which

7-;

have

in definite tenses

causes

with

confused

Prefixes.

{Band

tenses

be

seems

difficulty;

see

note

These
and

comprise

71-)which

reference,

as

regularly followed
69.

used

are

far

by

three

as

any

second

nantal
conso-

only

in

definite
modal

6-, not

64

yf

Languages 2

Indian

American

310

significanceis ascertainable
or

of activity, but

span

is durative

forms)

point

with

contrasted

of

clearly not

durative

in

so

such.

as

in

force

practice their

or

third

by

in

is

ceived
con-

use

seems

and

n-

by

modal

-i-

cases,

some

it seems,

are,

the

subjective pronominal

marking

activity which

They

prefixes that precede,

their syllable,being completed either
by

(cf. first modal

is cessative,

w-

range

6- {s- in certain

momentaneous

or

others/^
In

elements.

exclusive

be termed

may

previous activity (e. g., "to come"

"to go"); y- is the most
uncertain,

being apparently inceptive

but

tense

continuative

or

end

the

as
as

to

regularly followed by 6-);

an
activity or marking an

of

end

not

is

t'e-,which
the

all,to what

at

mutually

mined
largely deteralways begin
y( " *-ir}-)
or
by
which

elements,

are

of -i- or inorganic -A-; 6- (s-)is similarly

joined to them by means
is
joined to following subjective pronominal elements, if one
it forms
part of the preceding syllable.
present, otherwise
6- (s- before
illustrating

Exrmples

t'e/dic/ya "I

reO/ya "he
went
away")
eat;"

eats"

"he

yik/kyil/win/yan

"he

across"

swim

"it

ate"

(contrast na/da/-

bathe")

yit/tfo "you
"he

ya/q!ed/ya

w-)

"you
tcfe/dit/tfo
/da

(cf. Hupa

goes"
it"

around

went

(contrast Hupa

dad

are:

go;"

te/se/yai "I
nAfi/ndd/yd/la "he
tdAy/ye/dic/ya "I
with

I, l)

sitting down"

is

sit/dai

(cf. Hupa

lived")

are
(cf. Hupa
dd/de/6il/td!i"we
sitting down"
will
stay")
de/soh/tse/te"you
tc!d/6U/se "you (sing.)cry" (contrast Hupa winjtcwu
"you have cried")

'^

Goddard

Kate

its cognate
Goddard
ascribes
extcnilcd
of the

most

doubtfully

somewhat
g-

clearly inceptive only

seems

continuative

comparative

assigns inceptive force

value

to

g-.

study of the second

difficult but

at

the

same

time

in

It would
modal

certain
be

worth

to

its

verbs;
while

Hupa
while

in

making

prefixesof Athabascan,

important chapters

cognate

of its grammar.

w-;

in

Chipcwyan
a

which

somewhat
form

one

Six:

65

Languages

Na-Dene

and

Athabaskan

311

ye

/die/I "I

going

him"

saw

te/suw/ifi "I

(cf. Hupa

am

look")

to

IQUI SI "you told story" (cf.Hupa na/sei/tcwen

"I made")
sleeping" (cf. Hupa
Ve/Bi/lal/la "you've been
nit/te/sil/lal/le
"you would
go to sleep")
na

ye/tcu/-

him"
(contrast Hupa
Bid/ Veil "I kicked
with
w-)
wii/taL "they landed"

na/yd/6it/xwi "you vomit"

ye/dAdt/lo "I break into laughter"
Lad/d/la

was

one

^e/'d

Chipewyan
table-cloth"

q!wAt/dasL/nd

Examples

"it

"you

"I

win")

illustratingn-

nic/ya

are

illustratingy-

"he

had

"he

settle

"I

nuc/dac

Kato

(cf. Kato

came")
"I

will

tc'n/mil flat

tc'/gtm/dac/kwaii

(cf. Kato

climb"

(cf. Hupa

ya/wii/kas

up")

threw

yd/yi/tfa

nei/yai

danced")
"I

yd/yAd/gAd

kun/ne/-

Kato

are:

dances"

"he

lay")

there")

"it floated

yt/dac

(cf.

drown"

Ve/ni/lat "you

Examples

(cf.

(cf. Hupa

dance"

nic/dac "I
dance")

top,

it"

on

win"

on

cf.

come"

"I

"it

wes/kas

lying

was

down

thrown

(cf.Hupa

xwAn/ne/diL/ya
slL/yan

"was

lies

"it

q!wAt/dadt/gAc

plus d/'d/la;
there")

"one"

Ld

"it flies"

(cf. Hupa

na/win/tau

"it will

down")

nd/da/yAct/t!d
na/da/yil/el

"I

"we

bathe"
are

ni/i/oinL/ilL "take

bathing"
through

(cf. Chipewyan
the

water")

67

Languages

Na-Dene

and

Athabaskan

Six:

313

ya/yAcl/gAd

"I

VAcL/dAc

run"

"I

climb"

bathe"

nac/tlo "I swim,

In

definite

due,

Before

back

before
and

-S-,

the

velar

dental

first modal

with

/eAd /da

"I

modal

above;
Bicl/t'dl
to

Sid/ si

OaO-, is found,

"I

into

secondarily changed

from

-c-

to

came

assimilated

was

it assumed

the

form

to
a

laughter"

"I vomit"
been
to

seems

make").

however,

When

sitting"

am

-1-,die-

-c-\

6 Ad-:

Ve/dAd/lal/la "I've
third

plus

-s-:

{d, t, /),it

ye/BAQt/lo "I break

Before

to

preceding

na/ya/BAdt/xwi

n-

da/nAc/VAc.

*sac-.

or

regularly became
da

modal

second

is

crying" {"'^Aclse)

not

vowel

prefix.

with

consonant

inorganic

the

dealing

are

we

indefinite

"I'm

of

position

a,

required,

original *sic-

to

*sAs- then

this

IAS Ise

tenses

inorganic vowel,

is assimilated

-c-

definite

if

not

-c-,

dently
is evi-

this

connecting vowel,

nAc-

with

nic/ya

sibilants

s-

do

stand

plus

n-,

In

-c-.

normal

the

to

have

we

to

of the

vowel

inorganic

regularly i\

is

-c-

the

the

tenses

definite

Sic- goes

with

doubt,

no

prefix the

as

n-

or

palatal quality

Where

a.

contrast

6-

elements

the

reduced

ne-,

with

indefinite

always

"I

prefix, however,

as

the

sneeze"

to

is found,
In

acl/Az

these

due
7-

suck"

tenses

connecting
with

Acl/t!6"I

be

modal

(cf.

regularly retained

Secondary
1{l) when

before

third

sleeping"

sas-,

this

not

shifted

element

is

-/-:

tc!d/sAsL/se"I cry"
That

sasl-

here

tc!d/6il/se "you
eicl/Val"I

kicked

is

equivalent

cry;"
him."

contrast

to

*sasI-"*sacI-

Bil/t'cd"you

is indicated
kicked

by

him,"

Languages 2

Indian

American

VI

68

314

Costa

is in Chasta
is

There
.^.

trace

no

(-e-),Kato

definite
forms

carefully noted

be

It is to

-t-,

was

extended

Second

Person

-W-;

found

in both

of

element

an

(or its reflexes

-c-

definite

and

quite probable

that

the

-c-

in

of the

-$-)

tenses.

the

to

found

are

-s-,

indefinite

corresponding

-1-, which

Chipewyan

It is

tenses.

that

Hupa

forms

of

indefinite

by analogy.
Singular

Chipewyan

(cf.Hupa

i-

n-,

nasalization

or

ne-,

-77-, i.

e.

-r)-\

Kato

of vowel:

Vil/dAc "you run"

Vd/yit/nd "you drink"
na/tcHl/Ud "you write"
na/da/yit/t!d "you bathe"
nd/dit/t!d/t'e"you'll bathe"
yd/yil/gAB "you climb"
ya/dil/yac "you are
nd/dil/sl "you made,

ashamed"

told"

nd/xwil/ye "you play"

xwil/l "you believe it"
xwAn/ne/BiL/ya
VU/xwaB
In

all these

{-1-,-/-, or
-/-

beginning

its

own

cough"

"you

-i- connects

the

cases

win"

"you

-/-) with

following third modal

preceding prefix.

ment
ele-

Examples

of

syllableare:

tl/Az "you sneeze"

hd/il/l"stop!"
If there
-1-.

closes

is

no

its

third

modal

element,

the

syllable:
dd/ni/t'Ac "go
t'i/lal"you

to

sleeping"

are

dd/Bi/dd "you

sitting"

are

yd/yi/t!a "you
do/l/se "you

bed!"

do

fly"
not

cry"

-i-, lengthened

to

close

Six:

Athabaskan

Na-Dene

and

69

Languages

315

i-, 1-, is only secondarily the

This

The

subjective element.
(cf. Hupa). which

remained

the

as

of

reflex

there

nothing

was

vowel

on

i- timbre

other

was

alone

nite
indefi-

in many
than

inorganic

an

-77-:

do/yd/tfa "you won't

nd/xe "you paddle"

fly"

him!"

at

preceding

timbre

/-

-17-

of

nasalized, took

left of the

nei/l "look

doubtless

was

disappeared, the
original-rj-. Where,

forms, the nasalized

tense
one,

nasalization

when

Finally,

singular

person

nasalization

to

when

inorganic vowel,

the

vowels;

original element
reduced

was

second

(cf.ned/i

"I'm

looking

at

him")
In

such

third,

the

cases

First

won't

(i)t-*^
(cf.Hupa

Plural

Person

Chipewyan

/nit/Vac
ye/dit/l"we

da

"we

went

it has

to
a

fly"

are

are

not

sinking in
crying"

water"

the

Kato

beginning of the verb form, when

syllableby itself (cf.dd/it/se above; do "not"
adverb
rather
than
prefix).
stand

"

/ is here

'"

In Father

-i- seems,

bed"

often, the
regularly, and in Chipewyan
plural subjective pronominal prefix begins its
its syllable,unless
Costa
it regularly ends
Chasta

and

person

to

him"

Ve/An/yit/lAl "we
dd/it/se"we

ourselves"

wash

saw

ya/yit/t!a"we

syllable; in

as

d-;

drown"

Ve/ nit flat "we

first

Kato

sleeping"

are

"we
tclAt/Vit/dAl

Hupa

it/d-,-d-\

the

:
-/-, -d-^'^)

Vit/lal"we

In

singular fell together with

fly."

person

"he

dd/yd/t!a

in

as

second

at

the

unaspirated, and

is thus

Legoff'sMontagnais

in Chasta

Costa,

to

be

etymologically

paradigms
organic.

-id-

or

identical

with

tutes
it constiis independent

d.

-//- often, in fact

regularly,appeals;

^f

70

Languages 2

Indian

American

316

If
a

This

-i-

the

vowel,

does

not

do/ydt/tla "we

won't

however,

that

mean,

modal

by third
and

is the

as

in

case

fly"

combine

into

prefix is the

single -/-,

-i- :

(contrast t'd/yddt/nd

drink"

"we

considered

be

it/d-. If -it- is followed

Hupa

pronominal

t'd/yd/dit/nd

-/- is to

this

-/- elements

-/-, both

is left of the

all that

in

ends

element

pronominal

disappears:

inorganic vowel,

an

the

prefix preceding

the

"they drink")

is

changed

/- verbs
-f-

is

dul-.

stem

of

Hupa

-/-, but

d-

is

not

second

for

change

are

nd/xwil/ye

latter

course,

Examples

plural.

first

and

and

Costa
person

that

that

there

the

of /-verbs

verb
are:

de/dll/d'l

sitting" (cf. Chipewyan

"you cough")
play" (cf. nd/xwil/ye "you play")
(cf.tl/Az "you sneeze")

"let

us

sneeze"
"we

are

of /- verbs

bathing;"

nd/drl/el "we'll

bathe"

cry" (cf.tda/Bil/se "you cry")

tc!a/ya/dil/se"we

yu/wls

For

(cf.VU/xwaB

cough"

na/da/yil/el

Examples

the

of

Costa,

Chasta

(cf.nd/dil/nic "you work")

work"

"we

t'il/xwAd "we
il/Az "we

provided,

Hupa

Chasta

sitting")

are

nd/dil/nic

the

hence

in

singular

modal

third

Kato

as

and

I- verbs

of

preserved;

disappears.

person

is identical,

dd/de/Bil/td!i "we
"we

-/-

and

however,

prefix of plurality in

deictic
does

In

-/-,but

/- verbs

plural

alike.

Chipewyan,

the

that

means

plural
no

In

only becomes

-/- not
this

becomes

-l-

-/-, -/- disappears and

or

first person

the

always formed

regularly

is -I-

element

-/-; thus

to

dil-, Kato

is

modal

third

If the

are:

ya/dil/nl

"we

whistle"

(cf. third

person

plural:

ya/dAl/nl)
na/tclil/Ud

"we

write"

(cf.na/tdil/dd

"you write")

Six:

Na-Dene

and

Athabaskan

71

Languages

317

If, in

an

indefinite

by

third

modal

there

is

tense

prefixending
-I-

nothing

and

-i- and

to

is preceded

is,besides, followed

-/- have

pronominal

change of -/-

element

pronominal

vowel

left of the

of /- verbs, the

case

in

-/-, both

or

the

form,

by
and

disappear

to

except, in the

element

-/-;

(cf.nel/l "look at him!")

nel/l "let us look at him!"
for tc!d/ydl/se"we'll cry"
likelymisheard
tcld/yel/se,
very
(cf.definite: tcfa/yd/dil/se"we cry")
Second

Plural

Person

Chipewyan

{ci-Ylupa.o'-; Katoo'-;

0-

rS/lal "ye sleep"

t'e/do/lai
"ye
t'e/nd/lat"ye

sleeping"

been

have
drown"

yd/yd/ t!a "ye fly"

t'e/An/yd/Ul "ye sink in the water"
t'd/yd/dot/nd"ye drink"
dd/o/se "ye are not crying"
No
not

due

seem

after
and
in

heard

aspiration was

o-,

Chasta

person

under

whereas,

change

Costa

similar
-/- to

I- verbs

plural 6-.

Chasta

in

faulty perception,

to

Chipewyan

after

-I-

of

o-

/- verbs

circumstances,

change

Examples

as

{o'-l-becomes
their

before

-I- to
/- verbs

nd/dol/nic "ye work"

na/da/yol/el "ye bathe;" nd/dol/el "ye
t'dl/xwAd"ye cough"
nd/xol/ye/le"ye play" (for-xwol-)
ol/Az "ye
Examples

keep
Hupa,

does

their

-/-

Kato,

ol-). Indeed,
-/- after

second

are:

will bathe"

sneeze"

of -/-

becoming

ya/ddl/7il"ye utter,
ya/dAl/nl)
ne/xd/ol/l "ye
him")

This

Costa.

look

-/- after 3make

at

him"

are:

sound"

(cf.third person

plural

(cf.nci/i "you're looking

at

72

VI

Indian

American

Languages 2

318

When,

in

ending

in a,

remains

indefinite

an

and

long

contract

to

in closed

even

form,

tense

is

o-

long

preceded

(which,

by

prefix

it would

seem,

:
syllables)

do/yd/ t!a "ye won't fly" {"*yad'-; cf. third person singular
do/yd/tla with originalyd- ; and second person singular
dd/yd/t!a" *yq- " *yarj)
tc!d/ydl/se/t'e"ye will cry" (cf. definite:
tcIa/yd/Odl/se
and
"we'll
contrast
"ye cry;"
tcld/ydl/se
cry" with
-a-)

short

Third

As

Person.

already noted,
prefixes,is marked

from

possible deictic
If the
pronominal element.
consists
prefix or the stem
its

modal

is closed
the

inorganic -aprefix is absent,

by

of

Examples
prefixare:

stem.

modal

ya/dAl/yAc

"he

third

from

persons

the

of any

absence
third

the

modal

begin

must

the

two;

if

the

stem

syllablepreceding

borrowed

consonant

the

between

apart

person,

which

consonant

is found

syllable, an

third

third

by the
preceding

element
of

the

of

first consonant

with

-a-

before

third

is ashamed"

VAl/dAc "he runs"

nd/xwAl/ye "he plays"
yd/yAl/gAd "he climbs"
yu/wls dAl/ni "he whistles"
"he

drinks"

third

persons

Vd/yAt/nd
Examples

of

consonant

are:

dd/nAt/VAc
second

"he
person

cf.

First

modal

n-,

been

found

without

-A-

followed

(-/-is not
singular dd/ni/VAc)

went

to

bed"

by

third

an

inorganic

reduced

is

from

ne-,

however,

following inorganic

has

vowel

in several
and

cf.

modal;

(-/-is not
sinking in the water"
second
singularVe/An/yl/lAl)
person

Ve/Ati/yAl/lAl"he
modal;

with

third

cases

consonant.

Six:

Athabaskan

73

Languages

Na-Dene

and

319

In

such

it closes

cases

belong

word.

another

to

preceding syllable,which
Examples are:

the

dd/dAt 'An/tie "not-anywhere

even

may

qn/t'e

(cf. Kato

there-is"

Hupa un/te "there is")

Idn/do "nine"
(reallyla n/do "one is-lacking"); nd/xAn/do
"eight" (reduced from na/xi n/do "two are-lacking")
"it will not
be," but also niit/do'
71 /do'/bun
(cf.Kato
"it is;"

gone")

"all

cic/mAnen/dd'

without

prefix
that

consonant

the

of

depends

for

prefixed for the

is

stem

kind,

"he

As/se/Ve

inorganic

an

its form
third

on

alone,

stem

by

completed

a-

of

first consonant

the

person:

cry" ("*j^//V;

must

(cf.

sat")

"she

any

is"

my-house

consists, properly speaking, of the

form

verb

"I

n/da')

c/mAne

ne/da

Chipewyan
If the

ci

"I'm

dd/As/se

cf.

not

crying" "*Ac/se)
do

/ wa /aI /W
third

no

him

/I-

when

have

begins

aI/Az

"he

sneezes"

third
to

n-

like

Hupa

third

third

personal

the

stem;

of

definite

also

appears

element:

modal

differs

form

from

As/se

with

need

which

Kato,

Kato

compare

cried."
the

third

person

prefix this

modal

nasalized

-At]-).

Costa

Chasta

nothing preceding
In

or

with

verb

tee' "he

7-

of

beginning

respect

forms

by

become")

the

this

In

the

at

-/- is here

That

proper.

is shown

element

modal

o/le "let
This

of verb

influencing form

not

is adverb

do/wa

("*/^;

become"

will

"he

is followed

element

This

prefix present.
-i-

This

personal forms

or

nasal

-A-,

in

turn

element,

(except such

as

with

tenses

by -I, in

goes

reduced

back,

have

case

there

without

is

no

doubt,

original -it)- (or

from

characteristic

modal

second

of

6-, Athabascan

definite
s-, as

third
second

Six:

Athabaskan

and

Na-Dene

75

Languages

321

in

become
definite
Father

Hupa, being required'by

This
not
tenses, but
by others.
Legoff'sMontagnais paradigms.
e.

Third

-/-,and
the

Modal

we

have

There

at

or,

plural. Examples

of

suggested also by

three

of

verbs

which

first and

-/- in the

you-told,made"

will

dd/wa/l/t'dt/fiAl"they
proclitic)

mind

{do/wa

is

regularly intransitive; they denote

be thought of
bodily activities that may

in -/or

directed

sometimes

apparent.
appears

merely

states

are

not

always

broken"

important"

contained,

it

be

whistle"'^

(unlike -/-)to begin

nothing precedes this element, it seems

without
its word
preceding inorganic A-:

of

persons

are:
-1-{-l-)

If

Verbs

-/-,

either

are

second

necl/l"I'm looking at him"

(something)"
ndl/de "he washes
nailLib "he writes"
"he sucks"
tc!Al/t!d
yu/wis dAl/nl "he whistles;" yu/wls dAcl/nl "I
xwAn/ne/diL/ya "you win"

is

these:

syllableimmediately before

Bid/Val "I kicked him"

tB!AB/dacaI nd/6il/sl"story to-me

l/tH "he

in their

imply activity directed

outward;
this significanceis not
obvious.
As

this -I- becomes

seen,

is

verbs

rate,

any

however,

cases,

certain

are

of many

-I- is characteristic

transitive
some

Prefixes.

they always complete

-t-\

stem.

in

g.

as

outwards.
After

-/-.

first person

Hence

the

reflexive

meaning

subjective

first person

self-

as

-c-

is

(s-)

singular,the

plural of -/- verbs

plural, and the second
person
with
did- " *sAdand
/- verbs
are
always alike (but contrast
-I- also
As
-/-, when
5Asi"*sAd-).
standing after s, becomes
in the third person,
the second
singular alone remains
person
first person

'-

yA/wis

This

verb

di/nt

is

"you

irregular,inasmuch
whistle."

as

-/- does

not

occur

in the

second

person

singular:

76

VI

Indian

American

Languages 2

322

as

infallible criterion

an

class

or

of

Examples

/- class.

ya/dAl/yAc

verb

belongs

VAl/dAc
yd/yAl/gAd

the

l-

is ashamed"

expect?"

you

runs"

climbs"

"he
"he

washed

himself"

aI/Az "he sneezes"

VAI/xwaB "he coughs"
na/xAt/da/yAl/el "they
nd/xwAl/ye
nd/dAl/nic

to

are:

believe;" xwil/i/ha "do

"he

nd/dAl/de

of -/-

"he

"1

xwAcl/1

whether

"he
"he

bathing"

are

plays"
works"

tddsh/se "he cries;" tela IHI I se "you cry"

tc!dcL/se/Ve"I'll cry;" tc!dl/se/Ve"you'll cry"
hd/yAci/i "I stop, cease;" hd/il/i"stop!"
Verbs

in -/-

also intransitive.

are

Examples

are:

Vd/yit/nd "you drink"

ye hat I ne Ila "he bit (it)"
his

tdd/yit/sii/la"he pointed with

qlwAt/dadt/gAc "it lies thrown

finger"
down

on

top,

table-cloth"

however,

yAct/ld "I laugh" {-t/lomay,

originalAthabascan
ya/da/yit/dja "we are
There

be

may

-did "to

iterative

passive significancein

Chasta

Stems.

Costa

it is eaten,

The

stems

"I vomit"

that

have

been

determined

for

are:

position,to be" (cf. Hupa

-*ai*,-'a'): d/'d/la "(one table) was"

-'d,-'a "to

table"

na-:

na/yd/6Adt/xwl
Verb

laugh")

ashamed"

"whereon
q/wAt/tclAt/dja

With

represent

have

-ai,

-a;

Kato

Six:

Athabaskan

Na-Dene

and

77

Languages

323

round
will

-uii,

-an,

Kato

objects";
bring

to

(perhaps

halt, stop"

-Az

-ai

"to

come"

"we
"to

-'I

are

move

-I

(cf. Hupa

at"

-ya,

eat"

not

win"

(cf.Hupa

"to

-yAc

listed

-yan,

be

ya/dAl/yAc
"we
-ye

"to

"I

are

"I

-*ln'

"to

to

act, to

deport

(laughing)"

stop
"I

do,

believe"

(cf.Hupa

-yun,

-yai, -ya,

"I

-yauw;

t'Ac/yAc/t'e

go;"
Kato

-yauw;

-yan^

-ytl*):

qIwAt/tcfAt/dja("-t/ya)

eat;"

in

"he

of

"Elements

"you

is

Texts,"
the

Kato

p.

146, 1. 13;

Language"):

win"
"to

-yan

will upset

ashamed"
"he

"Kato

-yan,

upset" (cf.Kato
"to

-in "to

xwAcl/i

(cf.Kato

nd/yan/nAl
-ya,

na/da/yil/el

eats, table"

one

xwAn/ne/dii/ya
-yan

-el, -eL,

go"

"whereon
"to

travel,

on!"

Kato

-in;

-yac): Ve/6ic/ya

tclAy/ye/Oic/ya

-ya

"come

water"):

-en,

-en,

come"

go,

-yai, -ya,

"I must
"to

"to

-yic

Kato

-ya

(cf.Hupa

self"?): hd/yAch/i

-yAc,

"to

him"

saw

believe, expect":

"to

of

of

bathing"

stop, cease"

one's

surface

the

on

look"): ye/dic/l "I

-i "to

form

(plur. subject)" (cf.Chipewyan

look

see,

"he

him!"

only"?) an/yi/'al

persons

bathe

"to

-uL

another

-^as, -*az, -*ais

(cf. Chipewyan

of two

-ci, -el "to

transport

-^qc): yAn/na/'Ac

-*qn,

preceding stem): 7td/ni/An "stop

"to sneeze":
acl/Az "I sneeze"
used

"to

-auw

it"

bring

"to

-'An

(cf. Hupa

bring"

"to

-'AC

clear

off"?): do/wd/An/-

them"

(cf.Kato

-yafi "to be ashamed"):

ya/da/yit/dja {"-t/ya)

ashamed;"

ashamed"

play" (cf.Hupa

-ye

"to

dance"):

nd/xwAl/ye

"he

plays"
-lal "to

sleep" (cf. Hupa

lal/la"he's
-IaI "to

sink

in

been

-lal,-lai; Kato

-lal,-Iqi): t'cd/-

sleeping"

water;"

-lat "to

drown"

(cf. Hupa

-lat,

78

VI

Indian

American

Languages

324

float"): re/Ari/yAc/Ul "I

-la "to

nic/lat"I

drown"

(of. Hupa

become"

-le "to

sinking;" fe/-

am

-len, -lin, -hi, -le; Kato

-lin%

-le): do jwa I aI /le' "it will become"

-lee "to

bet":

wager,

smoke":

-lee "to

"I'll bet you"

ne/tclilc/lec
"wherewith
mAl/Ve/tc!At/ts!Al/lee

it is

smoked"
-Id "to

laugh, smile"

(cf.Chipewyan

-did, -dlok'): yit/lo

"laugh!"
"to

-lIo

write"

baskets,

(cf.Hupa
twine

to

-na

drink"

-na

"it

"to

make

Kato

-Loi,

writes"
-nan,

-7iqn): Vd/-

Kato

-nun-,

ndLjiin/na''"were

with

left"?): qlwAt/

it"

lying on

was

bite, seize

"to

basket-making;"

(cf. Hupa

(cf.Kato

lie"

dasL/nd
-ne

-Loi

"I drink"

yAct/nd
"to

in

nail Lib "he

-Ld, -Lon):
"to

-Lon, -Ld, -Low,

one's

teeth":

ye/ydt/ne/la

"he

bit it"
make

"to

sound,

to

say" (cf.Hupa

"to

-nl,

-71

-nic

Kato
sound;"
a
-nl, -ne, -n, -nee, -nlL):
speak, to make
yu/wls dAl/ni "he whistles;" a/dJAn "he says"
"to work":
nd/dAl/nic "he works"
(cf.Montagnais

-7ii "exprime Taction

-dAl "to
"to

be

-sUl,

"to

-suL

warm;"

become

to

or

mains"^^

des

(plur.subject)" (cf.Hupa

oneself

wash

be

-n

-ne,

warm"):

Kato

-sel, -scl

-sll "to

steam,"

"we
tc/At/t'it/dAl

wash

ourselves"
-del "to
-se

"to

throw":

cry" (cf.Hupa

-tcec,
-61

"to

yd/yi/del "you
-tcwu,

-tcwe

-tee'):tcIdsL/se "he

(cf.Hupa

cause"

arrange,

to

threw"
"to

cry,

to

Kato

Kato

cries"

-tcwen, -tcwin, -tewe

cause;"

weep;"
"to

make,

to

-tcin, -let, -tclL): ndcl/sl

"I cause"
"sil "to

point with

with
"

Father

L.

his

one's

"he pointed
finger": tc!d/yit/siL/la

finger"

Legoff, "Grammaire

de

la

Langue Montagnaise,"

p.

139.

Six:

Athabaskan

and

Na-Dene

79

Languages

32.5

-da', -da "to

da
-dAc

IBi Ida "you

to

-dac

run"

"to

(cf.Hupa

sit, stay"

go,

-dai, -daL, -dauw

Kato

come;"

"he

runs"

"to

dance"

-da, -dai):

sitting"

are

(cf. Hupa

to

-dai, -da; Kato

(cf.Kato

-dac

-dac

"to

"to

"to

along,

pass

travel"): VAl/dAc

dance"):

nt/dac "you

dance"
-de

wash

"to

dAl/de

(sing, subject)" (cf. Kato

"he

-t'Ac

-Vat

"to

(cf. Hupa

Kato

kick;"

Kato

"to

go

(cf.Hupa

dd/ucL/t'e "I
-t'J "to

be, make

him

-tie "to

valuable"
treatest

"he

brags"

fly"

be

(that) sort"

/tie "there

'An

"to

swim,

is not

bathe

will be

after"?):
makest

important"):

-t'ac,

(cf. Hupa

I want"

til/thi"thou

as

Kato

bed"

broken"

de/uci/t'e "what

him

"to

-taL, -till "to

for, to search

(cf.Carrier

-tau;

won't
of

look

want;"

not

fly" (cf.Hupa

"I

-t!d

do

-te "to

valuable,

yAn/na/'d
-t.'a "to

pieces" (cf.Chipewyan

to

to

him"

(cf.Hupa -ten, -tin, -tuw

-tin, -tuc): dd/nAc/VAc "I go to

dd/wa/l/t'dt/uAl "they

want"

"to

step,

bed"

to

go

lie down;"

break,

-taL, -tul, -tuL, -tal "to

"I kicked
-tal\ -tqL): dicl/t'dl

lie down,

break"):
-Ve

himself"

washed

kick"

-t'di "to

-dec, -de'): nd/-

l/Vi

-t'a'):do/ydc/tla

-te; Kato

-t'e): do/dAt

anywhere (one like him)"

(sing, subject)": nac/t!d "I

swim,

bathe"
-t!d

"to

suck"

-tdfi "to

(cf. Kato

-t'ot): tclAi/t/d "he

sucks"

sit

(plur. subject)" (cf.Hupa

-tse; Chipewyan
-d'i): da/de/dil/tdii"we are sitting"

-tshit "to

hurt,

sick,
-7"

"to

to

go

about;"
-xe

"to
of

pain (intr.)" (cf. Hupa

become

ill"):di*/s'at'
"(my

about,
Kato

paddle"

-teat,

(cf.Hupa -wai^ -wa

-gai): nd/ya "he goes

(cf. Hupa

plural objects;"

Kato

-xen,

-xuw

-ke' "to

"to

be

to

go

eyes) hurt"

live"
-ga,

-tea

"to
bathe

"to

go,

about, lives"
float, used

only

(plural only);"

80

VI

Languages 2

Indian

American

326

Chipewyan

-kl "to

paddle

by canoe") :

to travel

canoe,

ndc/'xe "I paddle"

-xwAd

-xwl

cough" (cf.Kato kos "cough," as noun;

xwces): VAl/xwAd "he coughs"
"to vomit"
(cf. Carrier khti "vomiting,"
na/yd/dAdt/xwi "I vomit"
"to

climb"

-gAd "to

-gAC

"he

climbs"

"to

throw"?

(cf.Hupa

-kas

(cf.Hupa

-kas

gAc "it lies thrown

observed

It will be

in their

use

that

regards

as

trait is characteristic

down

on

several

number

of

of Athabascan,

Carrier

noun):

as

throw"): yd/yAl/gAd

"to

throw"): qfwAt/dadt/-

"to

top, table-cloth"
verb

stems

restricted

are

subject (or object).

as

also of other

This

American

stocks.
linguistic

Definite

Chasta

Costa

is not
of

idea

absolute

that
to

whether

definite
as

for

time

time

to

acts,

and

contrast

full

Tenses.

enough

its tense-mode

to

enable

system.

My
me

to

material

give

on

factory
satis-

It is clear, however,

(present,past, future) is quite subordinate

activities are
thought of as taking place at some
indefinite
(generallypresent or past) or are more
time

Indefinite

occurrence.

general statements

time, for

out

Indefinite

and

forms

are

apt

to

be

used

that

apply irrespectiveof any particular

future acts, for negative (particularly
negative future)
for
and
The
regularly
imperative
prohibitiveforms.

between

definite

and

indefinite

present

forms

comes

in:

nd/da/yAct/t!d "I bathe"

(i.e. am. now
engaged
in bathing)
used
I indefinite:
to
cAl/qlwe na/dAct/t!d "I'm
bathing"
[
(here bathing is not restricted as to time)
f definite:
tc!d/sAsL/se"I cry"
[indefinite:Vwi/dAn As/se "I always cry"
definite:
into laughter" (i. e. laughs
yeSt/lo "he breaks
at one
particularpoint of time)
indefinite:
ydt/lo "he laughs"
definite:

Six:

Athabaskan

and

Na-Dene

Languages

81

327

xAt/Ve/lal/la "they
[definite:

have

been

sleeping" (may
be said of them
of waking up)
at moment
\
[indefinite:
xAt/VAl/lal"they sleep"
Futures,

as

often

used

shall

explicitlyrendered
by suffixing
-Ve to present (generallyindefinite)
forms; but simple indefinite
forms, particularlywith adverbs
pointing to future time, may
be

Examples

we

see,

futures

as

are

in contrast

to

definite present

forms.

are:

na/da/yil/el "we are bathing"

indefinite:
nd/dil/ei"we'll bathe"
definite td!AB/da caI na/dU/si "story to-me
indefinite:
xiin/de id!Ad /da uaI ndd/sl
definite:

to-you

you-told"
"tomorrow

story

I-tell"

definite:

n/ye/Bic/l "I saw you"

Iindefinite: xAL/tsH/dAn do/wan/yAc/l "this-evening I'llsee-you"
"[
Idefinite: Ve/dic/ya ''I go''
[indefinite:xun/de Vac/yAc "tomorrow
I'll-go"
Negative presents
-Ce

is

by

do

futures

regularly expressed by prefixing

do "not"
to indefinite forms; when
more
f
uture,
explicitly
suffixed to them.
of
indefinite
forms preceded
Examples
or

are

are:

definite:

tdac

yd/yi/t!a "bird is-flying"

indefinite: dd/yd/t!a "he won't fly"
definite: na/yd/SAdt/xwi "I vomit"
indefinite:
do/na/yAct/xwi "I do not vomit"
definite: tc!d/sAsL/se"I cry;" tc!d/dil/se
"you cry"
indefinite: do/As/se "I'm not crying;" do/l/se "you're not
crying"
definite:
me"
him;"
ye/Bic/i "I saw
c/ye/Bi/l "you saw
indefinite:
do/yAc/t "I didn't see
him;"
do/ld/c/yl/l
"you didn't

see

me"

[definite:
Ve/Bic/ya "I go;" VcBjya
indefinite:
I

dd/VAc/yic
go" {"*VAlyAc)

"I'll not

"he

goes"
go;" do/VAc

"he

won't

Six:

Athabaskan

Na-Dene

and

83

Languages

329

tela- in

definite

dil/se/ha "do
here

often

has

of

likely also

but

have

-el:

true

but

to

different

considerable

na/da/yil/el

indefinite

characterizes
definite

"we

"don't

yic

f definite

but

the

the

third

out

after

adverbial
in

they

"I

stress

be

point.

Id/t'l/-

go;"

objects
deictic

Thus,

form

the

well

cannot

as

be

are,

on

the

2.

n-,

as

I cannot

importance

apart

They

noun.

ne-

such.

subjective

whole, identical

"

of fundamental

not

designated.

not

Plural

c-

first modal

while

considered

the

regularly

are

and

prefixes.
verb

ashamed"

are

ashamed"

am

before

come

the

elements

1.

accent

"we

singular object is

person

objective

to

"I'll not

Pronominal

They

3.

Hardly

this

on

-yic: d5/VAc/yic

verb.

immersed

Singular

"

of Chasta

extent

bathe"

possessive pronominal prefixesof

will turn

modes.

"I

Objects.

elements,

form

and

tenses

stems

bathing"

are

in

ya/dAcl/yAc

-yAc:

the

thoroughly

verb

go!"

Pronominal

elements,

that

bearing

ya/da/yit/dja{"-t/ya)

-ya:

indefinite

The

quantitative

go"
indefinite

negative

it.

dealing

are

go;" Ve/Si/ya "you go"

t'Ac/yAc/Ve "I must
go;" Vl/yAc/Ve "you

-yAc:

must

prefixed to

forms

Ve/Bic/ya

-ya:

indefinite

tcld/-

in:

(indefinite-el: nd/dil/el "we'll

we

shown

for

little material
is found

quantitative change

jdefinite
-c

cry;"

syllabic and

exhaustively

forms

different

is very

Costa,
A

Goddard

Hupa
assume

This

likely that

considerations

with

"I

balance.^*

or

In

tcId/sAsL/se

It is very

cry?"

you

primarily

rhythm

singular forms:

help feelingthat
for Athabascan

1.

nominal
pro-

from
In
with

are:

7i6-

2.

no-

3.

xo-

such

as

rhythmic

generally.

phenomena

84

VI

Languages 2

Indian

American

330

"He
c-

them"

"

and

before

inorganic a-

no

The

definite

Sing.

of

and

first person

expressed by

of

means

beginning of a verb form,

(contrast subjective Ac-).

yed/l "he

object

him"

saw

xl-.

take

combined

with

are:

singularobject:

c/ye/di/l"you

2.

is

the

at

them

forms

pronominal subject
With

them"

"

standing

when

n-,

"they

or

Plural

saw

2.

c/ye/do/l

3.

c/xA/yed/i

me

c/yed/t

3.

With

Sing.

second

1.

n/ ye/Sic/1

3.

you"
n/ yed/l

With

Sing.

singularobject:

person

"I

first person

Plural

saw

n/ye/dit/l

3.

u/xa/ yed/l

2.

no/ye/do/l

3.

no

plural object:

no/ye/dd/l "you

2.

1.

Plural

saw

us"
3.

no

/yed/l

/xa/ yed/l

would
have
us" one
expected *""?/no/ye/dd/l "you saw
extended
in its
us" has been
that "ye saw
ye/dl/l. It seems
indeed
us."
It may
also "you (sing.)saw
to embrace
usage
be that my
this point rest on
data on
a
misunderstanding, but
"You
there seems
to be something
(sing.)
analogous in Hupa.
are
picking us up" would be expected in Hupa to be *yun/nd/For

hil/luw

{Ml- assimilated

however,

Goddard

with

seems,

but

influenced
With

Sing.

regards
by ymi/nd/ho/luw

second

1.

no

3.

no

"Goddard,

lists

hin-).
yun/no/hol/luw,
from

as

person

186.

"ye

are

of

which

is not

6-

vowel,

picking us

to

this

Plural

form,

identical
have

up."^^

plural object:

/ye/die/I "I saw

(pi.)"
you
/yed/l/1 1
op. cit.,p.

its second

Instead

1.

no/ye/dit/l

3.

no

/xa/ yed/l/la

been

Six:

Athabaskan

85

Languages

and Na-Dene

331

With

Sing.

2.

7^/^^cA
ye /Si/I

3.

ye6/l

1.

With

Sing.

third person

1.

third

"I

singularobject:
him"

saw

Plural

1.
2.
3.

plural object:

person

x6/ye/die/1

"I

Plural

saw

1.

xo/ye/dit/l(heard
also as xo/we-)

2.

xo/ye/Bo/l
xi/yeB/i/la

them"
2.
3.

1
/Bit/
ye/66 /I
xi/yeB/i

ye

/Bo/I
xl/dA/yeB/l
ye

3.

would
have
again, one
expected *x6/ye/Bi/l for "you
them."
As it is, "you (pi.)saw
him"
to be
seems
(sing.)saw
used also for "you (sing.)saw
them," both forms being logically
third
second
a
parallelin that both involve
person
person
of
the
two
relation, only one
however, being plural.
persons,
forms
of
of
verb are:
this
indefinite
tenses
Objective
Here

"

With

first person

singularobject:
me"

do/wa/c/yl/i^/Ve "you'llsee
dd/ld,/c/yi/i
"you didn't see
c/yi/l "see me!"
c/ya/i*/Ve "he'll see me"
With

second

singularobject:

person

do/wa/n/yAc/l
With

third

person

me"

"I'll

see

you"

singularobject:

do/wa/yAc/l "I'll see him"

do/yAc/i "I didn't see him"
do/yAc/l/Ve "I won't see him"
do/wa/yl/i/Ve "you'llsee him"
yi/l "see him!"
la/yi/i "don't see him!"
Objective forms
With

of indefinite

first person

tenses

of ne-l-'l "to

singularobject:

ne/cU/i "look at me!"

ne/cAl/l "he looks at me"

look

at"

are:

VI

86

American

Indian

Languages 2

332

With

third

singular object:

person

neci/l "I'm

looking at

him"

not
do/ned/l
looking at him"
nel/i "you're looking at him;" "look
nel/l "let's look at him!"

"I'm

1x6 1oilI "you (plur.)look

ne

This
for

last

"you

Other

form

(plur.)look

forms

with

them"

at

"he
cAsl/t'dl
second

kicked

"I'll
ne/tc!ilc/lec

verbs

As

objective in

are

nes/ts!Ai/i"I
ne' Iis!AllI "he

preceded

to"

you"

Hupa,

pronominal

form.

From

ne-l-'l

subjects of
are

are

these
deictic

by

"man

sieht

forms,
tslmich."

probably

seen"

seen"

are

nelxblislAlll "they
in

passive

formed:

ne/no/tslAl/t"we
ne/no/tslAl/l"ye

seen"

appears

logical subject:
with

bet

is seen"

IsIaI-, which
-I-

are

m.e

are:

me"

seen"

am

nen/tslAl/l "you

modal

in

mistranslated

singularobject:

person

Passives.

singular object
causes

me,

been

(of.xd/ye/Bo/l above).

first person

cAsl/sl "he lets

With

him"

at

likely enough, have

may,

him!"

at

are

seen"

contains

third

of
implying indefiniteness
Apparently connected

this IsIaI- is IsIaI- in:

"wherewith
mAllt'eltclAtltslAlllec

it is smoked,

smoking

utensils"
Verbal
or

to

verb

Suffixes.
modal

forms.

-t'e future

number

significanceare
These,

so

far

as

of enclitic elements
found

rather

illustrated

in

loosely suffixed
our

particle(cf.Hupa -te, -tei; Kato

aclI AzIVe "I shall sneeze"
VAclldllVe "I shall sleep"
naldAcililo'iVe "I shall bathe"
nedlllVe "I'll look
dolyAclilVe

at

"I won't

him"
see

him"

of temporal

material,
-tei,

are:

-telle):

Six:

Athabaskan

and

Na-Dene

87

Languages

333

nd/dAci/nic/t'e"1 shall work"

do/nd/dACL/nic/t'e"I shall not
tcIdcL/se/re"1 shall cry"
do/As/se/re "I'll not cry"
tc!dl/se/t'e
"you will cry"
-t'e

imply obligationto

to

seems

is shown

futurity,as
cases

extent,

some

its translation

by

work"

as

as

well

as

"must"

in

simple
some

As/se/t'e"he must
cry"
"I
must
rAc/yAc/re
go"
must
t'l/yAc/t'e
"you
go"
All forms
none

has
-nAl

suffixed

with
been

found
to

seems

be

that

-t'e,it will be

noticed,

are

indefinite;

is definite.
for future

used

acts:

dd/wd/An/nd/ya?i/nAl "he will upset them"

do Iwa HIV at I nAl
"they will be broken,
pieces"

go

to

-ha, -hd interrogative:

nd/xwil/ye/ha "are you playing?"

Ve/Bo/lal/ha"have ye been sleeping?"
no/ye/Bd/l/ha "did you see us?"
nel/i/ha "did you look at him?"
"did you
tcld/dil/se/ha
cry?"
do/o/se/ha "are ye not crying?"
As/se/Ve/ha "will he cry?"
tcId/ydl/se/Ve/ha"will ye cry?"
fd/yit/nd/hd "do you drink?"
ha

seems

to

both

precede

and

ha/xwil/i/ha
-/a

"do

follow
you

in

expect?"

probably inferential (cf.Hupa -xo/laii,-xo/liiii):

"I've been
ing
t'e/OAd/lal/la
sleeping" (said on wakup)
one
Ldd/d/la "there was
(table)"
rich"
txAs/xe/la"(evidently)

88

VI

Languages 2

Indian

American

334

Probably also
do
-la

also

seems

"of

I wi I la

used

simple

inferential

force:

tc!d/yit/siL/la"he
ye/ydt/ne/la

"he

no/xA/yeB/i/la

do

"he

in the

found

his

in past

time, with

finger"

saw

(plur.)" (cf.no /yed/i

you

"they

saw

(cf.xi/yeB/l "they

them"
the

"he

us")

saw

(plur.)" (cf. no/xA/yeB/l

you

in

contrasts

pairs of

last three

it"

around

went

whether

know

not

with

pointed

us")
"they saw
xl/yeB/l/la "they saw
I

narrative

bit it"

"he

nAn/ndd/yd/la
no/yeB/l/la

course"
of

be

to

if any,

weak,

very

in

forms

number

and

person

real

are

him")

saw

only apparent.

or

-le of unknown

significance
nd/xol/ye/le "you (plur.)play"
Combination

Syntactic
combine
second

verb

depending

syntactically,one
is subordinate

dd/ucL/Ve
don't

the

to

to

ha/xwil/i/ha yAn/na/Ac
that

personal form,
the

as

other.

I-play,"

i.

e.

i.

sort

times
some-

The

i.

"I

e.

stop laughing"

"stop laughing!"

first verb,
of

"I

e.

"do-you-expect

the

sometimes
acts

the

play"

hd/il/lyit/lo"stop laugh!"

seems

forms

first in:

hd/yACL/l yAct/lo "I-stop I-laugh,"

It

verb

on

"I-do-not-want

nd/xwACL/ye
want

Two

Verbs.

of

he-will

bring?"

is then

which

third

infinitive

complementary

to

second:

yd/yi/t!a Bicl/sl "he-flies

I-make-him,"

i.

e.

"I

e.

"he

let

him

fly"
ya/yi/t!a cAsl/sl "he-flies

he

makes-me,"

i.

lets

me

fly"
l/t'iyAn/na/'d
brags about

"he-is-important he-has-for(?)," i.
him"

e.

"he

him

moves

is

following, which
happened

and

**7/in-

naii/a/te
"he

refer

to
"

third

personal
form

Possessed

*"

Hupa
"

do, negative

"

'a-,

probably
modal

element,

element.

Observe

"dog."

nd-,

found":
Kato

(quoted
general
"

or

is

"there

Cf.

stem.

from

him

as

is

statement

cf.

have,"

"to

Hupa

important,"

i. e.,

and

not

general

does

reflexive
I- to

of

element.

possessive

suffixing

/-, and

of

Cf.

-tele.

element.

with

"(there

verb

-ya,

like

anywhere."

him

of

Analysis

Cf.

Navaho

Dialect,

Lake

Cold

"is

na/wa

Hupa
i. e.,

na/oa,

is;"

living,

"they
is

"he

na/ya,

first

-n-,

wyan
Chipe-

general.

i. e.,

about,"

"Moves

stem.

"it

qn/^'e
is

statement

is

It

being.

(kind)."

is of) that

is;" Kato

"there
because

tense,

and

saying, doing,

of

verbs

Mn//c

Hupa

Indefinite

walked;"

had

Goddard,

d-, prefix used

ye-,

prefix;
"

makest

"thou

is to

were

about"

going

Indefinite

Chipewyan).

be

there;"

tense;

statement.

perhaps

prefix

(dog)

no

"he

valuable,

-d/dAt,

demonstrative:

indefinite

prefix,

na/ga/kwqn

na/'atreated

change

-dAl, postpositive

-//e,verb

adverbial

least

at

Ltn/k'e.

an/t'e/hi/k'e "it was."

"

will

Orton,

tU/thi

For

because

tense,

'a-, prefix used

to

The
that

construction.

Carrier

stem.

made

dog

it

from

equivalent

has

pronominal

of

adverb.

reduced

Mr.

by

texts.

periodical

myth

popular

sentence

Cf.

stem.

his

Indefinite

Chipewyan

-lin/k{yi)e;

Costa

and

Costa

from

!i"6

thing

time.

of

point

one

any

X-,

order

-'o, verb

prefixes,

dog."

his

about

brags

taken

Chasta

into

word

-/'t,verb

"He

have."

will

"you

regular Chasta

any

that

I want

important."

as

adverbial

na-,

"What

anecdote

joke

Costa

element,

him

know

to

hi/t

de/ucL/t'e"

says.

translated

and

of Chasta

modal

treatest

not

English

an

about

idea

some

third

"^,
valuable,

merely

lying

be

to

give

to

serve

claimed

Orton

Wolverton

**

he

about,"

d6/dAt"i
'Nowhere

dog.

own

a/dJAn."^

na/ya"

'An/t!e"2
is like

his

has

he

important

li/tcle.^"

xa/dAt^"

yAn/na/'a^**

l/t'l"
Make

DOG.^^

GOOD

THE

TEXT:

89

Languages

Na-Dene

and

Athabaskan

Six:

dJA-n,

verb

cf. Hupa

with

*dyA-,

de, apparently

saying;
from

third

definite

relative
-L-,

of

Probably

stem.

present

subjective element.

verb
reduced

force,

in

third

modal

first modal

definite

in

singular
u-,

dj-,

62.

note

see

*dye-,

personal
third

and

it shows

though

tense,

d-

no

deictic

prefix;

person

deictic

second

modal

/den.

prefix,

adverbial

prefix,

third

prefix

-t'e,verb

stem.

-c-,

first

person

Indefinite

singular
general

tense;

statement.
""

ht, demonstrative

ht/tii is assimilated
out

one

of

several

stem,

from
persons

-tli, suffix

"hx/tla;
or

for

it would

applying,

-tla,

cf.

Chipewyan

things characterized
(335)

by

t!a

seem,

"that;

to

things.

often

descriptive phrase

or

used

Perhaps
to

clause."

point

Six:

Na-Dene

and

Athabaskan

91

Languages

337

txAs/xe/la^i d6/at/t!L82 q!wAt/tc!At/dja

He

bachelor.

rich

was

"Table

dJAn/la"3H/t!i/ni. d6/LAn"^
"Not

dog-owner.

said

xwacl/P"

much

s/tslAn/na/Ac

xa

he'll

quickly

I believe

bring

da/at/t !i/n!.

djAn/la

bachelor.

said

it,"

me,"

to

ne/tc!uc/lec.""c6"/dji." an/yl/aLS*djAn/la H'/t!i/nitclo/yit"All

you."

"I'll bet

/siL/la""

here!"

said

!wAt/tc !at/dja

bit it

he

nAn/na^/ya/la'^
he

once

ye/yat/ne/la^^ma^/dAn.^^

xat
Then

around.

went

d6/at/t!i/ni

djAn/la

la
"Don't!"

edge.

at

pointed

he

dog-owner,

lat/dAn'"

table

finger. Dog

his

with

"Come

right!"

bachelor,

said

t'wi/de do/wa/na/yan/nAl.^" do/wl/la"*djAn/laq!wAt/tc!At/dja

will

he

"everything

"Of

upset."

^^txAs/xe, adjective

"rich;"

stem

he

course,"

related

perhaps

to

"table

said,

-la, verb

"good."

wAs/xe

suffix of probably inferential value.

^"^

^*

**

at! "wife."

prefix,

verb

bet with
*'
*'

you!"

is

-t-,

connecting
of

person
suffix.
^

verb

definite

verb

is difficult

for yAt-;

7-

second

modal

ma*^-,noun

dd/wa, procliticadverb

stem

prefix,

-yan,

me

be

good."

of

as

deictic

element

significance,
modal

modal

subjective

person

nominal
pro-

imperative.
(object pointed

tcl-

of third

elements, characteristic

prefix, -sit, verb

prefix.

modal

second

y-,

-la, verb

stem,

-dAn, postposition.

to

modal

definite point of time

second

adverbial
to

prefix, -yd,

verb

stem.

prefix.

modal

-/-, third

this analysis, this verb

containing inferential

-la.

-nAl, verb

stem,

-la,

in narrative.

indicating futurity,probably

future in meaning.
Adverb

"let

in narrative.

According

verb

-lee,

85.

note

suffix.

not

prefix,

with

Indefinite

in

misheard

as

absolute

-ne,

in tense,

is indefinite

be considered
More
plausibly, yat- may
prefix. In that case, it is definite past.
-dAn, postposition.
"edge."

"

"

in

as

-c-,

understand.

to

^^

adverbial

-ya-,

"to

tense, used

prefixes. -0-, second

suffix.

-la, verb

stem,

which

prefix,

of specifiedobject,

slight hortatory meaning:

-con

third

and

prefix;

tclu-,adverbial

prefix, -i-, second

-/-, third

7-.

point

refers

stem.

swim."

me

of unknown

6-

of la "one."

past;

ye-, adverbial

or

Indefinite

second

adverbial

Definite

imperative,

future

first modal

7-,

marks

element.

-I, verb

98).

element,

future

Kato

"good;"

stem.

with

tenses

past;

na-,

of

tus/be "let

first modal

adverb

and

suffix.

because

between

(cf. note

-c-

tcl- (indicating lack

prefix; perhaps compound

element

Definite

HAn-

verb

-aL,

specified)and

Numeral

"

prefix.

tclo-,adverbial

out

preceding

element

denoting

il-

-hwon

co"-, cf. Hupa

an-,

not

6-,

present,

adverbial

of

preceding.

of deictic

Cf. Chipewyan

element.
*^

modal

Indefinite

With

"One

singular subjective pronominal

person

singular objective pronominal

person

and

wager)

stem.

first

-c-,

-/-,because

likely really compound

namely

has."

who

"much."

adverb

negative adverb

^ne-, second
very

denoting "one

suffix.

-la, verb

64.
lah,

prefix; from

present,

suffix

-t!i,noun

"bachelor."

e.,

adverbial

XW-,

third modal

Indefinite

na-,

at

wife," i.

no

dJAn, as in note
do, negative,

*^

-/.-,

do, negative,

has

who

certainty.

tense,

because

VI

92

Indian Languages 2

American

338

will

bring

to

Do

me.

all in

Good

time?

one

H/tlT/ni
dog-owner,

yAn/na/Ac/t'e'"^xwAn/ne/^iL/ya'"" djAn/la d6/at/t!T/ni.

t'wi
"all

will

he

**

in note

As

do/wa

'*

ha, interrogativeadverb,

and

Indefinite
A-,

future

""

'"'

^^

""*

second

-I, verb

stem,

jective
singular sub-

person

-ha, interrogative

significance.

prefix common

L-,

to

several

adjectives, -tcd/yi,

adverbial

prefixes,

-ac,

verb

stem.

Indefinite

tense, because

ing
point-

"one."

stem

-me/q!e, compound

postposition,

-ca,

found

also with

Id'^/ca"one."

no.-,

n-,

Indefinite
As
xtf

in note
/in-,

person
stem.

prefix,

first modal

n-,

prefix, -l-, second

person

singularsubjective

Imperative mode.
do-.
Perhaps -qleis postposition (cf.-me/qle).
containing negative
102.
in
and
singular subjective pronominal
note
as
-c-, first person
-ah,

element.

Adverb

element.
"*

na-,

nd-, adverbial

pronominal
103

prefix.

modal

time.

ia, numeral

la alone:

prefix, -i-,second

adverbial

-/-,third

"big."

and
^'"^yAttto

94.

prefix,ah-, is present.
verb stem.
prefix. -I'at,

in tense.

present

unknown

of

adjective stem

i-,third modal

xw-,

element.

pronominal
"

in note

-tiaI,as

adverbial

another

that

94, except

bachelor

said

win,"

"You

here."

bring

"

suffix.

verb

here

said

said

him,"

I stop

"Unable

bachelor.

bring

djAn/la

djAn/la

na/nAc/An'o"

d6/da/q!e"03

d6/at/t!i/ni.

will

he

stop him!"

"Stop him,

dog."

fragments

yAn/na/Ac'""

na/nl/An

na/ni/An'"'

If.

}a/me/q!e/ca.'"' wAs/xe

0Ak/gwe
in

pieces,

big thing

expect

you

to

AL/tca/yi""

ha/xwil/i/ha^^

s/tslAn/na/Ac.
he

will go

everything

will upset,

he

do/wa/1/t'at/nAl"

t'wi/de

do/wa/An/na/yan/nAl9"

-An,

verb

stem.

in tense, because

of

preceding negative

-Ce,future suffix; here used

100.

adverbial

prefix,

we-,

first modal

singular subjective pronominal

Definite

present

in tense.

because

adverb.

idea

prefix. 6-,
element.

-L-,

of

explicit.
futurityis more
modal
prefix, -i-,

second
third

modal

prefix,

-ya,

Six:

93

Languages

Na-Dene

and

Athabaskan

APPENDIX.

dialects

Athabascan

two

indicates

(tongue-tip trilled) and

found

as

with

occur

')

in Chinook

These

of

Athabascan
k'

and

and

and

c;
n;

k'w

are

xw.

Creek.
said

called

be

to

bdnax

b4yu

or

Jargon

tcla/ba/d/k'wa's

"brush

"tar- weed"

L!d'/ddi

Jack.

between

occur,

Costa

Chasta

(sp.?);"

"seeds

to

seems

Punzie,

practically identical.

reflexes

as

Galice

ya'/k'ds

River

Rogue

probably

are

(indicated by

contrasted

from

Mrs.

from

acoustically midway

something

nasalization

obtained

were

words

Creek

Applegate

few

words

Creek

Galice

few

for medicinal

used

Costa

Chasta

(cf.

(sp.?)"

purposes

ild'/de;

Hupa

Lo/daitc)
yel/yat/ts!ai/yt"sunflower"
giis

"camass"

ddl/si "pine"
Id

I lH

del res

(cf.Chasta

Costa

(cf.Chasta

Costa

(cf.

"manzanita"

din/nuw;
md'/ts!i

Kato

sds/da' "oak"
"black

tc IAl/y at

kos

/ts/e)

"bulbs")

dul/tclk)

Kato

nd/de)
Costa

dAJnAc;

Hupa

tun/nuc)

(cf.Chasta

i/dd/ge "acorn"

dAl/si;

Chasta

Costa

(cf.Chasta

"cat-tail"

god; Hupa

Costa

(cf.Chasta

"pine-nut"

Costa,

(cf.Chasta

Costa

mAt/tdi)

cAc/dd')

misunderstood;

(perhaps

cf.

i/taG

Kato

oaks")

Creek.

Applegate

k'q'/tc'u"goose"
dAc/tc'u "grouse"

(cf.Chasta
(cf. Chasta

tco)
(339)

Costa
Costa

xd'/tc'u;

Kato

dAc/tc'u;

ka')

Kato

dAcf-

y^

94

Indian

American

Languages 2

340

dAclVe'Itc'u "bob-white, quail"

k!ai'/dic/tca/we"ruffed grouse, pheasant"
k'dn/ta/tc'u"pigeon" (cf.Kato kwl/ylnt)

do/s'An/tsfa/ya"screech-owl"
si licklies "kingfisher"

woodpecker"
tddlkeldi "red-headed
"sandhill
crane"
(cf.Chasta
tea lwdcltc{!)e

Costa

sd'lwAsl-

tsle)

Editorial

Note

lications
Originally published in University of Pennsylvania, Anthropological Pub2(2), 271-340
(1914). Reprinted by permission of the University
Museum,
University of Pennsylvania.
which
Athabaskan
are
now
The
(1989)
Oregon
languages of southwestern
constitute
a distinctive
relationshipto the
subgroup whose
virtuallyextinct
the two
is
California
are
distant,
northwestern
although
surprisingly
subgroup
(Hoijer 1960). The
usually classified together as "Pacific Coast Athabaskan"
"

"

to have
comprised four distinct, though closely related,
Oregon group seems
and
Lower
Galice-Applegate, Chetco-Tolowa,
languages: Upper Umpqua,
the
best
known
of
local
in
The
last
River.
dialects,
a variety
was
spoken
Rogue
Chasta
Costa
of which
are
(on Rogue River about 30 miles upstream from the
Creek
of the river).Euchre
(along the coast to
mouth), Tututni (near the mouth
farther
north, in the
of the river mouth), and
the north
Upper Coquille (still
of these or
exists
full
behind
No
inland
area
grammatical study
Coquille Bay).
Athabaskan
of any Oregon
Sapir's descriptionof Chasta
language. Besides
of
of
documentations
are
Costa, the fullest published
Oregon Athabaskan
Galice
(Bright 1964; Bom(Golla 1976), and Tolowa
(Hoijer 1966), Tututni
also exists, particdocumentation
ularly
manuscript
melyn et al. 1989). Considerable

Rogue
(by Melville Jacobs; see Seaburg 1982) and of Lower
of
Mills 1981: 69-76). Some
P. Harrington; see
Harrington s Lower
disk recordings) was
of aluminum
material
(including a number

of Galice
River

(by

Rogue
obtained

J.

River

from

Wolverton

Orton,

Sapir'sChasta

Costa

consultant.

Corrigenda

Father

to

Dene

view

In

Costa

Chasta
it may

seem

slips

misunderstandings

or

Costa

and

lie in the

sketchy

hope

phonetics
"

I.

exactly

light

have

already

Dr.
that

Sapir's
of

sound

corresponds
though

"

See

in

words

American

often

is

the
is

to
to

to

Father

he

given

us

minimize

the

on

the

presentation

either

my

help

to

phonology
to

seems

paper

admirable

of

which
I

mastery.
with

the

Carrier

language,

of

intricacies

the

to

but

language,

content

I
of

value

importance

Athabaskan

an

be

not

on

Chasta

on

paper

Carrier

has

will

be

to

me

Morice's

the

on

the

friendly spirit

linguistics,
of

Notes

my

If, nevertheless,

overweening

of

shown

complete

any

it throws

hitherto

has

desire

problems

Morice

Father

published
dialects.

an

value

to

seem

Athabaskan

the

of

grammatical

Costa

Chasta

to

further

publish
and

of

attach

to

or

chief

he

recently

reviewed

evidently

so

what

out

Athabaskan

The

that

papers

eventually

his

contribution

papers

earnestly

in

because

not

paper

morphology.
to

point

understanding

our

previous

in

so,

scanty

very

advance
and

it is

Morice's

Father

me

do

to

northern

more

to

venture

own

churlish

bit

has

in

Morphology

and

Phonology

Morice

Father

that

fact

and

Costa

North."'

of the

Languages

the

of

"Chasta

Morice's

rather

will

but

of

its

structure.

French
be

almost

as,

my

^e,

Carrier

a,

phonetically

Anthropologist,

te, le"

pronounced

N.

S.,

not

like
(b.

reduced

17,

sound

the

1915,

of

in

'

(p. 560, footnote).

a

of- German

My
from

pp.

Mann

is another

original
559-572.

but,'

My
and
vowel

a.

more

of

thus
gether,
alto-

It is prac-

Languages

Indian

American

VI

96

766

2.

Carrier

not

'

bird
it

fact

with

broder,

servant

be

"

3.

accretion

my

tse.

1.

"

not

say.

Ath.

Morice's

"

td\Ad

as

Ath.

(his) pet
in,

e.

"

character

was

*lc!ac

analysis.

as

written
"

birds

Dr.
"

se-llin-e
it

has

Goddard

possible prototype

seeking.

my

kindly

corresponds
and

still

-ts\e
Costa

Chasta

ts\e

and

"dog"

tsekhk, Montagnais

and

"

ttse-ndjo,
Costa

Chasta

called

more

to

ive
possessI

arose

can

Perhaps

archaic.

*lik, *hg-, which

lik), Loucheux

exactly

goes

palatal

peculiar

dog ")

my

probably

as

"

she-dog!

own

this

How

-g-, -k of Ath.

(Chapman;

which

equivalent of

glottalized anterior

*-k^le with

with

Costa

-tele of -li-tcle,however,

C.

stamps

hlik

Anvik

or

in Chasta

but

Kato,

(read- k^le).

g..

nothing

*tc\ac}

ttse-Une, ttse-k'u, Loucheux

Hare

one's

dog,

li

Carrier

in

found

C.

is connected
*-liiiki'\e

this

of

compounded

woman."
to

can

stem

smack
have

-tele of my

with

Carrier, Montagnais,
"

his

is of

literally

verb

to

tele, the

somebody's

not

imply

"down."

(very likely

for

*k^\ac

"),
ts'os

perhaps

tc\ac

writes

he

quandary

(Ath. *tc\e)is

-e

Its isolated

(read k^lauW)

klyawM

Carrier,

simply

*-tcle,but

-liii-ke

cf.
parallelto *ltrj;
Since

forms

*ts\os

'(his) dog ']entails

all connected

at

C.
Ath.

to

which

(i.e., tsle-k'e),Hare

(cf. normal

-jfe"!-of Ath.

"

is

ts\e

Ath.

k^l; cf. Hupa

*-k''le

not

*tc\e-k'e

Ath.
to

is

C. ts\dxe.

tc'ek, C.

not

go

Morice's

li-ts\e

ttsh-kwi, ttse-k'^

back,

in

C.

back

-lUc\e

suffix

means

form

This

to

These

kissing-Iike noise,

"plume

Navaho

humming-bird,"

noun).

as

must

of

Father

3).

woman."

point

"

but

sort

litse

Carrier

Kato

"

is

duvet

td\aw),

Costa

Chasta

in

"

for

*ts\ez, *ts\es) and

make

to

whistle

OS

of

of his Carrier
one.

"

possessive [C. C.

Now

(p. 561,

"

-tsots, -tsos

This

the

(my

feather."

"down

td\Ad-nd-yal-td\od

this tdlAd,

with

orthography)

my

In

form

feathers,"

"soft

-dUd)

my

means

evident.

so

Carrier

fiy-about-making-a-humming-sound";

beets'

Nav.

not

Morice's

tthaw

appear

sibilants

as

language

(possibly mistranslated

"

(reduced

to

is

This

15).

Father

(Goddard;

-d'Hd

/5!o5)

my

*ts\ez

in

found

cf. Hupa

do

to

1.

Loucheux

k^\ew),

letter

in that

z],which

and

(p. 560,

plume

expected

"soft-feathers

lips,"

cote

Athabaskan

would

"tdlod

in

the

than

cally
respectively; they correspond histori-

impossible.

de

Fathers;

(Franciscan

actually

Ath,
"

Chipewyan

(my

kkwew

original

j,

other

none

him

by

tthoepdh (Petitot; tdlA-yd^ in

Montagnais,

This

t? "

phonologically

is

and

'feather-down'

but

clearly cognate

Hare

c,

o^.

evidently

is

described

are

and

Chipewyan^and

to
'

and

and

corresponds phonetically,

doubtless

and

Carrier

'bird']

tclac

[Morice's

between

midway

C.

[C.

tscrz

of but

genetically, to

also

largely
"This

with

in sound

ticallyidentical

my
Ath.

attention
*k''!ac.

effectively disposes

is

egce-tsellce
to

This
of

Hupa
nates
elimiFather

Six:

Na-Dene

and

Athabaskan

97

Languages

767
"

"

petit chien

(i.e., legA-).

(Incidentally, Petitot

I'intse, Loucheux

Montagnais

Ventsi.

Are

forms

these

"

for

gives

"

chienne

-ttsi,

for

errors

-ttsi})
"

The-

4.

water,'
water

"

"

water

he

when

his

"

only

is

in

terminative
"

denotes

sink

to

"

assumed

to

regularly corresponds
archaic,

*/'a-

Ath.
do

Father

orthography);

Ve-,

*Vei. e.,

that

tqa-); see

below.

/'e-,does
worked

I have

be

significance

for

in

in

be

by

Athabaskan

(Chapman's
Loucheux

In

i. e., tcH-

(Loucheux
laws

phonetic

Loucheux

Ath.

txe-)

my

Navaho

water."

to

such

by

likely to

are

te-, tH-

as

the

to

also

qualification,even

without

apply

*/'e-, but

Ath.

to

out,

itself

northern

*t^e- appears

the

to

tchi-dhitlle

*t'a-)\note

k flot."

"gtre

"

5.

really
*Ca-

is

which

Tha.

that

found

its sway

to
at

evidence

in force, that
to

more

local

'

the
to

it

meaning

that

is, in fact,

wide-spread
is

the

Ath.

*Ca-

an

old

*/'o

"

impossible,

noun

water

for

']

water

it

also

parallel Ath.
Ath.

"

locally ("

indeed

apparently
of

expense

show

in

referring

as

employed

dialects;
extent

some

'

gives

signification [i.e.,

undoubtedly

Navaho,

he

all Athabaskan

of

in

correspond, according

not

forms

ferring
re-

necessarily

tqe- (i. e.,

tqe-

Even
to

as

quite

by

implied

Navaho

she

ogy)
terminol-

if Ce-

entirely superseded

Ath.

"

seems

of

the

back,"

"

even

(Petitot's orthography),

tchi-

as

appears

the

in

/'e-

Hupa

range

assign

teyldoutel "floating

note

the

"'e'- verb

-tlat

it is

Navaho

remark
Anvik

In

of

Kato

"

Goddard's

use

wider

horse";

almost

Morice's

the

"

floated

its surface

water,"

been

for Carrier.

if correct

Ath.

has

(Navaho

find

not

*Ce-

Ath.

as

and

of

*Ce-.

Ath.

to

Hupa

t^e-n-

that

the

to

cf. Kato

(to

-n-

would

tqe-li "water

as

in

water."

precipitately brought

art

so

the

reference

she

water

under

thou

water."

the

bottom

translated

definition

of

Morice

Father

forms

Navaho

in

mean

*t^e- than

Ath.

as

are

water),"

modal

bottom

t^ethe

and

function,

the

to

in

the

water

second

mean

in

of Goddard's

with
"

"

necessary

Goddard's

"

'

the

at

defined

several

by

thentltlat

sinkest,"

thou

bottom,

no

verbs

into

Carrier

In

adequate.

motion

to

was

has

(i.e.,

Evidently

them."

washed

in it

hand

it hints

t^e-

tumble,"

to

'

merely

not

it

Hupa

about

put

but
.

C.

is showji

some

it seemed

water

it
C.

25).

"

Thus,

examples.

have

1.

Athabaskan,

Pacific

of the

bottom

north, does

(p. 561,

in

That,

the

would

Sapir

as

'

in

least

at
.

is

(p. 561,
in

the

in

seems

*t^e-.

1.

27).
")

")

("
that

instance,

water,
has
in

wave,

become
the

numerous

tically
prac-

(e. g.,

plenty

is, however,

There

Ath.

extended

have

frequently substantival,
stem

in

dialects
to

has

water

water

some

Chipewyan)

'

the

to

not

local,

sea," parallel
a

verb

prefix.
verbs

of

Six:

Athabaskan

Na-Dene

and

99

Languages

769
bathe

"

have

primarily

I find

"

*t\os

"

8.

The

and

verbal

-lal

stem

'

of

sense

sleep,' has

to

complement).
his

Might

questioner

think

we

Hupa

-lal, -laL

can

for

t'e-

Hupa

quoted

{ln-)te-d-Lal he
"

meaning

to
"

he

'^
.

in
all

he

Kato

also

"

(e.

v.

in

g.,

dormir

m'endors

"),

Montagnais

with

its

prefixed

remarkably

he

went

Hupa

Kato

by
"

u-na-s-laL

to

sleep,"

to

and

regularly preceded

dreamed,"

incomplete.
'

double
as

the

to

For

understood

without

-se,

be

-lal,

(e. g.

7ia-

he

dreamed

its /.

way

writing
"

little inaccuracy
I wish

in

(a) That,
true

thou

verb
art

would

stem

on

Chasta
is

be

this

of

be
'

familiar

cut

the

up:

stems

laugh,'

with

are

(Carrier -tso)\

-tse

would

have

and

footnote

i).

There

the

commence

his verb

to

he

language,
i

the

be

cannot

been

Dengs'

labic
syl-

spared

this

several

are

ments
com-

passage.

Costa,

I'o-lal

absolutely

should

currence
oc-

syllables

-tlal but

not

quite unmistakably

sleeping,"

(cf.,for phonetic

1.

he

frequent
The

should

several

cry,'

Were
.

own

(p. 563,

make

to

their

Hence

'to

of

wrongly

are

syllable

Sapir's

by

seen

are

groups.

(Carrier -tsi);-lo,

-tsi
.

of

plural

penultimate

instance,

cause,' should

to

ts

indivisible

many

first person

the

be

may

tl and

consonants

form

in

attributes

As
...

and

verbs

-tlal.

-tlal,-tsoel,-tlat,-thcec,etc.

one:

there

In

asleep."

seems

rather

or

The

Dene

Sapir's

which

-lal,

t'Ulal.

rendering:

"

s.

je

stem

{n-)te-s-laL

to

"

"

sleeping,"

(e. g,

northern

sleep

in-t'es-l'al

another

"

In

-lal, -lal, -lal,

to

put

"

"

dream

i).

given

are

Turning

to

").
9.

-si,

is

1.

sleep

to

-6-, corresponds

Kato

"

"

also

in-'tes-la'l

been

the

(with

(p. 563,

(Montagnais)

gives quite

'

misunderstood

meanings

asleep,

forms)

of

misunderstanding.

sleep ").

Legoff's

above,

of

Petitot's

asleep";

definite

(in

kin-na-is-lal

about

last

is

"

but

Chipewyan

t'e-d-lal-{la)he's

and

Chipewyan

-lal, when

he

Ath.

attributes

dream

to

have

Both

let him

fall

'

him?

dream,"

"

C.

-te-sil-lal-

misled

hypothesis

to

author

our

of

informant

sleep ").
"

sleep,

Petitot

rever

which
value

to

"endormir";
"

C.

in

to

"

s.v.

"

elements

of

"

es-l'al

Hare.

Hupa

"

to

go

that

means

hi-teL-lal

debout,"

and

would

find

we

Goddard's

and

this

only

not

you

to

the

unwittingly

without

means

suggests,
from

verb

dialectically.

Sapir's

-lal,-IqL (e. g., n-to-lqL

regularly

while

thus

"

Athabaskan,
-lal

Dr.

not

manage

nit-te-sil-lal-le

for Kato

and

Carrier

in

Morice

(denominative

its force

changed

Father

as

may,

"

paddle

to

meant

paddle ")
"

It

parallels.

exact

no

no

comparison,

"

ye
reason

-lal is to

evidenced

sleep."
for

its

t'd-yit-nd

"

Were

by

-/-

considered

be

such

forms

part

disappearance
thou

drinkest,"

of

as

as

t'l-lal

the

stem,

in these

forms

I'd-yd-dot-nd

100

VI

Indian

American

Languages

770

"

drink," in which

ye

C. -lat, not

C.

and

Hupa

(6)
as

also

Kato,

There

is

Morice

Chasta

Costa

has

in

"

we

Morice

in

"

been

for

Ten'a

milk

found

are

equivalent
witta

"

deux

nous

equivalent
round

(equivalent
such
1

Dene

with

and

cognate
tce-xauW

so"

1891,

with
"he

of

Hupa
is

193)

p.

Carrierna;-/5a5-/"7
it may

perhaps,
instead

to

"

U-,

.ve

"we

have

do

so

and

i. e., tc!-, of

catching,"

that

so."

e.,

inclined

restored

by

"

we

are

both

does
ts\A-,'^

not

seem

Father

has

Jette
understood

be

to

faisons");

"nous

survivals

carrying

"they

of

we

carry

old

the

the

into

over

-d-

stem

nl-tlas,morphologically
Hare

together");

two

(Ath. *zi-tlas),morphologically
da^-dt-t'a^

ba^-n-U-nil),l-gye
marries

There

").

by

Father

be

cf.

nas-tsi-ya
to

customary

indefinite

personal
"one

forms

Carrier

himself

catches").

in

tsceto

in

phonetic resul-

of

"people

applying

put

talk

no

(see

(in
is

"The

meaning,
For

walks."

"one

say

marry"

two

we

Morice

put
two

we

"

can

only

but

-gye

"we

"

/foj- is really impersonal

originally perhaps

plural
of third

am

{ch'cB-de-i-kd

i. e.,

This

Father

"

"

walk

walk";

third

(I
been

perhaps

walk,"

this

become

-di-

nd-i-ta

{ya-issi

its

indicated

is indeed

as

"let

Loucheux

bd^-ni-'nil
da^-d-it-'a'),

to

he

na-ddl-yic

by analogy

though

out

-t\as, -t\a\ -'nil, and

suspect,

Languages,"

of modesty,

"

id-ye, cf. i-ye

-d-

"),

cases

*z-id-'as); Navaho

(Ath.

Hupa

first person

Ath.

these

"

un-tla

e.,

(equivalent

stems

1 strongly

begin with;

so

"

on

to

of

cases

i.

(equivalent

on

things

of

(cf. noe-hce-'as

allons,"

"

object

several

saw

Carrier

g..

milk

two

we

g.,

it

g.,

that

apparently misled

meaning,

allowed

nt-tas

w-it-'a

to

in

faisons

"

with

(e.

element

organic

an

(e.

we

dialects, however,

as

cases

like

carry

these

n-U-'as

to

claim

-d-

element,

of

two

we

in

such

hardly

is that

has

-d-

deux

"

g.. Carrier

syllable,e.

forms

"nous

Even

in

would

regularly disappeared

Athabaskan

ts-

i-ssi

").

out

-/-

personal plural prefix tsoe-, i.

ch'i-ne-i-ka

Navaho

Kato

plural subjective

dialects, perhaps

-d-

-tlal.

stem

-/- and

"

has

Costa

replaced by -i-, -i-, e.

ts\-); Hare

as

and

widespread

recorded

Chasta
in several

where

Hupa

first

(Carrier

be

to

in

that

analogy),

of

has
*-{i)d{e-)-/- verbs

Kato

(not t'ltlal,

modal

by comparison

What

").

t'it-lal
of

to

with

analysis.

own

my

C.

-t- is indeed

(e. g., e-gU-'t

amenons

analysis

-I- and

think

sick

nous

his

(and dual)
modal
to

-it-,-d-

"

(e. g., i-di-kwoll

this

is shown

painting "),

are

"), Chipewyan

rest

us

That

also

Comparison

first person

Morice

personal

apply

evidence

as

third

Father

stem).

C.

"

as

before

it.

confirms

quoting

appears

where

remarks

have

sleeping

are

plural prefix

na-dtL-Le

would

in

Chipewyan,

true

first person

g.,

we

preserved between

These

abundantly

"

him,"

saw

-'i,is the

the

(e.

we

Morice

whatever

it)

in

as

n).

Chipewyan,
point

no

"

-t'i,not

Father

is

prefix -t-

consonant

-{i)t-regularly

prefix, except,
ye-dit-'i

modal

stem

-tlat,as

Father

In

third

-i-, -6-, and

element

ta

reasons

general) do

quite possibly

adult

Hupa

(e. g.,

Six:

Athabaskan

Na-Dene

and

101

Languages

771

of

tants

first person

-d-

plural

plus

stems

-'a\ -nil, and

-as,

(Ath.

-ye

*-7e).
(c)

As

Father

regards syllabic division,

Morice.

{-d-) of

-/-

have
do

just

It is

the

This

seen.

how

see

of Chasta

Orton
never

tH-tlal, t'e-nit-lat

(Father

for
Chasta
and

As

does

*-dlo

C.

-Id

"

(d) As
is

Morice

for

in
has

and

been

denies, derived
ID.

-tc'ac

-se

If Dr.

in

these

quantity

-Cl-tdAl)I

for

occur

cannot

Chasta

in

affricative

C.

as

-Id.

stem
"

il, dl,

pointed

and

nor

out

Navaho)

Ath.

For

cold," Kato
Kato

to

6.

to

directly representative

as

e-llu

//
its

completing

Carrier, Chipewyan,

correspond

As

to

"

to

from

Latin

Sapir

will allow

[probably misprint

and,

Chasta

correct
"

he

I, cf.

dl:

Id

"

-Id

"

frost."
"

deceive

to

French

cause,"

to

these
in

stated

stems

are
"

C.

to

C.

chef

tc'w, in

labialized

as

to

-se

to

plete
incom"

as

is

as

*kep because,

(p.
such

Hupa),

tc^"ts"s;

(Ath.
-tse

Father

Notes

my

(Ath. /c' is preserved

Costa
"

"

-si

says

already

Kato,

"

correct

when

ts is reflex

in

simplified

and

cry

have

Carrier

Hence

"

to

far

too

Jicarilla Apache,

be

in

graphy
ortho-

vocalic

uncertain,

am

-t- and

well

C.

to

tc\At-Ci-tBAl

to

regularly developed

understood

Montagnais

"

C.

-ist.

ts"td"d).

"

C.

tc\ of which

always

it would

":

might

going altogether

Navaho,

Ath.

"

g.,

modal

cold

of
I

vision
di-

"

(affricatives)as

td\ also

have

to

tically
prac-

another

dealing

we

both

and

was

syllabic

I, because

to

laugh at"?).

".to

-tse

e.

were

groups

td

informant

corrected

simply

misheard

seems

be

to

"

their

perception

where
be

to

(e. g., -iHt-dAl

that

Kato),

or

third

be

to

regards

Ath.

287),

"

laugh

to

(primarily

Hupa

this is

into

that

example

no

(as preserved,

*-dlo,*-dli

C.

have

whether

analyzable

as

Ath.

in

as

not

lengthened

deny

my

to

-thcec is

out

words

not

fact,

yi-tlo, tclAt-t'it-dAl

to

consistently

these

(I

occur

Notes,"

Ath.

or

to

seem

"

in my

in
I do

its

syllabifying and

consonantal

appear

I have

C.-t-lo

C.

to

it

such

affricatives, though Id

true

as

in

Morice's

point

may

with

That

Naturally

Costa

i would

syllabic division

admit.

as

forms

syllable.

and

of

-t'^Ac.

of

we
nor

writing

in

ear

my

matter

the

Costa,

of

syllabic way

t'ii-lal is

Hence

Chasta

for

recording his forms,

in

-tscel). Father

tS, preceding

own

As

t'e-ni-tlat,yit-lo

to

my

Costa

Carriers'

the

dialects

following syllable,as

materially helped

placed.

Morice's

the

with

disagree

Athabaskan

many
to

particularly careful

doubt,
be

to

was

in

combinations.

was

in

that

nothing, however,

have

sound

emphatically

must

plural belongs

proves

would

Costa

Wolverton

clear

familiarity with

language

own

quite

first person

cf.

justifiable
as

no

one

caput.

for

me,

I will also

-t^Ac],which

he

observe

gives

that
as

the desinence
distinct

verbal

102

VI

Indian

American

Languages 2

772

element,

is

'

bed

to

"

else

nothing

(p. 563,

1.

-t^Ac directly with

"

regularly

bed,"

to

goes

"

with

"

*-t'i (Hupa
*-t^in, *-t^er},

Carrier

-thi; Montagnais

*-i'e

*-t^el is used

forms

-c

C.

C.

in general

are

-t^Ac is

from

"

"

and

Carrier

-'ezh,-tsh
Morice

to

act

dualic

"

Unless
'

of
'

by

see

phonetic

these

force

Father

with

I take
not

think

now

lack

or

goes

back

'

present

use

that

and

it is

imperative,

of

of

past

modal

Father

German

"

valent
equi-

simply:

thee,' etc."

(p. 563"

In

fact

appears

mich.'

sieht

mann

deictic

by

preceded

'

merely

he

tslAl-,which

sieht

man

the

as

really means

-I-

logical subject:

modifying

in

is identical

mich

is

which

forms

as

"indefinite"

and

all
other

analysis of

my

C.

to

deictic

C.

C.

preserved

nes-ts\Al-'i

in
others

Goddard's
are

forms).

as

such

C.

one

sense.

"indefinite"

sees

denotes

verbs;
in

"

me,

I do

ts\A-.

tc\-,which

subject, of transitive

object,not

definite,

eventual,

adduces

see

(p. 332):

third

comparable

H!(e)-,

and

-'esh,

voit.

me

opportunity

"definite"

definite

he

is seen,' etc.,

out

contains

knows

such

Jicarilla

-iec;

"; Navaho

clearly that

opinion, quite right.

my

of

Ath.

*-t^ec,

Ath.

morphologically distinct,

volt), people

me

indefiniteness

indefiniteness
to

he

already pointed

that

reduced

is

in all forms,

stem

go

see

what

mistaken,

Morice

(Ath. *tc\-)of

ts\-

is, in

on

now

of

convergence

seen,

on

probably

French
this

We

").

two

'

(French:

Morice

forms,

are

you

"

-thces,but

-thces
found

-/'ez;Navaho

-'ac

Athabaskan.

Carrier
"

"

Indefinite

forms.
much

very

I had

implying

Surely

am

seen,

me

what

repeats

^5!-

am

Father

22).

in

'

people

1.

dual

(cf.Ath.

-c

with

plural (and dual)

animals

two

though genetically related,

II.

-5

This

dialects

"

Pacific

(Ath. -c) is here

-tetc; Montagnais

upon

misled

was

of

-tin;

tagnais
-te; Mon-

imperative

future

proximate

words

indefinite."

-kec) contains
"

"

contrasted

as

-tqel).

she

*-t'ec is

Ath.

Athabaskan

-tqe, future

characteristic

apparently

This
forms

-ten, -tin; Kato

(Hupa

phonetically practically identical

*-t^ec (cf. Hupa

*-t'ej,

Apache

forms

present

-thes; in other

present

definite

"

indefinite

-Ve; Navaho

morphologically.

not

"

"

in

"

tcin-ne-tiiW

-tqi);in most

-Vi; Navaho

ments
state-

material

(which corresponds

"

indefinite

C.

singular subjects.

to

-tiiW

again ").

"

of

These

Costa

(e. g., Hupa

lie down

go

C.

compare

Chasta

my

Hupa

-tUc

Athabaskan

Ath.

eventual

Kato

lie down,

to

to

on

goes

-t^Ac applies

with

"

'

(plural stem).

from

") that

na-nHn-tilc

in Pacific

definite

or

bed

-t^Ac)and

Kato

characteristic

then

is evident

to

[Carrier] verb

same

effectivelymeans

Morice

by comparison
C.

C.

to

of the

-this, -thez, -thcES

It

I go

is confirmed

plural stem

Father

Carrier

(e. g. dd-nAc-t^Ac

the

nthcesthih

7).

misleading.

are

This

than

derivative

nanisthi, whose

Hupa.
I

"Definite"

am

this
C.

tc\C.

seen,"
tenses

(including present

are

definite,
in-

Six:

Athabaskan

and

Na-Dene

103

Languages

773

is

however,

clearly

corresponds
Chipewyan

ts'-

impersonal
");

him

Costa,

is

(in

his

(see
indeed

do

as

by

Reprinted
This

reply

to

in

permission

of

Petitot's
he

original

review

of

(Morice
Sapir's

case,

how

*/c!-"

of

Kato

have

with

s'-;

C.

these
C.

ts!-;

Loucheux

and

Hare,

Chasta

and

is\e-

misinterpreted
E.

Sapir

Note

Anthropologist

monograph,

Dialect,

Lake

Kato

ts\-,

with

ts'-

reconcile

to

tc\-,

throughout

American

1917).

caught

one

e.,

tse-?

of

Carrier

and
"

Cold
in

as

Montagnais,

American
the

criticism

Morice's

rejoinder

prompted

volume.

published

that

Goddard's

Chipewyan

Analysis

know

not

Editorial

Originally

"

in

(Ath.

Could

Use-)

orthography

ts\-)

forms.

tse-

133

i.

of

probably

very

Costa

caught,"

was

his

should

forms

Chipewyan

of

and
above.

Chasta

comparison

p.

we

tc\-.

expected

he

Goddard's

this

force

see

with
"

ts'e-Lu

g.,

impersonal
^5!-;

indefinite

and

ts{oe-),

identical

that

incorrect

"),
have

Carrier

(e.

in

impersonal

and

indefinite

probably

means

Chipewyan

subjective

is

prefix
this

^(^!)-

Hupa

subjective
Carrier

to

17,

Anthropological
Chasta

Sapir's
of

Both

are

Morice's

reprinted

765-773

(1915).

Association.

Costa

work

papers,
in

the

(Morice

1915b)

together

with

appendix

to

his
this

NA-DENE

THE

LANGUAGES,

problem

attacked

1"^HE
relationship

of

Haida

also

has

Boas

in

somewhat

the

Haida,

Athabaskan,
of

of

memoir

is

does

not

believe

that
of

the

merely

Tlingit,

and

complete

given

probable.

designate

to

at

the

will

of

disposal.

of
the

of

this

thesis

"Na-dene,"

in

the

as

of

of

Dr

P.

the

leading

fact

that

While,

it

however,
I

thesis,

my

beyond

the

which

has

of Athabaskan,

prototype

explained

on

Survey

request

some

my

term

paper

preparation

the

at

that

atives
represent-

Geological

emphasize

hypothetical

be

the

remove

doubt,

extensive

to

The

full presentation

divergent

an

but

morphological

demonstration
to

blances
resem-

and

of

abstract

evidence

is here

of

languages.

reasonable
but

prepared

expressly

the

enough

chosen

Haida,

wish

all the

these

Haida-Tlingit,

course

Series

rapid

constitute

not

been

present

it does

realm

merely

involved.

points

now

and

though

assume,

point.

in

given
in

sketch,

present

Goddard,

this

all

Boas

by

fundamental

at

indeed

are

is

Anthropological

The

Canada.

Tlingit

Languages"

the

to

and

beyond

prototype

Na-dene

"The

and

common

show,

genetic

Important

out

between

on

lexical, resemblances

them

hinted

the

Tlingit.

lexical, phonological,

to

serves

led

given

of

pointed

Athabaskan

been

comparative

that

evidence

has

and

been

relationship

between

evidence

of

long

vaguely

that

also

extent

have

genetic

REPORT

is

paper

Haida,

have

which

structure

concrete

this

less

Tlingit

hesitatingly,

rather

E.

to

resemblances

Swanton,

no

and

in

PRELIMINARY

Athabaskan,

morphological,
between

latter

part

of

the

paper.

Morphological

I.

Stem

and

Word

primary
is

the

Read

Form.

type

monosyllabic
in

substance

of

The

"

stem

the

typical

most

form

found

consisting

stem

before

Features

of

Anthropological
534

in

the

and

Na-dene

at

torically
his-

languages

plus vowel;

consonant

Association

doubtless

Philadelphia.

in

Six:

Athabaskan

107

Languages

Na-Dene

and

536
according

respond

sometimes

consonant;

against the

as

one

of these
dial

Ath.

point

to

Ath.

*-lad

are

tdek, Tl.

H.

tlan

hook,"

Tl.

Tl.

*-t!o

"to

shoot,"

make

it

fairlyobvious

that

reducible

vocalic

to

That

element.

cannot

improbable.

The

symbolized by

by

is

didi

stem

is not

sort

stem

languages

Nootka,

and

plays

an

only

been

able

about

which

conspicuous

word-forming

possible widespread
to

strative
find is the demon-

di.

With

probably reduplicated

Haida

"what?"

with

contrasted

languages

to

the

most

word
cases

cluster

elements
elements

perhaps best considered

that

of
as

gains

in

of

number
of which

cv),

number

of subsidiary

word,

the

cation
redupli-

part.

of form

be

this

Kwakiutl-

in all of which

south,

is built up

may

weight when

Tsimshian,

the

of

feature

negative

indicative, but

extremely important

(in

various

The

is

as

be

thus

developments.

that

neither

all

at

seem

may

further

process

the

compare

typical Na-dene

grammatical
The

are

Salish

elements
stem,

to

itself very

in

I have

that

gu'gu-s

Na-dene

The

device.

stem
are

cv-c

not

of

are

"this," alongside of unreduplicated

this it is interesting

interrogative

and

It is found

its absence.

exception

Athabaskan

grammatical

grammatical

purely

nor

of which

sort

ultimately

are

consonants

it does

Na-dene

characteristic

cv,

final

but

demonstrated,

this

of

originally a suffixed

was

with

stems

eat;" Ath.

final consonants

with

stems

by what

followed

stems

"mountain,"

Examples

purely descriptive analysis

be

Reduplication
in Na-dene

shoot."

H.

with

catch

t'a "to

H.

eat,"

of the

many

all Na-dene

origin

such

"to

passes,"

*xes

seize;" Ath.

"to

"to

t!uk
that

yielded by

are

cat

*-t'an

Ath.

"mountain;"

ca

Tl.

djd "bait,"

H.

*ts!a-);

Na-dene

*-ca,*-cal "to

Ath.

get dark;"

tde-

Louch.

*-yel "night

Ath.

"end;"

Chipewyan

and

Tl. sla-, to

in

ples
Exam-

other.

"year;"

d!a-

(Chip.

slate

agree

is found

stem

in the

Tl. Z'o"^

points, with

ga-l "night," Tl. get "to

a

simple vocalic

"year,"

final

the

languages

Na-dene

three

for

except

final consonant

H./'a7

*ts!a-,which

"end,"

the

the

by

Louch.

"moss,"

often

extended

cases

of

two

other;

but

two,

or

regular phonetic law

to

one

termed

aside

from

of

bic
monosyllais the

main

etymological and

prefixesand

suffixes.

certain

that

ones

procliticand enclitic particles,make

are

up

108

yi

Indian

American

Languages

537

in
to

Indo-germanic

in

of the

elements

many

can,

of independent

and

three

t^o'

close

"water,"

Montagnais

ya'- indicating the

third
"future
The

other.

think

of it

as

to

be

be

about,"

to

coiled (cf.//a-da

'Another

quoting
are

from

quoted
Swanton.

from

primary

with

the

t!a- which

prefix

order

verb

"

to

for

Petitot,
Goddard

wear

an

Chipewyan.

"Chipewyan"
and

The

use

tl-

Franciscan

Fathers;

ed
accustom-

and

all

"to

of

stem

All

go

Tlingit.
her

son)

around,

activity

touch"),

object of the verb

the

"Montagnais"

either

may

denoting

tl

stem

defines

Goddard.

to

"to
-Igii'l-

original Haida

from

relatively

(it)(on

the class of flexible things thought

"

of

of easily analyzed

put

prefix

elements

all four

more

are

in Haida

stem

or

of

"sentence"

(we

we

also

illustrated

hortatory

and

composed

instrumental

an

(identical

name

from

word

as

is tWalgu'ldayarj "(she) had

hands

belonging

knit

element

first three

sentence-word
or,

Kato

definitely expressed)

old

an

the

na-n,

sentence

abundantly

classifying nominal
as

o'

like

an

they-shall-drink."

water-

independence

of

type

consisting of

wrapped

ya'

/'a-,

forms

o'-,

rigidly prescribed

closelyknit

example

the

with

to

relativelyloosely

blanket,"

as

t^a

absolute

same

very

can

Haida

their

down

This

as

elements)

lost

settled

each

do,

element:

constituents,

have

have

to

modal

or

not

and

this

with

prefixes are

implied (but

"

prefixes,

as

demonstrative

Caya^o'tia-qfeels decidedly

monosyallabic

which

"billow"),

pluralityof the

imperative"

which

t^a

four

drink"

"to

(cf. independent

water

personal subject of the verb,

"word"

of

to
^

into

apart

-narj

the

like

word

themselves

among

Most

ized
special-

or

described

be

morphological unit;

reference

having

with

falls

stem

may

fusing either

far from

are

into

element

that

Indian

Athabaskan

an

main

tomed
accus-

are

Paiute).

origin

readily

the

subsidiary elements

which

stem

drink"

we

gether
to-

of individuality, while

in

identical

welding

manyAmerican

share

Thus,

elements:

distinct

perfectly

but

them

t^aya'o'nat] "let

as

Southern

Yana,

stems.

units

also in

considerable
to be

far from

are

form

found

Eskimo,

preserve

such

are

indeed, be shown

forms
Kato

or

(e.g., Kwakiutl,

languages

of

suggestive

manner

unit, but

morphological

enough

coherent

to

other
Haida

as

crossing

or

*^^a "blanket"

indicate

that

Athabaskan
and

am

forms

Tlingit forms,

Six:

Athabaskan

Na-Dene

and

109

Languages

538
becomes
a

causative

and

probable

very

suffix

auxiliary verb

or

temporal-modal

two

suffix -aj]

others.

word

(upon the

modal

(itseems

mouth"

element

found

be

to

the

personal subject),

momentaneously

(?)
"

of the

One

that, while

of

all

cases

many

perfectly definite
of

range

can

good

the

run

do'

Noun

and

want

Verb.

"

parallel in all three

forms

are

expressed

by

the

Thus,

ma{k)-k!ai

to

(go home)."

stream-large
an

open

involved;

of

in

certain

fairly wide

always evidently

not

purely

etymological

"not-it-after

na-si-ri-a

in

the values

for

stem

of the

Athabaskan,

usage

possession"

over

conveys

idea conveyed

Similarly, the Haida

verb

cylindrical objects-remove
"

place" really means

(olachens)

the sea."
The

relation

languages.

betwen
While

and

noun

verbal

ways), the radical element

of

verb

and

throughout clearly kept apart (verb forms

in various

in

is
cases

content

or

of the actually well determined

toward

time

of structure

it is customary

no

stream

be

value

idiomatic

as

(a place)-toward
in

of

is that

elements.

k^wa-lgi'-sta-sga-"in
from

deal

ground-continuously-thou-have

not

rfi- of

in past

is in most

is, equally

of

didst

"thou

to

Hupa

notion

third

suffix

"

its parts

significancepreceded by such and such

analysis of

as

mouth

with

by merely summing

There

say

idea

applicable prefixed

surface

into

be obtained

elements.

we

forms

of this type

consequences

Tlingit,a great

Haida, and

q!a

stem

noun

blow.

cannot

analyzed

the

instrumental

"aspect"

or

just idea of the actual

the

at

comes

an

the

by

Athabaskan

significanceis unknown

force:

analysis of the word

the

whole

as

modal

own

enced
experi-

the

temporal

past

is afforded

elements,

exact

momentaneous

"

incidental

easily undertaken,
word

active

another

apparently inceptive or

three

whose

0-

one's

on

blow,"

(identical with

only in

and

"to

sa

in

as,

(or -i-) and

-y-

made

As

"

have

to

about-cause-d-as

raft)."

by

"blanket"),

cause,

is not

stem,

it is preceded

prefix qia- "with

"mouth"),

to

perfective

wrapped

given above, the main

of the

end

*tfe

Finally,a typical Tlingit example

q!a-o-dt-sa"(he) blew
example

"

-da

statement

hand-blanket-be

Ath.

to

stem

elements,

indicating that the

authority:
by

reference

on

may

word

is quite

substantival
tivized
be substanmay

often

110

VI

American

Indian

Languages

539

indifferently used

be
the

Haida

stem

is used

either

"to

last."

be

call;"

"song;

CL

particularly
-k/ar]'"to

common

"ice,"

Kato

-t^arf"to

steam."

which

languages

have

H.

"fire," Ath.
H.

in

to

in

their

dal

"to

Ath.

go

"to

carry

"to

handle

based

or

found,

kill

move

upon

club;"

t'an

Kato

-si'l

Examples
Tl.

position;"

qia'n

*tc'el "steam,"

Ath.

"to

*-das

burn,

to

sq.'ao"to

H.

-'a

but

corresponding

Still

lead

animate

an

or

hair.

Hupa

is in

several;"
-yen

position,"

characteristic

round

"

(by

-\c
a

thing;"
handle
"to

rope)

such

are

here

"to
-'e/^'
are

fan

Hupa

-t'an

move

thing
any-

(by

rope)

single animal;"

object," -djol "to

In Haida

or

lead

verbs

interesting psychologically to

classifications

kill

"to

go;"

more

go

(one person),"

go

tUda

"to

gu

of the object affected; e.g., Tl.

carry

are

of objects.

Tl.

e.g.,

"to

object

flexible;" Navaho
-los "to

it is

object;
q'a

they

applying specifically

verbs

"several

position."

number

or

person,"

"one

is that

stems

long object," -k^os "to

hay, wool,

one

or

H.

*-del

the shape

is flat and

act
as

"to

in

are

pair of animals,"
"to

go

(plur.);

on

by

(plur.);"

long thing," t\ "to

that

is formed

goes,"

person

objects

distinctions

be

"to

at

verb

plural subject

or

(sing.),"-ya

objects

are

of the Na-dene

Tl. sliql "dish,"

particular class

of these

(plur.);"tHa

"several

-tW

sort

perfectly natural

one

coals," Ath.

Na-dene

to

range

*-ya "one

stand

use

in another.
has

"liquid

"live

many

singular, dual,

(one person),"

of

simplest type
a

in

verbs

name,

Chipewyan

it is

fire,to burn;"

das

as

*ts!ai, *ts!a- "dish,"

peculiarity

limited
The

*-k^a

"to

"steam,"

si'l

nouns

this

k!ari' "withes,"

baskets;"

as

to

of

dish."

-xal

only

used

build

H.

"club,"

less

apparently

name;

verbs

circumstances

Ath.

"to

"voice,

Navaho

specialized

steam;"

singe;" Ath.
put

become

*-k!an

"to

sgal

found

are

is

usage

e.g.,

dwell," go't

adjectival verb

an

Kato

make

cold;"

these

"liquid,"

xao

xal

"to

be

Under

that stems

(e.g., sa

Athabaskan,

-tUo

or

Thus,

stem.

"to

and

Denominative

Chipewyan

"grass,"

tlfo

are:

in

"house"

elasticityof

occur

sing").

to

twist;"

Hupa

"to

examples

though

marked,

this

Tlingit

denominating

"buttocks"

meaning

noun

In

both

indicates

na

as

predicating or

as

act

do

such

upon
not

observe

expressed by another

to

seem

that
means,

Six:

Athabaskan

111

Languages

Na-Dene

and

540

by the

namely

"cubic
/c/1,5-

e.g.,

of

use

objects, such

paddles,"

sticks and

Structure.

Verb

In

fixed

have
verb

and

Athabaskan

analyzed

not

element

demonstrative

form, be missing;

exemplified in

modal"

two

of the

pronominal
temporal-

enclitic

as

in

may,

of elements

order

"first

lar
particu-

general type

same

do

prefix

stem

the stem

more

The

which

best considered

are

but

or

verb

of

stems

verb

element^

elements

single form.

subject of

element^

of these

particles). Any

be

may

elements

other

to

syntacticsuffix (these

sufifix +

modal

verb

objective pronominal

referring

modal"

"third

subject

certain

"second

element

modal"

the

other;

prefix (including original noun

connections'*) +

other

in

occur

Athabaskan

typical

and

chiefly objective reference,^

that

classes

postpositions,^petrified demonstrative

local

stems,

certain

of the complex, particularly in

adverbial

consisting of:

as

The

of

consists

relatively to each

the end

Tlingit.

verb

the

grouped into

complex

gravitatestowards

stem

prefixes;

sq!a- "long objects, like

languages

be

may

the

in

position

boxes,

as

all Na-dene

series of elements, which

"

"flat objects."

ga-

"

of classifying nominal

series

long

as

may

given

be

above

varies slightlyfor different dialects.

in its general features

Quite similar

given

be

analysis may

E.

g.,

Hupa

t'a- "water,"

E.

g.,

Hupa

ye-

'

E.

g.,

"same

E.

na-

in

other

stems

be

identical

may

'These

as

signifi-

"after."

xa-

indefinite

with

object

as

reference

to

indefiniteness
These

origin.
*na-

At
da-

With
"two"

of

verbs

saying

doing,

and

xa-

least

"modal"

elements

certain

"aspects,"

sets

notions

such
of

alongside

may

"to

sit

of absolute

be

indefinite

independent

(sing, subject)";
*nak'e, in,

e.g.,

not

are

i. e.,

define.

to

easy

defining

as

inception, continuation,

range

distribution,

They
of

are

activity
cessation,

best
with
and

object.

"modal"

is to

as

these

*-da

verb

of. Ath.

(found,

of

denoting

na'-

rest,"

to
some

men").

"two

na-nin

"coming

no'-

of

elements,

significance

on,"

"again."

na-

indicating

two

considered

"

"to,"

wa-

as

with

na-diT) "twice,"

Hupa

modal"

surface,

over

or

prefix of instrumental

nominal

"resting

da-

Hupa

g..

movement
verb

used

The

sa'- "mouth."

"into,"

a-

Tlingit.

in

forms

before."

as
*

Hupa

of Athabaskan

structure

pronominal object (best considered

as:

form)

procliticto verb

the

of corresponding

is that

forms

verb

to

also

elements
are

largely

define

bound

voice, i.

e.,

are

difficult

up

in usage

such

notions

to

with
as

define

and,

idiomatic
transitive,

like

"first"

factors.

intransitive,

and
Their
and

"second

primary
passive.

112

VI

Indian

American

Languages

541

object

not

are

Athabaskan
elements

follows:

as

However,

merely

The

Haida

used

(several of which,
element

-f-main

verb

independent

verb, adjective,

noun,

in

real.

There

is

represented

scheme

in

be

may

origin

originally

mental
instru-

subject +
and

noun

verb

stems

-j- classifyingnominal
old

stems)

noun

originwhich

have

prefix
prefixed

-f-auxiliaryverb

stem

less
(doubt-

stem

become

specialized

(in origin independent

element

adverb

or

of

elements

verbal

adverbial

quasi-suffixes)+

as

than

proper,

of

all, are

stems

form

of degree of coalescence

are

verb

independent

corresponding

independently)

perhaps
''

in

as

mined
definitelydeter-

verb

apparent

verb

subject and

as

occupy

the

of

framework

considered

object -+- pronominal

pronominal

capable of being

verbal

the

more

difference

the

before

prefix (most of which

adverbial

quasi-

pattern

pronominal

they

as

from
is

Tlingit

elements.

distinct

stem

the

best

are

difference

and
here

into

immediately

structural

involved

and

Tlingit

speech.

Athabaskan

Haida

closely welded

as

positions
their

verb

Athabaskan

the

In

of Haida.

and

of

prefix' +

widely from

more

is that

structure

"second

subject +

syntactic suffix.

temporal suffix +
Differing

pronominal

modal"

"third

prefix +

modal"

prefix ^ +

modal"

"first

cance*

stems)* +

locative

suffix

poral-modal
tem-

suffix.

This

as

analysis of

"

E.

These

g.,

the

lu- "nose,

qfa- "mouth,"
elements

causation,

do

partly

Athabaskan,

form

not

voice,

aspect,

Haida

to

is not

It should

complete.

point."
well-defined

class.

indefiniteness

and

tense,

certain

verb

adverbial

of

subject.

prefixes, partly

in

correspond,

They

perhaps

notions

such

embrace

They

"first

to

modal"

elements.
'These

two

of

sets

"modal"

(perfective, progressive,
They

find

no

"

class.

instrumental

in

Two

far

to

as

"first

known,

modal"

define

and

Athabaskan

various

aspects
tional).
transi-

momentaneous,

particularly

more

modal"

"third

to

elements

Tlingit.
of which

elements,
It does

As

primarily

seem

inceptive, repetitive,

Athabaskan

to

elements.

counterpart
These

position."
of this

correspond

modjil"

"second

prefixes

completive,

not

of

the

Swan
to

seem

me

elements

ton

that
are

prefix, the

other

as

classifies

these

into

verb

lists four,
there
best

regarded

real

necessity

in initial

"stems
for

setting up

the

classifiers,one

nominal

as

regularly

stem

by him

termed

are

is any

compounded

with

other

as

an

stems

(see below).
'

this

Swanton

sub-classification,

even

if

three

groups

justified, is of

no

of "stems

in

terminal

particular consequence

position,"
here.

but

Six:

Na-Dene

and

Athabaskan

113

Languages

542

be

observed, first of all,that

with

accordance

latter

(e. g.,

q'a-dl-da

canoe-cause").

preposed
suffix

into

If

elements
stems,

all

we

nothing

may

reduce

modal

Naturally, in

contains

form

subject +

instrumental

verb

-+- locative

and

Athabaskan

languages

Na-dene

"

in

common.

I do

not,

prefixes are
always

older,

operates

forms

verb

to

course,
as

suffix

prefix +

-f- temporal-

"

of type:

verb

stem

comparatively small

based

than

several

verb

form

Haida

form.

ized
largely a specialNa-dene

on

generally

I.

filled.

in its older

processes.

form

must

This
the

nearly resembles

more

the

prefix +

element.

temporal-modal

-f

have

analyses given,

we

traits

important

given.

first

one

find

of verb

that

the

logy
morpho-

are:

to

that

imply

elements,
type

"

inal
pronom-

classifying nominal

prefix +

verbal

verbal

feed

"

to:

pronominal object -\-pronominal

as:
,

three

mean

adverbial

for complexes

whole

peculiar features,

These

of

Tlingit schemes
the

Comparing

than

more

suffixed

is doubtless

verb

typical Haida

its

suffixes

originally independent

only

the

probably

though

despite

the

of the

member

makes

and

stand

"

form

verb

stem

stems

temporal-modal

I. -f- II. +

"

in its present

the

verb

suffix).

be defined, eliminating II.,

scheme,

"

stem

predominant

reason

go-into

to

prefixesor

evidence

stems

of

development,

the

to

together by

Each

theoreticallypossible positions are

the

this

Haida

I., II.,

given

any

composition

For

suffixed

analysis of

the above

continuative

sufifix +

of

the

prefix -j- classifyingnominal

instrumental

number

is held

compounded

but

which

in

element,

locative

which

pronominal subject +

object +

"

independent

complex.

verb

auxiliary

are

literally

by derivative

internal

as

assume,

that

probable,

of the

end

logicallyapply

not

temporal-modal elements, like continuative

certain

we

verb

by auxiliary

followed

are

more

or

itself attended

be

may

(including even

verb

the

(or suffixes)at

-gar]-).

two

other; thus, locative

aboard,"

(or pronouns) and

pronoun

compound

does

take

to

compound

and

in

fluctuates

elements

each

to

stem

element

"

Secondly,

combine

may

locative

if the

stems,

of

order

their logical relation

directlyfollow the main

suffixes
verb

the

already

than

all instrumental

all "stems

in existence.

of

terminal

and

classifying nominal

position."

Analogy

Six:

Athabaskan

Na-Dene

and

115

Languages

544

usitative
in

-y-

in

-tc

Waida.
of

nature

Tlingit u-q^ox-tc"he

enclitic

that!"

say

series

In

ways.

also in

"to

the

to the main

be

may

(e. g., Hupa

i.

form

-Cuw-tsle

eat-be,"
he-was9. A

to

the

will

More

i. e., "to

may

but,

be
as

e.

of

will be

one

or

the

Haida

termed
is much

sentence

form

to

pick berries"); cf.

such

food,"

give much

to

or

is suffixed

ing
hear"), indicat-

otherwise

of verb

type

perceived

composition

independent

is

forms

verb

gax-yi'-sa-tH "cry you-will-be,"

Haida

compounds

Hupa. tc/i[n]-nLrj-ya

t^a'-ga "to

as

"he-came

wt-n-tfe

always came."
in all Na-dene

languages

is

objective pronominal elements, according

to

indicate

to

again

its

logicalsubject.

in connexion

with

of the specificfeatures

any

in which
are

stem

splitting logs," Chipewyan

of two

g., Tl. gax

verb,

important than

of

presence

Differing morphologically from, yet

eat"), and

referred

manner

verb

*-ts!e "to

is heard

(cf. such

i. e., "he

verb-complex

positions
post-

is the class of Athabaskan

type

highly important feature found

is the similar
up

it in

are

wish," however,

verb

Athabaskan

cry"

(thus),"

to

stem

to, the

logicalunit;

nature

feature

another

to

verb

hear

say").

one

of subjective

use

is

Thus, the Tlingit verb

-sir} "to

the Haida

"to

Tlingit and

"you

e.,

the

prefixed

of the main

psychologicallysimilar

to

form

veloped
luxuriantly de-

lacking of the

not

Athabaskan.

stem

Nearer

hear

in

is most

gi'da-yu'an-SLtj-gato wish

auxiliary verb
stem.

-ni-d'e "to

shall see,

we

as

stems

are

in *-tsfe (cf.independent

use

"let
gLti-gat-dja-q

subordinate

to

"

as

that the action

the

na-at-de

the verb

to

cases,

(e. g., CL-t^an "to desire

compounds

in which

of verb

Tlingit and

desire"

its desiderative

verbs

most

elements,

indications

Haida,

process

Haida

these

part

compounding

in

CL

do' a-du-

Hupa

Tlingit

the

origin.

8. While

stem

looselysuffixed,in

more

in

the

in

hortatory -dja-qin

of syntactic particles,largely used

various

in

in

ni.ore

[you]!").

adorn

7. Still
a

are

-ht

-de

imperative

"(for firewood) go!" Haida

me

said"), others

particles (e. g., emphatic

"don't

win-ne-he

"had

-da-y-agam

su'

in;" perfective

kept coming

the various

linked
in

less often the

together.
miniature,

case

elements
The
not

in America,

the
we

This

pronouns.

have

going

resulting

named
to

make

structure

only psychologically,
also

morphologically.

1 16

VI

Indian

American

Languages

545

Structure.

Noun

which

stems,

noun

often

as

does

stems

noun

type of composition which

suffixing of

is the
-w,

-71,

H.

-wu;

this element
other

clauses

Tlingit

"plate

due

are

in form

the objective forms

with

of the

body

discussed

in Athabaskan

are

(e.

above

snowshoes").
used

with

g.,

"his

du-tla

-a

to

mother"

but

two

being used

wife,"

Masset

Derivative

sparingly used

are

with

Na-dene
in

verbs.

some

affixes

the

cases,

omitted

husband,"

(aside from

Na-dene.

whole
the

"his

nominalized
diminutive

identical
but

nouns

relative

particle
be-'ay-e

but

is regularly

suffix

case

of

part

nouns

analogous
suffixes

(e. g.,
Haida
those

to

and

-ga

(e. g.,/ dja'-ga

of

terms

dream").

"his

in others

sing."

are

head"

the

in

gay-e

indicating parts

relative

relative

Masset

and

td!ai

Most

the

by

Tlingit the

languages,

/ tla'l "her

in

be-di'

du-tc^u'n-i
on

relative

can

they

consistently, body

not

that

into

who

nouns;

possessive prefix except

possessive constructions
other

in

Similarly

xo'ya

observe

cf. Montagnais

followed

Chipewyan

relationship and, though

the

used

to

in Athabaskan

forms

at-ci'-yt"those

prefixed

are

pronouns

H.

town;"

of relationship and, generally speaking, those

terms

Tl.

Tl.

with

(e.g., Chipewyan

suffixing of this possessive

the

phonetic factors) ;

which-is-white"

Possessive

"his

to

-i,

first, in

the

turned

or

(its different

element

(better relative)

to it

It is important

Tlingit by

and

in Athabaskan

of Na-dene

governs

"moss

nominalized

be

may

Another

of the compound;

noun

a'n-i

beans").

canoe,

forms

verb

second

slate

to

seems

-a

noun).

member

genitivelyrelated

Tl.

"goose-lake;"

tlu'-ga "raven's
finite

the

that the first is

or

-i

(Ath. *-e, *-ye, *-ye; Tl.

the second

to

that

compounds

particularlycharacteristic

is

-a)

-l,

indicates

words

k^a-t'uwe

-ga,

machine;"

(in such

found

of the second

possessive element

regularly

qualifying noun

blood," possessive

the final vowel

with

contracted

cvc.

the

be often

to

seem

'ai "chief's

i'tHadas

Masset

have

not

Na-dene

Haida, however, simple composition

In

Tl. xa't-sla'x"* "root-hat").

monosyllabic

all three

"grass-knife,mowing

tUo-bec

preceding (e.g., Chipewyan

of

and

cv

composition,

into

enter

of type

both

are

in

absolutely,

used

of

large number

are

be

may

These

languages.
They

There

"

of
-i,

"his

k!u'g-i "its heart").

verb
suffix

forms)
is found

are

quite

in both

Six:

Athabaskan

Na-Dene

and

117

Languages

546
Athabaskan
Tl. a'-^/"

-q!)

"little lake").
often

not

are

beings
Tl.

"boys,"

ga-lar)"elder

of

prefixeswith

there

the

Kato

g.,

H.

kfwai-

series

two

differences

least in part,

at

is found

of the

rather

been

with

Tlingit

have

seen,

complex;

noun

considered

as

pendent
inde-

third

Tlingit; these

and

have

with

Athabaskan

enough

are

are

influence

no

to

cases

were

at

denoting

the

spread of

it clear

make

time

one

verbs

by

elements

objective pronominal

Tlingit

and

in

not

integralparts

of the

pronouns

in

obscured

verbs

of Haida

such,

as

we

are

which, however,

objective

there

impersonal

possessive

procliticelements.

as

may

noun.

or

of

as

objective and

Tlingit, as

be

may

Athabaskan

terms,

verb

employment

in

the

elements

the

(which

distinct

between

(in

verbs

verbs), and
are

and

elements

pronominal

Na-dene.

pronouns

verbs

neuter

objective pronominal

or,

in

subjects of active

Athabaskan

subjective forms, but

the

(e.

etymologically unrelated;

minor

denominative

the form

has

there

pronouns

complex, the possessive elements

independent

states

the

are

In both

series of pronouns

The

the

as

of

objects of impersonal

two

or

words

on

collective
for terms

brothers-in-law,"

subjects of

While

subjective and

Haida

"his

and

generally); objective

verbs,

nouns.

one

of the verb
in

used

verbs

most

possessiveseries.
the

here

classes

two

respective forms

are

found

are

are

pronouns

interpreted as

all the

Tl.

though special plural forms

are

objects of transitive
be

storage-basket,"

plurals (aside from

du-k^a'ni-yen

There

"

Athabaskan

best

"small
(/je/o'-Zc

brothers").

Pronouns.

Subjective

Noun

formed,

human

denoting
skH'-k'^

Tlingit (e.g., Hupa

and

better

that
acteristic
char-

represented

also in Athabaskan.
The

pronominal
will cook

between

contrast

subject

ha-k"-gu-wa-t!a "we
element
''I got

off"

"us":

subjective and

g.,

will

be

warm"

"it will be

warm

"

"it

am

truly

full"

is truly full

to

by

Tl.

objective

gu-x-t^u-si't"we

element

t^u-

"we")

and

(with objective pronominal

to

(with subjective pronominal

skfistl-djdi'-gaI
di' "me":

exemplified, e.

with

(with subjective pronominal

it"

ha-

is

forms

verb

us"); by
element

H.
I

q^a-t!al-gan

"I")

and

di'

(with objective pronominal element

me");

and

by

Hupa

o-r]-xai"thou

118

VI

Indian

American

Languages

547

ni[k]-^!-o-u"ar}"go

and

element

"

sleep

Tl.

as

tire

tl-gaxa-gd-ga "you
ni-l-t\r]"he

The

up."

by

follow

the

of

set

be

origin)can

corresponding

more

These

facts

back,

aside

or

to

earliest period of Na-dene

arrive
In

origin, the

in

nouns

an

-laye "on

top

with
the

Kato
that

t!a

preceding

compare

"behind,"

same

show

noun

less

No

local

and

verb

be

to

with

cognate

Out

elements.
at

of

least fifteen
both.

or

reach

of Na-dene
into

the

that

it is impossible

that

postpositions

Haida

noun

"edge"

t!al

and

Hupa

element;
for

stem

stem

to

may

in

top"

for "end,

back

of,"

-t!a-ze "back"

cases

Hence

have

pounded
com-

-bQ. "around,"
With

(Ath. *mar], *man).

"behind,

some

are

-lai,Chipewy-

Kato

Chipewyan

-^'a "surface."

Navaho
stem

logical
morpho-

-+- postposition forming

noun

respectivelyChipewyan

-/.''a
"tail," and

the

of

simply the

similarly employed

Tlingit
"on"

the

is

nLfi-tcht]

developments,

dialectic

Thus,

noun.

of"

st'al-ai st'a

evidence.

complex

originally a compound

regularly

Tlingit, Haida,

in

it is possible to

cases

some

Atha-

probability postpositions

linguistichistory

by comparative

at

eggs;"

Hupa

by Goddard,

listed

nominal
pro-

uncle."

languages.

Haida-Tlingit

or

later

certain

from

"our

H.

the postpositional elements

that

objective

which

"

dala-q

yafn]-

Tlingit, and

(e. g.,

nominal
pro-

tive
transi-

Hupa

of

postpositions

elements

similar

and

use

three

in all

forms

di'

offer remarkable

in the

are

postpositions

show

H.

less confidently stated

Tlingit,

Haida,

related

be

to

seem

shall see,

w^e

twenty-five Hupa

us;"

them

postpositions

These

as

cured

evening-towards

thirty-five Athabaskan

prefixes (which,
in

"

etymological analogies

about

than

such

elements

limits

that

xa'na-de

"ground-toward").
and

with

ha'-q'aha'gu

relational

and

pronoun

Tl.

cliff from;"

"the

local

or

noun

them

of Haida,

"

is

verb

nL[t]-t''ai
"thy paternal

Postpositions. Very characteristic

baskan

the

handling;"

Tl.

pronominal

impersonals with

possessive

Hupa

daughter";

gi'da "my

have

your

is illustrated

elements
di'

with

me

thee

picks

indeed

are

"they

ha-u-si-ne'x

That

thee!").

to

"thou")

-77-

objective

clear by comparing

is made

object
forms

H.

it

objective pronominal subject

with

(with

sleep!"

to

"let

"thee":

I-

element

subjective pronominal

(with

buying"

art

and

Tl.

k'a

(body-part),
it is

intelligible

developed

inde-

Six:

Athabaskan

Na-Dene

and

119

Languages

548

pendently into distinct postpositions

e.

g., Ath.

postposition,
nominal
the

wan

"edge"

to"

as

"close

fact that

they

mi-ye

di'

demonstrate

the

Whether

the

of"

the

/'o* does

not

relational

verb

the

is evidently
us."
can

In

hardly
"he

-dtn-nt

verb,

which

Thus,

the

cases

told

doubtless

"to,"

identical

Ath.
when

in

*-d, *-de,
we

bear

with

yi'

Tl.

de-n

in mind

verb

to-him-spoke"
with

have

after

form,

that

the

indirect

"look

for it!"
"after

no'-xa

elements

e.

which

L[t\a-ya-l-tc!

g.,

"it"

a-

as

in verbs

like

or

merely

in

immersed

"to"

These

local

already
are

in

-xa

postpositive

"to, at").

"in

firmly attached

appears

da-

"down

t^a'-k

as

ways,

We

objective
Tl.

parative
com-

*-/'a "among,"

xa-n-t^e

comes

-I "with"

parallel is

origin
*

Ath.

in two

in

xa-

the

indefinite

da-ya-dii-q^a "thus

g., ye

Tl.

somewhat

identical

from

the

demands

ments
ele-

only by

with

suffixes.

become

Hupa

(here

them"

(or more)

among").

forms

postposition

disconnected

be

prefix; morphologically
e.

have

etymologically

some

H.

local prefixes of Athabaskan

of the

complex.

two

-me'-qU

"on-at;"

"

contains

"down

verb

is

In

Costa

analyzed

particularly

syntactic

as

postpositionsin origin that

to

and

with

and

be

can

originally meant

several

that

indicated

that

alone; comparison

combine

prefixes

Chasta

the

t^a'yi "under"

"with,"

have

Postpositions

Tl.

occur

of," t\-n

fa'yi to

unit

(e. g.,

middle

shows

into

grown

others

to

of this view.
themselves.

-k'a-q! "on"

in

di'

like

actually

correctness

g.,

anchor;"

postpositions

among

(e.

Tl.

"in-from");

"

evidence
but

in,"

(originally

able

Na-dene

of the

is evident

"therein-at;"

of"

all

compounded

occur

analysis

"

have

origin of

be

like

bottom")

vicinity")

ever

by

pronouns:

them"

"my

shall

we

be littledoubt

can

Postpositions often

gei-st^a"out

"its

The

probable

very

"after

hasdu-q^a'nax

nominal

doubtful, but there

"inside

made

(originallyperhaps

father."

cases

is further

(originally perhaps

Tl.

me"

go'ri-ga "my

some

Tlingit element.

following") like hasdu-cayi'tia-yi "their

"to

ga

it"

face;"

"their

perhaps

Athabaskan

as

frequently preceded by possessive

are

"under

mL[n]-nLr] "its

languages;

Na-dene

"around"

means

corresponding

origin of postpositions

Hupa

H.

Tl.

*man,

in different

Ath.

-de

facts

constant

of saying,

a-l-, which

"to,"
are

object,

the

Masset
not

nominal

is
da
prising
sur-

or

120

VI

Indian

American

Languages

549

(e.

Hupa

g.,

they-drifted;"

remains

of the object (which then

to

the

bring

Hupa

example

the removal

form

like

xa-n-tU

the

postposition
to

be

as

well

if

find

we

Such

of;"

for

classifier

hoop,"

and

in

postpositive
nominalizes

-t!a

and

developments
to

This
two

by

have

taken

extent

extent

for

Athabaskan
is not

prising
sur-

positions,
post-

as

postpositive
from,

ts, cf. also

in the

even

other

out

st'a-

H.

have

to"

"to, at").

Tl.

of verb

forms

(cf.

"he

as

to

subordinate

"with

Such

in the

the

-ya

it is put
both

and

(e. g., has

go
-",

a-ga-ca'-n

syntactical
guages,
lan-

Na-dene

dialects.
even

where

postposition for

same

is different

which

it")

("he-was-

Athabaskan

back

it.

angry,"

was

he-tla

angry"

was

various

nominalized

he

angry").

employed

order

and

use

of

things, by the fact that

Tl. -/ "in

*-de

the

serves

place independently

which

purposes,

out

that

tsa-bg.'s"ceremonial

of"

of his being

to

syntactic

clauses

less

Haida

to

conceived

hi-l-tde

subordinates

languages

*-da

to

in

st': Ath.

account

on

is indicated, among

"if"

seem

observe

we

like hi-l-tc!t-t!a "because

form

"with,

some

Na-dene

H.

postposition which

because-of," "because

angry

the

"into"

yt-

*tse-, *tsi-r}"away

is sometimes

such

as

Chipewyan

"ring").

form

is followed

Thus,

not

longer used

prefixes, no

(for

prefix

prefixes,it

verb

objects: Navaho

ring-shaped

yo-s-tsa

verb

after"

st'a "from,

H.

to

gei la q^a'-tdi-

g.,

again

tendency

is Ath.

example

an

e.

coalesce

etymologically

corresponding
elements.

Here
to

the

of such

cases

last

of

use

does

object

verb

Hupa

to

specializedas

become

postpositions to

of

view

In

Athabaskan.

than

the

example gei is morphologically,

elements

distinct

allowed

has

Haida

In

Tlingit this

In

"in").

postposition-ye

(cf.Chipewyan

removal

postposition

verb.

the

in Haida,

last

etymologically, parallel

as

the

from

unexpressed

the

a-da

expressed object {xo'-)leads

abound

In

he went-in."

"into

gan

with

Tl.

the

only

needs

with

quoted.

first

examples

but

common,

touch

of the

prefix

verb

as

It

understood)

closer

into

latter

postposition

la-gei la sk' U-nana-q-xida-

H.

began-to-chop-up").

he

"it-into

its

by

thou-wilt-look;"

"him-for
t^(-r]-\n-t'e

xo'-xa

a-o-H-t'aq! "it-around
i-as

is followed

and

verb

the

pronominal, precedes

to

make
"when

(e.g.,

Na-dene

Ath.

positive
post-

subordinate

they marry;"

Six:

Athabaskan

Na-Dene

and

121

Languages

550

a-t^e'-x-ya "when
"in

-ya

of

means

the

followed

suffixed

by

the-to").

The

degree

Summary.

has

It

"

points of
In

three.

not

than

thoroughly alive

few
in

that

present

compounded

(or

by

died

place-

and

verb

significant

illustrated

are

in

merely

Haida

sporadic

as

are

as

vivals
sur-

distributive

as

in Tlingit

lingers on

nouns,

of

in all

processes) which

even

and

(e. g.,

occur

differences

languages linger on

after numerals

-na-x

formed

and

unimportant

not

numerals, postpositions, and

suffix with

then

morphologies of

numerous

freely used

-xa,

being

Athabaskan.

the

characteristics

of the

one

by

postposition

Tlingit and

elements

(e. g.,

in another

in

Despite

cases

forms

{g)ai also

of

evident

fundamental

same

In

died," literally"he

coalescence

become

comparison.

detail, the

he

positive
post-

"with, at."^

clauses

preceding

Athabaskan

Haida, Tlingit, and

-n

Subordinate

"after

less in Haida

and

with

{g)ai "the," these

dliC.

of

identical

by nominalizing verb

demonstrative

postpositive

again much

as

formed

are

/ k!ota'l-an sd-e-t

Masset

of"

neighbourhood

of postpositions without

means

doubtless

slept"), are

temporal clauses

Haida

is

she

plural

noun

*-k\ *-k'e,*-k'ai in Athabaskan).

Considerable
Peculiar

Haida

to

the development

are

a
classifiers,
great exuberance

of

development

the

in

looseness

which,

e.

the

degree

of

employment
in Haida,
and
than
"

My

diffeis from

however,

gone

the

of

in

the

of

distinction

static verbs

with

tions.
postposi-

changes
active

objective

in

Athabaskan
a

and, it would

with

pronouns

great
seem,

differences.

tense

verbs

unite

of purely

elements,

for

in

Tlingit).

number

with

shares

pronominal

between

greater

often

this

to

the smallest

stem

and

element

prefixes denoting aspects

internal

the

stems,

farthest in Athabaskan,

analogies

It

nominal

verb, and

elements

for.

allowed

large class of

"modal"

have

to

seems

independence

of verb

development

pronouns

suffixes

morphologic features.

distinctive

As

whole,

of

of pronominal

are,

be

course,

composition of verb

pronominal subject and

g.,

Tlingit,on

the

local

treatment

inextricably (there

lesser

of

set

of

synthetic tendency has

The

of

specialization must,

subjective

is better

served
pre-

in Athabaskan.

interpretation of
Swanton's,

at

Tl.
least

-/, -ya,
as

far

and
as

-n

as

syntactically specialized postpositions

expressed

in his

grammatical

sketch.

Six:

Athabaskan

Na-Dene

and

Languages

123

552

Athabaskan

23.
24.

-ye,

-yel "to

-ywo

"tooth"

fight"

kill, to

hai

26.

he-,

gail "to

fight"

hao

"

"

that

"they"

hu

27.

X0-,

28.

-^'a

"liquid has position"

29.

-k'an, -k'a "to

30.

-k^a "on"

31.

-^'e

32.

k'ene

33.

kla "arrow"

q!a' "harpoon'

34.

kleri "withes"

qian "grass"

35.

-klan

36.

-k!e

37.

-k'os, k'es "to

fish with

xao

"liquid"

xao

"to

"

this

has

him"

he-

"he,

"

he

"they"

xe-

"tooth"

ux

"that"

25.

Tlingit

Haida

"he"

fish"

net"
-k'a "on"

personal

plural

noun

-xa

distributive

suffix

distributive

-na-x

eral
num-

suffix
"friend"

q!a "point"

burn"

"to

q!a'n "fire"
-q! "at"

"on"
tie"

k^u "to

38. 4 "with"

tie"

al "with"

39.

1-, la negative

40.

la "one"

41.

-la "to

I
ila'- "the
tla' "to

jump"

negative

tie'- "one"

first'
dive"

tlan "end"

42.

-lad "end"

43.

lo',lok' "fish"

44.

-///a "butt;

45.

me-

"he, it"

46.

man

"edge"

47.

mes

48.

-n,

49.

-na

50.

-nan

51.

-ne,

tUu'k!

local

"cohoes"

-dlga "after"

behind"

wa-

"that"

"that"

we

"edge"

wan

"cheek"
-77

"friend"

xo'n

"cheek"

wac

postposition

-n,

general

-rj

position
post-

"with,"

-n

also

local

postposition

52.

"person, people"

-n

-neg,

-leg "to

53.

-ne

54.

-ni

"to
one's

no

ntal, nil

drink"

"to

"to

55.

die"

"to

play"
touch,

na

"to

do

na

"people"

nik
nar]

to

"to

dit.

live; house"

relate"

with

die"

na

"to

tell"

dit.
ni

put"

"to

hands"

"place

of

56. -onay{e) "older

retreat,

brother"

land"
is-

mi

"fort"

hu7ix

"man's

older

brother"
57.

5-

durative

verb

prefix

s-

modal

prefix

124

VI

American

Indian

Languages

553
Athabaskan

58.

-sen

59.

sil

60.

-/'a

Haida

Tlingit

hide"

"to

"to

hide"

sil "to

steam"

si't "to

cook"

t^a-oan

"alongside of"

-Ca'-k^

"in

Sin

"steam,"

-sil

"to

steam"

"among"

the

middle

of"
61.

/'a "wave"

62.

-t'an "to

/'a- verb

referring to

63. -t'e "to

prefix

water

eat"

look

"sea-water"
t^a'ria

fa

dit.

/'a'g/"to

for," -t^an "to

tiln

chew"

"to

see"

look"

64. -/'e "to

cold," /'en "ice"

be

65. -t'e "to lie"

/'a/ "cold"

/'at,/'t "to

t^a'dj"cold"
lie"

/'at

"to

lie," /'a "to

sleep"
66.

i^ez

67.

-tla "because

68.

tla

"night"

/'c*/ "night"
of"

"feather,"

-tla dit.

-t!a "to

fly"

tiagun
"

69. -tla

"tail,"

70.

-ties "to

71.

-tlo "to

72.

-tlod "to

73.

tsa

74.

tslai "dish"

wards"
tIa-Tj "back-

step"

"feather,"

feather-like

-tial "back

tla "to

tlao-

object
"

of

tia-wu

"feather"

'

"tla "behind"

step"

shoot"

tluk

rub"

"to

tlus "to

"ring-like object"

st^a-

"ring-shaped

sqlao

"to

put

shoot'
rub"

ject"
ob-

in

shql "dish"

dish"
75.

-tslen "bone"

76.

tsli

77.

-/c't "grandfather"

sla'q "bone"

"again"

tslu

"

78. -/c'ot; mother-in-law

79.

tela "hat"

80.

tcio "fir, spruce"

81.

-ifa

"for"

82.

xa-

"up,

tc\n
"

djo'n dit.

tc^a'n dit.

sja'x" "hat"
tcju "cedar"
"to"

-xa-n

of"

out

k'wagi

83. xfl' "goose"

xaha

84.

xao-

"quickly"

xa-T)

"again"

dit.

"above"

k^e

"upward"

"mallard"
"to

do

thing

quickly"
85.

-xan,

86.

xin

87. -ya
88.

-yan

"to

-yan

"old

xan

grow

up,"

"to

"old

ci'

"song"

person"

age"

"song"
"to

can

stand
eat"

'

(plur.)

ga

"to

stand"

ya'n

"

to

eat"

Six:

125

Languages

Na-Dene

and

Athabaskan

554

III.

phonetic

The

despite

of similarity.

of

systems

differences

Three

types

of detail, present

of stops

phonetic

feature

in

found

not

(b and

Na-dene

only doubtfully (Ath.

Haida

to

m,

Haida

while
the

Na-dene

lost

as

In

in

held

anterior
in

such
the

sounds

to

of the

rare

Haida-Tlingit
lost the

old

and

p!

existed

dialects,is not

w), while

lent
equivacertainly

was

series of stops

velar

preserved them;
in

palatals,best preserved

such,

as

other

the

on

Na-

clearly

were

sounds),

Haida

b in certain

whence

developed.

by the three

common

and

Haida,

hand,

have

been

Tlingit.
elaborate

more

their
is

evidence

to

has

/"'are

Tlingit have

and

preparation,

more

but

Athabaskan

found.

m,

intermediate

well

are

languages is the paucity of labials; b, p\

dene

of

laterals

affricatives,k-spirants, and

remarkable

points

glottalized(fortis). Sibilants

(or sonant), aspirated surd, and

sibilant

Tlingit,

important

in each

found

are

and

Haida,

Athabaskan,

many

good

Phonology

the

paper

historical

Na-dene

Here

worked

and
out

it will suffice

of

Haida
on

to

important correspondences, referring to

comparative vocabulary

languages in

the Na-dene

relationship

prototypes

systematically

available.

on

for illustrative

the

point
the

Athabaskan

the
and

Tlingit

basis
out

course

of

some

numbered

examples.

spondents
corre-

all the
of the
entries

VI

126

Languages 2

Indian

American

555

Stopped
1.

d,

H.

d:

Ath.

-t:

Tl. d, -t (nos. 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10,

/': H.

3. Ath.

//: H.

//: Tl. // (nos.

H.

g:

5. Ath.

/fe":Tl. k'

(no. 30)

/fe":H.

Tl. y

Ath.

g:

x:

x:

8. Ath.

k': H.

fe'

(no. 37)
(nos. 17, 87)

3/,(^):
H.^

10.

Ath.

ife/pH.
g/PTl.g/

11.

Ath.

': H.

12.

Ath.

13.

Ath.

67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72)

(nos. 28, 29, 31, 32)

Ath.

(nos. 33, 34. 35, 36)

g': Tl. g' (nos. 96,

7:

H.

y:

H.

21)

Tl. k' (no. 82)

jfe'(M^):

H.

7. Ath.

9.

12,

Tl. g, -k (nos. 15, 16, 52)

4. Ath.

6.

11,

(nos. 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66)

Ath.

/": Tl. /'

2.

Consonants

Tl.

g:

98)

97,

g: Tl. g (nos. 18, 21,

23)

22,

(no. 93)

g, 7

Continuants
14.

Ath.

m:

15.

Ath.

n,

H.

Tl.

w:

-7)-. H.

(nos. 45, 46, 47)

-77:

n,

Tl.

(nos. 3, 8,

14,

15, 32, 34, 35,

46, 48, 49, 50, 51

52, 53- 54. 55- 56, 58, 63, 78, 85, 88, 98)
16.

Ath.

/, I: H.

17.

Ath.

s:

18.

Ath.

19.

Ath.

20.

Ath.

y:

21.

Ath.

22.

Ath.

x:

23.

Ath.

h,

24.

Ath.

7:

H.

/, I: Tl. I (nos. 4, 7,

(j): H.
x{"

5,

X,

H.

H.

(nos. 3,

11,

4,

dialects):Tl.

H.

vowel):

(before front

x:

10,

22,

23,

38, 39, 59)

(nos. 9, 57, 58, 59)

47)
(nos. 85, 86)

Tl. y (nos. 88, 89, 95)

g:

H.

dj: Tl.

in most

H.

Tl.

dj:

s,

Tl.

h:

Tl. h (nos. 25,

Tl.

g:

7,

(g): Tl.

(nos. 90,

91, 92,

93,

94)

(nos. 20, 81, 83, 84)

x:

26, 27)

(nos. 19,

-x

20,

56)

24,

Affticatives
25.

Ath.

26.

Ath.

dj:

dj, tc' (nos.

H.

14)

13,

27.

Ath.

/c': H.

tc\ dj: Tl. tc' (nos. 77, 78)

28.

Ath.

tcl: H.

/c/: Tl. s!

29.

Ath.

ts!: Tl.

30.

Ath.

tsl: H.
"to

Consonant

main

Haida

(nos. 75, 76)

til: Tl. tl! (e.g., Ath.

Clusters.

"

stems

or

is

above

An

Tl. tllel

*-/5.'e"penis":

dit.; Ath.

*-tsIi

tl!a-{o-)
dit.)
sibilants

study of Na-dene
and

(17, 18,

elements
a

The

involved

developments.

first element

(nos. 79, 80)

sit [plur.sub].]": H.

given

summary

/i/,5/

is rather

affricatives

the

/^: Tl. // (nos. 40, 41, 42, 43)

I: H.

presents

beginning

lateral (I,tl!,dl)

group

with
or

sibilant

several difficulties.

19, 26, 27, 28, 29,

important

and

30)

of

consonant

sibilant

cases

exhibits

some

is afforded

clusters

The
of

by

whose

(5). Swanton,

in

127

Languages

Na-Dene

and

Athabaskan

Six:

556
commenting
due

the

to

There

these

on

prefixing of

is,however,

other

clusters, surmised

I have

hand,

at

whatever

which

point clearly to

the

found

in Na-dene

correspond

in Athabaskan

and

to

inference

that

(e. g., 1-, s-).

to

the

examples

clusters

were

affricatives

sibilant

followingrelations

The

Tlingit.

such

Haida

lateral and

On

this.

support

these

perhaps

were

of twenty

disposalupwards

my

and

they

old morphological element

an

evidence

no

that

lished
be estab-

can

A.

31.

H.lg-: Ath.

///-

32.

H.lq'-: Ath.

tU-

33.

H.

dig-: Ath. tU- (no. 44)

34.

H.

It'-: Ath.

/c'-

H.'x-: Ath.

tcl-

36.

H.

tUd-:

fsl-

37.

H.

sg-:

35. H.

B.

(?)

38. H.

Ath.
Ath.

(cf.30.)
(?)

Is-

sq!-: Ath.

(?)

39.

sg-,

40.

H.

sqlw-: Ath. tcl-

41.

H.St'-:

42.

H.

St'-: Ath.

tc'-

43.

H.

St!-: Ath.

id-

Vowels.

"

(sk'w-): Ath. tc'-: Tl. tc'-

Ath.

ts-

its!-):Tl. t'-

great majority of vowel

The

intelligible;
a
remain.

In

(no. 74)

ts!-: Tl. si-

H.

certain

comparing

it is necessary

of

Tlingit with

Haida

in

bear

to

number

mind

that,

circumstances, Tlingita has developed

"he

a-xe'-x

seven";
is
to

be

directlycompared
evidence

*t'e'- "in
with

assumed

for the

Na-dene

a;

such

the

less

"two":

de'x

presented by Ath.

comparison

what

Tl.

Tl. /'a "stone":

Athabaskan
Ath.

ate";

(e. g., Tl.

(doubtless open

in

with

(e.

Tl.

g.,

e.

Ath.

It is

Haida

and

Tlingit, that

earliest Athabaskan

frequently Ath.

*-i^a

Ath.

back

to

phonetic circumstances, however, Na-dene

in Athabaskan

I believe

to

phonology.

be

or
one

of

become
the

most

is not

"to

clear

important

has

from

more,

has

for the

i.

from
Under

remained

present.

problems

be

must

developed

Na-dene
a

for";

look

(which

internal

from

and, still

period)
goes

is not

quality),which

*-t^e and

five,

plus

lem
important prob-

more

clear,both

water," *t'a- "water")

eat":

"to

xa

"two

daxa-ducu

/V-5.'"stones").
e

undetermined

yet

as

forms,

Athabaskan.

and

still

problems

unsolved

under
to

is perfectly

correspondences

as

This

of Na-dene

128

VI

Languages

Indian

American

557

of the

Some
Ath.

44.

H.

a:

Tl.

a:

a,

74,

Ath.

45.

10,

46. Ath.
Ath.

47.

21,

20,

H.

i, t,

0:

H.

M,

or

not

Whether

for the

make

is

All this,however,

main

quite

conclusion

review

of

intimate

so

features

morphological
no

represents
In

no

comparable

continuum
these

are

compared

evidently passed

from

linguisticisolation
the

present

of the

conservatism

that

however,

original

of

state

sound

'

This

weak

frequently a).

vowel
Carrier

a,

Athabaskan
some

a).

Na-dene

"

that

of the

and

is,however,

distinctive

and

prototype.

said

form

to

when

dialects

language has

Na-dene

in

long period of development

dogmatize

to

I would
the

but

in

different

on

on

rash,

to

faithful
the

preserved
dialects;

e.

in

relative

the

venture

most

that,

best

are

be

It would

languages.

Na-dene,

".

It

Athabaskan
Each

are

of words

be

Athabaskan

remained

colored

correspondences

question.

languages.

features

Tlingit

and

Haida,

Na-dene

knowledge,

has

passed in

have

we

form

the

logical,
morpho-

selected

the

very

very

is differently
Navaho

remarks

few

Tlingit vocalism

languages is

of

its sister

Haida

original morphological

decided
un-

the case,

borrowing

themselves.

of

in

and

The

of the

that

to

Na-dene

system

be

to

from

mutual

of these

our

and

Tlingit

Athabaskan,

out

through

remain

must

d, Ath.

derived

that

seems

among

98)

86,

yet.

Haida, Tlingit, and

can

accent

this prove

highly differentiated

sense

be

to

each

that

less obvious

5,

Conclusion

character

in

genetically related.

considered

be

must

(g) (nos.

a,

56, 71, 72, 78, 80. 95)

possible existence

as

believe, obvious.

is,

a,

a,

17, 54, 59, 77,

12,

24, 27, 37, 43, 55,

Na-dene

vague

Tl.

":

a,

phonological evidence

lexical,and

18, 19,

14,

60, 61, 62, 67, 68, 69, 73,

64, 65, 66, 70, 75, 89, 92)

in Athabaskan
"

IV.

The

(nos.

Should

(e. g., Ath.

solved

be

its

to

as

phonological difficulties

of the

a,

Its presence

improbable.

this not

may

Legoff

49,

possessed pitch

Na-dene

present.

and

Morice

by

(nos. 16,

Tl. m, ""

0':

46,

45, 47, 51, 53.

Tl. t", ,

ei:

i,

3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 13,

i, 2,

44,

e^)'-H.

to

26, 31, 34,

22,

i:

42,

are:

84, 85, 87, 88. 96, 97)

reduced

(sometimes

{e) (nos.

a,

35, 40, 41,

81, 82, 83,

79,

a',

a,

25. 28, 29, 30, 33,

correspondences

vocalic

important

more

gest,
sug-

to

the

whole,

the

in

g.,

Tlingit.
Hupa

(less

Six:

Athabaskan

Na-Dene

and

129

Languages

558
Several
a

facts

much

too

The

should

reference

in

"Dene,"
term

for

forms

part

I have

that

name

justified by

or

Haida

"person,
of it is

compound

people";

the

old

the

of the

is

of the

old

(*-w, *-ri) which

*-ne

people"

Tl.

and

term

the

The

of

means

is

It

sense.

native

besides

concerned,

for

suffix

as

"people."

na

designates by

Dene

which,

that

in

languages

three

of the

Athabaskan

wide-spread

be

may

vocabulary.

comparative

element

thus

Na-dene,

stock,

the

dwell; house"

"Na-dene"

use

the

Athabaskan

in

used

differentiated,

become

for "person,

stem

"to

speakers

of

forms,

an

na

term

the

stems

H.

for

51

no.

had

had

have

may

of this.

made

dialectic

various

with

cognate

tinuing
con-

branch

Athabaskan

stock.

An

ethnological

important

is that

demonstration

of the

is at

Athabaskan-speaking

counted

for

reason

having

spread

seriously
is

languages
adjacent

Alaska,

clearly

should

the

region

be

long after
other.

traits

in

interior

in

was

the

consider

to

of the

Tlingit Indians,

languages

developed.

formed

Tlingit had
dialects

Athabaskan
is

Haida

may

is

Yukon

the

and

Haida

of

coast

and

southern

most

likely

Athabaskan

The

relativelyundifferentiated

differentiated

become
have

perfectly evident

They

Na-dene

southern

as

not
can-

Alaska

southern

the

present

the

of

and

as

tribes

linguistic gulf separating

great

it

in

branches

Under

of gravity

was

conclusive

no

Southern

Columbia

British

and

as

Athabaskan

as

group.

northwest,

undoubtedly

offshoot, just

long

and

center

inclined

common.

provenience

northern

there

northern

the

the

that

common

long history

in

home

Haida

The

So

The

the Na-dene

of the stock

branch

to

present

in which

peoples.

linguisticresults

our

drift of Athabaskan-speaking

of northern

Owing

Tlingit,

of the

the

doubted.

be

parts

Territory.

from

southern

last given

considering its Pacific

out

circumstances

of

consequence

linguistic stock,

separate

priori

each

after

chosen

to

prefix, is frequently

unit

and

be

not

Athabaskan

Tlingit

Hnguistic history

common

Imt

that

suggest

be

so

distinctive

many

have

they

considered

specialized island

from

had

specialized

offshoot.

Six:

genetic,

and

(Pinnow

1985a,

Sapir's

published

has

of

German)

Athabaskan

b,c,

considerable

1986a,

b,

corrigenda

ms.

from
his

on

545,

1.

32

p.

546,

1.

p.

553,

entry

p.

553,

p.

553,

p.

553,

bracketed
the

last

Sapir

Read:

-ga

63

t'i!n

t'in

entry

79

sja-x"

s!a-x"

entry

80

tcju

tc!u

entry

87

ga

ga

the

the

of
the

from

text

mark

question

sentence

by
with

note

"the

Sapir.
the

..."

consonant

On

word

p.

"revise!"

the

questions

Sapir

On

"Chipewyan-/7fl.

statement

547,
On

last

33

50;

and

Vocabulary,

the

and

Haida

33,

Clusters"]

paragraph,

in
the

30,

nos.

"Consonant
text

forms

recalculates

questions

Sapir

Sapir

60,

38

89,

74,

total

and

questions

example

an

and

entries
in

should

the
be

questions

from
list

and

eliminated.
the

the

95;

Tlingit
adds

98

Tlingit
95.

to

that

states

Swanton

"This
is

"Should

sentence

na

On

end

entries

'to

drink'

p.

558,

Sapir

notes,

beside

the

first

three

lines,

"More

first

In
22

to

the

paragraph

entry

[headed

On

557,

p.

Na-dene

prove
certain

and

Sapir

555-556,

pp.

^/)." On

of

in

right."
this

paragraph,

'ring')."
.

forms

is

indicated

549,

p.

Comparative

(Tl.)."

3, Sapir

p.

*man)/'
"Such

sentence

"Tlingit

to

footnote

541,

paragraph,

1976).

"a-laer)

1-3,

(in

follows:

as

-ga

questions

history

ga-laer)

lines

with

relationship

(Pinnow

1976

are

the

For:

p.

535,

p.

for

comprehensive

as

through

offprint

own

Original

On

1798

evidence

well

as

131

Languages

lexical

1990),

1988,

research

Na-Dene

Na-Dene

and

now."

first

Sino-Dene

The

[excerpt from

long wanted

I have

write

to

accumulates

evidence

so

Hypothesis

letter

L.

Nadene

about

you

A.

to

fast that it is hard

and

sit down

to

Kroeber]

but

Indo-Chinese,
and

give an

idea.

my

Let

me

which
I find on
say this for the present. If the morphological and lexical accord
is "accidental," then every analand Indo-Chinese
ogy
between
Nadene
every hand
on

God's

earth

that when

you

is

an

accident.

tumble

to

resisted the notion.

The

chief
would

which

Nadene

Now

can

1. Failure

belongs. It

longer

do

way

of

to realize

the

very

is

it and

lot of others

that it no

in the

stumbling-blocks
be:

no

powerfully cumulative

so

point a

one

to the idea

thoroughly accustomed

so

It is all

and

fall into line. 1

longer startles

me.

For

am

grated
intenow

while

so.
a

reallyquite alone

general acceptance of the synthesis

exceptional type of language to
in

America,
and

so

far

as

can

see.

is tremendous.

Algonkin
languages are not one-third as syntheticas
they look. Go at analysishalf-way decently and get into a critical perusal of
down
into a
realize that the complex verb breaks
and you soon
connected
text
has a syntacticor positionalvalue,
cluster of very live elements, each of which
Haida
in particular,I find, is
not
merely as "affix" but as radical element.
and
"suffixes"
knows
It
at all except for certain
no
"prefixes"
extremely analytic.
does
mention
not
even
(e.g.causative and
important survivals that Swanton
club'
"
in
s-kit
kit
denominative
'handle
to
to
a club,
'club', cf. Tlingitsl-,
sAthabaskan
"3d modal"
/-,
Tlingitittransitivizing
prefix;also Haida /calls
affixes
all
What
Swanton
also primarily transitivizing).
are
independent
is no "tense
suffix"
little verbs. There
stems
entering into composition, or even
demonstrative
of
in Haida, merely a series of enclitic phrases consisting
+
'that-is
is
His
verb
"continuative"
of
simply
being.
-gAn,
particle
e.g.,
future"
is really -'a-sa-i}'this-will-be
-asan
(duratively)',his "imminent
I think the
and so on.
It all crumbles
to pieces at the least touch.
(durative)',
the integration is
of Athabaskan-Tlingit, though here
will prove
true
same
more
thorough. But I no longer seriouslybelieve we have the rightto consider
modal"
elements
(Ath. 7-, n-, and v-)as part of
anything preceding the "second
and the subjective
these
elements
the verb and am
doubt
if
to
even
beginning
than likelythat
pronominal "prefixes"are part of the true verb. I think it more
ad
hoc\
taken
theoretic
form
Not to be missuch an Ath. form
as
*yasectk'os(purely
for genuine Ath.) 'I picked up a flexible object'is to be analyzed as *ya se
*l-k'os is the verb; the rest is a
c l-k'os 'up it-is (that)I handlc-a-flexible-object'.
that follow
in a definite
reduced
series of somewhat
independent elements
of Indo-Chinese
is the nature
itself.
order. 3. The third prejudice to overcome

The

between

contrast

2. Failure

to

Eskimo,

Wakashan,

realize that the Nadene

134

VI

Indian Languages 2

American

is a very secondarydevelopment. The most

typicalrepresentative
Tibetan
is
which
is
earlier
Nadene-like.
of the
It has
startlingly
stage
elements
of Ath., Tlingit,and
those fundamentally important "3d modal"
Chinese

Modern

"

s-du- 'to cause

to be together,
to assemble';in
together':
which are "voice" elements, seem
to
importantverb prefixes,
fact,4 of its more
form
and
Nadene
elements
to correspond in
s- to Tlingitme
meaning to
Haida s-; r- to Tlingit-Haida-Ath.
/-;d- (medio-passive)to Tlingit-Ath.
d-,
survivals also in Haida; nasal prefixto Ath. ''3d modal"
-n-, -r)-, of mysterious
value but probable active intransitive).
Moreover, Tibetan has vocalic ablaut in
its verbs (e.g.X]-gex]-s 'to fill',
perfectb-kax],fut. d-gax},imperative/c'oij).
transitive
is
the
verb
In both, for instance,
reallypassive,as in Tlingit.
Again,
'The man
killed the horse',Tlingit
agenyou would say 'Man-by horse kill'
tive -tc correspondingexactlyto Tibetan instrumental
Indo-Chinese
-s. In both
of extreme
and Nadene, postpositions
are
importance and serve to subordinate
and
verbs
clauses.
Indeed,
readingTibetan text givesyou precisely
preceding
the same
feelingas readingHaida text. I wish I had time to illustrate. In both
is really a noun,
fundamental
element
the
the verb
kind
of
a
groups
In brief,I should
in feeling
structure.
denominative
say that the similarity
Tibetan
and Nadene
is at least as close as between
Latin and English,
between
is clear. And
the lexical
probablycloser. Thus the theoretical road to a synthesis
of
material.
evidence
is startling.
You would be amazed
at some
Things like:
my
k'd 'surface': Tibetan
k'a 'surface'
k'a 'surface';Navaho
1. Tlingit
Haida

(e.g.du-

'to be

"

2. Chinese
3. Old

fan

Chinese
Chinese

4. Old

5. Nadene

'charcoal':

ti 'this':Ath.

s-fan

k'u 'hole'

k'u 'hole'

'charcoal'

di 'this' (Ath. di

Ath.
ti 'pheasant':

'to fall into

hole',yoL-k'o

Indo-Chinese

Haida

di

(TI.k'u-q'"'hole',t'a- tu-k'^
a

ti)

reallymeans
'partridge'
'cave'

hole'; Nav. k'o, e.g. ts'e-k'o 'rock-hole'

of forms, e.g. Tib.

'rock-interior=

'canyon'):

'hole', Karen
/:'w-r)

k'u,
(dozens
with falling
tone, 'to dig a hole').
These
are
only a drop in the bucket. Naturallyit is a bigproblem and there
are
going to be hundreds of knottypointsto unravel. But I do not despair.My
parative
compresent plan is to proceed as follows. First,to prepare part 1 of a Nadene
study,to consist of my present lexical material (about300 comparable
radical elements, to which I add constantly).
In this I would
givereconstructed
Athabaskan
but also actual Ath. dialectic forms. Before publishing
parts 2 and
and
which
need
much
3, on morphology
phonology,
preliminarywork, I intend
to publishspecial
papers on selected portionsof Nadene
grammar,
e.g., certain
demonstrative
of
archaic post-positions;
or
stems; or generalpoints syntax. In
this way I shall be keeping the problem live and accumulatingexperiencefor
the definitive Nadene
I shall have to do Ath., Haida, and
study.Of course
of purelylexical
to gathera largeamount
Tlingitin the field. I want particularly
material. People do not realize how scanty is our material, and for my purpose,
which is comparative,I need stacks of it.What
Goddard
givesus is a miserable
and
Did
pittance
wretchedlyanalyzedor not analyzed.
you read his attack on
It is the
You can
have no idea of the laughableerrors
he commits.
my Nadene?
"

Six:

work

of

utter

an

think of

groundlingthat

who

a man

Athabaskan

and

does

not

to unravel

expects you

list of
alphabetical

Na-Dene

know
the

135

Languages
his

material.

do you
phonology of Nadene
by

own

complex

What

Tlingit''stems" and

"matching" them with

from
"stems"
Kato
Ten'a ad libitum'? Very much
random
or
as
though you
with French, now
with Portuguese. Great
"matched"
Sanskrit words
now
who
rules out comparisons
method, what? And what do you think of a man
he does not "know"
the Ath. form in question?Particularly
when
the
because
in a book (Chapman's Ten'a)which he has "edited"! I may replyto
form occurs
but
it is really
He is a man
of no more
than average linguistic
no
use.
Goddard,
lutely
ability,
completelyat the mercy of his local sentimental memories, and absowithout vision as to the older drift of Ath. He probablyimagineshis lists
the whole
the last word
of stems
on
are
subject.The degree to which he has
his
material
is
failed to analyze
shocking in the extreme.
the Indo-Chinese
I shall not broach
part of the problem tillI have moored
in
Nadene.
The
final plan is: 1. a Nadene
completely
myselfmore
comparative
be
in
3
Ath.
to
an
as
published
etymologicaldictionary
parts (possibly
grammar
a side-show);2. a Nadene-Indo-Chinese
demonstration; 3. a more
general
of the evolution of the whole group, showing how old types have been
treatment
As a starter, I am
Haida
at work
now
ones.
on
a paper
on
replacedby new
drawing up

an

which
phonetics,

resist the

P.S. I cannot
remarkable

Chinese.
an

interest you

may

way
I have

in which

of

you

see

temptation to give a
lexical elements

cards

some

idea of the richness

when

along,so
of my

some

are

somewhat

interwoven

don't need
entries

it.

by

livelier idea
in Nadene

of the

and

Indo-

I shall give
to memory.
with
a
dealing
group of related
to trust

words.
In Ath.
or

have

we

stem

*fu, post-vocalic
*-Iu,which

may
-lo 'to catch with

to

loop',as vb.: Nav.

lasso',Chipewyan -lu, -tu 'to be caught in

loop';e.g.

-lo' 'to

Nav.

net

be rendered
a
or

as

'coiP

rope',Jic. Apache
noose'.

So

far, so

would end. But itis difficult to believe

good. Here our friend Dr. P. E. Goddard
that Ath. */76"/'rope,
out
WithHow?
strap'(found in all dialects)is unconnected.
in
going into details (itwould take too long),I may say that I feel justified
-'lu is related to *{u, -lu I cannot
analyzing*t'lo-linto *t-'lo--i.How *-'lo-,
yet
had both / and '/,and in related stems.
As
tell,but I stronglysuspect Nadene
'/probably
has both / and '/;in Tlingit
you will see from my Haida
paper, Haida
-lu is intr.:
related to /,Ath
became /'.I should guess that 7 is causatively
*///,
*to be coiled, to make
a loop,to tie
'loop;to lie coiled', '/w would be 'to cause
-/ we
know
around' (possibly
Now
to be con-lo' is a secondary form of *-'lu).
Hence
tinuative or usitative;and /- is medio-passive.
*t-'lo-l is what is always
caused to loop around, what loops about something',in other words, rope,
that "3d modal"
ments
eleWe learn importantthingsfrom such an analysis:
strap'.
.

welded

were

there
That

was
we

an
are

with

verb

old alternation
on

the

and

stems

is

in nominal

derivatives;that

remains
to
significance
another
confirmed
common
by

/."'/whose

righttrack

appear

be discovered.
Ath.

stem

^^

136
is

formation

whose

Fortunately we
Petitot

are

American

and

Loucheux

Hence
'tourbillon','tourner','se tourner').

au

cabestan', 'cylindrique',

*r-7e-/ is 'what

keeps turningitself,

of Dr. Goddard's

that many

It shows
highlysuggestive.

course,

'virer

of *r7o-/ 'rope'to */7e/ 'fire-drill'is,of

parallelism

This
revolves drill-like'.

what

*-/e (-d-le,
-t-le,
-l-le)

there is a verb

involvingit are:

(words

'to revolve'

meaning

Languages 2

'fire-drill'.
to that of *t'to-i.This is *t'iei
preciselyparallel
Goddard's
material alone. From
here not dependent on

learn that in Hare

we

Indian

radicals. And

that Ath.

"stems"

may

not

fl fails to

correspond to
It is a secondarydevelopment in probably all
Tlingitfl for a reason.
in cognate words throughout;not so fl
/'
3 groups. Such a sound as
appears
which fact alone casts a reflex lighton our
analysis.
related Ath. *-lui 'to wrap around':
-lu
is
To Ath. *hi,
Let us proceed.
clearly
Hupa -loi 'to tie,to wrap around', Kato -//''to tie up' (oldAth. form possibly
allowed Ath. t'{to analyzeitselfinto
And
causative *-'lui).
further,havingonce
medio-passivet- (d-) + '/,we do not feel we are doing anythingungodly to
This analysis
into *t-'lu''what iswound
(inbasketry)'.
analyzeAth. *fVw' 'grass'
Ath. verbs,e.g. Hupa t'h-n,-t'lo,
of 'grass'
is helpedby denominative
-t'lo-W,
-t'lo-l'to
Nav. -t'lo,
-t'lo-i'to make baskets,to twine in basket-making';
-t'lg-,
father-Adam

be pure
Haida and

we

see

"

tie (e.g.the hair)'.

We

caught in

*'lu 'to catch

"

in

r-7w' 'what is twined'

braid

comes

Tibetan

noose'

noose'

"

(denominativevb.:
'grass'

'to twine

in

basketry;to

hair')

*t-'lo--l'what
Now

follows:

around'

*'lui 'to wrap

"

as

*lu, -lu 'coil,loop'

*lu 'to be

"

all this

summarize

may

Ath.

is always looped' "

the fun. Indo-Chinese

'a strap,slungover
lu-i]

'rope,strap'
lu

as

follows:

the shoulder

or

round

the waist, for

carrying

things'
Miao

/o-r)'bridle' (closeo)

s-lu 'to cause

to be snared', i.e. 'to ensnare,
metaphorically:caus.
seduce'
beguile,
hi-, hr- " Ih-,rh- is
{rhu " h-ru; Tibeto-Burman
Angami Naga te-rhu 'sly'
causative
his
common
as
prefix,
allel
exceedinglycommon;
e.g. Tib. s-l- often parto Ih-)
in H. Maspero's
T'ai group: Siamese roi^^^'enfiler' (numbers indicate tones
orthography);White Tai roi, loi 'enfiler'
///-group: lui]^-^
Chinese:
And
now
(numbers for tones accordingto usual
Pekinese
Modern
(i.e.7th Cent,
system) 'a cage, to snare' " Old Chinese
from Karlgren's
out carefully
forms, which I have worked
(lu[o]x]tables)
t'ou(-"
i.e.
'snare\
'halter',
level;/
(in
hi^^^"
luv]"-^
tone).
rising;
falling
tone
head') " Old Chinese /w/o/r)-;/w^-^^
(words with falling
'girdle
gem' "luo\
seem
frequentlyto be old passivederivatives: 'what is looped around one's
'thatched hovel' " luo-;lu"^"'hempen thread' " luo-;lo^^^'conch,
/m^^''
waist'?);
Tib.

Six:

Athabaskan

and Na-Dene

137

Languages

lud
a- vowel);lo^-^ 'lines in the palm' "
{ais a dark-timbred
connected'
character
also read lei^^^'series,
?lei'^^'to creep, clingto', same
ludil.
These
nese
Chi"
refer
to
ludi-,
vines)
primarily creeping
(words evidently
*-lui
above):
lu, lud forms are paralleled
by another set in lui- (cf.Ath.
melonor
lei^^^'to bind' " lywie- (" *lwie-);lei''''"
pea)'(notsure
'acreeper(asof
in character suggests initial lu or lywi);
of reconstruction, but phoneticelement
'silken thread, a hank' " lyhi/.And
lii^^^^
'foolish,
metaphoricallywe have luj}^'^^
'deceitful' " /"'h'/o\ (i.e.
lii^'^^
ing
to impose on' " lu[o]r\\;
'windingabout, ensnars-lu above).
with blandishments'; cf. Tibetan
causative h-lub)'to
Tibetan words are: Ihub (i.e.
Other probably connected
the
k
-lub
'to
fasten
ornaments
to
cover
bind, tie,
ear)';
(e.g.the body with
(e.g.
ornaments)';Iwa-ba 'a woolen blanket'.
with the numerous
Tib. and Chinese
Observe how well the Ath. forms integrate
connected
with Ath. *-lu is Ath.
forms. But we are not done. Very likely
ing
*-lu-s 'to drag an animal by a rope':Nav. -Ids,-lo-z,-Ids classifier verb "denotanimal as an object:the inference is that the animal is led by a rope"
a single
Fathers);Hupa -los 'to drag,to pullalong'.With these forms I feel
(Franciscan
Chinese
lo^^"tsz"^^
inclined to compare
hesitant)
(though here I feel far more
lu
"
also
often
used
make
is
to
'mule' {tsz"-^^
nouns) lud-;
'donkey'
merely 'son',
screw'
spiral,

"

lud-

"

Ath.

between
parallelism

lywio-. The

related radicals rather

than

Chinese

and

would

be

convergence

etymologicalparallel.
specific
far from finished. Perhaps related to Ath. *-lu is an important
But we
are
classifierverb *-/e,*-la\ Nav. -/e,-la,-let'to handle a long,flexible object,as a
Parallel to this is a set of
leather,hide, etc' (FranciscanFathers).
rope, quirt,
to a; justhow related I do
Indo-Chinese forms in *la, *le (Ath. e is often parallel
a: [a):
not yet understand, possiblyreflex of old alternation
braid the hair, to make
a
Tib. causative s-le,Ihe (" h-le) 'to twist, plait,
flat
basket'
'a
s-le-bo
'a
s-le
to
coarse
s
-le-ba,
basket';s-le-po,
knit';
basket,
Iha-s,Ihe-s " h-la-s,h-le-s 'braid, wicker-work,
{-po,-ba, -bo are "articles");
plaiting'
texture; twisted cake or bun'; Ihe-s-ma " h-le-s- 'the act of twisting,
lan-ts'ar
is diminutive);
tress of hair' (-/?"
/a"-/?w 'braid,plait,
(-mais "article");
of
le-na
in
the
'ornaments
woven
fabrics';
worn
hair';le-brgan'diapereddesign
'the soft downy wool of goats below the long hair;fine woolen-cloth'; Ida-ldi 'a
" Idof silk or cotton, a fringeor tassel' " d-la- {dl-regularly
kind of ornament
in Tib.; very easy to illustrate);
Idan-mgo 'the yarn-beam of a loom' " d-lahIdeb- " dd-lem
"
'flexible,supple,elastic, pliant';
{mgo 'head');Idem-Idem
from

leb- 'to bend

round

or

of this last,which

back,

bringsus

to turn

into

'turning,
turningback', which
sake, not
prefer,for brevity's
Now
with

Chinese.
handle'

Idk, same
rein in, to

"

We

have two

may

round,

also read

"
strangle'

ld-\lo"^)'shallow

open

hk

down'.

well be related to

to go into justnow.
series: *la and *//.Based

Id-. Based

on

*la

are:

so

certain

referringto

set but which

"

up';lei^'Kalso

on

*// are:

lan'-" 'basket

Idml; lao'-^"(tezi)'netted case'

h^-^^'joined,
to tic
"

not

lo-

present

our

(perhapsbcttcrto /fv-scries

basket'

1 am

in la- and

largeset of forms

Idm-; lan^^^^'rope, hawser'

character

to double

read

"

h"'---'^"
'to

'net,sieve'
above); /o'^'^
li"~"'ornamented

"

girdle'

Six:

Sapir's
lexical

(manuscript

497.3

date
the

with

is
B63c

from

idea

(see

the

than

also

in

Na20a.3,

the

2;

and

it

speculations
in

including

the

vol.

1920s,

later

of

Library

contained

this

1982:

28).

that

Sapir

went

this

letter.

Of

in

volume)

Krauss

hundred

Philosophical

Kendall
clear

than

more

American

cf.
is

139

Languages

"dictionary,"

the

early

1925o,

Na-Dene

and

Sino-Dene

manuscript

comparisons,

entries

Athabaskan

has

Society
all

Nearly
little
these

written:

the

further

tions
specula-

"Sapir

was
.

far

carried
the

idea"

beyond
(Krauss

The

connection

1957),

authoritative
that

proposed

both

physically

While
in

15

made

his

this

with

on

viewing

"Almosan-Keresiouan"

World

with

any
families

's

Na-Dene

as

and

phylum).

own

the

New

from

world

World

Robert

his

the

7,000
all

other

(1987:
believes
between

languages

ago,

of
and

American

be

Pinnow

good
World

(especially

ulations.
pop-

Na-Dene

it to

332-337).

it is

berg,
Green-

link

considering

Old

atic
Asi-

that

hypothesis,

that

have

an

Indian

not

on

sidered
con-

(1986)

Zegura
language

does

nor

be

cannot

years

Sino-Dene

group,

Shafer,

files

work

and

and

hypothesis

Sino-Dene

data,

ment.
assess-

linguistic

on

for

this

Sino-Dene
s

classification,

evidence,

intermediate

the

Sapir

about

linguistic
in

of

Turner

Sapir's

linguistic
other

both

represents

linguistically,

Greenberg

Sino-Tibetan)

Haida)

New

consistent

linguistic

mainly

(especially

is

or

fundamental

for

Greenberg,

the
and

Na-Dene

or

world-wide

recent

Sino-Tibetan

relying

entered

on

of

attention.

support

neither

(including

that

population
distinct,

based

statement.

Na-Dene

in

papers

enthusiasm

accuracy

one,

attract

to

his

by
the

plausible

it continues

being

conclusions

challenge
a

Athabaskan

comparative
an

would

however,

two

but,

justifiable

Few

and

published

1952,

extensive

is,

grounds,

Sino-Tibetanist,

with

963).

1973:

anthropological

(Shafer

objectively

any

one

of

(1990),
case

can

languages

Greenbergs

be

Athabaskan

Tone

of 1922 was
Reserve,
spent by the writer at Sarcee
part of the summer
Alberta, in studying the language of the Sarcee Indians. A series of texts was
A

supplementary grammatical material. The most

important
fact
that
the
Sarcee
has
was
a
appeared
well-developed system
of pitch accent.
to the
Fundamentally this system has a strikingresemblance
Dr.
tonal
described
Boas,
by
though secondary developments
Tlingit
system
tonal resemblances
have complicated the Sarcee
system considerably. The
Athabaskan
constitute
and
between
an
important further argument in
Tlingit
tone
to be
the Nadene
are
theory recently put forward. Hints on Athabaskan
de la Langue
L. Legoffs study of Chipewyan
found also in Father
(Grammaire
isolated
references
makes
in Carrier,
to tone
a few
Montagnaise). Father Morice
of
from
feature
brief
where
it is almost
MS
importance judging
certainlya
Carrier
Indians
taken
at Hagwelgate.
notes
by C. M. Barbeau
linguistic
among
obtained

as

well

as

singlepoint that

Some

years

ago P. E. Goddard

second

person

based

results obtained.

person

study

on

the

So

fundamental

that

nigh inconceivable

that it is well

differences

tonal

third

singular and

verb; these observations,

with the Sarcee

noted

it should

between

otherwise

tical
iden-

subjective forms in the Hupa

[391]Rousselotgraphs, agree
is tone
to Sarcee
morphology
in any other
be entirelyabsent

of

dialect.

Athabaskan

Editorial

Note

(1922).
Anthropologist 24, 390-391
Originally published in American
Anthropological Association.
Reprinted by permission of the American
work
Boas
earlier
to
references
to
are
(1917) for Tlingit,to Legoff
Sapir's
(1907) for Hupa "Rousselotgraphs."
(1889) for Chipewyan, and to Goddard
Carrier
Morice
later commented
tone
on
more
extensivelyin his full treatment
of the

language (1932).
of Sapir s Sarcee
work, tone systems had
and
Asian
African
languages but only rarely noted
own
descriptionof a pitch accent
languages (Sapir's
At

these

been

the time

instances;
feature

lowland

South

see

1912h, Volume

in the
America.

Americas,

VIII). We

now

in Takelma
know

comparative
Ironically,

evidence

indicates

not

that

being
to

tone

North

be

America

one

of

spread
wideand

in

in Athabaskan

(and
proto-lanin all)
means

in the

was
Athabaskan-Eyak) now
present
Athabaskan
several
but
in
(but by no
subgroups
developed
guage
lost
consonants
as
were
(Krauss and
simplifiedor
syllable-final

tone

Indian

American

among

particularlyin eastern

for many

described

Golla

1981:

142

Vf

69-70).

Sapir,

in

tonal

without
had

reports,
and

to

gone

Sapir

he

the

was

letter

field

with

clearly
to

Anvik

systems,

Hupa.

expectation

every

nonplused

Kroeber,

and

28

(see
June

Languages

encountered

fieldwork,

later

Indian

American

Sapir
1927,

of

at

least

In

the

two

latter

confirming

1928i,

quoted

reprinted
in

Krauss

Athabaskan

case,

guages
lanwhere

Goddard
in
1986:

Sapir
s

this

earlier

volume,

163).

TYPE

ATHABASKAN

OF

by students of Athabaskan
the Athabaskan adjective
is in form
linguistics,
the simplest,
or
a verb. Even
non-pronominal
contains either
form regularly
third-personal,
firstmodal
de- ^, d;
a
prefix (generally
As is well known

"

"

t'- ;
ne-, n-; t'e-,

ie-,
a
i-),

or

"

third modal

"

second modal

RELATIVE

di-l-ba

the
: bay-z
(to be)gray
:
(to be)white
dz-l-gai
gay-z
: du-z
m(d)-du-i(to be)short
dz-yzl
(tobe)squat : yzl-s the

dz-bal (to be)round

dz-l-zzn
(to be)

bao

black

gray

one

the

white

the

short

round

one

black

:^zn the

one
one

squat

the

one

one

"

shaggy
one
: yo'
the
prefix
rally dz-yo'
(gene(to be) shaggy
dz-l-Bo'(to be)yellow
yellow
one.
: Oo' the
(orsecond)modal
Such forms as bg^,;(en,yo' and 60' look for
third modal prefix
(forms
all the world like unmodified stems, but there
It is unnecesin de-l-,
sary
ne-l-,nl-i- are typical).
relative
be
is every reason
to believe that theyare
to give exampleshere, as
they may
either
and
that
have
like
the
dialectic
from
forms,
yel-z,
special
readilysupplied
gay-z
differ
fallen
with
in
that
Mosome
pect
resor
together
monographs (see,
e.g., Goddard, Legoff,
forms found in the
from the parallel
stem
rice,Petitot),
the phoneticrecord
Father Legoff,
Possibly
however, in his Grammaire de adjective-verbs.
calls
la Langue Montagnaise
^.
defective
attention
is
to
an
\
derivatives
class of adjectival
Legoffsays of these forms : This kind of
interesting
which
in
formed
(" nouns
")
from'adjectives
"

{se-,
s-),a
prefix
-/- or -i-),or
followed by a
prefix

first

"

the

elements
prefixed

are

lost and the bare

in the relative ^

appears

examplesare

stem

of

Some

form.

phoneticlaws. Frequentlythe

his

then

apt

leave

to

consonant,

trace

is dropped but is
e
voicingof the preceding

e,

in the

final (e.g. the

now

relative form

of

" Ath. *-t'ax is -t'au " -t'av.\ the

Hupa -fa AMONG
reduced from
regularHupa developmentof Ath. *-t'a-{,
Dr. Goddard's
convenient terminology, *-t'a-f-e).
1. I follow
without therebycommittingmyselfin the least as to the
thoughLegoffspeaks
5. I write ^a^-erather thad ba-y^,
trates
evidence demonsof a suffixed -ye, because comparative
term
""modal ".
a.s well as -ba'
the existence of the stem-form
2. I use
for the reduced or
e
as
a formula
-baypepet
to presuppose
vowel which has different forms accordingto dialect or
-ba'-i and Petitot'sMontagnais-ba-a seem
Ath. *-mah-e. Navaho
-bat,e.g. gim i-bai gray
hawk,
accordingto varyingphonetic circumstances in one
dialect(e.g.i, less frequently
d. further Hupa -nmi, Kato -bai. I am
is Ath. *-may-i;
a, e, a. or u, in Hupa ;
Petitot's orthographyand that
and
in Kato and Chasta Costa ; e,
in Chipewyan). It may
modifyingLegoff's
"

"

often be shown
e

*'

or

be

to

reduced

form

of

older Athabaskan

an

with

5. Montreal,1889.See p. jo. Petitot and

the sense
of Chipewyan.

Legoffuse

"

Montagnais in

'"

the form assumed by nouns

By relative I mean
elements (nominal
they are qualified
by preceding
tive
pronominal)and by verbs when theyare used as rela"

4.

when
or

clauses. The
is

probably-e,

forms

are

of the Franciscan

/.

often

fundamental
-e

Athabaskan

relative suffix

(-ye,-y^),but the actual dialectic

involved by the operationof various

Fathers

current

6. Goddard

so

as

Americanist

to

bring them

be
to
di-l-{7.ti

writes

relative form

of -inn ? The

Navaho -/t"black
corresponding
vowel. The

formation

been

Lake

mony
har-

tia^iizDialed,

that -iin

relative form of the

is -/"",with

lengthened

of the relative in Athabaskan

studied.
properly
problemsof the language.

never

but

black,

K0.\
of Cold
(Textsand Analysis
^an'BLACK
X, 1 10). Does this mean
apamnh,
Chipewyan,

is the

into

usage.

It is one

has

of the fundamental

144

VI

American

Indian Languages 2

137

hardlyused except
giveone another or as

sobriquetsthe

substantive is

as

which

names

men

giveto
people
And

them.

the word

animals,in order

then

means

are

e
connections,

d--k\oTO
ONE,

BE

t^i-k'zitTHE

Mont,

BALD-HEADED

(Pet.)
(Pet.): t'an'-xurz
ice
(Leg.)
two
examplesdifferin an important

SLIPPERY

be

slippery

other comand numerous

pounds
respect. In t'xn'-:(urs
of its type the firstmember (ice)
designates
the properly
denominatingconcept of
relative

the group, which isthen qualified

by a
"
of Legofi's
form (jur-i)
sobriquet type. In
"

t'ixn'-:(tm

verb

"

on

find. A few

we

TO

one,

MELT

".

stems

examples

grease

easy

(Leg.)
to
: ts'ay-e.
cry
the
-ti'a^
grumbler
(Pet.)
habitually

lie

needs
scarcely

melt,

"

"

k'^t-tliar

in the relative form, the

It is
beingunexpressed.
like
t^i-k'tlt
the
compounds
to

whimpering

(Pet.)

pointedout that
simplyqualifying

be

to

LegofT's sobriquets are

terms

melted
to

grease

Hare -k'^ito
It

to
be
ds.-l--(j

dlts '(in-z

meltable

-Y?

(Pet.):

BALD-HEADED

'" to
(h)o-rt-iur

These

g.

BALD

may
what
exactly

and

one

Mont.

in other
of fact,the type is illustrated

matter

gray

be based

ice

distinguishThis is

little". As

the
bays,

type

slippery

always followed by

they are

ya:(^t, which

to

which

referred'

noun

not

far cry from

one

bald-headed

and dUs

meltable
grease
-^in-e.
bald
forms, say, as k'toe.the

to

such

one

clipped

and

-(ins.

Such forms are in type

melts
compound WHAT
(easily).
identical with LegofFshaytthe
Ot
gray
one.
concept
denominating
(head)is not the properly
that
ved
deriremarks
of the whole, though it is itselfqualified
Petitot
it
is
ts'a-^t
grumbler,
quet
from ts'ay
would then have to
we
againof the sobritears;
by a relativeform (^k\l-t),
taken
rather
The
as
with
one
as the
tears
a unit,
ts'ayz
interpret
type.
group tHi-k\l-.,
Petitot'sanalysis
is to be understood as qualifying
whimpering
one.
a third,
derstood, than as the
unWe
for forms of the type of
can
credible,
noun.
express tliisby saying is perfectly
is relative to ice and ice
formed from noun
that while slippery
stems,
bayzmay be directly
t^i-k\lt the first member

not
to

of the

relativeto another concept, bald

and bald-head
to person.
head

such

form

as

is relative

far

As

as

tOi-k'eoiis concerned, it makes

difference whether

the

is
noun
qualified
ween
not.
or
expressed
Obviouslythe difference betand thi-k'zleis analogous
to
t'oin'-iure.
difference between red breast
the English
and
Whether
there is a pro(robin)redbreast.
sodic difference(oneof stressor
between
pitch)
no

as

I shall show

hope also

to

CRY
TO
-ts'a-(

from

and

Navaho

evidence. But I

that the difference between

show

tears
ts'a-;

is

purelya

matter

of intrinsic Athabaskan

of translation,not
form.
In Navaho

there

are

radical

qualifying
used with
They are freely
or

prefixless
great many
in relative form.

terms

without

preceding
nal
", nomiadjectival
the two
Athabaskan
does
verbal
not
stems.
", or
They all denote
types
appear
but it is possible
from the evidence,
that they permanent or characteristicattributesand easily
identical.
not
take on the character of sobriquets
are
formally
or
regular
As there is no genuine line of demarcation
clan or personal
names.
tival
adjecExamplesof
^
in Athabaskan
between
:
are
adjective and
origin
and

nouns

are

"

based

or

"

"

on

"

"

"

"

"

verb ", one

may

expect that forms

"

both of
8.

-r-

and
7. Petitot writes 0- for /;o- (see Goddard
is a postvocalic
form ol d- in Chipewyaii.

Legon).

My

Navaho

examplesare

taken from tiie Vocabuhry

ofthe Navaho Languageof the Franciscan

St. Michaels,
Arizona, 1912).

Fathers

(2 vols.,

Six:

Athabaskan

and Na-Dene

145

Languages

138
to
be
form); "i-/p"
(relative

NICE
n-jun-i

gocd

jun-iNICE

some

n-nt'i TO
n-t't'lro

BE

WIDE

h-ts'o to

BE

YELLOW

LONG

BE

nts,

t'd

WIDE

BE

DECAYED

YELLOW

EARTH

yo'

J
be

-t'so's)ts'i' t'so's-ihead-slim,

the

(man'sname)
TOOTH
wHicH-is-MissiNG
c-gi'j-i

slim-

MISSING
gi'j-i

second modal

"

TOOTH

ca'c

KNOT

lated
(c-assimi"

ts'i'tc'o'c-i

stubby-haired
(man's
name)
SHORT
(Pet.): ga
a-gud-i
; Montagnardi-gor-z
ARMLESS
SHORTgu'd-i
ARM-SHORT,
; k\ gud-i

WORM

the

be

white

ga'ts'ogai'rabbit-large-

JACK-RABBIT
verbal" origin
are

*'

-t'ioito
-t'lo,
-t'ig',
weavers,

HAS

burden

the
ye'l-i

IS

SLIGHTLY

one

BACKED
HUNCH-

-wormy,

weave

Hog-i

grass-

to

t'o WATER

low
hol-

t'o'hwul

rapid

easilyaccessible. To it belongsprobably
said to mean
Tucson (Arizonaplace-name),
the
Navaho
BAD-SMELLING
WATER
(orApache)
;
form is probablysomethinglike to tc'a (cf.
Nav. -tc'iUy
to
-tc'a,
tc'ji
smell).
Examples in which the related word is a
The reference is not
noun
are
quitenumerous.
concrete

person

content
or

conceived

of the

noun

as

such

THAT
WATER

formal

that

is connected
AT

THE

WATER,

INDIANS

cdc-i ennemy

: na'

HANO

as

-y

resemblance

that

is

bear,

bear

INDIANS

like t'cah.-i
bear

to
similarity

is

relative form

(placename)

WATER

DANGEROUS

(?), ENEMIES

WATER

BEAR

cac

t'o'-hoenemy

: na'

WITH

in -ed and
run

t'o yf

BEINGS,

Relative forms
9

not

such

bearded

than

apparent

more

of the

noun

an

obvious

Englishderivatives
and knotty.
But the
is not

a true

"

real. The
"

adjectival
by

derivative of the noun,

as is shown
forms
the fact that morphologically
parallel
built
"

set
conventionally

stems

on

"

adjectivalor

relation between

g.
MY
HER

"

verbal ".

these

The

Athabaskan

down

are
as

genetic
relative

form of the noun

possessed
(e.
t'sah-i
si-t'sa-a
his
cap
[Leg.],
Montagnais
CAP
Hupa hWm song : xo-hW\.n-[n^'.
[Pet.];
song
my
house)on
; Chasta Costa c-man-e

forms and

the

one

the

hand and the subordinated form of the

:
grows
up
or implied, verb (e.g.Mont,
expressed
i^-yt one
object,
{s--yeh= GROWTH,
we
afraid
: ns","in
are
as
m-^^-i-l-dyd
as the possessor of or
who
afraid
we
are
[Leg.]
t-l-dyed-i
; Hupa

-lal
9. Or

(man'sname)

CANE

WHO

BEING

SUPERNATURAL

ENEMIES,

This type is doubtless actually

well represented
in Navaho, but the material is scanty or

IS

(man's

hat

(place
name)

SIA INDIANS

hwud, -hwul
-y^'d,

that

THE

he

yiiSUPERNATURAL

ONE

WHITE

Examplesof

to a

bead

beads,

the

hwo' fco'c-itooth

ISLETA

WHITE,

but

CLAN

(man'snick-name)
fcoc

FOOTED

the

have

with

his
bi-yf'l

burden,

: hwo'
prefix)

bo-hwo'' gi'j
his-tooth

(relative
form) :

head-stubby,

to

who

(orare

have
WILLOW

TOOTH

di-tc'oc-istubby

WATER

who

knotty
ca'j-i

WITH

MISSING

to
ia-gai

those

yo-0

xvi burden,

ONE

from S-,

fca' HAT
: hwo' ji'n-i
: t'cah-i he
tooth-black,
black
LOUSE
ji''n
ya''
name)
slim
-t'sos-i,
HE WITH
: gic-i
(also-t'sgs,
gic CANE

BLACK

haired

BEAD

k'a''-ithose

WITH)WILLOWS,

CONNECTED

h ts'o-i

thingdefined by the

CLAN

TOOTH

to
a-i-i'sg's-i

hwo'

Examples
:

the

to

are

k'ai WILLOW

nf^-ilong

(place
name)
TO
ii-jin

related

way

noun.

to t'io' grass?
directly

TO

FLOAT

floating;

continuously

Nav. di-c-Jnuuci

yell

na-na-t-lnl-Bit
:

d\.-la-hwuc-i

Six:

Athabaskan

and Na-Dene

147

Languages

140

of initialspivoicing
rantssion into precisely
equivalentEnglish(or
not
rely
meintrinsically,
French)form'"*.
connected with the relative
For the present I shall content
mechanically,
myselfwith a
function. Hence such detached forms as "^^eUefew random examples
the mobility
suggesting
and
WITH
THE
BURDEN
essential
ONE
""
A
of the verb stem.
'^),"jUH-e
(Nav.yel-i
concreteness
The Hupa verb stem
the
black
ONE
THE
GOOD
for
(Nav.jun-i),
*jen-e
is -Un,
to flow
because of
It is probably
ONE
-hr" which has numerous
(Mont. :(enn).
cognates in other
of
the intrinsically
relative
dialects.Forms like t'cewishnt'tit will
significance
flow
begin OUT and nzdhn it always
do not seem
adjectivestems that these regularly
flows
if the initialconsonant
is to suggest the possibility
with a voiced spirant
of combining
the bare
stem
with
other
a spirant.
elements.
freely
I
concrete
and Navaho
have found no examplesin Hupa of -/sn or
Such forms as Hare ^'^'e-eliar
-hr,
t'^'IWIDE
so
used,thoughtheymay 'ofcourse exist.But
bringhome to us the highlyimportant
radical elements
this stem
fact that the actual
(Athabaskan*-lin,*-leri)
is clearly
forms are
verb and adjective
related to Athabaskan *-//(e.g.
of Athabaskan
'Mont, -^a-i-d-li,
lieve Hare yi-d-li
isolated than one mightat firstbemore
couler
a terre
freely
[Pet.]),
probably
A careful studyof all the
also to Athabaskan *-lej
to be possible.
flow
(tears)
(e.g.
that
available material would tend to show
Mont, dc-l-hz,
Hare dt-l-W [Pet.]).
kan
Athabasthese radicalelements have a considerable mo*-liappears in Hupa as -k (reduced
bility,
to -/)
;
that theyare not far removed from the
it is found, without formal prefixes
of any
status of independent
monosyllabic words ", kind, in certain compounds : no-U dam, waterfall
and that the complex word
baskan
of our Athadown-flow
(lit.
or
halt-flow),iz-lfeels a great deal
texts and paradigms
d'.r,
together-flow-place
milarly,
(village
name). Silike a closely
knit phraseor sentence
more
indefinite"form of-.vd
-xa{u)W,an
than has yet been suspected
has
liquid
or, at any rate,
position, is directly
compounded
demonstrated.
I
show
in
to
explicitly
hope
can

be

doubt that the

no

be feltas

to

came

"

''

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

due time what isthe

"

"

"

prefixes and
morphologyof the

true

"

suffixes

Athabaskan

14.

of the various

nature

that render the

verb

so

complex

in appearance. It will
appear that each and

Very much

as

who

one

like Qu'est-ce
a ?
qu'il

EnglishWhat
proper

has he ? would

of the
form-feeling

15. In

ry
eve-

triesto

largenumber

in

see

French

equivalentof

exact

an

find it difficultto

elements est,ce and

of Athabaskan

cution
loour

get the

qu\
forms it is

verb

impossibleto assignto the radical element (that is,the

of these elements is a relatively
selfone
verb stem
that would
proper)the kind of concreteness
contained unit in the sentence, either a deterof the
minative in our eyes yieldthe actual concrete
significance
"

"

or

Much

an

of the

function that we

element.
predicating
actually
"

"

elements is simplyan
carry

to

index of

the Athabaskan

over

of

vagueness

feelto attach

meaning

our

or

of these

many

to
inability

manner

of expres-

form. It does

by the

we

e,

to

before

The alternation x : y, however, leads one

to suspect
that this
is not phonetically
identical with
the y
y
that corresponds
Athabaskan
to common
y.
0.

"

"

tely
defini-

clearly
ded
apprehen-

native

express in such and such a way.

naive standpoint
is in such
our
is

"

justas
a.

has not

stem

its own,

say is that the

stem

only before

that the

of
significance

All that we
have a right
form-feeling..
inherent in
summing of significances
the theoretically
independentelements of the complex
does not seem
naturallyto lead to the preciseidea that
to

from

13. Athabaskan y is preservedin Navaho

It appears as y before i and
labialized

follow

not

concrete

the notion
had

vague
to

of

"

element

out
falling

"

fall
is

true
not

in such

difficulty
that the

but that it seems

unacquaintedwith

one
"

The
cases

sentence

inapplicable,
Englishidiom
as

The

friends

A a matter
of fact,
lieve
I beinapplicable.
that there are few languages
in America
that feel
their
stems
",.and elements generally,
and
as
definitely
as concretely
as
and Haida.
Athabaskan,Tlingit,
a

"

148

American

VI

Languages 2

Indian

141

with

MOUTH

sa

BEEN

PUT

H^ liqjjid
sa-xa(u)

IN

vaho, again,the verb

X'.-n-c-na

live)may
in

element

(e.g.

fied
unmodi-

an

as

compound

In Na-

live

to

-ua

stem

be used

has

which

SOUP.

ACORN

MOUTH,

THE

k'a'-na''-ni

(e.g.

*-'a" TO

HANDLE

ROUND

OBJECT

HANDLE

to

take up this
that in a verb form it is

that is the

stem

*-^'oj

CLOTH-LIKE

show

"

I hope later
object).
fundamental
and to
question

TO

not

the

"

verb

verbal element
distinctively
"

element;
(clan but,where found,the" third modal
verb stems
in fact nouns
could be multiplied
not
siderably. that all
conare
name).Such examples
but in actual usage ;
only in theoretical origin
and that verbs translated according
to the forms
If the monosyllabicverb stem
may thus
and
less
fall
iuto
TO
TO
BE
TO
KILL
be isolated in practice
or
as a more
freely
DIE,
SEEN,
patterns
rendered by death
of conveying
movable element,capable
more
a definite
accurately
is, sight
and TO MAKE
but conIf this
clude
TAKES
notion in its own
SLAUGHTER.
cannot
we
PLACE,
right,
is
is correct, an element like -an
formal difference between
that the purely
interpretation
comes not properly
beverb stem
and noun
verb (andadjective)
stem
stem
some
a
indicating
kind of activity
is to prevent us
with reference to a
What
state
a tenuous
or
one.
round
which
b
ut
the -h of Hupa no-lz as a
from interpreting
is
a noun
single
object
actually
and
no-h
or originally
or
noun
meant, a round
meaning flowing
means,
current,
object. The
down-flowing
(nota three classesof verbal usage listedabove would
it-l-d\.rj
meaningproperly
aominalized form of an inherentlyfallinto a single
to allother
secondarily
category applicable
verbal to
verb forms as well. Indeed, it will appear that
rent-locality
down-flow) and reciprocal-cur? Might not
k'a'- this theory
the Navaho
of the,essentially
nominal character
of all
and
verb
na'-ni be justas well interpreted
arrow-lifestems
adjective
fies
simpliI
?
As
kan
of
that
the
whole
people
hex., cannot
a matter
see
enormously
aspect of Athabasof such
stands in the way
anythingseriously
(andTlingit)
morphology.
and its adoption
would at once
to
an explanation,
Meanwhile,whether or not we are willing
make clearer a number of morphological
in
far
of
the
our
so
knowledge
stage
liarities.
pecupresent
go
of verb radicals,
: 1.the
are
as to accept the nominal theory
Among such peculiarities
evident nouns
with which a great many
it is clear enough that the Athabaskan
relative
ease
transformed
verb
If
into
pa
Hudiscussed
in
this
forms
are
stems
(e.g.
paper belongtogether.
-k'a
is
form like Ccah-i
DRESS
TO
wear
to be interpreted
^'fl
:
a dress
; Kato djit]a Navaho
with
: -djvr^
DAY
TO
BE
one
HAVING
as THE
WITH)A HAT,
(otCONNECTED
day); 2. the frequency
tive
verb stems
which
with aclearly
defined verbal
venture
to
a verbal derivawe
interpret
may
PEOPLE

LIVING-ARROW

ARROW-LIVE-PEOPLE,

"

"

"

*'

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

lorce,

if we

when

isolated,
an abstract or
life

TO

LAUGH

BE

CAUGHT

to

*xan

old

age,

IN

NOOSE
a

number

of verb
to

pass

; *-dlo'

snare,

N'av. lo'^ SNARE,

but
specific
activity

6. Voiceless

*-yanto
maturity

*-lo to

stems

class of

to

LOOP);

jun-i as

the

having

one

derivative
adjectival

an
the

one

goodness.

having

hood,
false-

like Navaho
There

is

morphologythat

no
certainly

serious

pointof

would

such

impossible.
interpretation

make

an

it is,it is sometimes

matter
an
arbitrary
assigna given relative form to an
In Navaho
to
or
a nominal
source.
objects adjectival

refer

voiced spirants
in postinitially,
spirants
vocalic,or originally
postvocalic,
position,
accordingto
the typical
Athabaskan
rule.
1

like Hare k''^t-z

as

take on,

nominal

concrete

Athabaskan

*dlo' laughter

3. the fact that

not

all appearances,

trust

may

significance
(e. g.
THROUGH

"

"

As

whether

ga

we

k\s-i one-armed,

armless,

k\s-i short,

be looked upon as
crippled,
may
f
ormation
an
adjectival
(or verbal)
(cf.gnd-i
DEPRIVED

OF

Six:

Athabaskan

Na-Dene

and

149

Languages

142

Identical,

above).
which

Anvik

Ten'a

however,

not

makes

OFF(cf.

CUT

WITH

little

SHORT

OF

HAS

verbally
Navaho

knife),

AN

or

AN

as

the

verb

or

ARM-PIECE,

form,

bare

whether

one

the

as

AN

-k\

as

to

Originally

published

the

cut

International

THE

ONE

one

(a

carry

-yr,
A

verbally

-xi-i,

burden),

carry

or

HAS

(a

yil-i
the

as

on

nominally

who

Navaho

one's

as

has

of

-xe

to

back,
the

one

Linguistics

wont

or

-xd,

handle

who

BURDEN.

American

for

is

Note

Journal

Or

tears,

sobriquet

one

(c(.

bally
ver-

CRYING

(always)

who

burden)

TO

(aLWAYS)

IS

one

matter

ts'ay-t

Montagnais

Navaho

or

indifferent

an

WHO

the

as

seems

interpret

we

hunchback)
TO

is

it

way,

as

In

ARM-SEVERANCE.

in

same

WEEPING

is

who

Editorial

136-142(1923).

the

whether

nominally

lyze
ana-

arm

one

nominally

from

we

whose

-k'z, -ki'\

is

*k'es).

difference,

no

adjectivally
ARM,

k\s,

Navaho

its

standpoint,

k'ls-i

ga

in

(oF)(Athabaslian

piece

Athabaskan

the

with

found

k'xf)

it

Clearly

WHO

have

2,

ways)
(al-

PHONETICS

THE

OF

HAIDA

merely to present data

system, but purpose
Dr. Swanton's brief statement
'.
supplementing
Introductory.
The phonetic
in this paper is
employed
s
ystem
I. Consonants.
of Indian
in
Phonectic Transcription
The Consonant
System.
explained
The Intermediates.
M
iscellaneous
(Smithsonian
Languages
The
UnaspiratedHard Stops.
Collections,vol. 66, n" 6).
Surds.
The
Aspirated
A remark or two
the general
The Glottalized Stops and AfFricatives.
on
impression
The Voiceless
Spirants.
Haida
maybe of interest. I took
producedby
The
Nasals and Voiced Spirants.
have Mr. Kellyspeak
several opportunities
to
The
Glottalized Nasals and Voiced
Spirants.
and was
Haida connectedly
thus enabled to
The
LaryngealConsonants.
Processes.
SecondaryConsonantal
hear it long enough to form a definite image
Clusters.
Initial Consonant
of the most
It is one
ot its acoustic quality.
II. Tht' Syllable.
that I have ever heard.
remarkable languages
with 1-Vowel.
Syllables
Nasals.
Syllabic
recall havingat any time
Indeed,I cannot
III. Vowels.
heard connected speech that appearedmore
QualitativeChanges.
The great
of individuality.
Vocalic Quantity.
definitely
possessed
Diphtongs.
the cono
f
nasal
stant
consonants
{n,r,),
frequency
W.
Stress and Pitch.
the proof
sonorous
occurrence
^-sounds,
fusion
of /-syllables
(seebelow, p. 152),and
INTRODUCTORY
the musical cadences are probablythe chief
Haida
is
of this individuality.
determinants
the sounds of tlie
The followingnotes
on
On
the
harsh
far
from
a
language.
being
very
dialect of Haida are based on mateSkidegate
voted a beautiful language
by
contrary, it was
ri.ilwhich I was
fortunate enough to secure
recitalof a Raven
all who heard Mr. Kelly's
iVom Peter R. Kelly,a well educated Haida
ed
myth. Several of us in Ottawa heard connectIndian who is at present engagedin missionary
Nass
River, ThompMohawk, Tsimshian,
son
the Indians at Nanaimo, Vancouver
work among
River, Shuswap,and Danish at the same
Island. Mr. Kellyvisited Ottawa in March,
asked to rate
these seven
time. If we
were
of an Indian deputation
to
1920, as member
I
of acoustic appeal,
languageson the score
TABLE

OF

CONTENTS

"

"

the Canadian

occupied

to

In

Government

give me

more

spiteof the brevityof

the

and

my

gainedinto Haida
insight
to

givean

was

than

notes

too

few

much
hours.

believe the

consensus

division into

of

loin' groups

opinion would
:

Haida

as

an

be

easy

I believe

is sufficient
phonetics

this paper. I cannot, of course,

warrant
of the Haida soundadequateaccount

of I. R. Swanton, HuiJu, tin IlliisSee pp. 210-215

I.
lialive Sketch (Bureau o( American
luhnology, Bulk-tin
^O, pt.

I, pp. 20)-2S2 [lc"10]).

VI

152

Indian Languages2

American

"

144
but none
pleasant,
first;Mohawk as a fairly
close,second ; Tsimshian,Nass River,and

too

third ;
uneuphonious
moderately
and
crable
exeRiver
an
as
Shuswap
Thompson

Danish
and

as

last.These remarks

value,but
that the

"

tific
great scien-

no

theymay

be of

serving

bringhome

the fact

of certain West

Coast

the less as

none

of

are

to

harshness

"

interest

some

printed
page rather
than from theiractual articulation.

fied form of xiai,thoughit is of

that it may go back to such

course

sible
posform. At

rate, I

to consider the anterior palaprefer

tal
well defined primaa phonetically
ry
and the /-glide,
when
group of consonants
it occurs, as the secondary
fact.I do not hear
but gd''da.i.
the
gia''da.i
blanket, for instance,
As a matter
of fact,
Mr. Kelly's
ear
tremely
provedex-

any

series as

the diflfrence
between

sensitiveon

resultsfrom the
languages

k- and

word

The
^-series.

for eyebrows

was

the
at

firstrecorded
in

I.

spiteof

The

Consonants.

"

correct

Consonant

Swanton

recognized
in
distinct
consonants
organically

28

system.

"

Haida. I believe his table errs in

in

respects

of sounds which

includingnumber

not

two

but does
as
recognizes
existing

he

consider

not

of the

language
; and in
of certain sounds

gx

TO

As
"

to

An

-W"-

not

hear.

not

no

"

felt as

before /-,"-, and

to

mightbe

be

to

I do

of

in

one

added

not

that in such
hears

think

lam

to
referring

not

glottal
stop,

of

velar
Skidegate
itself.

Masset
^, but to

(misheard
-^i/-

through

two
p'sdi'r,

eating,

blanket-like

[read

if this is

and velars,
labializedgutturals
writes

sometimes

Here

we

form

as

xdi

have the
a

rightto
modisecondarily

glottal
stop,

if it is

Haida, which correspondsto

a primaryglottal
stop in Skide-

the

look upon

must

no

sonable
rea-

the labial

(whetherwritten lu, u, or 0 in
as
a constituent element
material)

element
Swanton's
of

primarylabialized^-sound. Countingthe

consonants,

Haida.
p.

an

two

sets

of labializedk-

and
glottal

They
145).

glottalized

have 47 primary
consonants
be arranged
as follows
may

we

slight
z-glide
(x'di), Of these consonants,

we

the

to
according

think there is

againI

doubt that

to

primaryseries. They occur

which last theycort-vowels,
lor

sometimes

not

be

form Java (i.e.

to
k'zva)
strike, at other times,
the form sgod'nsir,
to
(i.e. sgwa''according

one.
remarks, nsvr^

close

know

the
regards

Swanton

characterized

so

not

conclude that xdi is feltas

"ate

the

a set

ci.It is true

but I do

1.

t'a'gr'gx

as

anterior palatals,
the
not, but I think there can
reasonable doubt that the anterior palaand
the
new
tals sounds,

are

ARM

and

semivowels.

followed by
only palatals

"J vowel.
true
or
originally
be

'

the anterior palatals,

Swanton

front

"

BURN,
TO

confidence.

glottal
stop

these,but the sounds

TO

starting

that he did

series
anterior palatal

seem

BE

for -^J-?);

OBJECTS. However, I have not enoughevidence

in speaking
with
this pointto be justified
on

and the labializedgutturals

and velars. To
nasalsand
glottalized

trusted,

before /-vowels. Thus, I heard go'xxg'H^-series

To the former classbelongthe anterior palatals As

latterclassbelong
the

record is to be

that there is a differencebetween the ^- and the

sound pattern
to take account
neglecting

elements of the fundamental

as

ifmy
believe,

to

reason

Thk

but this pronunciation,

sk'd-'dji,
the a-vowel, did not satisfy
him.
form is sk'd''dji.
There is even

I did

(see

myselfobtain

not

exampleof aspirated
p but

in

set

it in the

table because of Swanton's

form

have

the table. Aside

djA'pAtto
which I interpret
SINK
as dju'p'at.
SUDDENLY,
It may, however, be really
(i.e.
djxp'at
djxp-\\t; cf. X3.T,\'
eye),in which case p' would
to

be

removed

from

Six:

Na-Dene

and

Athabaskan

153

Languages

145

Glottal-

AspiraIntermediate

Surd

Stop

Voice-

ized

ted

Stop

Surd

Glottalized

Stop

Nasal

Nasal

Glottalized
Voiced

less

Voiced

Spirant Spirant Spirant

w

X
X

xw

y
yw

i
h

from

and

which

'w,

which

are

and

common,

Yana, Achomawi, and Miwok.

labials
final,
syllabic

study Mandarin

recent

tunity
oppor-

Chinese

phonetics
American
in Haida. Most,ifnot all, has made
it clear that these typical
are
very uncommon
identical with
examplesof initialm and 'w may be suspected intermediates" are absolutely
of occurring
in Tsimshian
loan-words. Besides
the unaspirated
surds of Chinese,which sound
softer "than the surds of French or
the 47 primary
that 1 have tabulated,
consonants
distinctly
that the Haida intermediates
be noted : syl- Italian.It is possible
three secondary
must
ones
but
of
final
and
which
surds
but
the
at
moment
true
sonant
are
release,
are
labically p
/,
is
and
and
i
f
velar
their
/
tainly
cereffect,
are
heard,
carefully
unaspirated, spirantal y ; p
general
that of sonants.
not
times
secondaryforms of b and d, while 7 is someThey are here written
m,

is not

rare

as

to

"

"

because it is convenient to adhere

variant of g between vowels.
sonants
as
It is barely
that we should distinguish
to establisjied
possible
usage and because it is advisable
heard

between

as

guttural
q and

velar

r,,

but I did

not

hear the lattersound.

The

INTERMEDIATES.

"

By

"

"

to

sound like sonants

as

surds.
typical
unaspirated

would

while Frenchmen
than surds,

be almost certain

are

identical with

to set

The

the

them

down

Haida intermediates

circumstances.

the d
as

to

First three

laterals

are

affricative.

secondary

under priate
approof giu and giv

them
iv

are

stop, hut it seemed

uvular trillcould sometimes

to

me

that

be detected

faint
as

vowel.
glidebetween the g and a following
Examplesof intermediates are :
a''bx

TO

CHEW

FOOD

FOR

SPLIT

UP

THOU

FOUR
sdx'lISvr,

k'u'dx
I.

The

harder"

fullyvoiced. I supect that

voiced also. A word
o{ dl'isat least partly
is
This
a very
firmlyprogenerally
nounced
g.

and the / o( dl

corresponding dxr,

series heard in Iroquois,

Athabaskan,Takelma,

"

keep p,

intermediates"

sonants
unaspiratedvoiceless lenes, conof
with
the
voicelessness
pronounced
surds
French
but
with
the
ser
les/, k)
typical
(/?,
sonants
{b.d,g).To the ears
energy of our
of English-speaking
apt
persons they are more
"

meant

are

t, ^ for the
forms that may result from
to.

LIP

djr'djW TO

BE

CHILD

Six:

and Na-Dene

Athabaskan

155

Languages

M7

q wa'i

t'a'gun

ROPE

tia'S

t'a''r,OLl

BRANCH

TO
BE
tc'a'tidju'gx

d and

st'a'i

FAT

remarks, It is doubtful whether

really
[i.e. /']and dj and tc [i.e. Ic']
I
sounds
do
not
recognizedlys
eparate
"

existas

'

there

can

classifierfor cleft

objects(likehands),and

as perfectly
distinctas g and k' or g and q\ (Swanton
He either did not
does not listdji'as classifier.

element
classifying

or

cedar

^'d'llleg
DEER

k'w'dx

LIP

k'wd'i

TO

WAIT

q'a'riHEMLOCK
two
q'e'sdir,

he confused

in

going

seal-stomach
k'i''dji

k'a't

classifier
for blown-upobjects
tc'i'-,
',are

isolateit as

red

qoLuCcdoLcheek
to
be
q'a't'car,

be any reasonable doubt on

and t'a' to eat ; dji--,
this point,
da' thou
how

see

FOOT

/Vw

"

Swanton

feather
TONGUE

spherical-like

objects

it with tc'i'-.
Examplesof its use, besides dji''- qWCl'Tt TO BURST
fia''doLn gorge
djw alreadyquoted,are sila'i dji'-sgwa''nsir,
stki'i
C'tll WE
hand
cleft-one],
[literally,
front in its
I may note that/V tends to move
TWO
lips.
TWO
dj'.-sdi'r,
hands, k'u'dx dji'-sd\r,
doubt that there are
There
is no
plentyof position either to that of an nnterior palatal
examplesof dji'-in his material. Note, for c- sound (/V)or even to that of an .f- sound (e.
dla''msdir,
two
gigantic
people
of
fallen
roots
;
instance,dji'wAl[Ma.sset]
g. i''knCsui3.
t^adx
Does
but
also
cheeks.
pond
corresq'y.'nt'c:dx
trees).
's -djit
to Swanton
(op.cit.,p. 260)?
ONE

'

hand

"

The

stops

glottalized

These

"

are

The VOICELESS
catives
stops and affrisimultaneous glottalno special
comment,

pronouncedwith
and oral closure and with
the

upon
"

Some

affricatives.

and

the well known

ing
releasefollowglottal

oral release. Swanton

bringthese
speakers

while others p.iss over

smoothness
". Mr.
^

quiteas smoothlyas
Their essential nature

them

out

very

says,

with considerable

other

becomes

be

"

These require
pronouncedlike ch
"

is

Swanton

remarks, s often

dj^,which does

final.Swanton
syllabic

dj before

dj and s occur
: isdxr,
TO
BE

vowels

most

between

both
to

consonants.

is

as

ich. As

with
interchanges

forcibly,occur

Kellypronouncedthem
any

of German

spirants.

BE

CAUSING

"

TO

that

". Inasmuch

vowels

would
-asi,
-as'.\
participial

normally

not
states

"

as

(e.g. i'dji'
;

but also

it not

be better

BE

certainly
as due to
explained
urgingmore breath against to say that -dj- becomes -s justas -b- and -dWe would then have one
the articulating
become -p and -/ .''
pass
organs than can at once
distinct intervocalic
two
fortis series final (-j)
representing
through ". If there is a true
and
in Haida and Athabaskan, it is the aspiratedconsonants
-dj-).
(sof voiceless spirants
:
are
surds,which are indeed pronouncedwith an
Examples"
to

not

"

excess

"

"

EIGHT
sdw'nsOLT^Xy.

of breath.

Examplesof

surds
glottalized

are

a'k'oSU
xdi

THING

THIS

ARM

1.

Op. cit.,p.

2.

Op. cit.,p.

210.

4. See p. 152

3.

Op. cit.,p.

210.

5.

210.

/- sounds.
regardingsyllabic

Op. cit.,
pp.

214,

215.

VI

156

American

Indian Languages 2

h8
TO
BE
t'a-'xidlgJ.

ABOUT

TO

Althoughthe evidence is far from complete,

risk suggesting
that this set, of which

EAT

I would

sunlight
xa-'ya

xwi'
Xa'

to

there

cold

be

DOG

element

common

like rounded,

X7Lr,\'eye
xd

doubtless other,

are

xiua-'igcr

thing

la\ ia,il

that

-;//-

around.

contains

indicating
something
This view is strongly

sifiers
supported
by the factthat several of the m- clasrelated to other classifiers
are
clearly

neck
a

all

members,

is loose

without

-m

or

with

final -p.Thus,

correspondt'a-

to

t'am-

and
(Swanton)
corresponds
flexible; to ga'm- evidently
ga'Of the
The nasals
FLAT
one
spirants.
flat
and
voiced
(e.g.pr -(a'sgiva-'nsir,
ear);
related to p'- canoe, blanketthree nasals,
like
n and c may
occur
as either syllabic
^dm- is clearly
and
final.In such a word as
initialor syllabic
one
canoe
(e.g.tin' p'sgiua'fiS'.T,
the guttural
nasal q must
be
tiw
two
:
THEIRS
blankets
grsdi'r,
'l(i''(ar,a
^d''at
^d'mdjus
in
considered as belonging
to the finalsyllable,
two
A large
canoe, tiw gd-'mdxh sdvr^
large,
m'' ul gamdoiJa
such a word as xoc'r^'c
to the first,
SPREADY
two
eye
gi'sdir,
CANOES,
m, as we
have already
initialbut not
large
as an
blankets); igxm- probablybelongsto
seen, is rare
as
a final.
uncommon
k'xm-,as
iga- (Swanton)branching
objects,
Swanton
himself pointsout, is derived from
Examplesof final m are :
k'x- SMALL
slla'm- belongswith sthpTHIN
AND
ROUNDED
t^'mdjtrTO BE something
; and
fy-m lice (Mr. Kellyconsidered this word
slim.
(Swanton)

igiinnl THREE

may

coiled

"

as

connected with the classifier

t\m-. This mat

be

onlya

folk

Parallel

to

the

series

-m-

is

-p- series

(fo^p-,
[Swanton],t'ioip
[Swanton],
doip-,
stixpOf
[Swanton] probablysk'oip-^.
audita/)as we
ga''mdju-TO be a wide thing
these,tap- may go with t\m- ; stiap-,
t^ixp-,
judgingfrom
^d'mdjirTO be a large (canoe,blanket) have seen, with slia'iii-;
Several Haida syllables
in
refers to the
Swanton's
which
one
ending m seem to
example,
of
classifiers
to
set
surface
of
the moon,
:
belong a
goes well with his L!t'xm- THIN
this must
and
rounded
thin
and
FLAT
(asI shall show later,
dlambe interpreted
form of /'fa-,
a reduced
gigantic, corpulent
as t'il-,
(?)
wide
and
rounded
and skap-,
which in his one
ga'mt'ia-);
example
reference
large
refers
curled
and
the
tailof
to
to
(in
canoes
a
^iimdog, may go with
sk'a'- roundish
blankets)
of
(used
eyes, water-drops,
igum- (Swanton)large
The meaning of the -p- series is more
and
roundish
(e. berries).
forms ; possibly
obscure than that of the -mg. rattles)
Fa;//- (Swanton)small
and
roundish
the case. Ond" surstubly
protruding
mises
covers
around
that the completeset of Haida classifiers
js,'rt'm-(Swanton)large
(?)
dla'm-,ga'm-, and gam- are not listed by is a more
than Swanton's data
complex subject
etymology,however.)

to
dld''nidjn'

Swanton.
same

as

My

be

ga'm-,

his ga-w-

gigantic

person

however,

may
I

(op.cit.,p. 235);

of the velar g, for the element

recorded
big

ear.

zs

-(am-,

e.

g. ^w

be the
am

tain
cer-

also

represent. Further, that the i- and s- which

beginso many of the classifiers
(andother noun

and vtrb stems)are vestiges

of an older classirelated to the /i- and
one
-(am-sgiva'nsu,
ficatory
system that was
discovered by Boas in Tlingit.
The
s: classifiers
was

Six:

NOS.

and Na-Dene

Athabaskan

3-4

whole

of
subject

Examplesof

needs
classifiers

Haida

and intensive

of

wed
rene-

study.

and

r, are

in the

numerous

so

forms scatteredin this paper that I do

here.
to givefurther examples

not

the one
on
glottalized
stops and affricatives
hand and the glottalized
nasals and semivowels

need

on

the other. This instance demonstrates pretty

it seems
to me, that the native phonetic
clearly,
of Nootka finds the essentialpeculiarity
feeling
of the
fortes in their glottalization
and not
culation
in their supposedly increased stress of arti"

"

y, and /.are :
ha-Wit
HURRY

'*

t'sCWx'gaTO BE A
ancestors
yd-'goLlari
ga''yir sea

"

CEDAR-BOARD

for in such
seems

round
A
sk'a''s'oI%r,

in

thing

with

The

"

nasals

sounds

Kwakiutl,Nootka,

shian. I have

not

voiced

and

coming under

identical with the

are

be

no

as

increase of

'tn

stress.

the
glottalized
stops and affricatives
lasts duringthe whole
closingof the glottis
oral articulationof the consonant
and beyond.
In the glottalized
ced
nasals,semivowels,and voiis
closed
taneously
simulthe
lateral,
however, glottis

NECK

glottalized

to

sounds

In the

WE
t'a'lx'rj

The

Nootka

and '" there

went
q'a'fcaya''g"xn

xd

writing'm. He seemed puzzledto find that

for
not
was
orthography
using an analogous

the

does not seem

mon
to be as comw
Unglottalized
of
a sound
w.
as glottalized
Examples w,

in

157

Languages

this heading

of such
effect,
therefore,

sounds
corresponding

nearlyof

Nass River, and Tsim-

heard the

Kwakiutl

the oral

contact

but released

reupon
the voiced continuant thethereafter,
instantly
becomingfullyaudible. The acoustic

rants.
spi-

sounds

not

of this type, but the Nootka series ('w,'", 'w,

the Nass River and Tsimshian
series ('w,
'j),

sound

as

is very

glottal
stop followed by ni-, yet
for
conscious
compoundingof '-|quite, a
a

the Indian's ear.

nearlyalwaysfailsto satisfy
That the glottal
element is feltto inhere in the
is clear from the syllabification.
In
'w, 7, 'w, y),and the Haida series ('w,*w,'r,, consonant
words
and
fa'^na'
such
Haida
as
bucket
to
'w, 'y),sound perfectly
me.
ga''tia
analogous
I hear no difference,
for instance,between the
the glottal
child
stop belongsto the second
'i^of Nootka W"}7' HIGH
of
the
first.In neither Haida nor
Nass
River
not
to
syllable,
HILL,
'wr GREAT, and of Haida 'wxsi' that
end in
of
a syllable
thing.
Nootka, as a matter
can
fact,
I speakof this because Boas has differentiated a glottal
stop.
the 'm, for instance,of Kwakiutl from the 'w
ed
has not yet been recordSo far as I know, '"/;
of Tsimshian,which he writes m ! and considfor any other Indian language.
It is not a
ers
in
fortis m analogous
fortis p !
to
a
sound, nor are '///and ';/frequent
common
I
In
sounds
these
with
the
have
indicated,
as
(ourp'). classifying
Haida;'///,
already
probably
occurs
glottalized
mainlyin Tsimshian loan-words. On the
stops and affricatives(*'fortes ") of
Tsimshian I believe he is perfectly
other hand, \i\ '\,and '/ are exceedingly
mon
comcorrect, for
of the most
but
sounds, appearingin some
they all belongtogether
psychologically,
this groupingapplies
in the language(e.g.\L'aimportantstems
fullyas well to Nootka.
When
I firsttaughta Nootka Indian to write
that,
'j)7rbig, la he).How
importantis the
and explained
distinction between 'v and v, for instance,may
the meaning of such
phonetically
be seen
from the fact that when I pronounced
write
symbolsas p ! and / ! (forwhich I now
a
nd
Swanton's
I
interested
find
he
that
Mr. Kellyhad
to
wrote
/)' /'),was
yu'An big as yir'xn,
"

''

"

"

! of his

own

accord where

was

in the habit

not

the

remotest

idea what it meant;

itshould

VI

158

American

Languages 2

Indian

no

in Haida
in

They
unexpected.

was

and
Tlingit

baskan

also

seem

with

"

not

are

In
interesting
exception.

one

there of an
correspondent
regular
t
n.
etymological-\nasals and voiced
Examplesof glottalized
are
:
spirants
of pain)
'ma' (exclamation
'madjx OCHRE
(Probablyborrowed from

ans

Cf. Tsimshian
Boas'
; perhaps

OCHRE

'tt'aJi*THAT

is

m'Es-

'W3tj-.)
ga''na bucket
to
vie
with
W,a'g3,'r,ga'r,
'wa'ngx TO LOOK for food

wE5-

reddish,

niES-

be read

to

at

There

important

with a
to begin,
or
seem
begin,
These
vowel unpreceded
are
by a glottal
stop.
the demonstrative u, o (w o') and the verb
i''dii\i''dj'.,
a.
Examplesof the demonstrative
,

are

v'dji

di' sk'ddj
u'

it

eyebrows

is my

(Note the glide

t
hat
no
glottal
indicating
clearly
stop has
)',
been slurred, gd'gxnis probablyassimilated
na'i {y)u
"d'gxn

ia'o-

house

my

Swanton, op. cit.,p. 259,

see
gd'gxr,,

gia'gAfi)

wites

'la'o'

tide

THING

he
I

"C

'la o'

"iiao'

'WXSI' 0

THAT
gO'Xxgl'lgTr,

TO

STARTING

IS

burn

GOOD

la', 'h, 7/

na''gai
yf

HE

a'k'osu
The

however, at least two

are,

elements that

BIG
'yu'"oin

'la'

ga'xa. i'hri"x
either mishear-

MEN,
are

speaker.

who

another
ebb

BOY, but these

the part of the

on
ings or secondaryslurrings

from
one

two
t*7tr,/"iu/a
5iii-/;

CHILD-MALE,

recorded

";/.It is the

Tsimshian.

e.g.

ed,
found

be absent in Atha-

to

the Franciscan Fathers have

Navaho

sounds

of these
The finding
';y7r''an.

have been

laryngeal

consonants.

ia

i go
q'a'tcar,

into

this

those
sd:r,0 fs'.'zvx'gx
'ivx'sga.i

Everystem that
vowel really
begins,

house

thing"
two

are

bet;inswith a
BOARDS.
CEDAR
apparently
in all probability,
with either a glottal
for this absence of the glottal
The reason
stop or
with /;. Examplesol glottal
indicated
has
been
by Swanton. The general
stops beginning stop
is haii(S"vanton's
of
reference
demonstrative
are
:
syllables
WITH
PREPARED
SOAPBERRIES
'a'dja SMEARED
hao),often contracted to ir u, 0. The vocalic
hiatus without glottal
'fl'7/PADDLE
logical
stop is thus the etymoof an old h.
'a'uga .MOTHER
equivalent
HERE
:
'a''tlgxu
'.5are
(Swanton writes d'LgAn,
Examplesof the verb i''dj\.,
,

but I heard //,not

on

my
'(tllod-'a

dl. This

be

may

tx
tllgU".''
U

OURS

PUT

MAN
'l-7'.Y]
HE
IS
7 'i''i:r,x
ifc'dju'gi
'a in the
-77
house
na'g"'i

STOUT

MAN

u,

few

house

IT TO

BE

AWAY,

0.

The

tive
demonstra-

consistent absence of the

be

glottal

due

to

an

old /; that has

suggest that

is is a
i'dj\,

ten
thing
I.

in

AWAY

as
interpreted
I
would
disappeared.

to

si.K

sk'a's'olxT,
A round
In

CAUSE

be explained
as
stop in this verb may possibly
but I think it more
a slurring,
likelythat it is

yif'txnBIG
iH-fu'nui

IT

isdxr, I

See also the firstexample under

{gu'nuf three
tia'"ai

la 'o'na'.t -;a c'dj-.-ri

i am

ring
mishea-

part.)

cases

the ^lottalston

was

not

record-

a-

slurred

correspondingto

from

'a-, the

';tw- that.

demonstrative

stem

this

Six:

Athabaskan

and

Na-Dene

159

Languages

151

laterform of

keeper,
his,and that this verb is to
'hfai"';asomething-eat
ga-t'a-'
hi'dj'.,
tives
demonstraof
eater
a
as
composed
d jc'go''.;7i seven
!
hi- (cf.
stem
come
here
hi'-,
hi''-dll-goLl
and
Swanton's
hi
nan
one
-(%'sgu"a''nsvr^
(flat)ear
hi-t!A-gA'nthen,
gw
Swanton's
/;/rock
q'o''-(a
only).Justasthis
/;fl-(cf.
parallels
and unvoiced after
hx-n LIKE, AS FOLLOWS
demonstrative
Less often g is spirantized
; general
initial/ :
article"*hai,
hao^if
10 gai,in
parallel
u,o;
hat house-the
e. g. *na
"
so
*hi-dji, ixa' stone (foriga')
na'i),
ilation
*hi-s TO BE parallels
Before s, t\,n, and i there issometimes assimas
old *ha-s,preserved
an
Such
of
Swanton's
a
to
n
:
participial
-as, -is,-es.
r,
TWO-TWO
who
was
one
four
"C *sd7:r,-sd".r,
sdx'nsir,
phraseas Swanton's nxn gaxd'gas
it seems
r'hnfsuix dla''msdvr,
is to be interpreted,
people
as
to me,
two
gigantic
A child
child-be
a-s one
(cf.i-'hT,aman)
it-is, contracted
"ar( gaxa-'-g
dxn II I THEE.
from an older gaxa'-gahas. Such endingsas
(Iromdxr,iV)
-^-5?(Swanton)are probably
house
to be interpretedgd'gxn na'i my
which occurs
-ils\"Z -l-y-S';
But this rule is not invariable : -y; is preserved,
as
as phoneti-asi,
ic
below
/See
on
syllables.
parallel.
e.g., in :
in
fsda. dx'psdir,
MEN
STUBBY
TWO
droppedout
'r'/i-/;
Though /;has demonstrably
in intervocalic position,
it is a
On the other hand, n does not assimilate to
certain cases
articulated consonant
when preserved,
clearly
r, before g :
grandfather
:
tc'i'nga
e.g.
!
cousin
COME
here
'llgx'nga
hv'dllgy.1

be understood

"

"

"

haw't

HURRY

Initial
Secondary

Final

processes.

consonantal

vowels are, as a rule,released without breath.

forms -p
This is in keepingwith the phonetic
and

-t

instead of/)'
and

release have been

A few
.

cases

noted,however,

of breath
in absolutely

beginswith
syllable
of

two

consonants,

preceded,it
element

or

would

of the

one

listed in the

consonants

Every Haida

clusters."

consonant

forty-seven

with
or
table,

with

vowel

cluster

(originally

by /;).The first
always i- or s-. The

seem,

of the cluster is

or
second element is an intermediate,
aspirated,
two
5)a //,never, I believe,
t'c'-sdir,
houses) glottalized
(butna
stop or (after
or a spirant
; ix- is merely
a sibilantaffricative
go'gx'(it)is on fire
of
:
form
are
sets
fire
to
/^^-.
E
xamples
a
secondary
go'dxgy.'
roundish
for
is the spirantal
of
objects)
Rather frequent
fairly
big,
(classifier
voicing g
igi'velar y between vowels :
iga' STONE
yours
igu'nid three
dx'r,^d^a
Ik'a'i chin
theirs
'la''(a'r^a
^d-ra
for
at
look
food
GO
down
to
sdir, TWO
TO
'zua'n-^oi.

finalposition
:

na''

to

house

sget

ebbtide

da

la

'(O'da

na''gai
yc

you

into

start
house

the

fire!

ONE
sgiva''ns:r^

st'v'wai

Op. cit.,p.

254.

THE

sea-egg

for round objects)

(classifier
sq'aiiGROUSE

sk'a'I.

red

160

VI

American

Indian

Languages 2

152

St

vocalic

FOOT

sq'a-

N'lFEROUS

exampleof i before

no

I suspcct

TREE.

llr-,as it would be an
(ors) -\-nasal. Swanton
initialsd- from

j/'-.He

PLACE

HAND

with
related,
ton's

L-, p.
Swanton's

/'/do

IN

glottalized

needle

co-

of

to

touch

certain

''

or

DIRECTION.

sL

These

to

ments
ele-

are

vocalic groups

"

but
is his group sL !-. It may exist,
error
and
his instrumental sL!- with
the
fikgers
sL!di

"

stiL Many of his non: ///,

syllabic
are
even
e. g. /'//'//
disyllabic,
that his in- is really (Swanton's
Z,//).
isolated exampleoff
fails to distinguish Syllables
In normal
with
l-vowel.
writes both st-. Another English
the
second
of a
pronunciation
syllable

givesIk'.A'mAl

stop; Swanton

"

"

for longobjects)
(classifier

I obtained

like

stems

and stia'i,
stllprobably
really
touch
to ///to
(Swan^-prefix,
226).
are

clusters with initial/,dl, li,and

word

like w^/a/ consists of

by

/-vowel. In

an

pure vowel in the

no
"

mid-mixed

"

ed
follow-

consonant

other

words,

there is

at all,
not
syllable

even

The

tongue does not

release its stop position
but merelyadjusts
itselfon the spot to a lateralarticulation.Such
a

d.

exist. These /-sounds are in

words as metal,medal,flannel
really
are
phonetically
as
//,'II, mi'tl,
syllabic
every case to be interpreted
mz'dl,
fld'nl.
dll,tiland /'//
(seebelow).
The peculiarity
of the Haida /-syllables,
of
which there are a vast number
in the language,
is that they alwaysbeginwith a lateralconsonant,
II.
The syllable.
voiced or unvoiced.
The
following
table shows the relation between
the simple
Before taking
lateralsand the syllables
with /-vowel :
venient
up the vowels,it will be conThere is
to define the Haida syllable.
doubt that the language,
luithy.-vcnvel Syllable
with l-vowel
like Athabaskan,
no
Syllable
has a strong and well-defined feeling
for the
In a-, 0
and psycholoas an
syllable
integral
phonetic
gical
'//('/",
*/"
'/)
unit of speech.It therefore becomes
dU
dll{dl,df)
not

"

importantto understand

its

from the
of
or

an

5-

or

/-cluster of

two

Aside

structure.

secondaryloss of h and
',every syllable
beginswith

the
a

slurring

consonant

h
tix

il
til

fix

t'il

It

consonants.

in the second, column

The syllables
a diphthong
may end in a vowel (longor short),
are
(long or short, but I suspect that all long reduced forms of those in the first,
with which
diphthongsare felt as the equivalent
of two
theyvary in Swanton's orthography
(e.g.
Lga
of
form
syllables
*-ahai,*-ahau),
an
/-vowel, or LA'ga land, both to be understood as
a
cluster of two
or
a
consonant,
accf"rd"
consonants
lil'ga).
They also interchange
actually
in
/
or
s
ending
(theseclusters are likely,ingto accentual or other phonetic
circumstances
forms of older disylhowever,to be secondary
in a', a,
labic with full syllables
(e.g. la', 'la in
forms,e. g. i'djins
'In'.va'r/'."
'la
na''i
[Swunion]
HIS
HE
is
"^i'djiT,7Ls).
ga't'car,
EYES,
";'.
The final consonant
be only rn, n, yj, 5,
can
THE
HOUSE
HE
GOING
INTO
: '/'i''ii.r,7.
tc'r'djw
unaspirated
p or /, /,/,or //. All of Swanton's
BLOWN-UP
IS A
(obese)MAN ; /flI : //; -dxloL
examplesof final dl and /'/ are to be interpreted adjective
That Swanton
too
plural: -dj.il).
a

as

Swanton
dll and /'//.

speaksof

non-

heard,though he did

not

/record,
explicitly

Six:

Athabaskan

and

Na-Dene

161

Languages

1)3

by such

is shown
syllables

accentuations

I'-andL!'-.
/'-,

as

Z,'-,

:
are
Examplesof /-syllables

k^all LEG
da''llRAIN

dal

possible

by Swanton,

as
(recorded
This
Mr. Kelly's
ear.
satisfy
word is not
but the
disyllabic,
only clearly
accented vowel is higherin pitchthan the /Cf. Swanton's ddla-ge'ii-si
rain
syllable.
fell,
1.
BBAE
:
8.)
12,
29

which

failed

'a'll

to

PADDLE

ed
qui'' FOREHEAD
(shouldhave been recordor qui')
q'u'Il
COUSIN
'IJgx'nga
keeper
'h;a'i'^';a
dx'n U
YOU
I.
(notto be confused with
dxnl swelling)
TO
CRY
Sge-'il
.

titil
tlc'll

TO

one's

RUB

go

hi'dllgalcome
tilga'earth
tilgWV'AWAY
til^u'nuiSIX

"

"

Thus,

we

may

surmise

that the

two

forms

of the first person plural

fa-la-r,
(subjective
and objective
are closely
related,
''/'-til
''/'-t'il)

beinga

reduced

basic forms

form of

would

then

The
*\''-t\xya.
be fa and

true

'c-fa,-la

and -Ix-r,
elements.
beingpluralizing

hand

against

five

q'w'dllto

to telloffhand whethersuch
ies
orthographand ga'lxuarepresent igc'daJ
igeda-i
or
or go'lhwa. It is hardly
ilge'da.i,
ga''lxu'a
conceivable that the morphologyof Haida can
be adequately
understood
without an
exact
of
its
the
Haida
for
knowledge
syllabification,
word
is essentially
of significant
a group
is likely
The recognition
of /-syllables
syllables.
of grammar
in a new
to put many
points
light.
as

aboard

canoe

here!

Syllabic

It is

quitepossible
of type
syllables
and
n
on
syllabic
alternating
phonetic
q,
of type w. and r,a. The
groundswith syllables
alternation of-r;(-n)and -/;" in cases like i"7.-/;
fsdx sdvr,
two
men
(ori''i:.n)
that

we

nasals.

should

"

also
recognize

and
one
i''hr,x
sgiua''nsiri

man

should

alternation
as an
perhapsbe interpreted
of i"'/iy;y;
and i'7tr,a.
{'.''hnn
by assimilation)
This consideration may
explainthe constant
in Swanton's material of forms like
interchange

(a dry salmom)
ours
'i''t'ilgd-fa
When
an
beginningwith /, 7,
/-syllable
dl is pronouncedwith very weak stress,
or
-gAn and -gAni,-agAriand -agAni,-gin nnd
the length
of the / is of course
reduced,though -gtni,in which -/ (i.e., -i)can hardlybe a
We
character.
loses its syllabic
it never
perfectiveelement, as Swanton assumes.
may
Haida
then write simply/, '/,dl. The syl'able
-ilr, For the present, I cannot
say whether
heard as -ir,,
final -n and -r, from -n and syllafrom -/ay;)
with sylwas
bic
(reduced
labicdistinguishes
I
is
tia'"al
feel
that
that
in
All
I
e.
can
lia'^ait,
(i.
avj)
s
gu'a''ris:T,
strongly
say
-Y).
q,
the
Haida
reduces
of
while
one
it-is
nine.
ten
quantities syllables
missing,
gou
the phonetics
of Swanton's
In interpreting
(e.g., in such a gamut as 7^/','la,7a,
freely
it resiststhe extinction of syllables,
and
ambiguity '//,
'/).
texts, there is no genuine syllabic
that if syllables
in the case of initialL-, L-, L!-, and /- before
ar.^ actually
lost,
theyare lost
and of final -L and -L/, which
not
consonants
phoneticallybut
psychologically.
It is different,
necessarily
represent /-syllables.
before
with
/
initial
consonants
unfortunately,
HI.
Vowels.
soak
to
t'il'^d'

"

"

"

and with final-/,-/,and -L, which

may

laterals.It
or
non-syllabic
syllabic

sent
repreis im-

am

able

to

idea
giveonly a preliminary

Six:

Athabaskan

and

Na-Dene

163

Languages

1)5

gi-gd'-d-

due to
clearly
largely
a
nd
of
secondarylengthenings
shortenings
with
the
hence
fundamental
vowel.
""
Thus, as already
gdui-(closed
syllable,
^a'-mshortened vowel)
be shortened to 7a,
pointed
out, 'la he
may
be
'/or lengthned
:
ear
can
to 'la' The determinants of
'II,
Again, g'rw-aithe
^w ear
best explained
from an old ''gaw-, this quantitative
as
variation are probablyphopalatalized
netic
change
final -an o{*gaii
This interrather than morphological,
but I doubt
to gw
contracting
of -/'tf- : -w
take placealso
is the onlyor even
to
ifstress accent
the decisive
seems
after s, e. g. Skidegate
:
sfi (Swanton)to
say
factor,as both the long and the short vowel
Masset sdw-^.A basic sawsiw-As (contrast
in an
accented or unaccented syllable.
may occur
best explains
nation
alterthe alternations. Another
I suspect that the distribution of quantities
of similar form is that of tin' canoe
:
is the resultant partly
of inherent quantitative
tilw-a'ithe
distinctions (e.g. longa' in yd''gxhr,
canoe
(Swanton alwayswrites
This againis doubtless the reflexof an
in k\'dju'
ANCESTORS
: short a,
Lu-a'i).
to
be short),
old tlaii: tlaiu-.
of
establish
a
rhythmic
a
to
partly
tendency
heard as
For the /-vowel,/, i, and e were
This
to depend
seems
equilibrium. equilibrium
variant timbres. The t-timbre is quite
chief among
which are the
frequent,on several factors,
of the syllable
tends
perhapsnormal, for the long/- vowel, e. g. : nature
(a closed syllable
be short,an open one long),the place
OURS
of
to
'c'til^dya
he accent, and the groupingof the syllables
A-a'r/fEYE
in phrases.
It is impossible
AWAY
tilglUf'
to
giverules at
the
SEVEN
is
subject
djr'gO'-(OL
evidently
complex.At
present ;
'."ilTfT.
MAN
time I do not feel that the quantities
the same
^-timbre are :
distributed ad libitum,rather that they
Examplesof the less common
are

^a-

"

ga-d-

variations

are

titative

""

c'dji-qIS

remain

(cf.xd neck).

xei

REGION

The

characteristictimbre

OF

THE

NECK

of the u-vowel

is

to

be discovered.

Haida type of
somewhat
similar to
The

variation
quantitative
that of

is

Athabaskan,if

responding I am
mistaken. Presumablythe Tlingit
(asin English
not
put),here written u. The corvowel
heard
as
o'
for
was
long
partly
feeling quantityis analogousto that of
TO
START
A
the quanHaida. Boas merelyremarks that
(e.g. go'dx
eire),partlyas w
titative
The latter seems
to occur
value of Tlingit
(asin English
vowels varies considerably
fool).
'. In the body of his grammar
chieflyafter sibilants and anterior palatals
he unfortunately
attention
(e.g. -dju-TO BE so AND SO, gU' EAR, 'y/r"Qt"
the
of
to
no
subject
pays
The
big).
of
the
peculiarities
quantity. quantitative
A glidea was
noted in 'lyai^-^a
keeper.
Nadene
contrast
to
languagesare in striking
In ^d''at
the longa vowel,modified
those of the neighboring
In Eskimo,
BLANKET,
languages.
its proper quality
to d after g, reasserts
before
in Tsimshian
Wakashan, and,I believe,
u

"

"

the final/ and thus appears

as

broken vowel.

as

value of a
well, the inherent quantitative
is clearly
feltand, on the whole, rigidly

vowel
Vocalic
matter

quantity.

"

in Haida. It is

cult
In
Quantityis a diffipreserved.
that there are
likely

but it
distinctions,
etymological
quantitative
is impossible
the actual quanto be certain,
as

I.

F.

these

Boas, GiamiiiatiCid Notes

Tliu^itIndians,Univ.
no.

vocalic quantity
languages

1, 191 7, p.

; I.

of

Pa.

on

the

Anthr.

of llie
Laiu:;iiaQy
Publ.,vol. VIII,

VI

164

Indian Languages 2

American

156
is

much

as

found

are

be well

Haida would

in

by

Phonetic

of the word.

of vowels
quantity

variations in the

The

is the

etymologyas

of

matter

consonantal framework

such

uncontracted

when

as

appendedto
and

thinkable
nighun-

stem

gai,e.g.

St'i''iuai THE

in Xootka.

short ai is well illustrated

the enclitic articles -ai

"; *hai),
(probably
sonant,
endingin a con-

SEA-EGG

alternations are :
into
a house
na''gai
y".'o
Examplesof quantitative
ai
CHILD
Accordingto Swanton ', the Skidegate
i''i':r,x
:
CHILD
a
ga'Xx
g^i'-y^''
in Masset as e', but Mr. Kelly,
gate
a Skidegirl
child
female,
appears
.ija'dx
MAi.K, boy;
gaxx
Haida, pronounceda number of fl/-forms
w
v'dji'
: di' sk'ddj
EYEBROWS
s^'d''dji'
"

IS MY

IT

with

EYEBROWS

^"-vowe!,
e.g.

roundish things
(cf.
large
in the
na-' house;
q!ai-,
p. 232)
"^ yd''
house
yd''ge'PARENT
gai (cf.
T^\\iv.yd''gxlxr
I'e' 'sgwa'nsvr,
one
na
t'e'- classifierfor bulky lyingobjects
one
(cf.
OYiE ; q'a-'dji
q'e'sgwa-'nsir,
sgwa''nsi.T,
Swanton's t'ai-,
k'nn
k'un
one
227)
p.
nose;
dji'sgwa-'iisir,
head;
POINT
q'e'tSPRUCE (cf.
Swanton's^flf/TREE,
LITTLE
p. 271)
ONE
NOSE,
; ou'
k'xsgwa-'uy.r,
cf. tlx,
c
ontains
iiaFIVE
tic'il
(probably
:
ear
;
ONE
(flat)
gir -'amsgwa'n''^d-sgwa-'ns\r,
tils-tla
TO
k'
LITTLE
hand)
ONE
touch,
BIG
EAR
S'.r, ONE
;^M' x'sgwanS:r,
the Masset-like g'-forms are gaining
Possibly
one
blanket, shawl
E\R;m-'dai^rsgwa'nsir,
the younger
head
: q'a'djicurrency
i
of
peopleat the
among
head, hair
; q'a''dji
is going
he
expense of the older az-forms. The contracted
7/ ; la-'onw'gaivt- q'a't'car,
eight
sda-'nsar,xj.

sdy.'ns'.r,
four

na'ga'i
yfl 'a

house

he
a't'car,

is

classifierfor

qe'Swanton

"

"

INTO

house

GOING

na''i

'la q

vi

SPLIT
TO
BE
dji-'djir
one
band
djisgwa-'ns'.r,

CUT

up,

UP

TO
e''djirt

BE,

ia' '.sdxr,
I CAUSE

TO

BE,

(duratively)
;

BE

PUT

TO
BE SMALL
AND
ROUNDISH
sk'a''dju'
is
LONG
AND
(it)
MASSIVE, SPREADY;
^i'dju-'gx
u
is large
tilwa'i
gdmdju'gxn the canoe
xd k'lf'dJHneck
IS
very
dx'pdjti
short;
//

"

litr

godxgx

PUT

{(l'a''gxI

HIS

two

and

an.

heard

lattertype

to

e'

; an,

two

ou^and

simplyas ^Z;

seems

to

a'k'os

long a'i (a.i)probablyalways results

fl

-f-ai, e.g.

"C na-(h)ai
trumental
st'a-{h)ai
(cf.Swanton's inssl!a- by kicking)
dia'i auiETNESS
" dla-(h)ai
to e'
so
Just as the primaryai may contract
it is likely
that a'i may contract
to ai. Thus,
is
that ^d''da.i
it seems
blanket
the
probable
THE

sCa'i

house

foot

"C

to
as

be understood

not

contracted from

as

gd't -\-ai but rather

the
; q\r'-(ai
^d'da-{hyn

rock-|(h)ai.
q'o'''(a
xdi arm
"" xd'i " old *xa-(h)ai
Similarly,
; *xa
itselfpassed
to xi (Swanton's
xi^)as *^apassed
ROCK,

as

contracted from

The

short

is
^/"-diphthong

short

(a/,
a.i,
long(a'/,
"

e'

r.

diphtongs to^^r'.

of these exists in

distinct forms
quantitatively

sometimes

BURN

are

Each

FIRE

0 gO'Xx; '"lVx!s\'

TO

There

"

often contracted

The

ON
THIS

IS STARTING

Diphthongs.

Haida, (7/

EATING

AM

THAT
g'.'lgxr,

HOUSE

be confused with the

canoe
gaiiid/usa large
na'i
di'sk'ddjwMY eyebrows; ia''o'la'gd^'a

short;

to

from the contraction of

stia'idjisdir,
two

not

is merelya variant of

na'i

/"V/V"TO

in

is,of course,
The

stia'i

HANDS

e'

which

HOUSE

the

into

a'o\ a'o,

ao').

resultfrom contraction.

1.
2.

Ot).cii.,p. 213.
Op. cit.,p. 226.

3. See

page

155.

written

ao

by

Six:

and

Athabaskan

165

Languages

Na-Dene

f$7

I heard it

Swanton.
did

not

as

an

ordinarya -\-u

feel that the labial element

and
ered
low-

was

Examplesare :
o-position.
'a'ugaMOTHER
aoga^
(Swanton's
GROUSE
(Swanton's
s
qao)
sq'au
to

It seemed
tended

to

to

me

become

that it was

rather the

stress

the

be

purelyrhythmicphenomena for
part, but I doubt if theyare entirely

may

most

so.

Functional

alternations

seem

be illustrated

to

SEA
smoke
: ga'yw'
g(i''yu'
The
HEAD
: q'a'djx
HAIRY.

in
HAIR
a

that

modified in the direction of

OF

PROVIDED

nia'doL

(intia-"air,also

WITH
HAVING

is fouud

in

q'a''(ij\

same

'madja

mountain-sheep,

ochre

but

we

-a'
and
find

smeared
with
soapberries.
to
be wanting
u
'a''dja
The question
of stress is complicated
almost 'o''ga,
as
by that
sgwa''
ns'.Tt
gJu nine)and 'o''tiga,
of pitch.
in pitch
The stressed syllable
is higher
This tendencyo( au to convariant of'a'uga.
tract
of the word. At the
to a
monophthong is carried through, than the other syllables
titne it seemed to me
that a low-pitched
same
sea
(cf.Swanton's gayao,
e.g., in ga''yu'
well
and
bear
in
stress
ear
a secondary
syllable
might
*gau,
w, 0', u,
very
(*^aw,
p. 272),^tf
the
to
as
so
0 as reduced form of demonstrative hau.
w
hether,
bringup
question
strong
in
and ao', is after all,what I have been making stress
The longa'o, also heard as wo'
is
of
this
distinct
fromshort
It
matter
not
to
a
seems
au.
relatively
primarily
markedly
paper
of stress.
result alwaysfrom the contraction of a -|-(/?) high pitch,
one
only secondarily
Though I should not like to commit myself
au, e.g. :
that pitch
form ; "" 'la-[h\aii)
'la'o HE (emphatic
at present, I consider it very likely
'la'O',
lao' I (emphaticform; "C la-\h\au)
alternations are a primaryfactor in the dynamics
ia'o',
of Haida,thoughit is perfectly
clear that
is not uniformly
a givensyllable
high-pitched
The actual musical effect ot
or
low-pitched.
IV.
Stress and
Pitch.
of the
Haida is so marked and the sonority
so great that the
more
weaklystressed syllables
of a pitchprinciple
is to he looked
sions
I was not able to arrive at definite concluoperation
I
succeeded
in finding
that
and
for. Yet I cannot
in regardto Haida stress and pitch
say
their interrelations. It is clear that a given one beyonddoubt.
will have to do for the
accented on a certain syllable. A few sentences
word is regularly
alternations of pitch
illustratethe
the
this
is
to
first,
Generally
present
man,
e.g. r7'.v;a
is
A
observed.
to
be large
highpitch indicated by an acute
'yw'djir
(it)is flaming,
go''xxgxr,
;
does not need to be
the vowel (a),a low one
but the accented syllable
accent
over
by a
tone
the first,
ha'tv'.'t
hurry!
child,
e.g. ga'xa''
grave accent over the vowel {a).A fiilling
of
Further,it is evident that the stressed syllable(^) was observed onlyin 'nid'(exclamation
alternations
it
its
reduces
I
f
there
lose
its
as
are
significant
pitch
stress,
pain).
quantity,
may
of the simple
in the sentence
in Haida,theyare probably
in a givensetting
the
or when
Tlingit
ing
observed
addition of one or more
the
by Boas. In the followsyllables
high-low
changes
type
un^iarked
its
the
of
beside
following
Thus,
syllables
e\amples,
syllables.
rhythmicpattern
did not impressthe ear
hive go'xxgx'r,i^oi.
we
a high-pitched
syllable
(rr)is burning,
go''xoLgxr,
so
as the one
to
bukn
; beside
as
low-pitched
(n) is starting
beingas definitely
go-yxgilgx
after
of unmarked
marked. The pitch
and a'k'osti it t'a-'xidigxn
EAT
i was
TO
syllables
/'fl"'^a
is low. A stressed syllable
have i'l ga t'a'g'r'gyji
i
a low-pitched
ABOUT
TO
THIS
EAT
we
syllable
wliosc tone
These alternations of
not
was
HAVE
EATING.
FINISHED
markedlyhigh or low is

; thus,I heard gm

"

VI

166

Languages

Indian

American

n8

inaicatcd

by

'la

tia-i ge
la\i^ii'';a

nd'gai ^'Z

he
(]'(rt\:ayn-'gy.ii

went

HIS

HOUSE

()")" go'g^-'

iia-i

}:agan

on

is

house

my

nd-iyi
puts

he

hro-

go-drgx'

la-gd'(a na't

put

house

his

house

dd

in

";d-dx

IT

girxxgrrigx

it
gi'rxxgilgy.

'vjxsi

id ga

t'd'gd
u

go-xxgUgxr,

is

that

house
into

GO

house

into

going

is

he

going

is

the

into

ly. isdxTt

this

eating

am

put

it

away

it

t'sVwigx

are

two

those

BOARDS

X'.'l

to

starting

eating

am

t'd-gd

tlVwdi

burn

to

starting

yf

a'k'os

cedar

BURNING

IS
is

in
i

q'd'fcxr,

sdir,o
'lUTiSga.i

fire!

the

start

you

am

q'd'fcar, he

'Ja

tilgiuiu

FIRE

ON

qa't'car,

HOUSE

my

riRE

ON

la

HOUSE

FIRE

'la-0- gligxiina-igo-dxgx'

na-'gai

'Id-Q
INTO

-.-a c'djir^

ido- nd'i

("7').

after the vowel

accent

acute

an

djl'-qgxr,THE

IS

CANOE

(long

sq'd'sdir,TWO

LONG

narrow)

and

NECKS

BURN

iid-gdi'(d \i

house

the

IN

Editorial

143-158

of

Islands,
Haida,

highly divergent

two,

are

group

closely

related

particularly
a

dialect

informant
more

spoken

in

and

attested

been

best

which

the

slashed

in

of

from

to
or

and

Southern

(see
his

copy

underlined

the

member
the

of

subject

of

Linguistics 2,

American

focus

extensive

northern

Leer

Krauss
as

1977;

1979:
follows

g):

of Alaska;
is

by

and

Southern

Skidegate. Sapir's
s

Enrico

Charlotte

Oueen

of Swanton
work

Haida,

Northern

of which

Haida,

are

Haida:

adjacent parts

was

(Lawrence

consonants

corrigenda
Sapir's

areas

Masset,

phonology

pharyngealized

dialect

the

dialects

different

g for

dialects

Skidegate,

recently

Sapir's ms.

at

chain,

spoke

Masset-Alaskan

two

Journal

(1923).

There

has

International

in

Originally published

Notes

study (1911)

Levine

1986)

(1977).
have

including phonemic

and
The

edly
mark-

tone

and

the

acter
char-

839-840).

(note

that

we

use

Six:

Athabaskan

and

Na-Dene

Languages

167

PITCH

ACCENT

IN

ATHABASKAN

AN

SARCEE,

LANGUAGE,

Introductory

In

the

of the

study

Canada.

Athabaskan

assimilated

Blackfoot

Like

of Blackfoot,

is

guagjes

its

dialectic

the

w^as

that

in

interest

is tone

good

some

far transcends
and

explicitinformation

not

As

I propose

to

the

literature

been

has

given

grammatical, lexical,
Athabaskan
of

the

is

1. See

is

F.

2. See

E.

and

language
in

Grammatical

Museum,

of

on

this

tone

by

in

Sapir,

The

on

in

the

material

the

far

the

Language

Languages,

of

Publications,
a

the

of Sareee
baskan
Athahave

we

little

very

baskan
of Atha-

published.

language

VIII,

n"

That

because

interest

so

or

mental
funda-

other

to

which

'-.

Tlingit Indians

vol.

the

study

so

large body

so

from

pitch accent

moment,

great comparative

Anthropological
Na-dene

distinctive

point, though

Tlingit (S. Alaska),

Notes

tem,
sound-sys-

itself,for

shared

show

on

text

is of

be

lan-

summer's

the

Sareee

is

Chipewyan.

genetically related, though only remotely

Boas,

Pennsylvania

tone

of tone

existence

Athabaskan

of

from

ber
num-

these

appreciably
and

tically
prac-

Sareee

morphological understanding

it should

in

evidence

emerged

that

well.

as

that

it

Carrier

Hupa,

by

developed

remove

three

The

in

of

Kiowa

the

stock.

in its

well-developed system

phonetic

it is inconceivable

dialects

of

Sareee

the

not

of Navaho,

of this fact

to

do

Both

shows

loanwords

It has

vocabulary.

these

Sareee

Athabaskan

and

the

with

exerted

the

were

Plains

"

way,

of alien

near

area.

neighbors

formal

influence

thoroughly

interestingfact

most

presence

The

tone.

its

and

linguisticcompanionship
the

is

that

languages,

morphological

but
peculiarities,

Perhaps

reserve

Great

of

culture

field

Apache

the

into

less

at

Kiowa

Stoney (Assiniboine)

Sareee

morphology,

in

Athabaskan

or

the

entirelynil.

the

neighboring languages

Gree,

practicallynil, while

located

powerful

more

undertook

paper

now

descended

Sareee,

other

from

influence

no

with

the

Kiowa,

tribes.

that

and

buffalo-hunting

affiliated

the

this

Indians,

Sareee

The

distinctive

were

with

Apache

Sareee

(Dene) tribes

the

tribes

these

of

author

the

of the

language

Calgary, Alberta,
only

1922

of

summer

(University

I, 1917).

PreliminaryReport (American

Anthro-

Six:

Athabaskan

Na-Dene

and

171

Languages

187
deserves.
it
as

it

As

made

or

Father

G.

A.

unaware

all

not

vocal

or

of

"

the

higher tone.

combined

with

suggests

kshan

from

the

which

Carrier

attempt
others, are

among

The

the

of these

tones

have

close Sarcee

is also

whose

present

wnth

also among
intonations
are

vocal

to

As

Father

are

no

high
:

doubt

form
"imperfective"

Morice

in 1921

even

This

C.

is

sage
pasther
fur-

givesno
among

M.

Bar-

the Git-

linguistic
Hagwelgate. Mr. Bar-

secure

some

Carrier

of

amount

the

too

of

'

".

colleagueMr.

my

small

note

analogues.Sarcee

or

some

inflection which
them

peculiarto

Indians

followingforms

forms

meaning by

"obtains

another

tone, I asked

made

was

entirely

means
'sky'in almost
ya which
Southern
Carrier when
pronounced

neighboringCarrier

the

not

only. Thus

Carriers have

me

guage.
lan-

tone

of

Change

"

looked
over-

probably comes

is indeed

of these

in tone.
variability

kindly furnished

beau

day

researches
carrying on ethnological
near
Hazelton, B. C, to try to

was

Indians

material

problem.

", he remarks,

the final hiatus and

on

either

have
it

authorityfor Carrier, is

our

'louse' to

Northern

information

beau, who

tribes

late

Athabaskan

tribes. Some

Dene

dialectic

of Athabaskan

that at this

of the tone

inflection

proper to fractions
all the dialects becomes
a

it,so

Morice,

of

in

recorders

that
linguists

most

of the existence

intonation
"

lightof

surprise to

other

is, most

material

in

Very suggestive.

tones.

accurate

has

in the

main, for they

large number

of verb

stems

is high-toned,
low-toned
perfective

(FatherLegofT's
Chipewyan -k'io : -k'ki and Mr. Barbeau's Carrier -'af :
-'d'l correspond to the Sarcee pattern -ts^os : -ts'o':( to handle
a
cloth-like object ; -^ii
warm"
be
I
"to
: :(lto be cold
; k^as: -ka-^
weather
-la:-la
"to
hold
"to
-Ic'o
do";
-tc'o
:
;
take, get
of").Again,
the
the high tone
first syllableof "you are
on
is
eating" undoubtedly
"

'"

"

"

correct, for in Sarcee,

well,

as

high

the

tone

i. A.

on

G.

second
the

Morice,

vol. I, 1889-90, pp.

with

2.

final

'

shall see,

we

singularof

person

syllable
precedingthe
The

Dene

170-212;

glottal stop,

high tone;

as

'

as

low

and

in other

the

verb

Athabaskan

frequentlydemands

182). In Sarcee,

p.

in Northern
tone

"=:

Carrier.

long

stem.

Languages (Transactions of
see

dialects

vowel.

"

louse

the
"

Canadian

[ya]

has

Institute,
the low

tone

^f

172

Languages

Indian

American

im
fundamental

and

extensive

P. E. Goddard's

Dr.

in Athabas-

researches

(comprisingmaterials for Hupa, Kato, Chipewyan,

linguistics
include
a treatment
Beaver, Apache, and other dialects)nowhere

kan
cee,

person

; mtndxt

out"

has

person

"you

vaho,

but

not

It

word.

given

of Dr.

us

about

is said

they

third

has

gone

"he

or

has

Goddard's

second
than

the

ly
apparent-

in

tone

careful

are

their

dictionaryof Naintroductorygrammatical

mark

the

excellent

an

to

main

that many,
likely
perhaps most,
reallyhigh-toned (theEnglish and German

seems

very

w^ith

greater stress

It
primary factor).

the

is stressed

stem

word

However,

syllabesare
associates

have

Fathers
a

notes.

each

out"

and

is

"he

important observation

This

Franciscan
3

the

on

second

publishedbefore.

been

The

for the

finishing'~) the
.syllable
precedingthe verb stem

finishing"or

are

highertone

tliird person.
not

when

ago,

upwards
Hupa words,

of
tracings

in

that

found

of

that

however,

me,

working on Rousselot
apparentlyhomonymous forms
"you have gone
.(e.g. fczn:r,yai
singular

of lifteen years
he

recently informed

has

Goddard

'. Dr.

tone

Sar-

and

higher tone

is remarkable

in

that

present, unstressed

in the

tends
a

of these

great

ed
stress-

speech habit

consider

to

er
the formverbs

many

These
perfective.

in the

of

stress

the
stress

analogous to, and probably identical with, the tonal

of Sarcee (and of Chipewyan and
To
alternations
Carrier)verb stems.
take but one
instance, the Sarcee alternation of imperfective
-ts'os with
and
is
morphologicalfact as
-/5'o';{ clearlythe same
perfective
phonetic
the Navaho
alternation of stressed
with unstressed
-ts^os (present)
-ts'o's
namsts^o's ''I give you
e. g.
(perfective),
(a buckskin)":na'n'ils^o's I
have
"I take out(a blanket)": xa'its''o'S
given you (a buckskin);" xflj^fj'o'j
"I have
taken
*.
out
(a blanket)" Again, the verbal paradigms given by
the Franciscan
Fathers
indicate that, as in Sarcee and
Hupa, the second
alternations

are

^''

in

bearinga

1. For
P.

K.

dilTers from

singular sometimes

person

stress

passing

Goddard,

the American
2. See

reference

E.

The

third

person

syllableprecedingthe

vol.

History,

Morphologyof

in American

verb

possible significanceof tone in Chipewyan,

Dialect,Chipewiyan(Antliropological
Papers

Lake

of Natural

Goddanl,

Publications

the

Cold

homonymous

the

high tone)on

to

Analysisof
Museum

P.

(i.e.

the

Archaeology

see

of

X, pt. 2, 1912), p. 83.

the

Hiit"a

and

of

fornia
Cali-

3, 1905),pp.

117,

Language (University

Klhnology

vol.
,

ir.o.
3.

The

Franciscan

Michaels, Arizona,
4.
the

Fathers,

Op. cit.,vol. I, sub"

Franciscan

indicative

of

Vocabularyof

the

Navaho

Language,

vols., Saint

1912.

Fatiiers

give
to

stress; wlien

my

"

and

own.

placed

"

In
on

lake
my

the

".

have

orthography
vowel,

of tone.

adapted
accents

orthography of
followingvowels are
the

Six:

Athabaskan

Na-Dene

and

173

Languages

189

stem,

e.

i'yi"you marry": iyt

g.

"he
txa'digis

yourself":
I shall
is

"he

marries;"

himself"

washes

proceedto a brief
impossiblein a brief compass
now

wash

txadi'gis
"you

*.

discussion

of the

Sarcee

system. It

tone

do

is
justiceto the subject,which
diflicult and involved.
Sarcee
tone
ed
cannot, properlyspeaking,be discussIt
and
isolated
of
the
each
as
an
chapter
phonology.
interpenetrates
aspect of Sarcee morphology.None of the elements of the language,
every
whether
be accuratelyunderstood
out
withcan
or
radical,prefixed,
suflixed,
of its tone and of the tone shifts which
consideration
it undergoes
a

combination

in

other

with

of

study

Athabaskan

Sarcee

of this
the

main,

elements.

designed to

preliminarytreatment,
of an
peculiarities

in

tone

discuss

All that

give

here

attempt

can

insightinto

some

is

tonal

the

language.1 hope to givea full and systematic

later work
the phonologv and moron
phology
method

language.My

list and

to

the

at

series

time

present

will

be,

in

of

apparentlyhomonymous sets of
will probably convey
inductive method
forms. This informal and
more
to a public necessarilybut little acquaintedwith
Athabaskan
logy
morphothan a more
It will be
compact and generalizedstyleof treatment.
to

convenient

times

at

form

of

but

given

here

event,

the Athabaskan

refer to

to

word.

Aly
be

must

rather

Bantu

the

reserved

is

reconstructed

reconstructions

kan
Athabas-

hardly be

can

for later

comparative studies. In any

dilTer greatlyon
most
points; the

not

comparableto

of

than

general or

for the

reasons

dialects do

degreeof ditTerentiation
or

that

of

Romance,

Germanic, Indo-Iranian,

tic,
Semi-

Slavic,

Hamitic.

or

Phonetics.

few

Sarcee
well

preliminaryremarks
system does

sound

as

do

those

of

not

on

Athabaskan

reflect the

Chipewyan, Hupa,

The
phoneticsare required.
Athabaskan
original
system as

and

Navaho.

important shifts of vowels and consonants,

consonants
(e. g. the old ^-sounds and r-sounds
single i-series, the Sarcee c-series being, in

been

1.

vol. I, pp. 13,

Op.cit.,

2. In

my

dialects

and

Loucheux
Ten'a

authorities

(Petitot); Beaver
of

central

Alaska

but
^

not

of
levelings

have

the

have

combined
of

main,

3.

My

is

Lepsius's.

certain
into

anterior

Chipewyan

researclics

have

used

chiefly

(Petitot,Logoff, Goddard);

(Goddard);

(Jetle^; Ten'a

Sarcee

of

Anvik,

the

Hare

following
(Petitot)

((ioddard,Sapir); Kulchin
hjwer

Yukon

(Sapir)

((-liapnian,Sapir)

Costa
(Morice) ; Hupa (Goddard) ; Kato
(Goddard) ; Chasta
(Sapir);
(Franciscan Fathers) ; and Jicarilla Apache and Apache proper (Goddard).

Carrier

only

14.

Athabaskan

comparative

There

Navaho

yf

174

American

Languages

Indian

190

distinguished
only before original
palatalorigin; Athabaskan
y and y are
old
the
have
become
i
and
pepet vowel,
i,
a) and vowels (e. g.
of certain syllabically
final
orleveled to i); weakenings
disappearances
consonants
(e.g. -n drops if preceded by a short vowel, which was
bably
proweakened
time ; -g and -d are
to -',the glottal
nasalized at one
of lost,or weakened, and retained consonant
interchange
stop),with resulting
-a':

(e g. Ath. *-en : *en-C" Sarcee-i : -in-a

of vowels
(e.g.
-ad-i)
; and contraction

-ee-

may

that

Ath.

appear in Sarcee as -a'"-, see

peculiarto Sarcee have been worked

all

changes

; Alh.*

now

this dialect is

-ai-,

-e'e-,-e'a-,-fe-,

below). Once

the

out, however,

regular,if somewhat
perfectly

-e^: *-td-e^ Sarcee

phonetic

it is

disturbed,

seen

represen

of its prototype.

tative

Sarcee sounds

The

I. Vowels

{o)
: a'
a'
i", o' {w)
Long (or half-long)
:
rearticulations)
Over-long(withglide-like
o-"
'.""",
(""")
a-", a-',
vowel
-|-y, -7):
Diphthongs ("original
a{-)i,
u[-)i
a{-)i,

Short:

a.

b.
c.

d.

(a),fl, i,

AfFricatives

Intermediates

Glottalized

Surds

d, g, d^, dj
(veryrarely),

AspiratedSurds

Stops and

II. CoiNsoNANTs
a.

are

t',

:
:

k\ is\

tc'

/',k\ t's,t'c,

Spirants:
Voiced:

i, y, i, 7-, y, T^

c.

Laterals:

d.

Nasals

(-')
(t"')

s, c., x, x, x, ^w, h

Voiceless:

"^

/,/,dl,ti,fi

: m,

pronouncedvery much
after
with 7^-glide
dark-timbred
a
like u of English but ; a is a velarized,
(asidefrom'),aflricatives (includingJ/,
precedingstopped consonants
ll, H), and sibilant spirants(5,:(.'c,
j)\ is open, as in English it; u,
in English put, varying with close 0 (Frencheau).Of the two
aas
open
and
certain
in
difficult
which
to
sounds,
are
only
positions
distinguish
to
in
be clearly
which
must
a
corresponds
theory,
generally
kept apart
Ath.
(open)and to Ath. a in certain cases, g. nearlyalways to Ath. a
Of the vowels,

is a duller

form

of short

and

is

Athabaskan

Six:

Na-Dene

and

175

Languages
191

(e.g.

-^'fl"

Sarcee

so""Ath.

be

to

Sarcee
-/'e,

fa'

feather,wing

"

"

in open
common
syllables
particularly
brother or sister
and results either from contraction (e.g. sa"'thk'a
my
it
final
-/- (e. g. xa-'^m
from short vowel
or
-(-syllabically
"isi-ati:k'a)
tastes
"i xa-l-ni,cf. Nav. ha-l-ni).
mediate
The
intermediate
stops [b,d, g) and the stoppedpart of the intervoiced
afTricatives [d^,
voiceless,or
only at
dj,dl)are essentially
of release,unaspirated,and of lesser stress than the normal
the moment
Slavic ; they probably correspond to the
voiceless stops of French
or
dialects.
The aspiratedsurds
of many
are
German
tonlose
Medien
of
The
the
voiceless
than
glottamore
English.
stops
stronglyaspirated
and lateral (/',
lized surds, afTricatives,
k\ fsyfc, ^7)are pronouncedwith
closure and with a sudden oral
(orepiglottal)
synchronous oral and glottal
of time the release of
moment
release which
precedesby a perceptible
and aspiratedsurds seem
intermediates
in the larynx.The
the closure
and aspirated
surds (/',
identical to the surds {t,-k,
k\
ts, tc,)
respectively
known
of Chinese; the glottalized
consonants
(sometimes
/5', tc'),
among
fortes
to
Americanists
as
languagesof
aboriginal
") are peculiar many

fax). Vocalic

"Ath.*

series

c.

is

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

America,
this system

In

sibilants

of French

affricatives
X,

'zv

and

choix
of

the

are

used

to indicate

the

voiceless

and, correspondingly,the

voiced

ing
correspondspirantsx-, x,
series
voiced
y [y),
y, y, w/ [y^) are
in
German
x
ich)and y (close
(as

{Eng\is\shoe)
dj,tc\ /V
andjoie;
series. The

and

voiceless

series

are

the

of

precedingvowel,
it is more
identical with it before i, where
English y, yet
strictly
than English ; I have written y, however, as there is
definitely
spirantal
y
before i,
before a; x and y (midof confusion)
occur
no
possibility
y also
before a ; x and
before a; 'w
occur
gutturalspirants)
(velarspirants)
(approximatelylike Englishwh inwhen as pronouncedin America, but with
: ^w, almost
more
nearly spirantal
xtv) and tv (properly,labialized y :
before
i
u.
(and after)
represents a voiceless spirantal/, much
Y"'or yw)
conditioned

by

the

not

to

like Welsh

//.

pronouncing Sarcee, or any Athabaskan

language,it is important
its
due
each
Ihe
to give
syllable
weight.
syllableas such has a more
clear-cut
individual morphological
significance
phoneticdistinctness and a more
if it is not always
than
the syllable of Englishor French, even
do not
of a word
possibleto assign it a concrete meaning. The syllables
form.
uninot
generallydiffer greatlyin stress, though the stress is of course
Certain
elements, like third person
pluralgithey and the
of the verb, are more
radical syllable
strongly stressed than others (e. g.
In

"

"

iuk'agits'a'
theycease
'"

to cry

", ^i-

and

the stem

-ts'a'

are

more

strong-

yi

176

Languages

Indian

American

192
k'a-

than

off ""

''

ly

stressed

be

slurred over).Variations

"

to

", which, however,

cease

do

of stress

not

to

seem

be

must

coordinated

not

with

differences of tone.
of five types :
are
syllables
a.
ending in a short vowel (e.g. wi, t'a).
Open syllables
short vowel
followed
with
h. Closed syllables
by a voiceless consonant
far more
(e. g. nd, Va\ the
rarely,by two voiceless consonants
or,
finals
allowed
-tc'
-', -s, -c, -x,-\ -i, -st\ -ctc\ -lie'\
are
-t\ -is',
only
a
nd
-k\
-t's,
more
-ft).
rarely
vowel
w^ith long, or half-long,
followed
c.
by a voiced
Heavy syllables
finals
allowed
consonant
are
(e.g. ni'l,t''a'^\the only
-:(, -/,-/, -" ;
in
Ath.
^"
*-r7,*-i"y,
historically
*-^y]"
speaking,syllables -r ["C
*-""',
-0'
("C Ath. *-o'y),and in -a'i,-a'i,-wz [" Ath. e' a', o -\ y or
-y,Jalso belong here)
resulting
d. Heavy open
syllableswith over-longvow-el (e. g. ""."',/'d"")
from
of vowels
of
/.
reduction
contraction
or
type a -(with
vowel
followed
ant
e. Heavy syllables
over-long
b}^a voiceless consonof type a -|- type b.
(e.g. m''s, fa'^s)resultingfrom contraction
old Athabaskan
The first three types of syllables
are
types, the last
of
dialectic
two
are
largely
origin.
The
of
of a non-final,open
division
point syllabic
syllable,particularly
if the
vowel
is short, lies /// the
following consonant, which

Sarcee

"

therebv
to be

becomes

intermediate
A

shall

g). We

final

origin,is

-kg-,i.

absorbed

he

has

in
said

an

k'""'Js^a''
jjiven

above

is

unaspiratedyoiceless^releasingin

purely mechanical

old Athabaskan

tions.
gemina-

element

or

of Sarcee

the
to

other

are

e.

indicate these

not

glottalstop, whether

a"'sdiy'.nC
There
a'^sd'-j'-U'd'a.
neglecthere.
"

forrh

the

greminated. Thus,

k'xg' \.fs''
a'' {-g'zzz

read

e.
following geminated consonant,
g.
becomes
inferential
particlela
-jof
rules
sandhi
which
must
we
important

him"

Tone

The
in

"

system followed

tone

Anlhropos
a

indicates

"

and

by

high

pitch.The

intlections

represents

in this paper

Westermann

tone,

indicated

is that used

and

low

by

other

tone, and
combinations

by

Father

In this system

Africanists.
a

tone

Schmidt

of intermediate

of these

symbols : a
from high to low, a falling
from
falling
highto middle,
from
middle
low
to low, a risingfrom
to high, a risingfrom
a
falling
low
middle
to middle, a risingfrom
In
to high.
writing Sarcee I have
found it convenient
to leave the middle
unmarked
tone
a
"i)
[a
; my
are

tone

177

Languages

Na-Dene

and

Athabaskan

Six:

193
therefore

does

not

that is

mean

indeterminate

an

between

and

a
midway
Athabaskan
tone
primary
but
alone, possiblyrecognizing

however, it
and

tone

was

system

grades, high

two

middle

The

betw^een

tone

on

w^hich
on

"

of

e.

g.

the

radical

there

-tia in dstla

''

middle

not

which
nounced
pro-

verbs

many

be

pronounced

in which

the

-ya

drop to

the

"

to

low

". With

done

1 have

are

netic
pho-

it be

that

element

",

gone

other

but does
precedinghighsyllable

the

like
syllable

aspects
dlsi'ya I have

Sarcee,

In

as
originated
of
one
principles,

be,

may

the

in certain

"

tone,

falls from

go

tone.

requirethat
middle

tone

that

low.

register

have

may

two

However

and

of

one

also
to distinguish

tone
conflicting
compromise
receive a high tone,
that the syllable
demanded

low

be

to

prove

may

absolutelynecessary

inflected tones.

one

a.

The

found

lone, but

unknown

or

trast
discyaconhigh
definitely
(cf.di'yd he

"

Here the -ydhas a

*d\-s-yd.
imperfective forms
tone, maintained
throughout the
will go ", hut di'ya he has gone "),
tonal categories.
Certain
of the language belong to two
The syllables
; e. g., '('/
syllableshave a fixed or inherent tone value of their own
burden
crane
", mii
moth,
", dxi
pine bough with needles ", xdi
rock
red
ts'd
dirt
ts'i
", t'6
", tii dog ",
clay ",
sleep ", ts'in
also dlc'd

1 shall go

"

"C

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"',ts'Vl

water
"

"

"

", ^di

snowdrift

"

"

''

"'

"

"

", Id

saliva

", -dd'l

"

sore

"

"

ral
seve-

one
(perf.),
goes
-yd
ndto act
-i
again, repeatedly", k'u(imperf.),
(imperfective),
inside,into ", and d- (demonstrative
prefixwith verbs of doing, being,
coal
becoming, and saying)have a fixed high tone ; t'cis powdered charsmoke
fire ", th
", mas
", {sl-:{ a boil ", tlifs clay ", k'ii
louse
war-raid ",did' gum
",
", wa'
hoop ", did' laughter", ya"
several
-ddl
ordure
md
snare
star ", ts'a
",
(imperf.),
",
so
go
ing
indicatd^nd.
dato
act
-Cas
two
-In
(prefix
(perf.),
(imperf.),
go
of verb)have a fixed low tone ; and -la (inferentdistributive subject
ial
of
absence
of
relative
clause
subject),-ya
-V' (suffix
implying
sufTix),
like
throw
to
call
-k\'
a clothto
to go
(continuative),
(perf.),
-^t.
fixed
have
and -w.
a
the hand
to use
(imperf.)
object (perf.),
but
of their own,
inherent
have
tone
middle
adopt
tone. Other syllables
no
of
contrast
with
rules
certain
form
in
accordance
in a particular
a tone
have
no
of
assignabletone as such, but
or
morphology. These syllables
"

(perfective),
-t^d'^

go

two

"

go

"

"

"

""

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

this does not

On

the

that

mean

Thus, such

the

''

they do

not

of

possess

elements

as

"

my,

This
optionally.

defined tone

with
syllables

in

variable

given word.
is

tone

always easy
perfective
perfective-durative
yt-, and

governingtheir

rules

s\-

not

"

"

contrary, the intonation

but

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

tone

ar"

not

.ri-,

me

",

vary

is illustrated

their tones

by

from

the three forms

word
:

to

tant,
impor-

to define.

possessive-objective
but

word,

Six:

179

Languages

Na-Dene

and

Athabaskan

195
a
high level),
-\-a becomes a' (half- falling(fuU-fallingrfrom
from
becomes
middle
from middle
a'
a -\-a
level),
(half-rising
level),
lo^v level,a -\-a becomes
from
a'
a'
(half(full-rising
a
-\-d becomes
have
the
vowels
If
tone
the
from
'.
same
low
contracting
level)
rising
of level tone
vowel
results a long (over-long)
there
((i",a' ", or a");
of the same
phonetictype result also from vowel
long level-toned vowels
rules :
needed
few
to illustrate these tonal
examples are
-|-/. Only a
blanket I-wear
/Wi
"" t'sidi'sfsix^
isfscx,

becomes

d'

without, barefoot"" k^a'di

k^d adi moccasin

I handle
again-it(indef.)-I-keep-handling-one-object,
objecttime and again " nd'cqlc

nd-\-c-atc
certain

sickness"" sd':(i'ma

Si-l^una my

I-seize-it"" da'ctc^o

da'" Ictc'o here

thus-I-do" giva'stid
gu-d-s-tid
it (indef.)
\-nl-i-n'.-i
-he-admires-the,the one v^ho admires^ Inl'nl:
k^u dstid fire(wood)I-do, I make
a
rire"" k'wa'stid (notedisappearance
-'
in crasis)
of
dnd
he-becomes, he stoops^
nisgd^(iu\sa"nd
n'.sgdywlsl' downward
I shall-heat

iss'dhis-water

mit'uwa

"

mit'-iava-ss'd

he is in mourning"- f'^i^a'^yu't
grief-thus-him-treats,
t'd:(d-d-yi-s-\
fsd'ssi
crow""
t's4-i-s-sl
noise-he-is-sounding,
he gets water
water-in-it (indef.)
-he-handles-one-object,
t^u-^{w\-\-a

only certain example

The

of

of

I know

that

in Sarcee

inflected tone

an

tone,
simple tones is the low falling
suckle
first person
we
e.
pluralsubjective,
g. gumca'Cd'j
-a'-, of the
would
moist
".
Full
historical knowledge
we
bly
probathem", nxsa'io'
get
from
elements
is contracted
two
indicate that this element
simpler
low
and
of middle
tone
tone
respectively.
which

be

cannot

analyzed into

two

"

"

It goes

fixation.

absolute
The

without

saying
Nor

low

high and

between

low

1. These
vowel

is

2.

As

formulae

dependent

word

words

("

"

under

do
on

nol
a

of these

several

"

the

may

(a

crasis

somewhat

").

varies

under

articulation. What

high to

they
high and

are

between

interval

the

that

middle

be

vocalic

factors, which

to the

the

concept

rules
in

quality

of

from

contracted

here.

apply not only

of contraction
but

in

or

half fall.

the

us

concern

Athabaskan)

low

movement

than

more

no

not

no

other.

emphasis of

or

care

constitutes

do

each
and

middle

between

quality.The

to

levels have

low

and

to
relatively

equivalentto

of

examples show,
elusive

or

circumstances

others

refer

fixed
definitely

widely according

some

number

high, middle,

sandhi

within

between

180

VI

Indian Languages

American

196
be

felt in the
judged or intuitively
of the most
of the precedingand following
racteristic
chatones. Now
one
context
of the most
and also one
puzzlingthings about the Sarcee tone
is the tendency, within
a
phoneticphrase or breath
systtMU in practice
the
This means
lower
absolute
that a high
to gradually
register.
group,
middle
that is itself preceded by a high
tone
tone followingon
a low
or
tends
than the first high tone and to be perceived
to be a littlelower
tone
level and

Each

the

by

ear

recorded

as

in

singleword
as

call

the

last

this word

or

I feel that

tone,

syllable,
yet, unless

is not

identical

it is

''

diszuuga'

with

sentences
"
"

within

even

the

dropped high tones ",

normally identical with
The
register.

recorded

dnda,

as

form

with

theoretically
requiredhigh tone,
deceives

of

cadence

tone

dit'ibdja'it is flabby",
"

it is

tiny ",
(cf.with

falls

the

me,

like

that of words

velvety ", nUc^it'ca' "

I have

that

tones

or

middle

often

ear

my

not

normal

of the

instead

"

''middle

the}'are

keep above the

alreadyquoted was

secondarymiddle
on

in

but
"

do

you

text

them.

tones

"

of the

Many

tone.

specimen
reallypseudo-middletones

are

middle

true

dn\ld

middle

running

might

we

inflection must

each

in which

ive
the diminut-

the middle
another
tone
tone
on
cadence,
regularly
it is lightin weight ", S'.sowa'
it is a little sour
nidot'ia'
").In other
words, the
dropped high reallyfalls between the high and the true
middle
level. Where
there
is an
immediatelyadjacentmiddle tone to
standard of comparison,this difference can
be directly
serve
a
as
frequently
who
the one
perceived.In the phoneticgroup ayd t^unihi
wrings
the cadence
of the second
word
out water
is not adequatelysuggested
by the orthography.In making the record I noted that the group t^umhi
was
reallyt'linihion a high register
(i.e., not equivalentin cadence to
forms
like dnlla with
is a
In fiimhi,in other w^ords, the -m
true low
-n\).
middle
and the -hi a
true
dropped high ". The analysisis not difficult
because
have an immediatelypreceding-|*awith a clearly
ed
markhere,
we
-a'

"

"

"

"

^'

"

"

low

tone

related

to

forms

serve

as

gauge
in middle-tone

forms in -L
participial)
A good example of

k'iyldji.
ytca

'*

than

tone

tones

normal

correct

form

are

are

recorded

and

of hundreds

the

of

of other

analogy

analogousrelative (or

progressivefall in registeris the

i indicates
on
a coat
", in which

tone

of the

fixed

a
are

by
is

sentence

in it. Neither

and
{-dji

the second

of the sentence
also

low

quitealike

high ",

the

-m

have

we

sentence

in-I-go,I put

the

was

tones

coat

; moreover,

tically
precedingwnrd. The theorek\yidji
y\cd,but actually no two
the

of the

is
-c'(i)

triflelower

true

than

middle

"

middle,

but

"

the

in

tones

and

curve.
parallel

the

the

as

merely

first. Thus,

graduated downward,

graduated downward

lower

"

tence
sen-

dropped
high

the three
two

Functional

low

tones

register

Six:

181

Languages

Na-Dene

and

Athabaskan

197
are
change.
compounded, in other words, with a rhetorical register
chang-es
Just as there is a
ed
droppdropped high tone, there ia also not rarelya
middle
raised
secondary
middle
further
or
a
(or
low) tone,
secondaryhigh tone. These niceties can hardlybe properlystudied with
the unaided
ear.
They requirethe assistance of mechanical devices^. In
"

"

"

"

event, how^ever,it Avould

any

"

"

be

great mistake

lay

to

much

too

stress

of tone
It is probably no
in Sarcee.
more
disturbinga
variability
factor in the understanding
of the basic tone theory of the language than
laws
in Chinese
or
any other tone language,each of which has its special
on

of tone

tendencies

or

differences

Tone

shall devote

We

of

shall
Sarcee

also in
vocalic

tone

dilfer

cumulative

left

was

One

forms.
made

of this
paper

rest

which

in otherwise

to

in

only

identical

brief

words.

analysisof

respects. In this

tonal

number
we

way

importanceof tone in the study of

In many
dilTered
the forms in questionoriginally
structure.
cases
other respects and fell togethercompletelyin the consonantal
and
framework
because
of the operationof various
phoneticlaws.

gain

Thus

the

forms

of

cases

sandhi.

with

of

homonyms,
keeping apart

and

of makinsr
other

the

words

which

error,

is

languages that

tone

commonlv

so

near-

numerous

possess
differences arose

supposing that the tone

such

distinction between

the last reflex of outward

as

beware

must

Chinese

of the

idea

forthe purposeoi

As a
indistinguishable.
of fact,perfectly
matter
analogoustone distinctions prevailin groups of
as
a gran^matinon-homonymous forms, w^here tone is not
necessary
cal device. F'urthermore, there are
in
of true
Sarcee
examples
many
w^ords
gories
which
homonyms, of two or more
belong to distinct form catebut are identical in all phoneticrespects,tone included.
which

would

be

otherwise

"

"

a.

b.
Form

1.

he
-^a'^dd'l
we
-^a'dd'l

a.

hope

to

secu

out

have

back

goes

be able to work

has eaten

to

2. These

if

we

are

Athabaskan
certain

of the

that

*^alddl,in

article

formulae

for

such

it is
forms
a

problems
such

hardly

phonetic

the dialectic

the

material

early

form.

forms.

dialects,so

-with

necessary
in

were

''

in
*ys.-l-di'l,

terms

of ottier Athabaskan

written

was

precisely such
had

Athabaskan

elusive tone

more

reconstructions,

they existed, tiieyprobably

Athabaskan
practically

the berries

eaten

phonograpliicsamples

some

objectivematerial. [Since this

from a Kulchin
informant].
that

the berries

The

to
use,

help

has

been

say,

do

but

of

as

to

strictly
secured

not

merely

reconstructions

imply
that,
are

Languages

Indian

American

y^f

182

198
in
Form
b. g-oes back
to *'(a'ldd'l,
*yc-ye'.
-l-dd'l is
terms
Ath.
(perhapscontracted from *'^e-\-l-di'l).
*-(-"'-l-di'l
In form a. *^a-"i*ytto eat berries".
-l-dal
of imperfective
perfective
and perfective
consists of third person
prefix*--^e*ye-(Sar.y\.-)
objective
without
forms
subjective
pronominalprefix
specific
; as usual,
(Sar.-yi-)
In
form
forms.
b.
d
definite
3
used
as
are
personal
-^-a'- consists of perfective
Transitive
verbs
with
and
first
rt"-.
subjective
plural
y(^)person
is
*)'"-

which

from

contracted

"

first

second

or

clearlyimplied,third

but

expressed.All

be

must

between

difference

before

2.

b.
c.

a.

in

go

the

leapingto

no

phonetic

than

more

many

tone,
semi-

in

Ath. *k'iuen-'e-c-i-dki,
k'ulsdai,
: in
literally

from

is contracted

in

fact that in the latter

(e.g. buffalo)
coming
in
k'ii'sdaihe has many
coming
k'u'^sdai you have many
coming in

one
a certain
[orcertain ones, 'e-,indefinite object)
{i-)
is
1.
-dai
-dd'l perfec1,ive
imperfective,
[-dki).
; cf. no.

cause
(k^wen-)
l{c-)

Form

interval,perhaps
slig^ht
verb stem.
toned
high-

k^u'sdal I have

a.

Form

by

forms, but

marked

of the

in Sarcee

and *'(eildi'l
is the
*ye-(eldi'l

Ath.

sinks

the voice

form

expressed,

no

subjectthird personaldefinite objects

as

remains

that

subjecthave
objectin many

as

person

personaldefinite

third person

definite

with

verbs

to

indefinite

or

person

group

*k^iuen-e-i-dzi. In Old

to Ath.

b. reconstructs

Sarcee,the

older form

of the tribe,
and women
languagestill spoken by the oldest men
forms
and b. are
still distinguished
k'H'idai (contracted
SiS k^u'sddi and
a.
form
In the former
of these forms
the element
-irespectively.
k'uddal)
in
dialects
Navaho
the
after
Ath.
out
so
sibilant,as
dropped
(e.g.
many

of the

c-

c-i-\Ghasta

for theoretical

of the

because

by

analogyof

chief informant

my

-I- has

shifted

to

-s-

and

b.

has c-i- but

in form

a.

-s-

New^

Sarcee,

represents

represents older -/-. Form

-s-

been

ed
restor-

spoken
final
Indians,syllabically

of the other

most

have

-I- may

forms).In

the other

; hence

"i-c- "C-c-i-,but in form

Ath.

Costa

older
c.

as

Sarcee

goes

back

-s-

to

*k'wen-e-n-l-dii.

final -nSyllabically
(here"thou")has disappearedafter a short vowel
doubtless
of the precedingvowel, oldest Sarcee
nasalization
(therewas
*-i-, as in Chipewyan, before all trace of the old -nwas
lost)and, as
in

a.

and

b., m +

or

k^u- has fixed

high

the

because

high
3.

tone

a.

b.
c.

m-^i he

older

tone.

will

Objective

of the

grow

will grow
he
has
niYa
grown

ni-^i.
you

contracted

^has

-i-

second

up
up

up

to

is variable

person

an

over-longM-vowel.

in tone; in

c.

it takes

singularsubject(cf.p. 194).

Six:

Athabaskan

and

Na-Dene

1 83

Languages
199

Forms

b.

and

respectively;
*ne-yiand *ne-n-yi
cf. nic^(7. I shall grow
".
Form
is
in
c.
a
perfective -i-, cf. nl^iY^^
up
from 5 u:- ')
have grown
1 have
assimilated
nlcu:vi (-^icyou
up,
-vi of c. has lost a final -n
ni-^in-i
(contrast
grown
up ". Moreover,
"the
w^ho
has
with
the
who
will
one
n'.-yoL-hl one
up"
up").
grown
grow
Hence
Perfective *-yin,
modified
reconstructs
is
to *ne-z-yin.
c.
however,
from the normal
Ath. *-ydn by the analogy of imperfective
*-yi(cf.Chithe
older *-ydnis preservedin
imperfective
-yan);
pewyan
-yt : perfective
Sarcee in the causative
to
to grow
cause
: -c-ca
"^*-i-ydn
up, to raise "'.
Note that imperfective
-yi, perfective
-yi (n-)belongs to the type of verb
with fixed tone in all aspects ; cf. also continuative
stem
"/di. The
prefix
of
is
lower
than
variable
the
in
stem
tone,
ni-, however,
only one step
the imperfectiveforms, but two
steps lower in the perfectiveforms
with
nic^fi I shall grow up
nlcic^^i I have grown
(contrast
up '"l.In
a.

Ath.

correspondto

'^

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

other

words,

where

even

in the verb

the

complex are
varyingaspects. It

in the

between

of

and

a.

tends
{*se-*ye-)

m-

adopt

is invariable

stem

necessarilytreated

not

m-

"

is

of
the

in tone, other
in

quiteprobablethat
c.

uniform

the
originally

purely mechanical.

was

middle

and,

elements

tonal

The

if the stem

manner

difference

aspect prefix
is

high-toned,
a
aspect prefixgenerally
takes the low^ tone (thecadence nlcic-^fi
is very typical).
It is likely,
fore,
therethat form c. is reduced
old trisyllabic
from an
Ath. form of type
while a. goes back to a disyllabic
form *ne-yi.
Now, in Sarcee,
*ne-se-ydn,
forms a. and c. have
where
to have
the same
come
syllabicstructure,
the difference of tonal approach to the stem
reflects the old difference in
phoneticbuild.
prefixof

4.

a.

b.
5.

a.

b.
6.

a.

b.

In

these

In

by
Chasla

tone

precedes the

awl)

forms

is used

stem
occur

Costa,

the momentaneous

aspectiveprefixmthat the

forms, so
imperfective

perfective

the

of which

which

tone

I shall punch a hole (.with

an
gof^ddlmsts'C
I
have
hole
a
goy'^'ddlnists^C punched
goy'^ddini''ts^i
you will punch a hole
goy'^ddim''ts\''
you have punched a hole
will punch a hole
he
goy'^'ddl"ts^C
he has punched a hole
goy'^'ddl'ts'i'

perfectiveand
1.

to

variable

by

or

in most
the

in which

forms

-c-

the

element

of the
is used

the

-/-,Ath.

dialects,but
by analogy

the

"

is directlyfollowed
I
subject
regularlyreplaced by *-i-, reflexes
"

-c-

is

in

certain

with

between

only dilference

pronominal
*

in both

the

dialects, such

as

imperfectiveforms.

Sarcee

and

VI

184

syllable

the

of the

each

aspects, for

two

or

/ after the

4 the
i, in

element

"C *-ne- became

-w.

reduced

"

it,indefinite locality

"

6 the

i"

after

out

to

these
syllables,

is due

forms

and

loss of

the

to

without

^told

an

The

leavinga
eventuallydisappeared.

in 6 and

-"-

"

trace.

reconstruct

Ath.

to

*de-ne-c-l-ts*ed

a
.

dropped

the first two

from

of

syllables
{-yd- hole,
has
fixed high
a
precedingo,

go-

5 and

themselves).In

accommodate

Aside

elements

variable

the

tone, to which

tonal treatment

first three
of

because
-y'^d-

to

is in the

persons,

following the
syllables

'', labialized

through

three

Languages

Indian

American

b.

*de-nt-c-l-is''ed

*de-ne-n-l-ts'ed

*de-ne-n-l-ts^ed

b
.

6.

a.

*de-n-l-ts'ed

b.

*de-n-l-ts'ed

In 4 the
in

low

a.,

second

b. In 5 the

in

tone

step below

keeps one

prefix-ne

needs

-ne-

singular subject. The

person

the
the

verb

high

-d from

in

denominative

is evidence

There

primary form
other

verb

the
and

stem

secondary

are

be

remarked
identical

either

are

7.

Form
form

noun

hide

b.

idinis'ihe

himself

the
,

stems

iditi'jlI shall
hid

reconstructed

person

correspondingto

in

forms

are
a.

prefix[di- as

well

verb

from

clearlyderived

*ts'i. It

with

tone

Athabaskan

all

stems

them.

myself

*ede-ne-c-l-\n and

is idin'/'\ "C

corresponding to b. is idimsts'i "C

pronominal element, while -s- of
reflexive

or

of the

the

b. The

"

hole

accident,in

no

form of the verb stem,

imperfective
form, -'i; -/- has dropped out after
perfective

uses

reappears

punch

hole

is identical

large number

imperfective,

Sarcee,

It is therefore

formations.

a.

a.

b.

that

with

to

'). It is probably a
*ts'i (Sarceets'd)
'".
stem
stone
the
more
imperfective
aspect uses
forms
that the stem
appearing in

that imperfective
*-ts"ed
probability,
should

"

means

the

will

of the

"

noun

that

show^

to

of the

aspects

the

in

who

"

"

-'

to

tone

because

tone

", is *-ts^ed in

*-ts^ed in the

middle

which

stem,

pointedobject(likean awl)
(thefinal -d, reduced
perfective
the one
in certain
forms, e. g. goy'^'dd'c'ts'idi.
who
has punched a
the one
g(yf"ddi''ts''idi

handle

hence

stem,

as

with

-l,
-s-

*ede-ne-l-ln ; the
Hence

an

third

of

a.

aspectiveprefix.With

stem
perfective

and

first person
-s-

the

in both

*ede-ne-s-l-'hi.The

*ede-ne-se-c-l-'
iji
b. is

to hide

"

{ contrasts

is

the
the

Six:

and

Athabaskan

185

Languages

Na-Dene

201
-nl- of b. In

low-toned

high idi- and

the

between

8.

middle

In

in tone.

high
forms,based
tone

"

has

he

a.

yi/'ii*;^
you

Form

a.

1 have

middle

mal)
ani-

or

person

has

which

been

"

person

:(i-sinks

the
*-'(in,

Ath.

the

to

singularsubject.In
to

low

tone

prototypes of

a,

and

b.

perfective
(e.g. yi;(U^t
:

are

?)

have

it

worn

of the stem,

the

on

it

"

worn

on

the

form

continuative

is -fsist\e.
imperfective

The

tone.

he
yifsist'

one

tone

stem, in b. it is raised

the

form
perfective
it ",yVyi/Vf;(he has worn

is based

b. is based

Form

to kill

he is wearing it
yi/'5i';(

-b.

"

than

second

").The

*:(e-c-i-^i
(or -^"
"{e-n-i-'{i

"

"

Ath.

b.

9.

of the

on-^i ";
killed him

--rd

on

step lower

one

because

based

"

and
killing

it is

a.

transition

as

organically high
high tone of :{{-(cf.also s\.-{i5^(akill me ! ")
death.
to
It is variable
probablyreferring

the

depressed

of

tone

-'i.
imperfective

in b. is

tone

to accentuate

in verbs

middle

forms
imperfective

are

". The

used

low-toned

the

kill him
b. :(is^(a
These

takes

-m-

kill him

I shall
:i^is^(d

a.

the

a.

will

wear

it ". In

yi- is

a.

(cf.yisfs\'7
-/Vi*:(

").
of the

stem,

with
-t'si':(,

g. Ist'sist^ I shall

it

"

wear

aspective prefix;

an

",

old

the

but the yi- is not raised to

dropped out (yi-"" *-^e-n-),
In b. y- is the
to the stem.
it is already high relatively
as
third personalobject,Ath.
definite
*ye-.Its high tone, as contrasted
forms
in other aspects (ylyj''
he has
with
si :(
the low yl- of equivalent
is
it
he
of
characteristic
certain contiwill wear
nuative
it ", ylt'sist',
")
worn
for
the
demand
tone
which
a
high
forms,
pronominal object;
is sIs^ols he
form
with
to
as
imperfective
yU'sist\
compared
analogous
a.,
will throw
is throwing (bags)at me
: s\s'(xs he
(a bag) at me ",
he
him
(with a cloth) : ylsJid' he will hit him '',
keepshitting
yisk'a'
he will poke him
he is poking him
: y\ga.
'\ yi:(i he is
yigx
call him"
:
(perfective
callinghim
yi"i:{i he has called
y'-i: he will
in
but dill'er in
and
cadence
b. are
him
identical
"). Observe that a.
register.
has

pronominal-"the high tone,

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

10.

a.

b.
Form

a.

"

"

"

"

"

the one
nayi:(idi
he will
nayi:(id'.

is

'

relative

who
stand

stood
later

on

in
(orparticipial)

-t

formed

from

the

perfective

Six:

Athabaskan

and Na-Dene

Languages

187

203
verb

The

is-dla

stem

in the
-dig.'
imperfective,
{-dlgd-)
fixed low tone. Form
b., having a second
a
higher tone on the perfective
prefix-yt-

has a
out
xaperfective,
has
person singularsubject,
"

than

form

a.,

in which

the

{dlad) in

'"

-yi- takes

the middle

tone, transitional between

high-tonedstem; cf.,fora parallel

cadence,
Form
form 4 a (last
3 syllables).
tone to the variable
c. assigns ^ middle
Ath. *-ye-)by contrast
third personalobject,
to
syllable-yi- (definite
follow.
and
which
the fixed low tones
precede
the low-toned

13.

prefixand

the

nxdiT^i
you will disappear
b
nadlifhe will disappear
c.
nidlX}he disappeared
d. nodi:(C
he will appear
(e. nadi:(C
you will appear)
a.

I have

put form

because
I have no actual record of it
parentheses
under my
hand
but the general analogy of numerous
at the moment,
other
forms
makes
it a safe enough form to accept. The stem,
come
to beis
in
forms
the
middle", high-toned{-:(i)
imperfective
(b. d.,e.),
in the perfective
is remarkable.
toned {-:(}')
cf.
10.
Forma,
It is
no.
(c.);
to b.
to have
middle tone on
the
a
an
imperfective
parallel
yet it seems
verb stem, as in form c, where
middle
tone
is
The
is
a
justified. reason
with fixed
a secondarydevelopment oi n6di:(l.\
simple.The form nid".:(iis
and with a high tone on
high tones on na(cf.no. 11) and -:(C
away
the prefix-di- because of the second person
ments
singularsubject.Certain elewith
fixed high tone, like our
the
a
followingsyllables
"a-, depress
l
ower
that
to a
s
o
an
slightly
register,
immediately following high
tone
takes what
to be a middle
seems
(A similar effect is often
position.
demonstrative
I am
thus
produced by the common
i-, e. g. dsfa
prefix
theoretical
I
that
the
of
in
is
not
""
a true
dsfd). stronglysuspect
-di:(i a.
middle position
but is midway between
and
middle
t
he
high
(cf.
ed
dropphigh" tones, discussed on p. 196, which arise in another way) ;
while I often noted tones
that fell between
high and middle or low and
middle, I did not fullyrealize in the field the theoretical importanceof
these secondary
raised
tones. Thus, the syllable
dropped" and
-;(i'
of these five forms probablyoccurs
three registers high,
on
dropped
high ", and middle, hut not low. The element noc- of forms d. and e. is
distinct prefix
from the ni- of a.
a totally
b.,and c. In b^ and c. variable
e.

in

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

-di-

has

12a.),in

contrastive
a.

and

e.

tone, in d.

it has

forms
personal perfective

it has transitional

functional
in

-s-

tone. Forme,

in which

is

tone

one

this element

(cadenceas

in

of the curious third

has

disappeared

VI

Indian Languages 2

American

204

(cf.3 c) ; analogous forms

b
.

c
.

e.

in other

Athabaskan

dialects. The

are

*nd-dt-n-7^d
"nd-de-^ed

forms

Ath,

reconstructed

found

are

*nd-de-ied

*na-de-x^d
*na-dt-n-/^M
be

have selected
examples which we
in any way
of such homonymous sets
are
for
is
in
has
tone
homonymous except
legion Sarcee and our difficulty
rather
than to find examples in the recorded
been to reject
material. But
has
indicate
the
cee.
the
been
of
tone
nature
enough
problem in Sargiven to
Tone
is not a matter
entirelyof the inherent pitchof a given word
of grammatical symbolism. Both
is it entirely
matter
element nor
or
a
interwoven
in Sarcee in a system
types of tone function are inextricably
of considerable
Phonetically
complexity,from a morphological
standpoint.
the complexityis only moderate.
It must

the

imagined that
exceptionalThe

not

number

"

"

What

is

the fundamental

early to speak with

has

be

still to

nature

assurance,

gathered from

of this tone

? It is much

system

too

comparativematerial bearingon tone

other
Athabaskan
dialects. It is already
as

of secondary
reasonablycertain that the inflected tones of Sarcee are
Athabaskan
originand cannot be credtied to the original
tongue. In other
is in all probability
a tone
words, Athabaskan
ters
languageof varyingregisand
and
low;
low),
(high,middle,
fundamentallyhigh
or, possibly,
of inflections. The

not
to

take

with

account

variable

fixed tone

and

or
proclitic

ultimate

theory of

Athabaskan

did

would

enclitic

elements, lose

their tone

and

take

on

tones

new

did tone
come
accordingto certain rules of tone sandhi? 2. How
grammatical function (e.g. the high tone, or relatively
hightone,
found

have

importantproblems: 1 How are the syllables

have
to be explained? Did these syllables
originally
weak
they later,having sunk to the status of relatively

of three
tone

tone

to

have

so

often

forms ;
syllable
precedingthe stem in second person singular
the high tone
the objectivepronominal elements
in certain contion
niiative paradigms)? Are these functional uses
of merely
the consequence
mechanical
and not directly
tone
principles
symbolicin origin? 3. How
the
characteristic changes of tone in the verbal aspects?
explain
Why do
on

certain

the

verbs

in the

allow

of

no

tone

changes in

the

stem,

while

others

have

another
in the perfective
continuative ? May
or
imperfective,
that
verb
we
had
inherent
stem
a
tone,
originally
suppose
only one
in
the
loped
deveand
the
that
other
preserved say
imperfective
stem,
aspects
tones
certain
mechanical
on
secondary
principles,
say the amalgaone

Six:

Athabaskan

and

Na-Dene

189

Languages

S08
mationofthe
have

stem

with

other

left their trace behind

elements
in tone

that have

as
disappeared

such but

alterations ?

from the
likelythat all of these questionscan be answered
alone. The same
of Athabaskan
1 and 3.,
standpoint
questions,
paiticulary
it
the
arise in Tlingit
follows
ultimate
that
whence
as
well,
explanation
of Athabaskan
will be given by the comparative study of Athabaskan
tone
and Tlingit,
Haida.
also
of
it
Should
that
Tlinpossibly
appear
git-Athabaskantone originallydepended entirelyon the inherent
should
tone value of independently
still have to
we
significant
syllables,
It is not

ask what
far from

were

the determinants

havingarrived at the

of these

tone

pointwhere

values.

such

But

we

questionis

are

very

profitable.

Editorial Note

de Paris 17,
Originallypublished in Journal, Societe des Americanistes
of
the
des
Societe
Americanistes.
(1925).Reprinted by permission
The Sarcee tone system is more
complex than that of most tonal Athabaskan
which
have
languages,
normally
only two tones (highand low).The Sarcee mid
tone
apparently results from the partiallowering of an originalhigh tone in
certain phonologicalcircumstances, a fact that may
be historically
connected
with a similar lowering(from high to low) in Navajo and the other Apachean
languages (Krauss and Golla 1981: 85-85).The most recent work on Sarcee is
that of Eung-Do Cook, who
has carried out extensive
field work. He has published
of the Sarcee
tonal system (Cook 1971, 1984),but does not
a reanalysis
of Sapir's
challengethe essential correctness
description.
Sapir'sms. corrigenda in his copy are as follows:
185-205

The

Similarity of Chinese

and

Indian

Languages

the ancestry of the American

Indian
on
lighthas been thrown
by Dr.
Canadian
the
the
of
the
sity
Univernow
on
anthropologist
faculty
Sapir,
work
of Chicago. Dr. Sapir said that his research
Indian
has
on
linguistics
convinced
him of the identityof the language of certain Indian
tribes with that
of the primitiveChinese.
distribution
of the two tongues and the linguistic
The similarity
of tribes scattered
the Americas
have convinced
Dr. Sapir that these groups
at random
over
this continent
from
Asia. By a close comparison
have entered
must
as
a wedge
and Tibetian, all in the same
of the primitiveChinese, Siamese
gory,
language cateof
North
with the language of the "Nadine
Dr.
America,
group"
Sapir has
of phonetics,vocabulary and grammatical strucfound
the same
ture
peculiarities
New

Edward

both

on

The
found

sides

of the

Pacific Ocean.

American
Indian
are
speaking the language of the Nadine
groups
group
from northern
in all parts of the North
American
continent
Mexico
to the

other
Indian
tribes
boundary of Alaska, widely distributed
among
whose
are
entirelydifferent.
language and customs
minor
the
With
Navajo of New Mexico
speaks the language of the
changes
in Alberta,
and the linguistic
stock
of the Tlingit,just south
of the
Sarcee
in Alaska, is much
the same
that of the Hupa in California.
Eskimos
as
It is probable, according to Dr. Sapir,that the migration of Asiatics speaking
Tibetian
took
time in the past, and that
or
primitiveChinese
place at some
moved
these
settled
the
mountains
and
or
over
plains, some
immigrants
Canada
the Tlingits,
and others moving
to become
remaining in northwestern
southern

out

to

and

the Queen

still others

From

Charlotte

off the west

penetrating to the deserts

the modern

simple, students

Islands

Chinese, which
of

linguistics

can

coast

to

form

the Haida

group,

of the Southwest.

in academic
reconstruct

circles is considered

primitiveChinese

relatively
which

is far

to the Mongolian
more
layman of
complex than any of the dialects known
Indians
of
the
Nadine
that
the
not
today. Dr. Sapir has discovered
only
groups
ing
speak with a tonal accent, raisingor lowering of the voice to give certain meanof the earlyChinese,
similar to the tonal peculiarities
to words, in a manner
but also that the meanings of certain words
closed
identical. Further, he has disarc
the fact that the Indians
certain prefixesand suffixes that
have retained
cernible
long ago have disappeared from the Chinese
speech, but which are clearlydisin the early forms.

Indian

American

VI

192

Editorial

(1925).

This
have

in

Chicago

tian,"
Science

formal

progress.

the
have

must

text

and
based

been

and

other

Supplement
announcement

fall
been

Note

(1607),

copyright

of

supplement
by

the

American

16

xii

October,

for

Association

Science.

of

anonymous,

62

permission;

by

Advancement

the

to

Reprinted

Science

in

published

Originally

Languages

on

of

shoddy,

somewhat

brief

interview

Certain

1925.

gaffes).

from

The

section

article

of
of

with

phrases

reconstituted

the

of

Sapir
sound

hasty

in

but

journalism

shortly

after

Sapir

s,

(hence

notes

indicating

results,

scientific

like

appeared

journal,

scientific

piece

the
that
rather

but

was

as

not

news

to

move

of

most

the

"Tibe-

"Nadine,"

separately
it

seems

his

paginated
intended
of

work

as

in

Review

Haile:

Berard

Manual

A
of

of

is

This
the

to

from

in

number

of
of

author's

of

view

is

the

word,
This

point.

and

Chipewyan,

is

it

of

the

though

corroborates

E.

field

Sapir's

and

Navaho
in

should

data

Reprinted

by

Sapir's
(1889).

in

American

permission

of

the

references

Father
grammar

1950-51),

published

both

are

in

Haile

later
of

Navajo

reflecting

(Haile

Sapir's

book

is

the

Father

various

all

if

the
parative
com-

Berard

syllables

fragmentary

remarks

Kutchin

at

is

point
standthat

not

extremely

and

It
and

from

and

the

Legoffs

Sarcee

on

the

owe

"manual,"

that

of

pitch

and

emanating

remembered

observe

Father

on

pitch

on

of

in

pitch.

Note

Journal

Franciscan

published

the

Navaho

we

correct

descriptive,
to

the

University

the

to

Santa

Vocabulary.

be

always
and

of

whom

this

doubtfully

Editorial

Originally

O.F.M.,

Mexico:

student

to

treats

noting

record

statement

Haile,

New

linguistics,

Berard

interesting

necessity

practical

Navaho

dialectic

very

Fe,

Athabaskan

seem

distinctly
It

recognizes

Navaho

of

Father

linguist,

Berard

Santa

missionaries

formulations

or

historical.

or

explicitly

language

the

to

Franciscan

that

comparative

point

both

Dictionary

statements

the

of

Grammar

Father

by

Baptist.

comparative

band

Navaho

$6.00.

324.

useful

interested

Ethnological

the

John

xi +

Pp.

of

Arranged

St.

work,

enthusiastic

difficult

cruelly

the

1926.

Co.,

scientist

excellent

this

of

invaluable

an

the

Grammar.

Province

PubHshing

Fe

Manual

Navaho

Cincinnati

the

of

of

of Sociology

(1910,

considerably

1941-48)

influence.

and

511

(1926).

Press.

Chicago

Fathers

32,

more

stem

1912)

and

to

sophisticated
dictionary

Legoff
ductory
intro-

(Haile

Summary

of Field

Report

Summer

Dr.

Work
of

the

among

Hupa,

1927

Sapir spent the end of June, July,August, and the beginning of September,
of
the
1927, in a linguistic
who
investigation
a
Hupa Indians,
occupy

E.

reservation

California.
This
valleyof the Trinityriver in northwestern
the auspices of the [360]Department
of Sociology and
of good informants
Anthropology of the University of Chicago. A number
was
chief
them
Sam
who
served
the
secured,
Brown,
most
being
as
among
tant
imporof material
and as interpreterof everything obtained
from
him and
source
others. The
information
in character
but a large
gathered was chieflylinguistic
body of ethnologicalmaterial was also obtained, partlyin the form of texts and
in English.
partly as notes directlycommunicated
The
material
was
for the
as
linguistic
chieflyobtained
part of a programme
and
reconstruction
of the Athabaskan
comparative study
languages. A careful
of the grammatical structure
of Hupa, which
offers many
culties,
diffistudy was made
and a reasonably complete vocabulary was
obtained.
The
texts, which
number
about
chosen
little
to
so
were
as
as
as
seventy-five,
duplicate
possible
the valuable
material
already published by Dr. P. E. Goddard.
They are prevailingly
ethnological in content.
work

Some

the
The

under

of the main

mentioned
much

in the

done

was

here.

results secured

The

complex

more

sound
than

typicalAthabaskan
old Athabaskan

from

the

study of the Hupa language may be

might have been expected, proved to be
system,
hitherto
in accordance
with
represented and more
as

patterns worked

out

for Sarcee,

Kutchin,

and

Navaho.

k-series

(intermediate g, aspiratedk', and glottalized'k)is

in
velar
series (g,
but the old prepalatalseries
represented
Hupa by a
x, and 'q),
(g, k', 'k) is preserved as such. Curiously enough, Hupa has also developed a
series of k-sounds
which
neither
velar nor
new
are
prepalatal but mid-palatal
series of k-sounds
but are
(g,k', 'k).These do not represent the old Athabaskan
the

diminutive

only

the

old

Athabaskan

form

of the

Athabaskan
c-series

The

prepalatalset.
s-sibilants

(in Hupa

but

sounds

also

voiceless

the

s,

ts', 'ts represent

diminutive

form

not

of the

"Ic).Vocalic

quantity
phology.
importance
understanding
Hupa morThis is true also of the use
of the glottalstop and of final aspirations.
arc
Many final consonants
glottalizedand there is a characteristic and probably
archaic difference
between
and consonants
which
non-syllabicfinal consonants
have
v
alue.
This
difference
is
for
the
half-syllabic
responsible
parallelismof
which
had already been
worked
a distinction
"light"and "heavy" syllables,
out

proved

to

for other
The
from

old

be

terms:

of fundamental

w,

tew,

for the

of

dialects.
Athabaskan

strikingresemblances

tone

system,
in the tone

which

can

be

reconstructed

patterning of Sarcee,

in

Kutchin,

large part
Navaho,

196

and

VI

no

doubt

American

Indian Languages 2

and [361]
southern
dialects as well, no
other northern
many
the
loss of tone
for
same
in Hupa. Mr. Li s researches
prove

by

longer appears

investigation
may disclose the fact that the absence
characteristics
of the Pacific (or perhapsonly
of tone is one
distinguishing
dialects. There are, however, interesting
southern
Pacific)
group of Athabaskan
forms
of Hupa verbs which
relative
most
in
the
are
cadences
easily
tone
such
explainedas survivals of older forms with a high tone on the final syllable,
Navaho.
and
find
in
Sarcee
as we
actually
The morphology was
Owing to a faultyphonology
completely overhauled.
had not been fully
fundamentals
of
of
the
the details and some
Hupa structure
grasped in former works on Hupa. The relative forms of the verb, which are as
importanthere as elsewhere in Athabaskan, had not been properlykept apart
verbal system needs
from the non-relative forms. Owing to this fact the whole
definite"
is merely a special
The so-called "past
to be presentedin a new
light.
and is
of the relative form of the perfective
s
use
(Goddard "present definite")
paralleledby analogous relative forms based on the imperfective("present
The aspect system of Hupa needs to be
and on the continuative.
indefinite")
of the continuative
revised also in other respects. The formation
(aspart prefix
in
dialects.
tinct
its
formation
other
A disis
to
and stem
form) entirelyanalogous
permissiveparadigm must be recognizednot only for the third person but
discovered.
There
also
also for the first. A distinct potentialmode
was
are
of
In none
specialmodal forms for the verbal abstract and for the prohibitive.
certain
suffixed
had
the
of
these cases
is reference
to
use
prefixedor
merely
of verbs distinguish
durative and momenAs in Navaho,
a number
particles.
forms of the imperfective.
taneous
stem
first written, P. E. Goddard
has published a paper
Since this report was
in Hupa
entitled. Pitch Accent
(Univ. of Calif. Publ. Amer. Arch. Ethn.,
fails to show
23:333-338, 1928),in which itis shown that a studyof Hupa tracings
that Hupa syllables
have inherently
in accord
high or low tones. This is entirely
record
for
with Sapir's
and
his
to
auditory
Hupa
quiteopposed
auditoryrecord
for certain other languages of the Athabaskan
Sarcee,
particularly
groups,
A small amount
of independent material obtained
Kutchin, and Navaho.
on
Anvik
(Chapman's "Ten'a," also known as Ingalik)indicates that here too tone
is lacking.
Mattole

and

Wailaki.

Later

of the

Editorial

Originally published in
Reprinted by permission of
References

to

Goddard's

Hupa Language (1905).

American
the American
earlier work

Note

Anthropologist 30, 359-361 (1928).

AnthropologicalAssociation.
are
mainly to his Morphology of the

Six:

Sapir's

Hupa

notebooks

Philosophical

1927

for

Golla's
Golla's

and

The

texts,

with

in

Volume

publication

Volume

Hupa
own

Hupa

to

Na-Dene

and

lexical

files

(manuscript

Society

"expedition"

(1927b,

by

4369).

item

56,
edited

Athabaskan

are

497.3

XIV.

northwestern

now

in

B63c
and

linguistic
The

197

Languages

the

cf.

Na20a.4;

ethnographic

are

described

the

can
Ameri-

Kendall

notes,
of

circumstances

California

of

Library

1982:

have

been
and

Sapir's

informally

by

Li's

Sapir

IV).
(1970)

grammar
field

dictionary

was

Sapir's

work.

now

being

based
lexical

on

data

prepared

Sapir's
are

by

materials,

incorporated
the

Hupa

supplemented
into

tribe.

hensive
compre-

Excerpt
The

Bloomfield's
to

my

Languages

experience
with

own

of Phonetic

Concept

in Primitive

from

with

by

Law

Leonard

the Central

Algonkian
languages. These

the Athabaskan

as

Tested
Bloomfield

dialects
constitute

is

entirelyparallel
important

an

stock which
is irregularly
distributed
in North
America.
The
linguistic
ern
northall
the
vast
from
a
the
occupies
territory
stretching
near
west
group
way
of
Hudson
into
the
interior
of Alaska.
coast
To it belong such languages
Bay west
Anvik
as
(inAlaska), Carrier (inBritish Columbia), Chipewyan, Hare,

Loucheux,
as

Kutchin,

representativesof

Athabaskan

consists

Beaver, and
this group.
of

Sarcee.
The

number

We

shall take

Chipewyan

geographically isolated

and

Sarcee

Pacific division

of

of

languages in southwestern
Oregon and
The
southern
as
Hupa
representative.
division of Athabaskan
is in New
Mexico
and Arizona
and adjoining regions,
and is represented by Navaho,
and
We
shall take Navaho
Apache,
Lipan.
as
representativeof the group. In spiteof the tremendous
geographical distances
that separate the Athabaskan
languages from each other, it is perfectlypossible
definite phonetic laws which
to set up
them
connect
according to consistent
and
phonetic patterns. Navaho, Hupa,
Chipewyan are spoken by Indians who
belong to entirelydistinct culture horizons, yet the languages themselves
are
as
derivable
from
the
basis
of regularphonetic law as
a common
source
on
easily
northwestern

are

German,

California.

We

Dutch, and

Swedish.

shall take

II.

Ill

5.

ky'

ky'

tc'

ts'

tc'

^f

200

VI shows

Table

American

the distribution

the

the table summarizes

Athabaskan

Hupa, Chipewyan, Navaho,

developments

in four

initial consonants

and

Sarcee

consists of five consonants.

sets, each of which

three initialconsonantal
words,

in

Languages 2

Indian

selected

of fifteen

of

In other

distinct
originally

dialects. Each

of the entries

ples.^
applyingto a whole class of examof its many
table merits study because
The
implications.It will be
Athabaskan
dialect exactlyreproducesthe reconstructed
observed
that no one
Series I is preserved intact in Navaho
and
forms given in the first column.
shifted
in
but
has
been
another
series
in
to
and
so
Sarcee
Hupa,
very nearly
Chipewyan. Series II is preserved intact in Navaho, but has been shifted in
with the series that correspondsto original
I, while Hupa has
Sarcee to identity
dialectic developments and Chipewyan has shifted
introduced several peculiar
intact but nearly
of
Series
III is nowhere
form
I.
it to the original
kept entirely
it has moved
form
to the original
so in Hupa, while in Chipewyan and in Sarcee
which
is
identical
with
the
and
the
form
to a
of Series II, in Navaho
original
Navaho
form of Series Litis clear from the table that a Sarcee s is ambiguous as
Athabaskan
the
for it may go back either to Athabaskan
s or
c. On
to origin,
be
must
other hand, a Sarcee s which is supportedby either Navaho
or
s
Hupa
Athabaskan
tc is,in the main, unamof an original
s. Sarcee
biguous
representative
Athabaskan
it
the
for
to
to
as
ky. It is
original
corresponds
origin,
curious and instructive to note
that, of the four languagesgiven in the table,
that most
the
and
two
nearlycorrespond as to pattern but
Chipewyan are
Hupa
instance of y (III,
to actual sound
never
as
2).
except in the one
of
the table. If we
the
basis
of
take
Let us
a practical
predictionon
example
form
with ts, and a
with tc, a corresponding Navaho
form
have a Sarcee
Chipewyan form with tc, what ought to be the Hupa correspondent?According
to the table it ought to be ky.

be considered

must

as

statement

summary

TABLE
Ath.

Hupa

*kyan

...

VII

Chipewyan*

Navaho*

tcq

n-t-tsq

'rain'

'there

*q represents nasalized

developed from
Table

VII shows

on

in French

an

4. The

the wh

of

is a

peculiara

I first constructed

initial ky, in

spiteof

rainfall'
with velar resonance,

larly
regu-

spiteof the absence

Neither
correspondences.

the fact that these

sounds

the Athabaskan

of the test form

an

were

sound

ky

totype,
pro-

in

Hupa,
ts nor
tc could
original
actuallyillustrated in

taneous
articulation, characterized by simulapostrophe symbolizes a peculiartype of consonantal
of the glottis
and point of contact
in the mouth,
with glottal
release preceding oral
is the French/ of yowr, djh they of Englishyu^/.x is the c/j of German
/c/i;Wis approximately
English what; e is the th of English thick;8 is the th of English then.

closure
release. 7

in

Sarcee

in three dialects of the Athabaskan

for "rain'. When

the basis of the dialectic

be assumed

an.

tea
s

a.

the distribution

(III,4) in the word

I assumed

a. as

Athabaskan

Sarcee*

Six:

known
because

and

Na-Dene

201

Languages

dialects,whereas
ky was not. The Hupa column had to remain empty
the cognate word, if stillpreserved,was
not available in the material

that had

recorded

been

In the

Hupa

Athabaskan

summer

and

by

P. E. Goddard.

of 1927, however,

secured

the form

of the

I carried

on
independent researches on
ment
kyax^-kyoh,^
meaning 'hailstorm'. The second eleand
the
firstis
'big'
obviouslythe missingHupa

compound means
word
for 'rain'. In other words, an
correspondingto the old Athabaskan
has taken on the specialmeaning of 'hailold compound meaning 'rain-big'
storm'
in Hupa. The
form
of
the
old
word
for
'rain'
is
what
it
Hupa
exactly
should be accordingto the correspondencesthat had been worked
out, and the
reconstruction
of the primitiveAthabaskan
form on the basis of the existing
forms was
therefore justified
by the event.
term

TABLE
Dialectic

VIII

Forms

'Rain'

for

Anvik

(Alaska)
Carrier (B.C.)
Chipewyan

rcoA^*
tcan

tcq

Hare

tcq

Loucheux

tcien

Kutchin

tscin

Beaver

tcq

Sarcee

tcq

Navaho

n-t-tsq

*D represents open

Table

VIII

o,

in German

as

givesthe

chief dialectic forms

of the Athabaskan
the
due

sound
original

ky

voll;q is nasalized

word

which

must

dialects,some

of which

is voiceless

ky

preserved in

as

and

Hupa

available

were

for 'rain'. Observe

n.

that not

for the

one

of these

the initial of the word.

related

sounds

and

small

struction
recon-

has

This

is

shifted in most
number

of other

from
spoken at a great remove
Hupa. In other
reconstructions
be
must
we
linguistic
guided not merely
statistical evidence
but by the way in which the available material is

words, in working

by the overt
patterned.

were

that

be assumed

to the fact that the old Athabaskan

dialects to sibilants but

o.

are

out

Editorial Note

in Social Science: A
Originallypublishedin Rice, Stuart A. (ed.).Methods
Case
Book, pp. 297-306.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press (1931).
of
Reprintedby permission the Universityof Chicago Press. Only pp. 302-306
in the original.
are
are
as
reprintedhere; footnote and table numbers
5. r) is the ng of

Englishsing.

Two

Navaho

Puns

stressed

Indians
do
by Boas, that the American
few
not go
exceptions have been found serve
If
riddles
and
the
rule.
add puns, as it seems
to
to
we
emphasize
proverbs
only
it
that
the
have a rightto do,
American
Indian
has a
we
begins to appear likely
in
verbal
There
lack
of
interest
is
of
light
fancy.
generalized
plenty
metaphor in
ad
hoc
in his legends, and his
his rituals, there is considerable
etymologizing
the
in
is
but
iar
zest
famous,
quick,
irresponsible
reinterpretationof familoratory
of the pleasure that we
words
or
phrases which lies at the bottom
experience
in the tellingof riddles, proverbs, and puns
ever
whatun-Indian,
seems
strangely
It is

fact, often

well known

in for riddles

be

may
Yet

They

puns

council

proverbs. What

reason.

entirelyabsent,

not

collected

were

In

the

are

and

in the

held

followingNavaho
at Crystal,New

of 1929

summer

time

the two

as

the

leader

of

examples

show.

Mexico.

of the

contending
'You
people decide on one
partiessaid,^ xdct'e ndhdnd^'d-'
thing!'A cripple
who
near
was
by, ndcidi-'d-' 'Pick me up!' The latter,
present whispered to one
asked,
catching on at once, picked up the crippleand, holding him in his arms,
him
down?'
xd-dic ndhdnc'd-'
'Where
I
This
is
to put
am
Everybody laughed.
the Navaho
said to be a favorite anecdote
and depends for its point on
among
nd-hd-nidouble
of
the
verb
either 'to
the
'""',which
mean
meaning
may
a

some

ago

decide
A

the

on

close

surface

matter'

analysisof

abstract

hd-ni-

shows

.-

down'.
that it is

more

subtle

than

appears

on

the

enter

is very

sense

.-'d- 'to make

.

-t'd-' (

that to

this pun

put him

two

less
to no
fullyinto its humor
requires sensitiveness
than
three
is simple and
changes of linguisticfront. The fundamental
pun
itself
raise
would
be
This
is the use of
to
a
one
enough
laugh,
hardly
by
suspects.
the verb stem
-a'
'to handle
the "round"
of 'to
sense
object'in the transferred
handle
the affair,words, plan, date, decision'. The secondary use
oi-'d' (-'d)in
an

and

'to

or

one

date

e.g. tc'6-hd.-'a 'to make

.

ni.
.

.-'""' 'to tell';nd-

plans',
-

d-nd-hd-

is

in the anecdote
being set for one'. The tinglingmoment
with
addition
the
the
in
to
for,
comes
cripple'swhispered [218]request;
point that
very general transfer of meaning already noted, there is the added
does
nd-di'""'
it
the
verb
'to
not
relative
one
pick
normally use
up' (and its cor'""' 'to put it down') of an
animate
ni-nibeing, but only of such
inanimate
'round'
rock. In other
watch,
or
objects as a potato, or apple, or
classifies
words, the wily cripple,turning his helplessnessto humorous
account,
his hunched
ndcidisubstitutes
ndcidi-ftxi-'
'round
a'
for
object',
up body as a
and xd-dic ndhohc'd-'
ndhdhctxi'
for xddic
the
substitutes
'to handle
{-t-txi-'
animate
normal
health
made
Had
little
of
the
a
being').
physical
boy
request,
=

'a
-d-'d-')

in Navaho,

decision';nd-hd-.

common

the

1. Grave

accent

.-

.-

(a) represents low

tone,

acute

(a) high

tone,

circumflex

(a) fallingtone.

yf

204

the
of

lifted

as

into

up

something

like

of

in

hich

the
first

the

These

two

usage

has

of the

first element

second

itself; the

is

of

it is

who

down?',

'the

the

-hd-,

'this

to

one'.

Briefly, then,

the

by

the

third

business

great

it

Finally,

stance',
affair, circum-

it were,

as

kindles

people.

referring

cripple;

'the

and

pun

reinterprets
like

pronoun

contributed,

equates

the

in Athabaskan.

distinct

thought

quick understanding

important

something

masochistic

of

be

easily

not

The

language

is the
hand'

at

the

echoing
with

'this

chap'.

poor

second

The

'So

it

give

so

is

'he

a-

1 '\

to

order

to

hogans
The

direct

leveling

tempting

of
of

often

that

the

hired
spaces

laws,

meanings

colorless

in
for

elements

from

themselves,

the

and

its

the

as

above)

xwdjdd-txal,

the

from

come

between

the

"chant"'
jco/xfl/

on

from

joke

yictxat

ritual

based

changes
of

dote.
anec-

an

verb

perform
verb

flavor
to

than
for?'

semelfactive

will

Originally published

in

Linguistic Society

in

if

'a

sonal
imper-

an

one

bers
remem-

distances

great

scattered

assembling
to

due

Navaho,

peculiarly

combine

in

Navaho

largely

to

the

intricate

structure,

which

of elements

that

alized
gener-

make

Navaho

are

peculiarly

punster.

Editorial

the

the

to

homonymous

phonetic

definite

language

and

of

denominative
-hd-

rather

'What

says.

(future

(=

xwdIt adds
are

rituals

joke

indeed.

influence

and

the

again

number

quite

derives

one

kick'

"chant"',

application.

curing

wide

great

medicine-men

Navaho

are

one

as

(the medicine-man)

'he

perform

personal

that

give

to

Here

"chant"').

ritual

there',

over

gone

going

kick'), actually

oi xatx

{{uiwTt

has

It is told

simpler.

is much

pun

and

apparently

of

of

personal

of

him

put

impersonally

creation

friend,

his

doings

meaning

historically

are

pun

I to

am

the

second

is the

understanding

'I

'Where

could

of -'a-' socializes

use

he

object.

ponderous

of the

pun,

of -hd-

uses

cripple

of the

for

inanimate

an

Languages

far-fetched,

bit

like

satire

the

in

while

down

put

punster

climax

the

seemed

have
and

second

the

by

would

pun

Indian

American

Language
of

America.

Note

8, 217-218

(1932). Reprinted

by permission

Problems

in

Athapaskan

Linguistics

The

Athapaskan languages, in spiteof their essential uniformity in phonetic

dialectic
richly ramified and we need many
more
type and morphology, are
studies

than

we

have

yet had

in order

understand

to

the group

as

whole

and

to

it

division
are
paratively
comadequately. The dialects of the Southern
well known,
less
has
been
about
these
dialects than
though
published
divisions.
about
the chief languages of the other
Even
here, however, much
to be done.
important dialectic work remains
Manuscript materials on Navaho,
Mescalero
dant
Apache, Chiricahua
Apache, Jicarilla and Lipan are probably abunbe
called
and accurate
Further
work
remains
to be
enough to
satisfactory.
Kiowa
done
dialects.
on
Apache and on San Carlos and other Western
Apache
the manuscript and published record
In the Pacific area
is probably adequate
for Hupa, Mattole
and Wailaki.
The
which
need
careful
languages in this area
Creek, and Upper Umpqua.
Costa, Galice
study are Kato, Lassik, Chasta
and
which
have
to
Tlatskanai,
seem
Kwalhioqua
belonged to the Pacific group,
if there are
are
probably extinct. It is particularlyimportant to try to determine
survivals
of
the
in
the
of
the Pacific
tone
earlyAthapaskan
languages
system
any
That
there was
such an early archaic
system follows from a comparison
group.
of the Southern
with
of
the
most
So
languages
languages of the Northern
group.
far,however, no Pacific dialect has been found with a tonemic
system, though
there is an interestingsurvival of such a system in certain grammatical forms
of
Hupa.
The greatest complexity prevailsin the north. Carrier, Chipewyan, Hare
and
Kutchin
well known
are
relatively
though only a part of the material which has
been obtained
is in print.Kutchin, however, probably needs
ing
overhaula careful
in the field because
of its great complexity and the necessityof gettingfuller
of dialects is one
of the most
grammatical material. The Kutchin
group
cialized
spereconstruct

needs

and
well

known

because

of the
have

careful

attention.

of Father

Carrier

published material
to
unsatisfactory and needs
some

dialects

which

are

Chilcotin, Tahltan,
Slave

and

Owing

the
the

either

Morice's
of

group

not

Tanaina,

Carrier

may

be

monumental

languages
Beaver

considered

work

still remain
and

but

the

to

be

worked

Ingalik

but

it is

reasonably
tonal

liarities
pecu-

out.

We

altogether
completely
Athapaskan
known
at all or
only fragmentarily include:
Tanana,
Han, Copper River, Koyukukhotana,
on

be

overhauled.

The

Dogrib.
to

the many

intricate

problems

of

phonology

set

by

the task of

structing
recon-

have too much

dialectic evidence.
The
ment
treatAthapaskan, we cannot
of originalfinal consonants
is particularlyintricate. Another
problem is
of the tone
Certain
of
like
most
adequate reconstruction
languages,
system.
Pacific languages and Ingalik,seem
lost the old tone
to have
system; others

206

^f

have

Sarcee,

likely,

it

to

the

in

final

is

absolute

or

word.

following

dialectic

much

as

important

An

in

is

basic

in

meaning
dialects,

afford

cannot

we

recoverable

and

dialects

different

as

the

typescript

Sapir

for
research

Philosophical

Sapir

of

bearing
the

this

short
date

no

American

funding.

manuscript

Philosophical

original
but

with

Library,

American
The

certain

whether

to

by

ately
immedi-

an

importance

of

ting
get-

partial

survival
the

the

of

of

recovery

Because

of

many
of

testimony

the

entire

differentiations
words

in

all

most

or

of
scattered
of

the

dialects.

Society
the

is

whole.

Editorial

From

the

more

complication

according

suggest

without

do

to

tonal

protected

or

Athapaskan

stock

the

differs

hand,

one

is

like

or,

In

system.

there

word

others,

archaic

possible.

as

comparative
to

be

two-register

differentiations

these

material

task

which

vocabulary

of
the

on

either

Kutchin,

structure

position
All

and

still

system;

may

earlier

an

Hare

as

tonemic

the

that

tact

of

such

languages,

which

system,

development

secondary

two-register

possess

three-register

Athapaskan
due

Navaho

and

Chipewyan

like

Languages

Indian

American

Society

revisions,

ms.

497.3

B63c

in

now

American

the

Published

Na.l.

ical
Philosophby

permission

of

Society.
is

statement

or

other

Council
Morris

Note

of

Swadesh

Library

in

indication
Learned
donated
1946.

short

typescript,
of

its

Societies
the

edited

origin.
or

typescript

It

and

perhaps

was

similar
to

signed

the

source

American

by
pared
preof

Review
A.

The

Carrier

of

Morice, The

G.

Carrier

Language

Grammar

Language (Dene Family), a

(2 vols., I: xxxv, 660 pp.;

and

Dictionary Combined.
II: 691 pp. RM
A. G. Morice.
80. Anthropos
LinBand.
IX
X
bei
Wien:
der
InternaBibliothek,
u.
guistische
Modling
Verlag
tionalen
Zeitschrift
"Anthropos," 1932.)
This

magnificent work,
also a dictionary,the

but

with

its page

indicates, is

not
an
ordinary grammar
being skilfully
disposed under appropriate
"Vocabulary" at the end of the second volume,

lexical materials

rubrics.

grammatical

its sub-title

as

The

helps

references,

the

student

to

find

his way

in these

is

no
confusion, only a mutually fertilizing
treatment
Not
grammatical forms of the language and its lexical content.
of
and
allowable
for
Carrier
interweaving
dictionary
grammar

There

materials.

of the

only
and

complex
is such

an

its cognate

is
at least if the grammatical survey
languages, it is in many
respects necessary,
definite.
and
In all the Athapaskan
to be complete
languages many
cated
complirules
"words"
small
to
of
words.
to
sets
or
grammatical
apply only
single
One
intimate
therefore, give as adequate a notion of the more
structure
cannot,
of Carrier

Kutchin

or

is

categories as

or

Navaho

possible in

with

schematic

such

or
languages as Yokuts
mastered,
once
grammatical principles,
word
to the words
or
high degree of confidence

Arabic

in which
with

course,

the

question

rank

of

handling

as

attacked

in

single attack
different
The

First,

the

to

grammar

to

as

body

of the relative

complexity

vocabulary. Father Morice's

method.
to linguistic

grammar

originala

so

dual

of the

work

on

its

vocabulary
manner

nor

of

with

problem seems
grammatical contours
consists

as

not
are
a

formal
so

sure

as

to

those

preliminary

of

of the relation

of

never

instinct.

an

the

applied

It is not,

I know,

as

and

eria),
(in Lib-

be

Language"

unity has

unsuited
from

far

Jabo

[501]can

"Carrier
So

or

elements.

of the grammar

real contribution
and

of processes

statement

the

deserves

problem

before

been

Incidentally,this
genius of English,

of Carrier.

treatment

of Phonetics;

Part

"The

Parts
of Speech"
normally non-verbal
(subdivided into "The
"The
"The
Pronouns,"
Adjectives,"
Postpositions,Conjunctions
and
Interjections,"and "The Adverbs"); Part II, "The Verb morphologically
considered"
(subdivided into "The Verbal Stems," "The Verbal Prefixes," and
"The
Verb
Incorporating Verbs"); Part III, "The
grammatically considered"

Noun,"

"The

(subdivided
"Grammatical

into

"General

Notions,"

"The

Divisions,"

"Personal

Divisions,"

Divisions,"

chief

of
irregularities
"Modal

Verbs,"

the

Verbs,"

Divisions,"
"Divisions

phological
"Mor-

based

on
"Temporally incomplete
Endings," and "Verbs with number-indicating Endings"); Part IV, "Syntax and
and
Linguistic Peculiarities"
(subdivided into "Syntactic Notes"
"Linguistic
Part V, "Texts" (fivetexts with interlinear
and free translations);
Peculiarities");

VI

208

and
will

give

to

serve

of

idea

some

the

list).This

check

English

(an

"Vocabulary"

VI,

Part

of

scope

Languages

Indian

American

the

list of

the

Details

work.

main

headings
in

hardly

are

place

here.
It should

redefine

and

detail

grateful

of
is

single

phoneme,

phonemic

d.th

and

would

phonetic

data

is

realization
There

are

as

powerful
in

the

as

of

remarks

and

first

be

Originally
by

published

in

American

permission

of

the

is to

symbolism
ideal

is

is

is

stop
and
the

to

Either

interpret

rarely

economy

ear

method
to

linguists

that

the

obviously
fortis

vaguely

that

tice
prac-

the

true

realized

the

of

mass

simple,

as

attained,

yet

as

its

themselves.

implications

called

to

the

scattered

list of

in

the

ethnological

book.
ences
refer-

volume.

Editorial

Reprinted

only

It is time

facts

in

varying
t:t\

or

be

from
is

to

lenis,

stop)

corresponds

This

what

the

One

mastery.

aspirated

voiceless

phonemic

should

for

of

always

drawback

advantage

problems

phonetic

the

used

aspirated

possible.

will

systematized

with

asa

d:t:th

of

attention

xxix-xxxv

he

in

sis.
analy-

much

obvious

an

corresponding

fundamental

terms

but

important

an

are

uneconomical.

but
most

and

strongly

whereas

ethnological

many

pages

in

implicit

anthropologist's
on

and

not

the

configurative

outlines
has

lies

grammar

reassemble

to

he

phonemes,

ultimate

sufficiently

(defining

t as

better

be

and

d:t

t, and

Morice's

want

which

not

both
while

these

adequate,

first

economical,

is

stop,
write

and

their

of

one

purely

The

of

facts,

Thus,

either

accuracy,

justifiable

that

lenis

might

French

between

facts;

view.

One

th.

written

is

of

point

phonemic

its

may

is, however,

"

Father

fundamental

orthography

the

that

"

in

much

so

the

which

work

the

not

the

for

of

strength

Athapaskan

of

some

Morice

Father

to

weakness

of

student

comparative

the

detail,

descriptive

of

its wealth

that

remembered

be

American

Note

Anthropologist
Anthropological

37,

500-501
Association.

(1935).

Internal

Linguistic Evidence

Suggestive of the Northern

Origin of the Navaho

TNTERNAL
-*"

linguistic evidence

is not

and

in much

this

tricky

for two

their

closeness

little

be

can

light
that

as

their

increases,

it for

and

possibilities

which
in

linguistic evidence

has

of

need

the

culture,

secondary
such

the

their

distribution

theory

origin

of

than

present

Athapaskan

internal, linguistic

might

rayed

tribes

present

recency

in

Walapai
more
a

late

the

and

archaic
Pueblo

neighborhood.
Athapaskan

the

the

Navaho

other

of

Southwestern
veneer,

to

It is true
dialects

cultural
of

influence

that

is such

the
and

development

which
of the

this

the
of
the

224

dialectic

that

the

historical
than

that

the
and

Southwest

One

migration.
various

Apache

because

of their

relative

but

because,

elaborate

linguistic homogeneity
the

early

rather

aside

cleavages

cultures
of
in

like

simpler

proved impervious,
more

an

"

in

ture,
cul-

ment
environ-

plausible,

degree,
not

to

justice

waves

the

itself for
Navaho

point

Arizona, they represent

culture,
the

greater

of

make

to

indefinitely.

is external,

massed

they do,

aspect

tribes

Yuman

to

to

if not

successive

return

northern

with

as

distribution

in

and,

Pueblo

and

ference
in-

American-

Navaho

to

more

of

conceivable

the

case

in

seems
a

is such

originally

the

elements

"

kinds

scanty

evidence

is conceivable,

north

non-Pueblo

area

languages

were

the

to

said

be

in

expected
un-

think

languages

other

that

be

to

with

an

to

reason

theoretically

but

evidence

people

may

is

of unwritten

of

tangible

dialectic
It

tribes

out

that

argue

but

evidence.

Athapaskan-speaking
gradually

It

There

what

Nevertheless,
throw

may

and

yielded

such

these

one.

inference.

fundamental

that

of

certain,

as

is

there

and

pitfalls,
to

controlled,

continue

second

proportion

It is natural

yet

the

In

to

ship
relation-

of

out

knowledge

not

may

difficult

phonologic

reconstructions

as

words

it is often

diffusion.

perspectives.

apparently

culture

of the

good

as

that
of

agriculture,

as

association

show

to

try

this

it,for

generally,

full of

cultural

is elimination

istic field

I shall

is often

importance.

historian

but

that

properly

cultural

among
grow

handle,

comparative

for

value

will

"

from

time,

present

if not

early linguistic

on

to

antecedents

the

at

often,

gathered

cultural

tangible

cultural

remote

least

not

"

knowledge

from

descriptive

our

is

rests

attending

linguistic evidence,
on

be

can

is difficult

of

obtained

best

anthropologists

of nomenclature

evidence

cultural

to

as

radically and, furthermore,

community

requiring

its

nature

linguistic borrowing

on

place linguistic

at

factual

inferences

linguistic evidence

Such

meanings

tell whether
or

of

for

cultural

among

reasons.

what

to

as

change

favor

the
the

the
and

from

in their
Southern
nothern

Six:

Na-Dene

and

Athabaskan

211

Languages

226

that

Navaho

'a-de'

for

have

words,

we

of type

possessives

All this suggests

and

general

that

with

(3) any

obvious

no

Stage

of horn

into

Navaho

to

we

absolute

*de

indefinite

both

of the

have,
high
-de,

Navaho

tone

Chipewyan

e-d^e,

early

k^a

and

horn
is

'a-de'

Loucheux

(Petitot), whence

and

which

and

must

Hupa
ede-k*a

referred

to
to

the
the

preter
inter-

My

same

find
the

that
form

found

are

Navaho

to

in

de

we

ing
correspond-

(Li) (Chipewyan

-de

low

tone). Hare

-da', Hupa

-de', Kato

correspondent

exact

Batard
c'i-^i',

animal's

"an

inferred

"cuiller

Southern

Navaho

beginning

"corne

mind
of

horn's

(Petitot:

come"

en

The

horn."
for

^ide-^in', literally"a

(esbatahot'ine)ede-ka

Obviously,
be

horn"

an

be

be
the

among

," and

e-|i, Kutchin
only

can

in

in Hare
Indian

Sheep

"spoon."

"gourd"

has

word

felt to

now

(in compounds);

^i-de', all meaning

spoons,

"spoon,"

animal's

Apache, Sarsi,Kutchin]

Navaho

5,

ladle."

of

-de', Sarsi

and

identically the

Corresponding
-de-

ing
mean-

the

dialects,we

-de, Chipewyan

spread
wide-

of

Inasmuch

of spoons.

|i', Beaver
e-de,

'ade'' is

*-de"' "horn

Hupa

and

of

it is tabooed

that

are

and

the

on

transfer

"gourd, gourd

areas.

linguisticallyreflected

whence

of

[Navaho,

Hupa

for

"plate, bowl")

meaning

and

based

as

making

"an

ladles

Northern

meanings

Athapaskan

Carrier

have

'i-dk,Hare

of

handle,"

we

-de'; while

Loucheux
use

the

and

Athapaskan

of which

development.

surprise

possessed

-|i, Kutchin

Mattole

Athapaskan,

for

deer

history
of horn;

made

that
so

the

ment
instru-

semantic

ladle

of horn;

the

so

more

Southern

the

Athapaskan

the

horn"

|i "horn"

-de'

Loucheux

-de', and
in

Kutchin

e.g.,

to

"a

than

made

brass

The

Athapaskan

Navaho,

possessive prefix *^e-de''

other

horn,"

instrument,

dialectic

Apache)

also
in

volunteered

once

"horn,"

two

horn.

longer

no

"sets (1; 3-5),

of the

other

to

with

"ladle"

animal's

now

gourd, Cucurhita,

were

words,

both

meant

turn

is

horn; (2)

Southern

validity

horn

Sandoval

word

If
the

the

use

Albert
Navaho

has

unrelated

and

"an

musical

2,

decoration)."

originallymeant

our

Athapaskan;

3,

spoons

disconnected

two

distinct

the

bird's)
(i.e.,

"his

hair

early Southern, development

that

longer

no

in

blowing,

animal's

(in part perhaps

specificNavaho

group

pro

as

for

animal's

an

an

to-

for spoons;

fact

the

to

stage

be

would

presumably

use

due

two

to

(1)

be:

would, then,

Pacific,and

as

relation

ladle"

much
used

double

of

"his-one's-feather,"i.e.,

originally meant

very

horn"

ladle; (4) gourd ladle; (5)

made.

spoon,"

bi-t'a'

(used

plume

unrelated

are

Athapaskan

be-'et'a'

"gourd

in turn

ladle"

"gourd

Southern

."; e.g., Navaho

'ade*'

Navaho

"ram's

"horn," originally a
'ade''

'ade'
in

feather, his

this word

"horn

as

and

(bird's)feather," but

that

reinterpreted

of

examples

(secondarily owned)

"his

in

horn"

other

"his-one's

'a-t'a' "a

feather,"

"one's

aplatie"

'ade'

in

things, for

its
the

212

VI

Indian

American

Languages

227

in ritual

is used

term

(though
meaning
horse
for

long

too

not

the

the

horse

historical

that

interest:

Navaho

culture,

Southwest.
and

gourd

if

Even
the

and

one

the

of these

"the

is

bag);

verbs

in the

the

it

as

"

it is

beginning
and

in

either

-t-yas.The
such

or

"

An

'

See,
=

ts.

at

of

Southern

is useful

the

remoter

least,

of the
a

of

theory

into

the

of

the

absence

by

for

early

to

(or east)
the

brought

of

culture

analysis

close

reconstruction

the

of the Pueblos

influence

things

of

with

north
infer

is -sas,

lies in

the Navaho

on

for

(after vowels)

verb

Vocabulary,

sub

pp.

as

here

based

erally,
gen-

lies." A
"I

responding
cor-

scatter

or

go

cases

of

(in sowing)."

apparently

noun.

back

fabric

these

denominative

that

all verb

of

"classifier"

to

either

*si-l-yas is analogous
"the

for

dialects, and
of

dialectic

products

must

-sas

silcoz*

on

351, 353.

"broadcast

more

cognate

no

Athapaskan

phonology

contracted

*si-}-zas

neuter

neuter

but,

merely

not

Athapaskan

Navaho

words,

in other

perfective

are

can

have

of verbs

from

clear

lies"

find

other

analogous

set

seed

e.g.,

original meaning

The

instance,

from

me

probably

we

row."

(of grain, sand) spill (e.g.,out

mass

to

in

perfective neuter,

particles (e.g.,grain, sand)

means,

let the

often

so

y;

lies"

specifically"the

nasas,

Ethnologic Dictionary,
e.g..

four

the

two

to

the

early phase

an

cognates

seed

available

is that

perfective

"c

in

(e.g.,sand, water)."

perfectly
s

to

illumination

not

formation, i.e.,a secondary

Now

than

spoons

"the

"I

material

verbs

further

"seed

isolated

Apache

finely divided

also

sprinkle

"

of

to

well

go

the

no

for

nsas

verb,

but

inference

origin legend

out

known

or,

inferences
from

Apache

obviously
of

mass

seed,"^

been

Navaho

the

the massive

verb

active
the

its

lies,"

forms

and

tribes, the

Navaho
seed

the

tribes.

Apache

"the

with

directly given by present-

not

have

to

These

of horn

presence

period antedating

sisas

points

original

its

original element

an

spoons,

of

goes

'ade"' and

2. The

assumed

culture.

Navaho-Apache

of Navaho

be

Navaho

of the

immigration

horn

ancestors

Athapaskan

Southern

that

must

Athapaskan-speaking

of the

the

by

cardinal

is not

gourd

the

culture; and

Athapaskan

the

that

linguisticanalysis, in short, points unmistakably

Our

"horse"

meant

acquainted

indicated

as

four

the

term

importance

more

evidence

became

ancestors

Emergence,

no

ly' always

comparative

their

in

is of

that

compound

materials.

ritualistically
proper

day

that

after

of

creation

the

and

"dog")

was

from

easily prove

can

we

Navaho

the

in the

example

their conviction

than

problem

in the historic

feeling of

the

Children," but

Gourd

for

mythology,

and

lies."

But

stems

-1-zas

in form
what

-1or

to

is the

Six:

Athabaskan

Na-Dene

and

213

Languages

228

underlying

zas

two

forms,

few

cases

of

have

must

in the

As

in

preceding

difl"cult

is found

the

in

(Jenness),
Loucheux

?iow,

in

the

ground,"

seed

lies."

tory

and,

in

To

clearly the

on

yas,

and

divided

of "the

seed

lies." No

lying on
Navaho

sequence

ground;"^^
cil,

"snow

on

advances

the

on

classifica-

the

ground")

the

to

meanings

on

for "the

lying
in

means

lying

term

("snow

term

zas,

Athapaskan

the

Navaho

present

of

yis

JicarillaApache

general meaning

more

"snow"

Sarsi

yas,

of the

particles lie [snow-like]

other

*yaxs'

meaning,

secondary, agricultural environment,

meaning

Mattole

non-agricultural

transferred

("the finely

Beaver

of the

paskan
Atha-

zah, Hare, Dogrib z^ah,

represented by

prototype

summarize,

takes

ground")
verb

is

spread
wide-

Ingalik yi5, Babine

(Jenness),

restricted

it

scatter

Athapaskan),

Athapaskan

specifically"snow
This

"the

universal

original meaning

term,

"falling snow."

or

sisas

is not

term

with

dialects:

yas,

The

but

Athapaskan

common

Kato

zas.

general

cultural

ya0 (Li), Slave

yahs,^"

Hupa

seed

(or Southern

connotation.

zds

verb

whence
"I

connection

Kaska

zah,

the

broadcast."

present

Athapaskan

(these
of the

the

sow

Navaho

to

Hence

yas
one

originally meant
"I

the

close

Chipewyan

y3",

"snow"

"snowdrift"

of

Chiricahua

Mescalero,

another

establish

to

Kutchin

yaxs,

is not

while

zas,

constitute

(flakes of) snow,"

nasas

whence

is confined

majority

Carrier

Kwalhioqua

verb

case,

but

Navaho).

within

differingcultural

of

term

word

active

Navaho

archaic,

more

lies like

lies)like snow,"

it

Athapaskan

it is not

zas,

difference

derived

that

is the

latter

originally,"it

meant,

(so

about

the

dialectic

lies"; the

seed

yas? Quite obviously, "snow,"

or

of which

technical

fits the

linguistic

facts.
3. The
in

occurs

to

be

Navaho
number

translated

of

compound

"corn"

thorn," approximately
and,
for

"

God);

Talking

"it
My

technical

is

for

reason

to

The

Hupa

word

not

means

is the

is

familiar

first element

"buckthorn,"

it tends

Navaho
in the

perhaps

"box-

god
native

"bitter

name

term

(cf.

corn"

"cedar-berries," literally"coyote-corn;"

GofiF,Dictionnaire
for

than

but

"white

146:

"y^

snow

on

the

frost

Stems

low-toned

*yixs is

too

(on trees)."

(International Journal of American

ground;"

similarly,for Chipewyan,

Franfais-Montagnais (Lyons, Marseilles,and

Carrier

see

1, p. 25, where

yet settled)."

"snow"

Li, A List of Chipewyan

Linguistics,Vol. 7, 1933), p.

not

element, -d4',
in which

interpreters, e.g., hasce'd4''

(hasce'

reconstructingto high-toned *y4xs rather

See, e.g., Fang-Kuei

Vol.

second

give here.

"

tomb^e;"

form,

ci'd4'

The

referring to plants

Navaho

bitter"); ma'id4'

"

1932),

by

is nad4'.

nouns

"god-corn"

slightly abbreviated

in
the

dici'

for "corn"

word

A.

G.

Morice,

The

ye" (our yas) "snow"

Carrier

Language

contrasts

with

Rome,

1916), sub

(2 vols., Modling

eel

(our Sal)"snow

bei

L. Le

"neige
Wien,

(heavy

and

VI

214

Indian

American

Languages

229

gahcohdi'

"winterfat," literally"jackrabbit-corn."

The

compounds

such

rather

which

is

these, -di'

as

obviously
is

rabbit-food,"

it is

from

"food"

which

quoted

and

quite

because

the

that

primary meaning

plausible

corn"). This

from

eatable"),
it"

(from

itself

"corn"
The

here

and

"corn

there"

attempt

an

survival

Danish

there,"

to

see

common

our

student
old

an

solved

na-.

until

"that

which

"to

be

of
.

we

which

is eaten,

eaten,

.:"

be

to

excellence,
himself

is at

feels

once

made

the

medio-

(e.g.,yid4
verb

transitive

derived).

It

"it

"to

-y4

is

eat

fore,
there-

looks,

eatable," i.e.,"food," secondarily

be

Chipewyan

One

"planted

and

have

found

reconstruct

form

-tide of
this

time

and

be

plausibly

-tide

surmise

pletely
com-

form

from

*-dan-e',

tion
explanaof Atha*dg-han-6

whence
*-dan-g'

Sarsi

-d4''

that

consideration

*d5-han,

is

with

cognate

considered

reduced
(itself

in *-g of

eatable"), possessed

than

whereas

eventide,

compounded

cannot

by

*dan-6

to

relative

originally

linguisticallyunforced

is met

requirement

nad4',

seriously,however,

with

than

"about,

na.--

common

follow

to

seems

standing corn," finally

corn,

problem

It

venture

that

synonymous

more

the

more

knows

Our

done

food,"

no

tide in the

English

have

Navaho.

with

might

taken

word

tide

the

to

equated

verbs.

Zeit.

former

paskan cognates,

obscure

is to be

word

"food"

The

been

therefore

with

-d4'

for

have

as

par

he

eatable"

independently

whence

of

German

originally meant
of

quite

This

and

be

sense,

term

Navaho

be, "corn,"

durative

is

the

and

compare

"to

"what

cannot

"corn."

of

tid

is
and

to

historical

every
a

and

the

to

is

of continuative

is here

we

-d4

in
the

true

old

an

food"

to

ci-yan

"jack-

"corn"

forms.

analogy

generalized

verb

is

compounds

clear

should

for

fuller na-d4'of

(sidi''"my

is,or

when

above

of nad4'

na-

obvious

no

of -d4'

originallymeant

in possessed

such

"food,"

and

is not, in any

contrary,

is

than

-d4'

of the

-d4'

the

on

for "food"

use

neuter

ciyan

if -d4'

as

prove

for "corn"

closely related

which

instead
that

but,

Navaho

passive imperfective

abbreviated

interpretation, not

in actual

within

the

in

why,

reason

"coyote-food"

as

disguised, in

forms

"my

"corn"

terms

corn")

to

"corn"

possessed

word

of

"my

lingers,somewhat
in

such

use

easy

nad4'

whence

the

the

(e.g.,sid4'

But

abbreviated

logicalin

more

probably

forms

possessed
absolutive.

is translated

*-dan,
"food

Mescalero

(Li), possessed -d^ne,

dani,
dan, possessed -dan and -d4'',Chiricahua
Apache dan, possessed
(also -d4' in nad4'
from
Navaho), Hupa
"corn," perhaps borrowed
d^ne

Apache
-dan

possessed -dan'

in -dan'

sa'an

"food

of

is
...

food," Mattole
meaning
exact

possessed

enlarged

status

of

from

Navaho

-dane'

"food").

lying"

"possession, property"
These

-d4'. It is

not

forms
the

enable
reflex

is

".

us

of

to

the

saving

with

(presumably
understand

primary

the
*dan6

Six:

Athabaskan

Na-Dene

and

215

Languages

230

"food"

but

of its

Apache

*dan,

while

Apache

*d4])

would

forms

possessed
the

variant

Sarsi

old

dam,

Athapaskan

have

resulted

in -dan

in

."

therefore,that

existed, would

ever

to

infer that
Once

*^e-na--

frequently

used

Loucheux

Hare

Navaho

animate

prefix,*na-,
(literally,"the
na-cal

in

acts

compound

"alien"

from

(apparently also
interpreted

to

as

"

See

"

Ibid., Vol.

"enemies

Vocabulary,
2,

p.

Vol.

masgali

"Isleta

h, possessed -td -h,"river

the

at

natqoho;

which

does

not

by

"Mescalero
better

"at

Apache
Navaho

to

Kato

in

this

Navaho

refer to

definite
in-

(Petitot)

and, presumably,

"Mescalero"),^^

water"

Hupa

without

form

is

na,--

foreign peoples, e.g.,

the"),

na'-sfezi
who

ones

natoho

are

"Zuni
ened"),
blackNavaho

the

with

in accordance

over,

Doga-ra-ke

"enemy"
na-t'j-i

enemy")

Indians"?).

1, p. 127, sub

135, sub

forms, analogous

+ "child, little").In

made

Indian,"

Cree

Chiricahua

na-yist!ezi"enemy"+"the

from

tribes.

*ca-ne--) "Eskimo,"

compounded

as

and,

compounded

Loucheux

Batard

Chipewyan

an

for

word

"Eskimo,"

e-na-ke

(from "enemy-many-

Indians"

pattern,

old

or

compounds).

in

(Li) "enemy,

from

be.

compounds,

'^-na

of these

in

old

an

collective) and

particularly such

nouns,

(contracted

name

human

is

Eskimo,"

some

as

nasgali (apparently
tribal

beings,

in

'a-na-',Mescalero,

of

is illustrated

(from

"Comanche

Indians"

may

specificneighboring

to

possible
imif it

driven

are
na*-

of

na,--

"enemy,"

sufl5x.)The

who

one

"orphan"

na-lan

(*na',

(contracted

ce--k''6i

Indian,"

plural

e-h-da

form,

satisfactorylinguistic

reflexes

refer

to

"enemy,

9-ne

Kutchin

(The -kie,-ke, -k^oi

is

forms

two

9-d-na, Chipewyan

"Eskimo,"

]^i-na'"Yurok
'i-nda\

found

in

have

to

see,

doubly

We

certain

rapidly

dialects

it

na,--,"whatever
to

We

ma'rdi"'

as

which

in Navaho.

of

referred

advance

makes

dan,

of Athapaskan

"corn."
forms

there,"

*na-dan

*^e-na-', *^e-d6-na-' (*de-

are:

e-h-da,

-ke,

corn,

Carrier

e-na-kie

"Eskimo,"

have
we

This

and

Apache

reflex

true

Navaho

food."

The

absolutive

-d4'

such

"food

the

the

Navaho

here

yield

to

being

*dan.

possessive prefix, *]|e-(dg-)na-',

*^e-naare

of

Examples

"corn

must

na,'-

was

aliens," occurring

words

Slave

had

Athapaskan

indefinite

These

rib

food

Many

"enemy,
with

of

"coyote's
as

originallymeant

that

see

whose

solution.

have

nad4'

we

animal,

but

interpret nadi'

to

cognate

strictlylinguisticgrounds

on

"coyote-food,"

not

mean,

exact

an

from

an

given Navaho,

have

*dani,

for

yielded Navaho,

have

would

plified
(exem-

former

[read dan,

dan

would

*dan

of

."; the

Apache

merely generalized

are

-d4-' "food

and

of

Navaho

-*dan-6'

"food
and

*dan, monosyllabic,

an

Mescalero

*-dan6'

d^n^,

Athapaskan

old Southern

form

possessed

by Chipewyan

dians"
In-

"Laguna

The

last of these

the

Franciscan

tribal

is

names

Fathers^^

but

Apache."
the

river," for this

dry up," rather

than

on

t6

name

"water."

is based

on

216

VI

Indian

American

Languages 2

231

interpretation is

natural

more

to

the

near

or

confirmed
for

the

by

other

words,

qualify
in this

basic

only

both

natoh

the

with

they

"corn"

There

in certain

for

about

the

the

for

could

is

ad

hoc

Sandoval

is

sacred

name

Ibid., Vol.

1,

p.

in

..."

In

which

the enemy,

226.

built

feel the

this

which

na-

to

seems

forms:

must

bit sicanake'h
been

the

said

in it:
for

fit the

have

of the

but

the

he

word

of

tribal

concilable.
irre-

be used

only

future

-ket,

idiomatic

verb

"sleeplessnessalways
is

verb

form

of the

preceded by
refers

stem

Sandoval,

had

felt,somehow,

no

feeling,which

linguisticform.
same

owl, cahalxel
one

stem,

in its

yil nakeli
who

comes

is

This

to

that

there
from

hardly

more

obscure

verb,

progressive
"darkness

the

notion

"sleep glides (slips)away

this

be

imperfective

and

an

from"

that

suggest

myth

become

sleepless."The

"away

-ca-

interpreter,Albert
was

in

on,

could

the
had

the

It is used

have

"I

to

as

My

-kel.

there

na-

terms

has

stem

Later

of their

of their

and

two

agricultural

an

that

alyzed
an-

"Pueblo

enemy,"

much

so

be

can

alien food.

them

to

the

which

an

"enemy"

the
the-one-who-comes-gliding(?)-back,
**

had

'ana*'

subject;

interpretation to

pointed out,
the

is

point

words
to

Navaho,
as

possibly

not

iterative

linguisticsupport

no

Navaho

-keh), perfective -k\,progressive

gliding movement

to

The

has

compounds

of the

corn

in Navaho

stem

underlying metaphor

(-kel), as
it

of

-na'

object)

of movement.

There
an

the

inconceivable

-keh, optative

(bit "sleep"

reference

is

Fathers

"enemy

in summary,

staple and

me," perfective bil sicankj

pronominal

also

"food

verb

curious

iterative

specifictype

but

when

is

is such

up.

enemy

Navaho

older

clustering about

and

indirect

as

time

was

referringto sleeplessness,e.g.,
bothers

an

as

it

it,they
to

into

quite specialized verbs;

usitative

This

river

crotch-wise."

archaic

the

rivers

two

the Franciscan

"food") by referring them

sentiments

the

River,

that

enemies"
are

for

name

interpretations

completely dry

turns

still thinking of

corn

it that

(probably error

-keh

than

Colorado

Jose

nad4'

and

was

times, were

akin

old

an

normal

two

never

"corn," nad4',

there

adopted

as

The

names.

4.

that

around
alien

anything

me."

Little

San

and

probability

great

had

ritual

was

the

lated
(assimi-

in -i

Indians.

word

in historic

people
when

Pueblo

Navaho

food," implies

what

presumably
to

which

"...

mean

("river"

nouns

relative

(natqo s3,kal),"literally"the

not

the

case

The

verb

as

na*t6'(h)siiai' given by

place name
Mexico

"enemy"

for

name

importance linguistically
as
indicating

some

and

and

habitat

legs distended," "(where)

na"-

the

in contrast

River

Juan

Navaho

New

Grant,

its
of

old

take

to

"enemy-river,"

Grande?),

San

namely

of toh,
in

Rio

Jose (and

San

natoh

-6) from

form

with-

gliding (?) back

Six:

Athabaskan

Na-Dene

and

111

Languages

232

darkness."

with

The

There

in Navaho.
see

in them

Turning

would

nothing
of

Apache,

that
the

from

Southern

cognate

to

this third

each

must

have

Navaho

has

by

verb
stems

been.

and

is such

is

perfective)
im-

given

the

thetical
hypo-

strict formal

their

as

are

to

leave

table

meanings

little doubt

of stem

phonetic equivalents

forms
for four

Athapaskan
1.

Ingalik

travel

"to

by canoe'

(ditto)

3.

Kutchin

(ditto)

4.

Carrier

(ditto)

5.

Beaver

(ditto)

6.

Hare

(ditto)
(ditto)

7. Chipewyan
8.

Sarsi
to

9.

travel

"to

Chasta

11.

Hupa

canoe;

for trade"

go

Ts'ets'aut

10.

by

"to

travel

Costa
"to

several

travel

by canoe'

(ditto)
by

canoe;

objects float"

-XI

-xil

of

demonstrably

set:

2. Loucheux

as

Chiricahua

of the

which

following
of

future

ings
developed specialized mean-

stems

The

to

still

from

with
and

the distribution

Now

meanings

the

is indicated

dialect

term.

to

easy

If

words.

Athapaskan

term

of the

stems

means

no

Athapaskan

of dialectic

summary

selected

by

third

Pacific

transferred

reconcile

use

imperfective

(continuative -ke). Its meaning

Navaho

be because

and

of what

gives

the

is

historicallyrelated, as

must

the

perhaps

stem:

-ke, optative (evidently

-ke*

of

diverge

Northern

verb

in

except

iterative

are

parallelism,it

the

which

and

trot," which

words

find

we

forms

isolated

(continuative -ke),perfective -kj,progressive and

"glide"
Apache

these

of movement

simple

is not

-ke"

momentaneous

run,

glides (?) along,"

with

done

Chiricahua

usitative

"several

be

to

old set of verbs

an

The

here.

apposite

so

"it

*yiket

dialects.

to

is not

gliding
be

Athapaskan

momentaneous

-kel,

is

survivals

in other

occur

of

image

which

progressive form,

-xe'

Six:

Athabaskan

Na-Dene

and

219

Languages

234

The

Navaho

sacred

nakei
of

name

Athapaskan
in many

"he
owl

'gliding'home"

comes

is the

relative

form)

progressive *na-7g-(d6-)ke"l,

of the

he's

boat,

the

other

dialects,e.g., Sarsi

returning

paddling back;"'^

from

Carrier

again navigating,

there

old

an

reflexes

exact

are

"he's

in the

from

back

coming

on

from

*na-7e-s-ke"l)

"I

is
am

boat;'"" Ingalik n3-79-d3-kal

returning by

na-7a-kil (read -kel?) "he

(contracted

na-s-ket

am

of which

na-71-kal

Beaver

shopping;"

nakeli

(of which

is contracted

"he

paddles again. '"^

The

evidence

assumed
in

that

character,

the

Navaho

and

which

evidence

in

Navaho
the
Such

the

Navaho

culture

supplementary

connotations.

the

the

historic
the

times, was

at

glimpse,
the

faint

Navaho,

(3) All

first four
with

"

Natural

but

of the

and

"

Morice, The

"

John

W.

the

in lesser

cultural

10,

Carrier

Chapman,

in

Pueblos.

inferences

Beaver

Pt.

Language,
Ten

'a Texts

derived

from

culture; that
food

away,

of horn; that

maize,

be had

may

historical
gap

the

is

sense,

the

of

listed

words, that
that

and

time
of

cultural

ethnologic
are

staple in

use

already given,

modern

sis
analy-

kan
Athapas-

in other

"

cultural

this

of Southern

originally made

cultural

Dialect

6, 1917),

having

originally lacking;

have

we

strengthened.

collectively,made

This

degree, by

be

words

element

was

Southwestern

Goddard,

History, Vol.

deepen,

free

to

environment,

would

be

alien

an

lightlyargued

these

linguistic

it were,

as

Southwestern

may

were

felt to be

Pacific

of

gravity

find internal

Navaho

the

to

Athapaskans

inferences

non-Pueblo

Pliny Earle

be

to

Southern

or

though

foreign

was

time

one

not

Navaho

sense,

that

agricultural complex

of these
the

four

originallyan

not

unity

of

inherently probable hypothesis

an

in this culture

spoons

Southwestern

of

inferences

was

of

center

provenience

linguisticanalysis of

of seed

sowing

northern

dialectic

ramifications

could

we

their present

strengthening

gourd

culture; that
broadcast

(2) If

(Navaho,

JicarillaApache,

implications, tending,

from

cultural

The

that

are:

of

probability

geographical

north.

origin of

dialects

close-knit

dialectic

It is

distributional

northern

Apache,

form

complex
The

of the

Athapaskan

Chiricahua

obviously

more

of cultural

Navaho,

suggested by

Southern

and

short, lies in the

and

initial

the

Athapaskan.

in

languages,

All

(1)

summarized.

linguisticevidence,

prima facie probability

Apache)
with

be

now

may

external

important

Mescalero

Kiowa

contrasts

Northern

in this paper

Apache.

Apache,

Lipan,
and

is

provide

to

and

Western

is

collected

there

in

canoes.

tween
be-

gap

tive
descrip-

evidence.

The

theoreticallycompatible

setting and, equally,

(Anthropological Papers,

American

with

Museum

p. 506.

Vol.
and

1, p. 279.
Tales

Ethnological Society,Vol. 6, 1914), p. 158,

1.1.

from

when

Anvik, Alaska

(Publications, American

of

^f

220

Indian

American

Languages

235

positively

to

northern

north

most

improbable.

to

is far

early

an

Navaho

of

of

event,

geographical
Navaho,

stand

to

of

instance
be

worked

be

and

layers
ever

Plains
a

much

New

Apache,
of

later

his

published

Kroeber

head
them

or

than

type

Navaho

Sarsi

cultural

and
the

distinctively
good

influence.

The
in

and,

any
the

Meanwhile,

fragmentary.

reality

the
first

relatively

added

future

Sarsi,

of

basin;
than

Jicarilla Apache,
historical

the
Kiowa

problem,
culture

Apache

hypothetical

Plains

fluence
in-

antecedents.

Connecticut

Haven,

Originally

wove

the

of

the

be

Pueblo

Kiowa

Editorial

L.

the
for

work

than

character

for

out

is

more

suggestion

of

ern
north-

the

to

second,

Southern

ethnologists;

naturally,

must,

basis

of

outlines

tribes

is

peoples

Mackenzie

its

by

Southwest;

the

the

in

these

these

fundamental

of

movement

University

Yale

A.

more

migration

analysis

strata:

defined

of

of

an

assimilate

Chipewyan,
as

the

doubt,

no

each

is in

to

sequence:

may

though,

likely

hardly

points

of

movement

tribes

now

line

line

archaic

these

on

various

these

the

more

To

specialization

disentangling
is

the

influence.

Southwestern

Pueblo,
deal

of

culture

to

the

four

of

as

tending

influence,

direct

Such

is correct,

reveal

to

culture

Plains

the

that

this

adaptation,

of

non-Pueblo

simple

aim
the

to

Plains

Southwestern

If

imply

Basin.

likely

more

would

culture

specialized

if valid,

inferences,

least

Great

plains.

layer, comparable
western

the

the

western

culture

Athapaskan

in

not

across

It

the

via

these

setting.

south

from

of

last

does

origin"

"Northern

proceeded

The

setting.

northern

more

from
into

called
scattered
this

in
this

American
paper
literature

masterpiece"

Note

Anthropologist
a

of

"matter

224-235

38,

virtuosity.

(1936).

.Sapir just

took

out

of

the

particular

(Kroeber

1984:

little

133).

bits

that

he

needed

and

Contribution
Cornelius

The

Osgood,

Northern

of the

LinguisticClassification

to

Distribution

Athapaskan
within

the

Northern

Indians

Athapaskan

Area

Linguisticclassification within the Northern

Athapaskan area is still for the
I am
indebted
most
Edward
to Dr.
part extremely uncertain.
Sapir, whose
is
this
in
for
the
few
and
tentative
field,
statements
authority preeminent
gestions
sugwhich
be presented at this time. First,it appears
certain that there
may
divisions
within
the Northern
are
major linguistic
Athapaskan area, which are
Southern,
or
individuallyequal in comparative weight to the whole
Pacific,
division
taken
the
Athapaskan
collectively.
Linguistically, difference between
Carrier
and Sarsi, is as great a contrast
Ingalik and Chipewyan, or between
as
that between
and
Navaho.
Whereas
there
is
guistic
Chipewyan
apparently a true linand
the Pacific Athapaskan
unity in both the Southern
divisions, the
Northern
unit. Secondly,
Athapaskan area, as such, does not form a linguistic
and Tsetsaut, stand
two
languages of the Northern
Athapaskan group, Kutchin
from
out
any further internal [22]alignment as individuallydistinct,the former
being probably the most
specializedof all Athapaskan languages. Finally,it
fifteen other groups
which
seems
probable that there are relationshipsamong
resolve
themselves
into six divisions
beside
the two
above.
That
these
given
eight divisions given below are exactlycomparable linguistic
equivalents is not
be

to

assumed:
1. Kutchin
2. Tsetsaut
3. Tanaina

"

4. Carrier
5. Tahltan
6. Sekani

Ingalik
Chilcotin

"

"

Kaska
Beaver

"

7.

Sarsi

"

Slave
Yellowknife
Chipewyan
Bear
Lake
Hare
Dogrib
Of the remaining eight groups,
Nabesna,
Ahtena, Han,
Koyukon, Tanana,
and Nicola, nothing is certain concerning their classification.
Tutchone, Mountain,
Ahtena
be
distinct
division
to
and
it
is
a
itself,
by
likelythat
may
prove
"

8.

most

of the others

3, 5, and

"

"

are

to

be consolidated

"

with

the divisions

numbered

above

as

7.

It is

and cultural
research
be undertaken
greatlyhoped that both linguistic
may
the
decade
definite
to
to
more
during
coming
conclusions, while
bring
still possible,some
of the problems which
have been
mentioned.
Such
sions
concluwill have an important and far-reachingeffect on the study of the whole
of
American

culture.

Vf

222

Indian

American

Editorial

Reprinted

(1936).

work

studied

by

was

with

among

junior
Sapir

of

permission

Chicago.

of

Distribution

Publications
Human

an

Athabaskan

colleague
at

The

University

(1905-1985),

Osgood

Cornelius

1930s,

Yale

Indians,

Athapaskan

Note

Cornelius,

Osgood,

from

Excerpt

Languages

anthropologist
of

groups

Sapir's

in

Relations

at

Yale

Northern

Anthropology

who
and
the

7,

21-22

Files.

Area

Canada

during

the

of

did

extensive

Alaska
1930s

and

nographic
eth-

during
had

the

earlier

Seven:
Section

Penutian

Languages

Introduction

and Kroeber
guistic
linoriginallyproposed by Dixon
(1913), the Penutian
stock encompassed five California
that had
hitherto
been
groups
In
separatelyclassified: Wintun, Maidu, Yokuts, Miwok, and Costanoan.
modern
discussions
of North
American
classification
Dixon
and
linguistic
Kroeber's
is
referred
California
whose
to
as
Penutian,
status
as
a
grouping
unit within
a
larger Penutian
relationshipis still an unresolved
question
(Whistler 1977; Shipley 1980; Berman
1983). The recognitionof a wider
As

affiliation of California
the

to

and

Penutian, and

must
largerrelationship,

the extension

largelybe

credited

of the term

"Penutian"

Sapir.Between

to

1915

1925

Sapir proposed a series of additions to the California kernel,

limited at first to Takelma, Coos, and
beginning with an Oregon group
Lower
Umpqua, but quicklyexpanded to include Alsea and Kalapuya then
"

"

Chinookan,

followed

by Tsimshian,

Sahaptian, and

Plateau

(Klamath-Modoc,

group

and
finallyby a cluster of Mexican
Molale-Cayuse),
Central American
outliers. Subsequently,others have used the term
Penutian
in even
broader
but Sapir'sproposals have
remained
the point of
senses,
in
discussion
of
the
"Penutian
for
departure any
Hypothesis" (as
example in
Silverstein 1979 or Greenberg 1987).
in the comparative linguistics
of Hokan
Compared with his achievements
is a thin
(see Volume
V), Sapir'spublished record in comparative Penutian
He wrote
one.
only one major paper on Penutian ("A Characteristic Penutian
of Stem", 1921b), which
Form
included
tions.
no
etymological sets or reconstrucIt is fair to say that, for all his interest in historical questions,Sapir's
Penutian
to
were
major contributions
linguistics
descriptiverather than
and
texts
(1909c and 1912h) and his
comparative. His Takelma
grammar
Wishram
Chinook
texts (1909d) and grammatical synopses
(1907c and 191 Ig
in this volume) are the foundational
works
in the descriptive
study not only
of these two languages but of Penutian
Moreover, Sapir's
languagesgenerally.
perspectiveon the diachronic
relationshipof the Penutian
languages was
influenced
his
detailed
of
the
heavily
by
synchronic facts of
knowledge
Takelma
and
Wishram.
of Sapir'sPenutian
work
Any general assessment
these two
with his work
on
must, then, largelybe concerned
languages of
Oregon.
It

his

in fact

was

worker,

and

cut

his

Wishram

teacher, Franz

Boas,

Ethnology, to gather
Report

on

the

on

which

analytic teeth in the

data

Language

on
on

and

Sapir,

as

21

of 1905.

-year-old novice
He

had

been

field

summer
sent
by
of American
provided by the Bureau
the upriverdialects of Chinook.
"Preliminary
(1907c) is
Mythology of the Upper Chinook"

funds

Seven:

Takelma
that have

1907, when

begun

227

Penutian Languages

exhibits many
of the phonological
and morphosyntactic
features
to be recognized
Penutian. As earlyas
come
as
characteristically
Kroeber's

study of Yokuts

notingstructural resemblances

appeared (Kroeber 1907),Sapirhad

between

Takelma

and certain California

languages.It was not, however, until well after Dixon and Kroeber first
in 1913 that Sapirbegan
proposed the Penutian and Hokan
relationships
active exploration
of possible
geneticlinks for Takelma. Apparently reading
Leo J. Frachtenberg's
of Coos (Frachtenberg
1914a)firststimulated
grammar
Sapir'sinterest in this work. Sapir'scorrespondencewith A. L. Kroeber
reveals that by mid- April,1915, he had concluded
that Coos and Takelma,
and possiblysome
other Oregon languages,formed
"North
Penutian"
a
that had

been

"cut

loose"

from

the California

("South Penutian")
by
languages"(GoUa 1984: 182).
group
He compiled a list of 145 potential
Coos, Takelma, and
cognates among
California Penutian (seeSapirand Swadesh
vincing
1953),althoughhis most congroup

the "northern

evidence

intrusion

of Hokan

It was
at this time, in all
grammaticaland typological.
"A
that
drafted
Characteristic
Penutian
of Stem"
Form
hkelihood,
Sapir
(1921b),the paper that was to be his onlymajor contribution to comparative
Penutian linguistics.
This paper, however, was
not
completed until 1919, and its publication
further
until
even
1921, so that in part it reflects later developments.
delayed
Chief among
these was
the broad expansion of the network
of Penutian
connections. By late 1915 Sapirhad come
Penutian"
to believe that "North
should also include Siuslaw and Chinookan, as well as (more tentatively)
1984: 201 "203). Leo Frachtenberg,
Alsea, Kalapuya,and Tsimshian (see GoUa
similar
line
of
was
meanwhile,
independently
pursuinga
investigation,
and in 1918 he pubhshed evidence linkingTakelma, Kalapuya, and Chinookan,
and suggesting
(but not claiming)a connection between this group
and the California Penutian languages(Frachtenberg
1918).Sapirrecast "A
Characteristic Penutian Form
of Stem" as a replyto Frachtenberg,
offering
e
vidence
of
and
nature
a
confirmatory
morphological
placingFrachtenberg's
comparisonsin the context of his own
speculations.
Of particular
interest to Sapirwas
the possibility
of a relationship
between
Chinookan
and Penutian, not least because it seemed
so
improbableon the
basis of morphologicalstructure.
Chinookan
is a thoroughly polysynthetic,
in this respect from
head-markinglanguage(Nichols1986) differing
radically
other Penutian languages,
which tend to be dependent-marking,
with
most
nominal
and a rather Indo-European-like
distinction between
cases
nouns
was

and verbs. For Chinookan

that all Penutian

more

to be Penutian

itwould

either have to be assumed

been head-marking,or that Chinookan

languageshad originally
had originally
been dependent-marking.
Sapirsaw the latter as the
probable developmentand believed that certain grammatical differences

Vf

228

Upper and

between
indicated

(some of which he had noted in 1907c)

Chinookan

Lower

generaldrift toward

Indian Languages 2

American

In
polysynthesis.

"A

Chinookan

Phonetic

(1926a),pubUshed in 1926 but probably written much earlier,Sapir

Penutian-like clause syntax
exploresthe processes through which a typically
Law"

into the phonologically

pre-Chinookanmight graduallyhave "petrified"
In this paper
of
attested
Chinookan.
words
a tour
close-knit polysynthetic
internal
evidence
historical
musters
to
of
force
de
argumentation Sapir
show that the Chinookan
prefixes
ergative
g- (3 sg. masc.) and c- (3 sg. fem.)
with the
derive from the post-pronominalelement -g- that occurs
plausibly
This
in
he
other
for
out
element,
sees
turn,
arising
prefixes
ergative
persons.
in
the
c
lause
of an accentuated demonstrative
original
particle
syntax.
Sapir'sproposalthat Tsimshian, spoken in northwestern British Columbia,
belongs in the Penutian familywas a bold step that remains controversial.
The idea of such a connection seems
to have occurred to Sapir not long after
of Tsimshian
he had collected a small amount
data from a speakerof the
Nass
River (Nisqa)dialect in February,1915 (see Sapir's
letter to Kroeber
of December
evidence
9, 1915 in Golla 1984: 201 "202). The nature of Sapir's
remains uncertain, although marginal notes
in Sapir'scopies (now in the
of
Professor
Dunn
John
of
the
possession
Universityof Oklahoma, who
and texts show
providedcopiesto the editors)of Boas's Tsimshian grammar
that he had noted a number
of lexical resemblances
(see"Sapir's
Comparative
Penutian Glosses" in this volume). In a 1917 letter to Kroeber
Sapircited
several possiblekin-term cognates between
Tsimshian
and Yokuts
(Golla
1984: 242
and
he
alluded
this
evidence
to
244),
(without presenting
again
of

"

"

"

it)in his

paper

Sapirbegan

River Terms

"Nass

on

of

Relationship"(1920c: 365, note

1).

linkagesto Penutian in the midfime that he was

1920s, at the same
notingthe possibleHokan affiliation of
other languagesof that area
(see 1925b).In 1924 Kroeber suggestedto Sapir
that Mixe and closelyrelated Zoque, languagesof Oaxaca, were
possibly
Hokan

to

explore Mesoamerican

(Golla 1984: 409). At about

suggested that Zoque was

found
Sapirevidently

Zoque

and

Huave

in 1919) in

Dixon's

(whose

Mexican

the

time

same

Penutian

evidence

Roland

B. Dixon

(Freeland 1930: 28,

for he
convincing,

more

to Mixe
relationship

had been

pendently
inde-

note

1).

placedMixe-

by
postulated

Radin

table of his
classificatory
Indian languages(1929a:139).
EncyclopaediaBritamiica article on American
In the same
placeSapir also suggestedthat Xinca (inGuatemala) and Lenca
(in Honduras
and El Salvador),as well as perhaps Paya and Jicaque(in
a

Penutian

group

in the

Honduras), "may be remote southern outliers" of Penutian. Here he followed

Lchmann
(1920: 767),who had grouped Xinca and Lenca with Mixe-Zoque,

althoughSapir rejectedLehmann's
and
more

Chumash
field data

further

comparisons with Coahuiltecan

Jaime de Angulo collected

(i.e.,
Hokan). In the mid-1920s
on

Mixe.

His

wife, Lucy S. Freeland, used these data

to

Seven:

prepare

draft

of

which

she

and

suggestions
to

lexical

and

sets

for

last

Sapir's
the

During
in

scholar
field

also

contained

Sapir

and
in

subsequently.
1964)

contains

completely
the

attention

Penutian

Stem"

jotted

in

list

1915
The

(Sapir
original

marginalia

and

for

which

included

(Swadesh

Swadesh

copy

the

in

of

these

errors,

here.
of

184-186)

Penutian
other

collated.
but

most

and

Tsimshian

the
with

parisons
com-

Penutian
few

are

probably

were

marginal

"A

elem.ents.

of

on

in

Kroeber,

to

grammatical

works

mentioned

future"

letter

Integrated
Boas's

list

the

his

In

lexical

1984:

collection

1953),

1954),

Penutian

Golla

(see

of

active

most

sons"
Compari-

thoroughly

never

publication

Sapir's

margins

publication
in

work,

extenso

59).

is

typographical

numerous

re-edited

the
he

apparently

in

involving

sets

Glosses"

down

the

apparently

1915

(1921b:

the

to

Penutian

was

comparative

is

21,

the

ered
consid-

be

may

languages

"present

to

of

Form

which

the

April

on

own

152

This

1915.

promised

Comparative

languages,

are

to

Sapir

particular

that

been

around

Swadesh

of

Hst

of

many

"Coos-Takelma-Penutian

as

paper

addition

Penutian.

his

to

and

In

for

paper

comments

responsible

Penutian

Oregon

Kroeber

Penutian

"Sapir's

In

The

work.

This

Morris

addition

1953),

Sapir

data

student

Family,"

Sapir's

coauthored

comparative

published,

Swadesh

by

the

calls

made

and

many

certainly

on

surviving

letter

Characteristic

Sapir

all

and

compiled
Sapir

statement

field.

of

reconstructions.

suggested

Sapir's

edited

(Sapir

in

the

Penutian

suggestions."

and

is

almost

the

to

"criticism

purposes

is

Sapir

public

of
also

and

practical

Penutian

survey

by

all

Mixe

incorporates

1930)

1950s

the

Swadesh

sets

for

of

for

Sapir

to

footnotes,

signed

ten

sent

229

Languages

Relationship

(Freeland

published

as

"The

on

paper

Penutian

glosses
material

desh
(Swahas

these

glosses

texts

(1912).

REPORT

PRELIMINARY

the

of

summer

American

1905

Ethnology

have

published,

of the

Chinook

Boas,

of

Chinook

both

Vocabulary,"

Anthropologist} This
of the

Chinookan
It

river.

therefore

was

study

The
that

the

to

dialect

Columbia

Indians

Narrows.

the

of

which

Yakima

their

which,

other

intents

before

in

river

the

Bureau

of

pp.

these

is used

works
ANTH

N.
,

S., 9-35.

the

and

as

that

Bureau

Bulletins

1904,
See

pp.
either

533

all

20
1

of

and

18-147.
Bulletin

Yakima
ist

per.

their

by

Sahaptian stock) as

of

Wishham,

or

the
and

them

26.

Wasco
Hood

Ithaca,

at

American

on

is,
the

(or Dog)

New

cember,
York, De-

Anthropologist,

phonetic system

the

is

Ethnology.

American

i he
for

to

probability

known

are

Wishram,

Association

in this article.

river

the

on

is

shore

Salmon

is in

the

Anthropological
the

northern

now

')

Salmon

VI,

to

refer

notes

language spoken by

same

of

more

iidxlnit, the

White

by permission

and

of

The

of the

Ethnology,

199-237,

are

They

form

anglicized

American

American

S., II, 1900,

AM.

Clark.

and

the

on

White

from

Uaxluit

an

am

purposes,

Published

1905.

N.

living

neighbors (tribesof

in its

and

of the

side
Read

Lewis

Columbia

grammar,

following

themselves

apellation to-day.

common

all

of

Klikitat

and

Wticxam,

"

Echeloot

"

'

{itcxluit,

'

dialects

somewhat

Chinookan

Indians, who
called

can
Ameri-

the
of

mouth

gain

to

the

formerly

These

reservation, Washington,

sing,

which

to

in the
with

the

on

dialects.

eastern

river, roughly speaking,

Long

the

near

or

peculiaritiesof

the

language

the

at

deals

phology
Mor-

"

Notes

"

as

Kathlamet

"

appear

material

published

extreme

or

articles

which

desirable, in order

of

idea

spoken by

the

of

far

so

Swanton's

Boas'

ten

some

which,
and

Dr

Professor

and

family spoken

comprehensive
devote

"

of

in

and

Hnguis-

begun

Texts"

Bureau,

Verb

been

of

Bureau

Chinookan

results

"Chinook

the

of

had

the

the

by

study

which

and

in

appeared

bulletins

both

texts,"

Professor

by

ago

years

to

the

continue

to

"

CHINOOK

commissioned

was

AND

LANGUAGE

UPPER

and, incidentally, mythology,

tics

of

THE

OF

MYTHOLOGY

In

THE

ON

key.

followed

232

VI

Languages 2

Indian

American

534

differences
of

dialect

the

Viewing

from

distinct

of

(including
dual

(these

subjects

of transitive

of

consisting

and

but

first

Such

verb;

trans,

'

expressing

the

sessive
posnoun
pro-

in many

use

"

cases

of the

instead
one

to

were

of

instead

"he
; the

(often

verb-stems

suffixes

in the

grammatical
the

in

the

or

verb

sex-gender
and

noun

both

by

the

to

consonants); local

referred

the

in

the

and

upper

meaning

'

take

something,'

but

indivisible
unit
of

the

-x-

'

-am

not

^=

unity

elements
in such

in Chinookan.

most

verbal

in the
con

in the

form.

same

sense

In

by

'

took

dual

3d

them

from

away

subj.

3d sing. masc.

""%

'

from

application to

in which

verb-form

other

he

-tc-^

-":-:=

generally denoting
in its

-(-icrib -\-s -\- l

given

past

(with pre-

object of

indirect

indicating that object, -t- is possessed by persons

easilyrendered
suffix

'

Lower
Whereas

two.

articulation

gatctcxcgam,.

gender;

and

of the

surd

Wishram

element

quite transparent

(not merely

place

reflexive

Wishram

the

sign indicating remote

tense

-c-, here

by

to

whole

3d pi. obj. of undefined

the

as

between

phonetic systems
the

on

instance,

{,ga-

:=

-/-

gender

undefined

affect

for

word,

(women)

two

another

of

both

shared

are

be in the

to

dialects

lower

none

Jeatures

first

the

quasi-modal

neuter),

important difference

is found

Chinook

an

and

pronouns

onomatopoesis

of

of

what
some-

dialects.

The

as

these

all of

"

lower

of

and

and

(as though

many

cluster

or

local

and

(masculine,feminine,

the

of

weakness

word
poration
incor-

verb

related

toward

and

the

ding-dong

thoroughly developed system

verb

idea

bell

the

consonant

prefixes

main

the

in

elements

general tendency

the

characteristic

of the

exclusive
of

that

Pronominal

by auxiliaryverbs

the

made

extraordinary phonetic

adverbial

verbs) ;

express

"He

") ;

bell

the

rang

to

and

prefixed

are

the

Upper

concept

elements

peculiar method

particlesaccompanied

English:

in

inclusive

both

to

object in

pronominal

an

pronouns

of verb-stems

say

and

plural);

and

of invariable
use

indirect

of

apparatus
dual

the

find

we

clearly developed.'

subject, object,and

the

apply

have

we

groups

between

region.

whole,

characteristics

the.sentence

elaborate

person

both

In

as

; the

cascades

transitional

Willamette

dialects

Chinookan

Chinook.

Lower

the

the

as

considered

dialectic

prominent

far down

as

of

general morphological

same

the

be

Clackamas

the

and

More

stream.

get

we

localitymay

this

Wishram

as

when

appear

the

down

farther

Indians

River

Latin

; -eg'

words, the

any
word

sort

and

verb-stem

arriving,coming
this

verb)

form

agglutinated
has

of

must

like

"

root

going

to do

of

conceived

conscripsi

elements

is

an

ganic
or-

intelligibleper se^ ;

meaning
sentence

or

be

"

or

do

outside
not

of

flow

its particular
into

one

Seven:

Penutian

233

Languages

535
dominance

of/,

Wishram

is

Lower

/, and

Chinook

has

e,

as

wa^^a

have

latter

in the

Chinook

of

groups
evidence
Wishram

am

Chinook

the

Tillamook

river

Coast

the

the

assimilated

thus

These

the

as

the

it

two

internal

phonetics of

dialects

the

inal
orig-

of Lower

phonetics

neighboring

that

the

From

that

we

phonetic

give

to

lower

the

Coast

Salish

of

phonetic system

them, proceeding

down

Pacific

and

the

to

came

canoes,

all located

formerly

were

of

some

confessedly mere

is

however,

out
with-

phonetic changes

the

of

tribes

that

and

lun.

suffice

of

by long

Chinook

believe

the interesting
possibility
Chehalis),
sents
pre-

and

well-built

in their

that

to

Chinookan

range

that

short

in Wishram

Lower

Inasmuch

allied

closely

itself that
the

than

of Chinookan.

is

(such as
of

better

the

peculiarvoiceless

difference.

to

the

I killed

'

Chinook

appears

acoustic

strongly inclined

represents

condition

coast

here,' would

marked

very

an/oVena,

The

of local

number

into

go

dialects

Pacific

where

Thus,

in Lower

cited.

g), the

sonant

Moreover,

three,' but Wishram

'

Lon

to

necessary

in^/u^ina.

example

of the

differences, together with

is not

and

stop quality of the

characteristic

Lower

of stops.

use

generallyrepresented

palatalized/ (writtenl)
the

in its

velar

and

'

are

seen

b, d,

over

o'/a, yellow-jacket,'and
has

i of Wishram

and

surd

prevailinglysonant

them,' the Wishram

and

velar

their

coast

east

the
there

This,

neighbors.

new

speculation, and

needs

confirmatory

evidence.^
these

aside

Leaving

morphologic
Both

pronouns.
for the

forms
'

the presence

from

X',
m
^

voiceless
which

related
interior

Coast

of

I,

palatal spirant x-

also

sounds

ears

and

d,

like

characteristic

of the Chinook

down

Salish Tillamook,

the

in

only by Chinookan
as

c)

the

and

Chinook.
and

south

See

of
A.

Oregon,"

pt. 2, p. 198.

Coast
river

Lewis,

Memoirs

in

not

ich

would
are

Wishram

may

of the

sides
be-

are

(Wishram employs
acoustically

phonetic feature.
satisfactorily
explain

separated

though

all

of the

occupancy

"Tribes

person

tween
of distinguishing bedifficulty

Salish

who

the Columbia,
B.

but

the

Even

generally believed, their

near

the

forward, yet quite distinct

and

Oregon,

tribes.

as

different

possess

in German

ing
strik-

most

demonstrative

speaker,

Chinook

Washington

1906,

Lower

Wishram

Chehalis

of the

in

found

far

region directlynorth
coast

near

the

dialects

the

palatal spirant x pronounced

provenience,

to the

of

features

movement

positionof

lower

and

voiceless

of

treatment

upper

Coast

b and

and

Such

severed

the

to

is in the

relations

of the

Characteristic

instead

the

various

the

phonetic differences,perhaps

difference

have
of the

American

from

the

the

Salish

tribes

Pacific coast,

long

antedated

Columbia

also

the

ally
linguisticbe

of

including

the

coming

Valley and

the

tion,
Anthropological Associa-

Seven:

Penutian

235

Languages

537

lieu of verb-stems

onomatopoetic
of the
of

series

and

Chinookan
in the

changes
of the

in such

works

exploded
idea

k.'\ while

become
to

sonant

d, k

of

the
the

denote

ts, and
and
be

The

of
rule.

our

tc, and

of

dj

has

is

hence

"

cgdlkal is

Similarly,
for

'knee,'

while

been

(^)
of

change
while

diminutive
but

used

to

with
a^.^^a*/

farther

front

would

fortis

Not

consonantism

denotes
means

augmentative

'

and

are

On
the

easily

in

the

is the

(yk!)and

ck.'dlkal.

noticed,

used
hand

to

to

the

sonant

of

giant.

normal

word

guttural spirant
aodxt^\\\\

and

there

phonetic

'; ik.'dlaniat

consonantism

stood.
under-

with

other

the

is

sonant
a

change.

eagle,' itts.'Vnon

bird

trations
illus-

consonance

fortis k!

(^/)

s,

rarely,

few

it will be

infrequently

'

hand,

appropriately

i^x)is the diminutive,

accompanying

(masc.)

igdlainat with

fortis

palatal

over,
More-

e.

guttural spirant

more

i.

k!).

as
big hip-joints,'

'

velar

to

hip-joints is

to

be

"fortis"

'

'

instance.

denote

augmentative.

meaning

itdVndn

for

the

(e. g., idjik-)

ts

The

process

require a change of

with

the

the

in

though

and

and

augmentative

as

Subjoined

changed

skldlkal

akliixt

pronounced
velar

would

one

skfdlkal, in which,

for
designate a baby's hip-joints,

augmentative

tc

forward,

other

wagon.'

form.

making

word

word

grade
'

the

more

the

of

b,

^);

sometimes,

may

become

q!, but

on

and

t!, g

pf become

not

the

express

consonants

each

to

in Wishram

word

by

tcf

") to

to

of

come
be-

consonants

q! become

become,

itsiktsik

purpose

The

also

while

diminutive

of this

place

process

/ become

p and

and

augmentative

first word

the

(i.e.

related

are

and

possible change

and
c,

from

normal

diminutive
c

as

of

diminution

express

fortis

exploded

g,

the

in

and

become

other,

to

"

/"/,d

is attended

the

as

for the

the

k!

in the

stopped

sonant

augmentative

consonants

big wagon,'

becomes

The

surd

consonants,

employed
'

all

(i.e.

the

on

diminutive

djik
X

tsf

diminutive

sibilant

and

become

consonants

palatal,articulation
the

all surd

b and

and

velar

in order

ably
prob-

employment

extent,

some

(betterknown

the

express

/.''become
case

(i.e.

and

singular rhetorico-grammatical

consonants

diminutive

to

consonants,

that

way

and,

manner

This

augmentation.

also, is the

this

illustrate

of Wishram,

characteristic
dialects

various

which

only phenomena

Most

tendency.

other

articulation

the

not

are

slight
Thus,

(neut.)
denotes

means

'

'

with

stone,'

rock.'

It

236

Vf

Languages

Indian

American

538

is confined
of

An

for

diminutive

hit,

intent

to

missile

used

'

is

I hit him

with

inik.'Eltcim
'

small

I hit him

far

so

him

it

and

Turning again
well

calculated

to

which

had

been

tenses

that

is, on

carefully six

tenses

say

the

of

myths

consonants)

happened

say

tense

characterized

of

characterized

by

vowels),which
a

now

tense

on

and

but,

year

it

was

to

which

is

used

ago,

yet

-a, which

t-

with

it,'

then

allow

to

fourth

as

process

an

it seems,

by
with

work

the

general

by
to

the

certain

prefix gaally
option-

cases

time

to

long past,
the

regularly in
the

nitely
indefi-

somewhat

speaking
a

of

that

events

of

couple

(beforeconsonants)
seems

to

refer

yesterday

to

days
or

4th,

the

time
tense

ig- (before

or

-/",referring

implicationof

tia/-

recent

already performed to-day

suffixed

cital
re-

prefix ;/z- (before

refer

than

In

distinguish

to

by

of

paucity

linguisticstocks.

is used

more

was

The

with

refers

in

which

surprise.

(before consonants)

action

normally
as

necessary

specificallyto

more

inigAlicim

seem

feature

accordance

by prefixed nn-

prefixed

refers

characterized

going

in

characterized

sufifixed

to-day,

the

inik.'kltsim

disclosed

w-), which

which
a

It would

characterized

tense

ago,

past and
less than

of

degree

fiig-(before vowels),used

(before vowels) and

exclusive

that

tense

case

is that

perhaps)

one

American

many

was

Chinook

consonant

year

2d,

or

time

to

3d,

one

struck

reduplication, vowel

of

ga/- (before vowels) in

or

prefixed

than

more

ist,

child

with

this

in

forms

suffixation,

there

quite

found

(before consonants)
by

of

however,

VVishram,

four

word

person

is concerned,

in-, and

Lower

whole,

character

morphologic

appears,

small),'and

alongside

certain

on

the

-tcim

an

ablaut."

"

or

done

normal

(something small).'

pre-,

arouse

is the

the

part

give

to

implication

(a

grammar

other

serve

implies

have

we

morphology,

to

the

(something

process,

consonant-gradation

"

which

I hit him

it

Chinookan

as

"ablaut,"

or

Hence

with

regular grammatical
change

-k/sl-,

one.

(a child) with

necessary,

will

verb

verb-stem

prefix -gEl-,

it,'inigHltsivi
hit

in every

-ishn, it implies that

as

'

'

consonant-gradation

well

as

in the

use

pronounced

is

just

If the

it.'

verbal

if the

characteristic

possibilities.InigEltcim

consonantism,

small

is

of its

with

him

this

it is found

example

struck

noun

its rhetorical

of
'

the

to

speech.

idea

that

supposed

be

not

must

to

its

an

soon

5th,

action

being

Seven:

Penutian

Languages

237

539

completed
Besides

this

omit

time,

mention

by

tense

this

seventh

tense

^Thus

uxt

in

the

by

(=a

to

the

their

present
ate
immediaction

action

and,

of

view,

point
present

prefix

tense

from

me)

frequentative forms

'she

means

has

-"'

are

and

they jumped

(assimilatedin
verb-stem,

been

be

with

is

element.

denote
allow

the

They

considered

as

may

forming

these

seated,' but
to

/-frequentativesis

'she

sitting' is rendered

was

Cf.

-t-.

for

this

"Vgat 'they fly toward

interchange,

(me).'

Frequentative

tksanbnawi'x
water

'

'

implication of completion.^

no

about

changed

not

nasal

sometimes

forms

rule, do

tense

Tensb-sign

in the

These

as

verb-forms

group

the

to

of

verb-stem.

by

-\-tt-{- xt)
the

With

infixed

or

^atksanbnaj'x
'

form

-a}

I should

tenses,

ordinarilydenotes

consonant

interestingpoint

most

'they fly (away

Such

to

seem

fixed
pre-

suffixed

and

referringto

mention

characterized

the

"

which

also

may

continuative

certain

The

^wgwat

suffixed

further

be

from

by dtxt,

verbs, when

some

prefix -/- which

(or -7ian)suffixed

to

then,

")

to

frequentativeor
verb

verbal

characterized

are

-lal

(before vowels)

positively characterized

that

connection

surroundings
by

al-

by

speaker.^

the

which

six

characterized

normally

tense,

morphologically tenseless,and

past

In

future

of

series

to

are

toward

6th,

(beforeconsonants)or

a-

not

and

they keep jumping

in the

water

(verb-stem bna-)

'

VI

238

Languages 2

Indian

American

540

that
word
it

'

be
the

look,'

'

e.

tcmloolk}

suffix

'

mention

either

its

feminine
as

has

it

ate

up,' hut

in

elements

singular,which

in the

in the

in the verb

plural).The

by

an

mix

at

probably

go

home,'
the

analyzing

as

but

passive

up') to
the noun,

transparent enough.

(every

noun

with

transitive
shows

noun

element

following

the

he

'it is eaten

in

the

identical

verb.

initial

to

looked

')or

home

own

EngHsh

our

would

o-

In Wishram,
from
differing

is

noun

singular,dual,

singular, neuter

Chinook

Lower

-a-

we

are

prefixed

elements

incorporated into

with

shall

yulxu

which

singular,feminine

masculine

his

to

'

'

such
peculiarities,

difficulty
experienced

prefixed a pronominal

element
and

pronominal

compared

go

'

it

at

verbal

(alxk/wdya
each

If

;/.

verb-stem,

other

syntactic elements

plural)are

object

he

'

the considerable

apart from
The

we

or

keeps looking

many

-yit

shall

the /

Wishram

he

'

over

suffix

{itcudxuui

-ix

also

were

pass

distributive

alxklivdviiiva

or

g.,

but
itciiilook,

be

would

apparently infix

verb-stems

certain

the

pronominal

verb, except

for the

(from originalwa-)
however,
the

the

noun

corresponding

dual,
zv-{masc.and fem.)orz- (neuter,

table

shows

the

corresponding

elements

Seven:

Penutian

239

Languages

541

The

choice

between

chiefly upon
Chinook

d'mala),but

been

derivative

?^nuk

^^agilak

had

was

transparent

derivative

and

The

-mat.
a

of

grove

from

course,

UibumElit

the

elements

that

of

denotes

the

The

phrases, such

loon,

e.

and
tviviat)y
it

through
The

it is at

denoting
'

of

certain

or

Further

plane
^

and

'

The

ba

'

'

-xwac

-iarnt

are

'in

wimatba

ivimajiamt

towards

dniEni

cdn
:

'

'

form

We

in the

suffixed

made

or

verb

to

'load'

(verb-stem

for,'the
'

use')

'to

or

er
post-

of,'

out

forms.

(from verb-stem

-cit

-ba

towards,'

'

'

'

with

suffix

either

lower

tions,
postposi-

on

have

meaning
'

Wishram,

The

-ctx

'

to

aklixivacamat

illustrate

to

river;
where

or

[us] {atpX
bama

igdbEnac

EnEgi{ngi)
need

looking

'

plane )

to

the

) ; galcigElkElba

bdma

bEf:

{tci-iliiviat

in

have

meaning

igictxmat

'tools'

the

of these

use

elements

from

the

she

for whom
aniEni

goes
?' ;

'

river

with

nouns,

pronouns,

means

'when
'

as

he
soon

'

country'
he

imigdii naikdyaint

'

(lit.
'

him

saw

you

bigger

are

with

'

this-in

).

'

'

with

'

than

where

'

she

out

Simcoe.'

oak.'

of young

out

went';
as'

'

this

(gatcigklkEl

to
me
') ; dtpXiamd agdiax
towards'), the sun,' i. e. 'east.'
Miilmul
bama
from, belonging to Fort

made

aqti'wiqxi ngi

gayuyabEt
bd^^ it

'

'

'

him

saw

'in

wilX

ddiiyaba

he

(lit.
'your bigness [is]me-from, compared
goes

found
we

bdvia

when,'

'

suffix

itkHcitmat

following examples

iamt

out

river'

The

country

of this

back')

( verb-stem

verbs

as

eyes,' i. e.

forms.

loosely tagged

knEgi meaning

and

-^i"/,
meaning

examples

one's

on

carry
'

element

an

what

of

element

prefixed

or

pre-positions dniKiii
and

with

number

suffix

at,' a

'

suffixed

from,' a

defined

people keep

optionallyprepositions.

cases
'

in

variance

complete

use

some
'

by

'

noun

by descriptive

verb

puzzling linguistic
phenomenon

dialects, is the
in

rendered

(borrowed,

instance, isqxiis

the

along

-///

larly
particu-

for the

pure

most

{(jexgElgElini).

most

because

is

telescope

shouts

'

best

is formed

effect

the

derivative

For

all

suffixes

apple

the

the

that

group,

perhaps

nouns

in

a
'

something

means

of

the

are

so.'

'

'he

as
'

'

is

and

so

being

nouns

g., is described

'

for

used

claimed

denote

forms

-?;iai

interesting
group

verb

(cf.

on

Perhaps

ilibuni

pomrne)

thrown

be

found
to

word

suffix

be

direction.

seems

/a

eyes,' isqxusniat

spectacles.' An

'

land

(cf.Chinook

marrow

it cannot

were

the

French

denoting 'something
'

these

Thus

orchard.'

'

but

noun,

in this

trees.

the

dependent
'

'

'

would

light

some

attained

former

of

'; icdtrnX

is

wilx

syllabic length :

beaver

that

of

success

in Wishram

a-

woman.'

'

hoped

elements

desirable

of
'

i-

and

tva-

considerations

but
z'le'e),

It

wi-

knife.'

nkldckacbEt

gayuyabd't

'

'

as

when
soon

I
as

was

he

child.'

went.'

In

length-

240

Languages

Indian

American

VI

542

of local
dialects

that

inclined

to

quite

have

then

would

extended

an

here

dialects

In
the

main

that

it is believed

At

the

by
hero

tales

have
a

here

series

are

from

the

who

rest

entice

Of

the

certainly of
entire

to

absence

of

tribes

of the

wayfarers,

Chinook.

two

now.

; to

-ba

-pa

'

This

monsters

This

of

string

unbroken

sion
succes-

that

river, so

distributed

we

over

things that Coyote

had

been

the

EnEgi,

three, bdma,

(cf.Yakima

culture-

Coyote

transform
; to

provide

tion
habita-

tellinghow

the

fish that

not

were

Coyote.

in
up

the

the

of life.

of the

women

given above,
also

the

creation.

east,

tales

arts

farther

with

birds

into

Sahaptin origin,probably
Lower

in

the

to

Some

tribes.

by

postpositiveelements
in

points

continued

living

for

river, transforming

various

Columbia

world

as

fit for

country

myths, belonging together yet

the

the

when

one

things

necessary

of local

up

in the

of different
stock

weak

mistaken,

not

am

Sahaptian

large number

does

people

of

mythologies

present

many

the

it,it was

Columbia

the

up

the

is, if I

the

by

way

make

to

plateau regions
made

concepts

some

Indian

to

having approximately

animals,

rectify the

to

myths

physical characteristics

hold

to

of

but

the

of

Indians, properly speaking, in

no

destined

in other

antedating

extent,

were

in the

the

instructing

local

large

cycle of myths

all

traveled
and

As

on

stock.^

mythology

texts

Wishram,

though

be, and, in order

is, as

is

men,

there

Indians

transformer
There

to

transformer

or

as

may

mythologic

the

merely
exert

distinct

the

to

enough

the

only anthropomorphic

should

they

as

and,

but

country,

of

We

graniniatic,not

devoted

yet

as

time

case-suffixes.

fundamentally

be

tales

such

of the

description of

was

about

time, when

that

of

not

in the

there

walked
mental

same

one

patent enough.

seem

fore,
there-

importance,

linguisticstock

may

I have

present

points

animals

words

really complete

elements

and

Chinook.

Upper

present

few

of

dialects

geographically contiguous
conclusion

seems
individuality)

less

of

use

example

good

that

lexical,influence

be

(one might

tags

neighboring Sahaptian dialects, quite similarly

the
make

Klamath,

the

use

Chinookan

in the

theoretic

It is of considerable

that

note

local

these

the

and

objects

such

are

cases," if they had

"

unnecessary.

to
to

them

call

indirect

verb

of

employment

the

the

prefixes in

relational

or

of

incorporation

pronominal

of

extent

in

'

).

withheld

two

women,

people

of

and

This

dmEni,

explains

the

are

their

Seven:

Penutian

Languages

241

543
Cascades
instruct
of

in the

men

and

spearing

the

island

still

he

is

is,as

belong

the

to

marplot,

as

death

into the

some

of the

Tillamook,

think

of

title

Salmon.

These

Wishram

myth,
and

as

the

being

as

their

hero

the

among

naiult, occupies
the

as

of

the

also

and

Mink

Besides

the

Lower

coast

mischievous
of

is

that
and

is almost

of

and

true

heroes

be

the
of

pathy
sym-

myth

Wishram.

prominently

Kathlamet

is

and

Qui-

Wishram.

quite

So

subordinate

entirely superseded

spitefulelements

in

described

salmon

the

the

the

chief, that

considerable

among

by

Eagle

figuresso

he

told

himself,

no

the

and

concerned,

and

is

the

the

of the

hero

elaborate

Chinook

he

westerly

more

for

Bluejay, who

collected

he

transformer^I

particular,may

position

bringing

also

Coyote

with

as

box

thus

are

as

that

tribes,such

not

insufferable

the

considered

in

do

as

an

main

when

tribes, an

corresponding

by

of his character,

northerly regions,

are

as

embodied

Weasel.
the

myth,

main

type of myth

one

can

is somewhat

different

the

the

by

Salmon,

same

culture-hero

him

narrated

Chinookan

I suspect

The

in the

material

character,

Coyote.

being

definitelywhether

say

buffoon

far

deeds

be

the

at

all

indescribablyobscene
the

Boas,

animals,

indeed,

is

son,

is the

admits

may,

both

to

common

by

clearly

the

he

and

is

of

speak
out

comes

The

he

Coyote

to

among

of the

but

an

In

on.

injunction, opens

Professor

myths,

admiration.

local

cannot

point

two

so

on

cunning, deceitful,

as

wife

performed

Although

reserved,

of

time

by

transformation

being

and

of

dread

them

of mankind,

Eagle's

same

incorrect

be

This
the

the

At

of this kind

it would

Narrows;

Eagle's

to

his and

of him.

of the

roasts

Transformer,

as

communicated

as

Wishram.
one

world.

deeds

Wishram

Coyote

of

atrocities

all,and

and

to

traps and

stories, particularlyin such

he, contrary

souls

the

containing

the

cycle

when

the

to

and

conceived

lacking ;

in basket

end

an

men

benefactor

some

of

put

Long

elsewhere,

In

salmon

children-

the

at

been

formerly

with

steals

out

had

; to

canoes

distinctlythe

gluttonous.

and

salmon

who

often

that

catching white

swallows

pointed

Coyote

time

of

art

At!at!aha,

woman,

moutlis

steaming

who

merman

this

with

country

tale of

in

contest

discern

also

character.
between

i.

"

the

species

This
the

e.

Transformer
of

nature

or

myth

type is represented,
East

Wind

and

the

ture-hero
Culthat
e.

g.,

West

Contributions
Diminutive

and

to

Franz

Chinook

Boas,
Consonantism

Augmentative

in Wishram

[638]
Very

characteristic

of Wishram,

dialects, is aseriesof
articulation

changes

of many
ideas

also without

of the consonants,

in the

words

ablaut," though perhaps

exemplifiedin all parts of

of

as

in the manner,

and

in order

affected.

This

doubt

of ail other

to some
to

extent

express

diminutive

peculiar process

abundantly illustrated
speech, so that it has almost

most

in the
as

Chinookan

in the

and

mentative
aug-

of "consonantal
of the noun,

case

much

place,of

of

rhetorical

is
as

purely grammatical character. Of the two series of consonantic

changes
referred
the addition
of the word
to the meaning
of a
to, that bringing about
diminutive
idea is by far the more
actual change to augmentative
an
common,
consonantism
The
main
facts of consohardly being found outside of the noun.
nantic
change may be brieflystated thus: To express the diminutive, non-fortis
become
time becoming backfortis, the velars at the same
stopped consonants
of velar stops, however, seems
to be somewhat
palatals(the treatment
ular);
irregits affricative developments tc and tc! become
c and
s, ts, and ts! (s seems
a

sometimes

to

be

be considered

still further

"diminutivized"

to

that c, s, ts, ts!

ts, ts to ts!,so

representing a scale of diminishing values); x becomes

x,
of
velar
to
other
analogy
change
back-palatalstops just noted;
stops
remain
unmodified.
To express
the augmentative, fortis consonants
consonants
become
non-fortis
(generallysonant) stops, no change taking place of backfew
palatalto velar; s, ts, and ts! become
respectivelyc, re, and tc! (in some
in
ts and
tc fricatives become
this
cases
sound
as
dj,pronounced
English judge,
known
in Wishram); other
not
to occur
remain
consonants
being otherwise
unmodified.
The
table
of
consonantic
will
best
make
[639]
following
changes
may

in

to

the

matter

as

the

clear:

Normal

Diminutive

Augmentative

b, P

p!

(b)

d,

t!

(d)

g" k

k!

(g)

^, q

k!, (g, k)

qx

kx

(^)
(^)

q!
p!

k!, (kx)

(qx)

(p!)
(t!)
(k!)

s, ts

(c)

tc

ts

(tc),(?)dj

tc!

ts!

(tc!),dj

(s)

t!
k!

VI

244

American

Indian Languages 2

Normal

Diminutive

Augmentative

ts

(ts),ts!

tc,

tsf

(ts!)

dj
td, (?)dj

(X)

(X)

(?)x

of a word
tendency to have all the consonants
absolute
cord
conor
bear a
augmentativecoloring,though
in this regard is by no means
always observed. In generalit may be said
with our
rule. Final
most
are
that c and s sounds
easilyvaried in accordance
often
that
the norof
It
mal
non-affricative stops seem
happens
incapable change.
in form owing to its meaning; in
form of a word is itself partlydiminutive
if it is desired to give
the form may be stillfurther "diminutivized"
such cases
-k!ac- in il-k!a'c-kac
diminutive
force. Thus
than ordinarily
the word
a more
form of the stem-syllable-kac; 'little
'child' is evidentlya semi-diminutive
itk!a'skas
form
in
as
more
child, baby' appears
pronouncedly diminutive
(Wishram Texts 176.3).
will serve
as
a set of examples of
The
followingtable of body-part nouns
would
and augmentativeforms. The diminutives
diminutive
naturallyrefer to
the body-partsof a tinychild,the augmentativesto those of an abnormallylarge
being,as a giant.
On

the whole, there is a distinct

consistent diminutive

1. Cf.

wa-q!a'lc'thorn', dim.

Wa-kxa'ts

(Wishram

Texts, p. 261).

Seven:

of other

Examples

than

245

Penutian Languages

body-part

nouns

are:

Normal

Diminutive

'bones'
it-q!u'tcu

it-q!utsie'lxlEm
'dog'(literally,
of small bones)
eater
i-ts!i'au
i-dji'au
is-ts!i'ktsik'buggy'
i-dji'kdjik
'heavy truck'

i-tcfi'au 'snake'

i-tsi'ktsik
'wagon

(dim.)'

Augmentative

il-skli'luks 'new-born

'wolf (aug.)'
i-cgi'lukc

wolf

cub

(Wishram Texts 56.30)

a-qx-k!i'c
'gold'

da-ga'c'yellow'
i-cga'n'cedar board'

wa-ska'n

'box'

wa'-tsk!un
i-kfa'lamat

'cup'

'stone'

i-ga'lamat
a-ga'munaq

a-k!a'munaq 'fir'
il-k!a'ckac'c\\M

(dim.)'
a-t!u'-gagilak
'good,strong

il-k!a'skas

a-du'-gagilak
'strapping
big

woman'

woman'

[641]
lists,
(dim.)and (aug.)mean

In these

that the words

designatedare wholly
or
or
owing to their primary
In i-pfa'qxa,
for instance, the diminutive
notion impliedby p! is
significance.
understood
if
remember
that
we
easily
head-flatteningis associated with
a consonant
cases
infancy.In some
change involves or is accompanied by a
vocalic change; it seems
that the change of a to m or " has in itself more
less
or
diminutive
wa'-tsk!un from wa-ska'n with ila-k!d'its
force (cf.
little'
[Wish'very
-kfaits 'small').
Texts 176.3]
The case of i-cga'n
ram
as compared with
ordinarily
wa-ska'n
often has

and
a

wa'-tsk!un

illustrates the fact that the diminutive

specialized
meaning

of its own.

Normal
i-tc!i'ndn

few

more

form

examples

of

noun

are:

Diminutive

il-tsfi'non'bird'

'eagle'

'cricket'
i-tc!i'laq

i-ts!i'laq
'grasshopper'
'lock (of door)'
is-k!a'psalwas

'turtle'
i-q!apca'lwac
a-tca'la 'grindstone'

It will be observed

so

augmentative in consonantism

partlydiminutive

that several

a-tsa'la 'file'

becoming diminutive in form at the

time change to a more
suitable gender,masculines
often becoming femisame
nines (e.g.,wa-ska'n),neuters
diminutive
duals in isor
(e.g.,ii-sk.'i'luks),
Most
erto
(e.g.,
is-k!a'psalwas).
examples of diminutives and augmentativeshithhave
been
formed
from
that
in
themselves
have no necessary
nouns
given
diminutive or augmentativeforce. Other examples than those alreadygivenof
nouns

on

^f

246

with

words

force, and

diminutive

inherent

Indian

American

Languages 2
hence

with

at least

utive
partialdimin-

follow:

consonantism,

a-k!u'ksk!iiks 'ankle'

a-p!u'xp!ux'elbow-joint'
'cotton-tailed rabbit'
i-pfu'xc
i-cka'lax 'raven')
a-t!antsa 'crow' (contrast
(? cf. i-cgilukc
'wolf')
'coyote'
i-skfu'lya
a-gu'sgus'chipmunk'
'mosquito'(? cf. bEna 'jump')
a-p!una'tsEktsEk
'hat'
is-ga'k!aps
i-k!a'its'smallness' (contrast
'bigness')
-^ail
-

i-k!a'stila'crab'

'(somebody's)child'

H-xan

i-sklwo'latsintsin
wa-tsk!E'nLX

'swallow'

'nit'

for diminutive
a live feeling
tism
consonanindicating
and
'
cat'
borrowed
from
as
are
a-lap!u's
Chinook
jargon(p in -pus would not be consistent [642]with diminutive s).It is
in the following
perhaps not too far-fetched to recognizeaugmentativeconsonantism
instructive
Particularly
such

as

a-lik!u'k 'chicken'

words

nouns:

i-ga'nuk'beaver'
'Chinook
salmon'
i-gii'nat
i-CE'lqcElq
'porcupine'
'eel'
ic-ga'kwal

(contrastwa-tsu'iha

salmon')

'blue-black

i-du'iha 'buffalo'
ic-kcku'ct 'testicles

(contrastis-qxu's
'eyes')

i-gu'cax
'sky'
ic-gwo'lala
'gun'
wa'-itc 'tail of mammal'
Ic-li'ct'fish-tail'(contrast
'tailof bulb, dried
is-p!i'ost

It sometimes
so

much

that

the diminutiveness

This

seems

diminutive

on-

happens

of

true
particularly

-qcE-n

change to diminutive
the objectreferred to

in the

case

of certain

fish')

consonantism
as

terms

sense

of

impliesnot

of endearment.

relationship:

Diminutive
1 'man's

son's

-/:.'fl'c-w-c
'paternalgrandfather'

ga'c-u(vocative) jchild'
1 'man's daughter's
-gak-an
ga'g-u(vocative)/child'

'maternal
-ga'/c.'-w-c

-gi-an'woman's

-k!i-c

son's child'

grandfather'

'paternalgrandmother'

Seven:

Penutian Languages

247

the names
of
are
Interestingas examples of augmentative consonantism
four
all
of
which
from
words denotingbody-partsof
derived
are
sons,
Coyote's
The
the salmon.
of
augmentative consonantism
implies the lubberliness
Coyotes sons.

Body-partsof salmon

Names

i-k!la'tcin 'salmon-head

gristle'

of Coyote'ssons

Sipa'-glatsin
'Big Gristle' (Wishram
Texts

i-ksa'lk!uts'backbone

of fish'

Sipa'-ksalguts
'Big Backbone'
(Wishram Texts 66.6)
Sapa'-gwinan'BigFin' (Wishram
Texts 66.7)
Sapag-a'thHgwax'BigAdipose Fin'
(Wishram Texts 66.8)

'fin'
i-qfwi'nan

a-k!a'tk'^tgwax
'adiposefin'
(? better -qfa'tk'^tgwax)
As

has

alreadybeen

remarked,

illustrates the consonantal

appropriatemeaning
sdk!

'to

Lower

Chinook

form.

Sometimes

the

play here

sometimes

whistle';sa'u

sau

66.5)

show
'to

is not

noun

discussed.

the

only part of speech that

and particle
verbs of

Adverbs

diminutive

consonantism:

tsfii'nus'a little';

whisper' (contrastLower

Chinook

cdu)\

k!a 'and' may

be diminutive
diminutive
form of a
to ka. The
v
erb
denotes
less
intense
of
state
than
its
a
correlative
particle
being or activity

its meaning is considerablyspecialized:

[643]

diminutive

on-

Diminutive

tcic 'cold'

itsd's

a(ts/u'nus)

(Wishram
ma'ca

'to

spoil'

gut 'to break

up

ma'sa

(earth)by digging'

Texts

cool'
'just(a little)
190.15)

'to be ashamed'

kfu'tkfut 'to

pluck'

Possiblyalso:
wax

'to pour out'

cut'

The

The

the

only example

diminutive

possessiveprefixesshowing
-tea- 'her' and

'she

fast'

asup
fast' (Wishram Texts
runs

the reference

is to

element

on

fire;to bloom'

fkfup 'to shoot'

dual in is- is not

element.

'to set

wax

'to
Iq.'up

stem

diminutive

-cda- 'of them

of

diminutive

form

of

purelygrammatical
with
-qlwa'lasup'fast running'occurs
a

consonantism.

two' appear

as

Thus

-tsa- and

the normal

-st!a- in

ments
ele-

i-tsa-qfwa'l-

(Wishram Texts 66.9) and i-st!a-q!wa'lasup

'theytwo run
in a song (Wishram Texts 94.23), where
66.13).Similarly,

'tailof bulb', a noun

of diminutive
form, the prois-p!i'ast
nominal
cd- and the post-positive
local element
-ha appear
-st
as

and -p!a.Thus:
(? better st!-)
'it-alone-at the-my-tail'
staimapid'giskip'.i'ast
the
verb
show
diminutive
consonantism, partlyin the stem itself,
Finally
may
in
and suffixes,partlyand most
partly itslocal and adverbial prefixes
frequently

VI

248

Indian Languages 2

American

in its pronominal prefixes.

Examples of verb stems in
certain cases
clear
but
seem
not exactlycommon,
are

diminutive
form
distinctly
Thus
gaqiulatla'enough.
'he swallowed
gatciutat!a'mElq

up' (Wishram Texts 84.26) and

form of the verb
him by sucking him in' evidentlycontain a diminutive
^//w'^^wajc
'ittrembles'
Texts
-lada- 'to throw away';
(Wishram
116.10)and
stem
around'
utive
'he looked
(Wishram Texts 30.6) show dimingasi'ximk!na-uk"atsk
and
and
in
their
first
both in their stems
consonantism
{-skw-k!na-u-)
the
latter
verb
in
also
its
adverbial
incorporatedpronominal objects(duals-),
form of -tck 'up from positionof rest';
the diminutive
suffix -tsk, doubtless
laid
her
'he
bellyup' (Wishram Texts 56.27)shows diminutive
gats(s)altsgi'ma
and incorporatedpronominal subject(-ts-)
in both stem
consonantism
(-tsgi)
and first object(dual -s-).
utive
We have alreadygiven -tsk as an example of a derivative suffix with diminsuch suffixes are -p!a'slightly
Other
out
consonantism.
(ofposition)'
will
tilt
'it will spon'it
-ba
in
'out') ayulapfa'tcguxwida
up',literally
(from
taneously
its sitting
out up from
move
[644]position'(Wishram Texts 184.10)
down
into the (hollow
and tsu (from -tcu 'down') in ililu'stsu '(water)moved
of
diminutive
forms
of
local
As examples
prefixesmay be given -klElplace)'.
ive
'he looked at him' and itsreflex(from -gEl-'directed toward')in ga-tssi'k!Elutk
'under' in
'he looked'; -sklEmcorrelative -xeI- (from -xeI)in gasi'xElutk
ulx 'he

tossed

was

iniasklEmla'datcu
'next to'
The

'I threw
and

(cf.-tcu

-s-tsu

onlyexamples of

it down

under

her' is doubtless

diminutive

to -gEtn-

above).

diminutive

consonantism

in the

(fortc, third person

dual subjectintransitive and transitive and
objectof the transitive verb (or the apparent
"half-transitive" verb) is diminutive
in form,
first
of
the
object,
subject,really
the pronominal prefixes
tc and c appear
as ts and
implies
s; the ts by no means
the diminutive
character of the transitive subject.Examples are: I'wi gatssu'x
where
the incorporated
'he looked
at his fish-line' (Wishram Texts 140.28),
isie'nqxoq
diminutive
dual
of
refers
the
dual
element
to
-sgatssu'x
pronominal
while the pronominal subject-ts- 'he' agrees
'his fish-line',
objectis-ie'-nqxoq
with the objectin diminutive
consonantism; gatksu'klam{-Iksalwaysappears
for -skt-)
home
with the (baby)'(Wishram Texts 2.12),
'the two (women) came
the diminutive
dual -s- referring
not to the baby ; ga^fto the grown-up
women,
'st 'it-waves-freely-over-me-my-feathered-cloak
ngatklagwa'xgas ktenaklwd
(Wishram Texts 142.5),where the first object -s- of the half-transitive verb
refers to the diminutive
s-tenakfwd'st '(small)
feathered cloak'. Pardual noun
ticularly
diminutive
dual
noteworthy in this connection is the idiomatic use of a
of diminutive
to an implied,unexpressednoun
object-.s- referring
significance;

verb

forms

in the

occur

case

of ts

of
pronominal prefixes
masculine
sitive)
subjecttran-

(forc, third person

the
Whenever
objecttransitive).
and

there

need

not

even

desired, could

be

exist such

made.
explicitly

diminutive
A

dual

to

noun

good example

which

reference, if

is: gaksi'lutk
'she cradled

'she put the-two-small

him', literally,
(objects)down to him', where
small (objects)'
refer to an impliedword for 'cradle',though the word
in actual

use

have

an

is a masculine

verbs
(i'-lkau).
Similarly,

incorporateddiminutive

dual

object

of

-s-

'the two
for 'cradle'

saulting
jumping and somer'the
two
to
referring

Seven:

Penutian Languages

249

(feet)',
though the actual word for 'feet' is plural(i't-pc).
Examples are:
'she
'he
turned
somersault'
a
(Wishram
gaksu'bEna
jumped'; gasixmi'Lgwa
'he laid her, bellyup'.The [645]most
Texts 82.18);and gats(s)altsgi'ma
parent
transof
the
of
diminutive
dual objectto refer to
use
an
example
incorporated
is afforded
certain
verbs of looking,in
an
unexpressed but existingnoun
by
which the -s- has reference
'
the
to is-qxu's
two
eyes'.A frequentlyoccurring
of
such
verb
is
'he
looked
'he put the
a
at him', literally,
gatssi'klElutk
example
small (eyes)down
toward him', the -tc- and -gEl-appearingin their diminutive
two
forms -ts- and -k!El- to agree with the object-s-; gasiximk!na'-uk"atsk
'he
small

looked
As

around'
a

diminutive

or

such

is another

rule, it will have

been

non-diminutive

verb.

observed,

verb

in its consonantism.

form

tends

be

consistently
ever,
possible,howelement
of
specific
to

It is at least

to limit the

of the diminutive
idea to some
application
the action by "diminutivizing"
only some
correspondingelement of the verb
form. An example alreadypublishedelsewhere
will againdo service here. The
word
for 'I struck him with it' is inigE'ltcim.
If the verb stem
normal
-tcim
with
diminutive
the
is
that
the
as
-tsim,
consonantism,
implication
appears,
missile used is a small one.
Hence
have four forms: inigE'ltcim
'I hit him with
we
with
hit
him
child
'
I
'I
hit
him with it
i
niklE'ltcim
it';
it';
(a
perhaps)
inigE'tsim
(something small)',and iniklE'ltsim 'I hit him (a child)with it (something
and the one justgivenis
To be sure, such examples are very uncommon
small)'.
than a linguistic
de force. Nevertheless, it shows very
tour
perhaps littlemore
alive
is
the
how
of consonantal
thoroughly
feelingfor the significance
clearly
play.

in Wishram
Post-positions

[650]
Wishram,

differingmarkedly
of

in this respect from

series of

Lower

Chinook,

makes

rial
post-positive
[651]
particles
definingmaterelations (chiefly
local and instrumental).
such relations can
As most
case
be expressedby means
and suffixes in the verb,
of local and adverbial prefixes
the denominating parts of speech being in appositionto incorporated pronominal
be
considered
this
of
must
use
as
unelements,
postpositions
Chinookan
of the postpositiveparticlesare
in origin;the fact that some
phoneticallyidentical with corresponding Sahaptin case suffixes proves the
whole process to be borrowed
stock.
from the neighboringSahaptinlinguistic
As a rule, such postpositive
with
used
particlesare
denominating parts of
of them may also be suffixed to
but some
speech(nouns,pronouns, adjectives),
in
the
latter
the predicateis to be
words (verbs,particle
case
verbs);
predicating
considered
and is
as substantivized
though not morphologically,
syntactically,
used subordinatelyto another
Wishram
thus
utilizes
its
predicate.
tions
postposiclauses. Where
in the buildingup of subordinate
to some
extent
or
a noun

rather considerable

use

Seven:

Penutian Languages

251

a as -ffl"?i/,
(oftenwith palatalized
-iemt)'to,from'. This suffix is probably
Chinookan
in origin;
it may be plausibly
analyzedas verb stem -/- 'go'
suffix -t. This analysis
+ verb suffix -am
+ tense
would
'arriving'
explain
its two apparentlycontradictory
meanings. It tends to draw the accent to
itself. Examples are:
wimalia'mt
ickte'lgwiptck
'theycollected (driftwood)from the river' 2.2
'itflew out of his nostrils' 80.29 (literally,
'out of him
nigElga'baiciagitcia'mt
from his nostrils')
'the two returned
to their house'
2.12
gacx^klwa'xtxtdqtia'mt
to the person'scanoe'
18.23
gayukfwi'xailaxni'miemt 'he swam
mxa'tcktcam
wimatia'mt
the
river
and
to
wash
'go
yourself22.18 (literally,
to-the-river')
'go-and-wash-yourself
itq^Udmt
gatciu'k"{
ittcqoa'he took the water to the house' 28.8
As subordinating
element
it may be translated as 'to where'. An example of its

2. -/amr

use

after verbs

is:

[653]
asEmxElu'tka

a'tpxiamdaga'tax'youshall look
'she-comes-out
to-where
the-sun')

3. ba'ma

towards

the east' 188.21

'for,belonging to'. This is evidentlythe Yakima

Examples
na'ikabam'

of its use

with

amtklni' dama

the woman'

denominating words
'for my sake
itqagi'lak

ally,
(liter-

suffix -pama

'for'.

are:

two

you

will go and

get

me

62.25

he
ya'xtaulaxka'bama IgiubttcEma'that (fish)
gaqxd'gwigax itsH'ndnks wi'lxpama 'animals
country'16.13
ctmo'kct gactu'ix
ntca'ikabama
'two of our
men

obtains
were

for himself

taken

186.4

belonging to

(literally,
us-for)went

the

on'

216.16
da'nbama

qxe'daumxu'lal 'what for do you speak thus?' 132.24

I know
from' 128.17
not where
tga'tqwdm luwa'n qa'xbabama 'he has come
'what-in belonging-to')
(literally,
kwo'babama
idE'lxam
tcduxt 'he had not made
k.'a'ya
people belonging to
there' 44.23
'underclothes'
'below-for clothes')
gi'gwalbam'itk'.i'tit
(literally,
bama
An
commonly
example is:
may precede.
bam
iiJ'wulx aktugwi"ilk'.a'lamat 'he carries rocks for (i.e.in order to gain)
strength'186.17 (cf iLxe'wulx bama 188.2)
When
used at the beginningof a predication,
bama
givesit the meaning of a
clause of purpose.
Examples are:
ba'ma ta'-itcka a'lEm' atcludi'na 'in order that he might kill them' 54.2 (literally,
'for them will he-will-kill-them')
bama
ika'ba 'for chopping up the ice' 188. 19 (literally,
'for
capca'pqiuxu'nnit
the-ice')
chop-up it-is-always-made
When
accented
'ever since'. An
{bama'),it is used after predicatesto mean
is:
example
Less

'

^f

252

been

4.

Indian Languages 2

since I

'ever
k/d'yaqxantcixitctcgE'ruEin

nk'.a'ckacbama'
never

American

was

child I have

sick' 190.9

(E)nEgi 'with, by

of, less frequently'made

means

of. It seems

out

to be the

ending -ngi.Examples
genitive
amcgiu'xaIqfo'p'with it you will cut it off 12.4
E'riEgi
aqE'tiEkcE'riEgi
'theycut it off with the stone knife' 18.5
Lqfo'pgaigi'ux
aiakcE'n EtiEgi'he counted
them
with his finger'
18.19
gatkld'qi'
of
canoe'
38.21
itia'ma ngi gayu'ya'he went
means
a
by
round-pointed
gatdu'x 'he made them out of young oak' 4.13
iga'hEnacE'riEgi
Yakima

case

are:

axk'

[654]
frequentlyngi may precede.Examples are
themselves
xau
galxu'xng' ilkcE'n 'theycombed
ayakla'lamatngi wa'nux 'his pipe (was) made out of

Less

"

with

xa'u

'made

5. a'mEni

the hand'

stomach'

94.9

of, less frequently'with'. It is perhaps the Yakima

out

78.10

-nmi.

Examples are
sd'q"itk.'a'lamat a'mEni akitxax 'itis entirelyout of stones' 82.13
amEni
isga'klaps
aqsu'xwa 'a hat is made out of coyote'182.7
isklu'ly'
alklwa'dit amEni
aqiu'xwa'itis made of tule' 182.9
tsE'tsEx gaqtu'xitkfa'munaq 'theysplittrees by means
a'mEni
itq/u'tc'
"

of

antlers' 182.14

6. -pt 'up to' is used

form

adverbs

of demonstrative

dapt 'up to
here'; kwopt 'up to there, then, enough';ya'xpt'up to yonder'.Probably
etymologicallyidentical with this element is -bEt, frequentlyadded to
verbs or other words in the predicateto form temporal clauses. Examples
are

to

out

stems:

"

dabit
gatclE'mquit
Iqa'wulqt
gagiula'

'he

spitblood

when

she threw

him

down'

14.11

galikta'tckpEt
pla'laigi'xox'when he had come
up out
22.18
stopped'
atxu'xwa anigElgd'ya'when
he dives,I shall take
lE'p(b)Et
nk'.a'ckacbEt 'when
188.8
I was
a boy'
aga'laxalaxu'xwa yaxtadi'wi
gali'xux
gaixo'qbEt'the weather
when
they came
together'130.27
When

of the

hold

water,

he

of it' 18.20

will be

as

it was

rhetoricallylengthened to -bd't, this post-positionhas a general

as'.
with verbs it is best translated
'as many
significance;
Examples are
'I shall be absent as much
as five
^wE'nEmabd'dHgwo'mEx antk.'wa'lalaqwida
days'122.12
'that many
kwo'pt natcdup^Enayabd't
(ropes)as he had apportioned'188.6
atciulxamabd't 'he pilesup as many
qxa'ntcipt
alkixa'tgway'
as he tells him to'
cumulative

"

186.19

Seven:

253

Penutian Languages

diwi

(emphatic dd'wi)'like'. This element is very likelyof demonstrative

and so does not perhapsbelong here. It is freely
used, however, as
origin,
and so may be included. Examples are
post-position,
ickla'li diwi datdi'p'striped
like a basket' 166.2
diwi 'his body (was) like a person's'
166.17
iya'tqx
ilgwa'Ulx
naika dd'wi itcE'lgulit
l
ike
104.10
'exactly
my appearance'
"

Demonstrative

and

Pronouns

Adverbs

in Wishram

[625]

Near

1st person

Near

2nd

Near

3rd person
3rd person

Near

person

(formed

from

ya'xdau)

Masculine

Feminine

Neuter

da'uya(x)
da'ya(x)

da'ua(x)
da'wa(x)

da'uia(x)
da'{a(x)

[ya'xdau

a'xdau

la'xdau

\ya'xda(x)

a'xda(x)
a'xia(x)

ia'xda(x)

ya'xia(x)
yakd'xdau

akd'xdau

{akd'xdau

Dual

Plural

Plural,persons

da'ucda(x)

da'uda(x)

da'da-itc

da'cda(x)

da'da(x)

da'(u)la-itc
da'(u)a-itc

ia'xia(x)

da'uda-itc
Near

1st person

da'xdauaitc

fcda'xdau
Near

2nd

person

da'xdau

\cda'xda(x)

la'xdauaitc

da'xda(x)

a'xdauaitc
da'xiaitc

Near

3d person

cda'xia(x)

da'xia(x)

la'xiaitc
a'xiaitc

Near

3d person
(formed from

dakd'xdauaitc

ya'xdau)

cdakd'xdau

dakd'xdau

hikd'xdauaitc
akd'xdauaitc

Note.

It is somewhat

"

doubtful

whether

ya'xdau. (x) in personaland demonstrative

-ka may

be added

Elements

pronominal

-tfa and
stem

to demonstratives

-tHkc

are

da 'this'and

ya'xdau should
pronouns

be

so

read

or

is deictic in value.

in -/7c.

perhaps "diminutive"
personalpluraldike.

forms

of demonstrative

as

VI

254

American

Indian

listof the demonstrative

Followingis a

Languages 2
adverbs

of the Wishram

{i'wat 'to you

i'wa 'thus, there'

dialect:

(place)'

(106.22)

[iwa'tka
(158.24)
Note.

with

Compounded

"

qxa'matgi'somewhere'
Related

to

also

gi are

'somehow';
da'ngi'something';
qa'tgi

(96.11).
di'gadis perhaps digu'tcix
'perhaps'(96.17);also

di'ka and

di'wi

'like'.

ya'xi,also (aga)du'xi 'oh, well'! (60.4).

Ya'xa 'indeed
Note.
(alsoin quct i'axa 'as it turned out');au (perhaps
in da'n au ayamlu'da'what, pray, shall
aw', a'wa, and related to Chinook
_vflwfl)
yaxa'wa 'however'.
giveyou?' (154.6);
Note also kwo'bixix
'rightthere, not very far'.
-a'dix forms: a'ngadix'longago';ixtka'dix (192.2);
ina'tkadix (192.5).
dau: kwo'dau
With stem
'and'; da'ukwa
'justas before'; qxi'dau'thus'.
In -xi

have, besides

we

'

"

Independent Personal
These

Wishram

correspondto

forms

Pronoun

recorded

by Sapir:

'I alone'

na-ima

Uiinuidikc,dci-iniadikc dimadikc

'theyalone'

mci-ima

"thou alone'

Ixa-imadikc

'we

alone'
(incl.)

[627]
Besides

these,Doctor

Sapir has recorded

in Wishram

the

following:

Shortest form:

nafx) T

ya(x) "he

da'-ifc 'they'
la'-itc 'they'(Wishram Texts
a'-itc

'they'

inclusive:
nai't'.a'I too'
'we
Ixai't'.ikc

'he
ya'xt'.a

too'

too'

la'-it'.ikc
'theytoo'
da'-it'.ikc
'theytoo'
a'-it!ikc'theytoo'

3.

References

are

to

Wishram

Texts.

48.4)

Seven:

remarks

He

that the demonstratives

to first and
parallel

that the demonstrative

-X-

element

of the third; as

na-i-ka

These

of the third person

second

seem
phologically
mor(ya'xia)
personalemphatic pronouns
(na'ya);

-/- is characteristic

of the firstand

second

ya-x-ka 'he'
ya-x-t!a'he

T
na'-(i)-ya

'he'
ya'-x-ia

-/-and

sons,
per-

in

na'-i-tfa 'I too'

elements

in x-i 'lu and

255

Penutian Languages

-x-

are

probably identical

with Chinook

too'

-/"-and

-x-, -x

x-ix-,xax.

Modal

Elements

[578-579]
2. ni-. This
form
from

prefixis confined
nig- before vowels,

one

state

to the dialects east

like the

somewhat

indefinite time

less than

'to become'

in intransitives and

as

an

in transitive and intransitive verbs. It expresses

past, and is used in speaking of events that happened

than a couple of
year or so ago, yet more
'he went' {ni-'past';
ni-y-u'ya
-y- 'he';-uya 'to go')

nig-u'ya'she

It takes the

preceding a-, prefixindicatinga change

into another, translated

aorist in transitives. It occurs

of the Kathlamet.

days ago.

before vocalic element; -a- 'she',being contracted

(thesame
with -u- into -u)
him' {ni-'past';
-tc- 'he';-/- 'him'; -g//
verbal prefix;
saw
ni-tc-i-gil-kErhe
-knl 'to see')
went'

[579]
3.

a-.

the
[Prefixindicating

Kathlamet

4.

5.

future in intransitive

verbs.]In

the dialects east

of the

it is used also with transitive verbs.

'he will see her' {a-'future';

verbal
-re- 'he';-/-'him'; -^eIa-tc-i-gE'l-kEl-a
prefix;-kEl 'to see'; -a 'future')
of the
to the dialects cast
ga-, before vowels gal-.This prefixis confined
Kathlamet.
time long past, and is always used in the recital of
It expresses
myths
ga-y-u'ya'he went' (seeanalysisunder 2)
gal-u'ya'she went' (seeanalysisunder 2)
'he saw
him' (see analysis
under 2)
ga-tc-igE'l-kEl
be
used
in
of
this
nplace
prefix.
may
before vowels nal-. This prefixis confined
of the
to the dialects east
na-,
Kathlamet.
It refers to recent
time exclusive of today,more
to
specifically
yesterday.Its use is analogous to that of the preceding.

256

VI

Indian Languages 2

American

WISHRAM

By

TEXT'

Edward

Sapir

and

Itc!e'xyan

Coyote
673

wi'tlax."
Aga' kwo'pt^ gayu'ya* isklu'lya'^
Now

he went

tlu'ii

Coyote

Na'2wit'

again.

gayu'yam;*

Straightway

he

arrived

going;

idE'lxam"
galixE'ltcrna(i"
isklu'lya gwa'nisini'*'qtiilatla'iiiElqt"
he heard

674

Coyote

always

itclE'xyan.'^Qxa'damt"
Merman.

they findef.)are always

Mwallowing them down

ikni'm**

gayu'y"^

Whither

it went

the

always swallowed

he

it down

dan.^"

he

got hold

"NaitI'"

thing.

every

gatcigE'lga"

straightway

canoe

ka'nawi'"
itclE'xyan;gatciutatla'mElq^'*
Merman;

na'wit

the people

"Me

too

now

atcnuiatla'niElEqEma,""
isklu'lya galixtu'xwa-it."Aga
he

will swallow

down,"

me

Coyote

he thought.

kwo'pt

Now

then

gayu'y' isklu'lja;gatcigE'lgayag'ail"ikla'munaq.^^Aga
he went

675

he

Coyote;

got hold

of it

its

bigne.ss

the tree.

Now

then

La'x"

gali'xox.'*
itclE'xyan,
GatcigE'lga
gaqiulat!a'raElEq."
he

Na'wit

got hold of

He

they (indef.)swallowed

merman,

him

him

down.

wi'lxba.*'
ittcqo'ba^"
gi'gwaP' isklu'lyagalixi'maxitam^''

straightway

in the water

below

he arrived falling

Coyote

on

the

ground

akni'ni"
kwo'pt gatcugi'kfil^*
idE'lxam; Jgabla'd'^
Igabla'd'*

Aga
Now

then

axu'xf*

he

them

saw

kwo'ba^"

they are
piled together

their multitude

the

people;

gi'gwal iltcqo'ba. Aga

there

below

in the

water.

Coyote

Merman

his heart

then

they (indef.)told

Coyote:

the canoes

he

iki'ax."

it

saw

kwo'pt

Aga

it is.

hanging

gaqiu'lxam"*isklu'lya:"Ya'xdau"''

their multitude

kwo'pt gatcigE'lkEl*"

Now

isklu'lyaitclE'xyanyago'mEnii^'qxwoL^''
676

kwo'pt

insight

made himself.

of it

a'g'"

Now

then

itclE'x3'an
yago'mEnii.''Aga

"That

Merman

his heart."

Now

him

kwo'pt Lq!6'p"'=
gatci'ux;"^
Lqlo'p"*^
gali'xox*^^
itclE'xyan
yago'niEnii.
then

he

cut

Aga
Now

made

it;

ka'nawi

kwo'pt
then

it made

cut

itself

Merman

his heart.

akni'm
gatkxEni'yutck" sJi'q"''^

all

they each floated

up

the canoes

entirely

out

kwo'dau"
and

of water

idE'lxam
the

kwo'dau

people

isklu'lya.

and

Coyote.

kwo'pt gali'kim" isklu'lya:"Lga^^ pu"

Aga
Now

then

he

said

Coyote:

itclE'xyanqxi'dau" amdu'xwa"
Merman

677

thus

you

that

far

thus

Kwa'ic*"

you

will do
them

da'uyaba""

Soon

in this

land

will say,

'Thus

^ex"^
exercising

will arrive

coming

the

being quiet

you

now

people.

told

you.

Kwo'pt
Then

gatci'ux^* isklu'lya itclE'xyan.'

he

did

to

him

Coyote

power

Merman

aga

day

I have

idE'lxam.

Kwo'pt a'ga itclE'xyan

pla'l'^^ amxu'xwa.""
now

isklu'lya
yamu'lxam.^*

supernatural

Then

alone

you

This

Coyote

atgadi'mama"
they

how

Da'uya^^ wi'gwa"

Na'ika"

people.

wi'lx

alugwagi'ma,"^ 'Qxi'dau
they

the

qii'ma^"ma'ima"

would

the people?

idE'lxam.
to

Perchance

idE'lxam?

will do to them

kwo'pt^"
qxi'dau amdu'xwa

"

will make

yourself."

Merman.'

Seven:

English translation

connected

Penutian Languages

of this text

will

he

found

Ethnological Society, ii,4 1 43. The Indian

from its form as there published (pp. 40, 42).
Used partly with weak
temporal force, partly as mere
American

the

"

into

untranslatable

kw6pt, THEN,
be analyzed

3
can

-pt UP

(so

TO

into

and

(note 39),

is

TIME,

regularlyused

demonstrative

so)

AND

Neither

FAR.

kwo'dau

of

Sapir's \\

ishram

Texts, Puhlicatlons

here given has been

connective

preceding

(or ktoa-) that

these

elements
in

of

ized
slightlynormal-

very

in narrative.

to mark

aga

It is

frequently practically

l)esides

to

seems

is not

kwopt

used

local suffix

to form

strative
demon-

kwo'ba

have

we

It

narrative.

and

there)

go

freely, kwo-

adverbs;

In

step

new

(= Chinook

occurs

several

-pt also hardly

(note 46).

and

with

kwo-

stem

only occurring stereotyped

pronouns,

as

English.

THAT

AT

in

text

257

there

except

stereotyped in adverbs;
kwo'bc), and yaxpt, as far
A3

occur

as
(related to da'ba, this-in=here,
kwopt is to
See also note 56.
ya'zioff yonder).
*
tense prefixdenoting remote
ga- (gal-before vowels)
past, regularly used In myth narrative.
y-^
3d per. masc.
before consonants
it would
subj. intr.,referring to isk.'u'lya.
as
-i-,while gal- would
appear
then
tense
as
prefix (ga-y- gal-i-:see notes 9, 28, 32, 47). -udirective
appear
prefix away
from

dapt

cf.

THAT

FAR

AS

AS

THIS

from

YONDER,

SPEAKER,

-ya

verb

stem

to

go.

* inoun
masc.
stem
-y- in gayu'ya is in agreement,
-sk.'u'lya noun
prefix with which
coyote,
from Klickitat spi'lya. Chinook
has another stem,
apparently not capable of analysis;perhaps loan-word
-t.'d'lapas.
"
and
deictic particle -i: cf. da'uya (note 54) and
wi'Ha
Composed of wi'tfa again
da'uyaz this.
from
wi-, masc.
noun
is most
prefix (originallyindependent
plausibly explained as stereotyped adverb
See notes 19 and 33), and -t!a,emphatic particleadded
to pronouns,
masc.
(see note
also
pronoun?
too,
=

21). According

analysis wi't!a(x)

this

to

have

it must

Originally

HE.

meant

originallyformed

was

(masc.)

that

Rhetoricallylengthened form of nu'it immediately,

to imply direct, unswerving
motion
without

'

STRAIGHT

ON

As in note

have

stems
WENT

SHE
9

gal-

atpx

and

local verb

prefix -I- to,

TO

HEARD.

HEAR

as

ya'xtfa(i) he

from

too

ya-X'

right

When

away.

of other

thus

lengthened

action; it may

then

na'wit,

to

be rendered

no

arrive

its shorter

while

without

one

-i-

is

ONE

3d per.

subject). -xEl-tcmaq

into,

SOME

have

we

-ya

-am

this

ing,

"

-a

form
go

(e. g., -pa

-i- (as in

-y.

(or come)

to

and

go

goes;
Several

to

-p

yu'it he

do

out;

cf.

gali'pa

OUT).

COMES

have, morphologically speaking,

stem

suffix

in -a, and

one

SHE

verb

prefix ga- before vowels,

tense

forms,"

two

With

OUT

*wi

ON.

AND

except that instead of verb

61). To this is suffixed

cf. also note

verb

ON

or

4,

from

later generalized in meaning.

was

interference

it seems
as

but

too,

verb

obj. before reflexive element

masc.

indirect

stem

to

(reflexiveverbs
composed of reflexive element -rto
self
himgalixE'ltcmaqmeans
literally
prefixed transitive subject and object

reflexive

hear.

expressed by -x-tcmaq

with

pronominal elements.
10 Adverb
not capable of analysis.
"

q-

indefinite

(very

many

seems

to be

form

of verb

transitive

verbs

have

subj.

-t-

3d per.

this "directive"

-u-

is exampleof
implied). -tatfaniElq-lada-

stem

to

throw

down,

pi. obj. tr.,referringto idE'lxam.

even

when

definite idea

no

rarelyoccurring compound
(in this case its meaning

=directlve

-u-

of direction

from

away

prefix
speaker

-Za^'a- is "diminutive"

verbs.

correspond somewhat
to
closely to that of its Chinook
-Lata
cognate
pull
back); -mElq- is best explained as verb stem
with infixed -I- of frequentative or continuative
-mEq. (or -mq-)TO vomit
significance (that -Ms not really
is shown
part of stem
by form itciulatfa'maqhe
swallowed
him
pull
back
down);
-i- vomit
may
away

to

seems

more

be construed

that
what

'2

stem

meaning

as

present time.

Observe

dependent

are

tense

id-

on

vomit

backward,

peculiarsequence
other

3d per.

pi. noun
(wi'liam

tense,

verbs, chieflyof saying

is logicallyimplied; cf. below

village

draw

of

one's

to

he

heard

self
.

perception,

or

gatcigE'lkEl
.

and

they

are

-t

swallow,
sn-

allow

always present

iki'az (note 43)

he

Syi

if

it

down.

in

tense,

...

suffix of

tpnse

them

it

Verbs
matter

no

/5.

-ham
noun
(-E- is inorganic)
prefix,in concord with -t- in preceding verb,
-liam
is evidently
is formally masc.
sing, of idE'lxam
people);
=

village

related to -li (see note

"

note

j- as

in note

2; p. 42,

5.

33).
-tc.'Eiyan

noun

stem

merman,

protector

of

fishermen

(see Wishram

Texts,

p. 40,

is subject
etymology suggests itself. Syntactically itc.'E'iyan
Implied, but not grammatically referred to, by q- of preceding verb.
This clause can
hardly be considered
as quite correct; properly speaking, itc.'E'xyan
should go with tclulat.'a'mElqt.
note

2;

p.

256, note

2);

no

673

Seven:

Penutian

259

Languages

676
that

verbs

retain

43, 53, 64, and

^

'"

note

il-

3d

(= "qa-;
THE

Adverb;

gal-as
put

-al is

and

whenever

to

-i

verb

stem

to

For

become.

mean

subj. -i-

tr.

are

to

make,

do,

other

LAY

one's

it

wi-

Texts

stem

do

stem

in

form

suffix in,

noun

in

note

I and
is

"q-

in

FALL

has

stem

-tc-

3d

enclosed

see
-"/ir/-(

-la-ima-

-ba

fishing,

sight

be

down,

laid

8).

probable origin of
place-names

some

(see note

people

in note

as

is here

-u-

Texts

[Wishram

replaced hy -gEl-. -kEl=

176.10));-gEl-ksl

to

know

verb

from

stem

to

one's

out

(cf.l-k-d-u'-

know

hence

(eyes),

per.

with

iT a-

3d

fem.

per.

prefix; though

noun

it is here

replaced by analogy
pair off respectively, -knim

fem., being
wi'mwa

-ga-

referred

so

iknt'm

of

in

as

to in aiu'xt,

fem.

many

(see note

note

in related

as

logically akni'm
example of

16.

have

dissyllabic stems

16),

fem.

wi-

and

on

bottom

pond),

generally
is plural, morphologically it is
plural is wa'mwa
maggots,
masc.

canoes

(note 38); another

(e. g., wala'la

wa-

i- and

nouns

as

a-,

wa-

maggot.

38 a-

3d

directive

allows

of

Composed

"0

As

in

-gEl-is

fem.

per.

prefix,

3"

no

ya-

subj., referring to akni'm.

intr.

verb

formal

stem

to

that

34, except

note

lie,

modification

sit,

by

be

-i-

incorporated obj.

is -i-

ground,
in

corresponding

to Chinook

use

(?)
This

-c.

-u-

verb

affixes.

3) and

(see note

prefix on

verb

placed,
of tense

means

kwo-

of denionstrativestem

he

mean

Particle

"3i-=

3d

to be
is

local
3d

suffix-6a

Csee

33):

note

that-in

there.

referring to yago'mEnil,and

per. masc,

that

of

verb,
per.

then
he

as

is,

intr.

heart

as

in

masc.

being usitative

gender, while

-ya- refers

suffix; yagO'mEnil

iki'ax

trans,
to be

4.

-q-

prefix,

as

to

itc.'E'iyan. -g6mEnil

also be used

may

predicatively

auxiliary.

doubtfully, explained
verb,

and

explained
For

become).

has

serves

subj., referring to yagd'mEnil.

somewhat

have

in note

directive

passive.

in

for which

masc.

ordinarily

would

i-ki'-i-ai

verbal

alive.

It is best, though

ga-

defining
form, -Enil

i-

t-j/a-asinnote25,

seems

object

-xt

unmodified.

heart

pi. possessive
Igabla'd

35), referring to akni'm.

of note

"u-

to

OF.

"B

12);

30.

3d per. neut.
stem
3d
noun
-bla4. -ga-=
prefix, defining gender of abstract noun
-blad
great
stem
noun
number.
pronominal prefix,referring to idE'lxam.
multitude,
is construed
like ya'gnilikfa'munaq (see note
idE'lxam
25).
36 As
in note
.3d per. fem.
3.'",
except that -gapossessive pron. prefix (merely homonymous

-a-

2.5));

3d per. pi. obj.,referring to following idE'lxam

subj. -uin other words,
replaced by-w-, -gEl-ih^n becoming -^(w)'-;
it comes
before -gel-), -giplural form of -gEl-{see note,
E' l-ba it flowed
out
of
Texts
gously
her
(cf. gi-l-a-g
[Wishram
94.4]);analo-

17) directive

note

in

idE'lxam

village,
for

on

-x-

monosyllabic require wi-

or

archaism

as

stem

of

Texts

(cf.note

ING

5, 13, 16, 26); for

i-,except

to

verb

(e. g., ga-k-l-a-k-ia'-ima

ARRIVE

(see notes

staging

tr.

masc.

per.

SPACE

them

knows
GET

"

33,

above.

[Wishram

water

non-syllabic

are

i-

wi'lxam

in

icE'lxlx

SUffix

that

stems

also

seen

and

station

the

becomes

verb

one

land;

FisHittG

ca'i-al

quasi-passive suffix;-x-ima-xit-

-am
noun

into

-x-ima=

syllable have
entirely given way

than

more

wi-

noun

4.

note

FROM

to

kulHE

to

"q6kta'cq

(see also notes

at

(as intr.); probably composed

down

himself

put

2.11]). -lit

GROUND,

TO

also in correlative

lie

is introduced,

on

Texts

prefix; masc.

have

Chinook

in wa'lxi

-k-

DOWN

noun

that

-li-

also

as

40)^ouT

"i

U.

c.

in

seen

subj., referringto preceding i-sk.'u'lya.-lima(as tr.);

down

[Wishram

it

masc.

In

lay

with

object

per.

songs,

ga-

stem

notes

see

passives.

glide between

as

(before verb prefix -gEl-M per. plural obj. -Ms

-t- before
gEl- is treated analogously to when

34

one's

to

-i

-u-lat/a'-mElEq as

; its shorter

local

for it is found

intr.

masc.

per.

HE
(cf.ga-ya-i-a'l-ima-lx

put

DOWN,

19.

note

of verb

in lieu of

serving

water

-ba

190.14).

part of stem,

not
3d

ground,

on

55); those

probably

-ion

down

3d

see

probably

-ima-

.SELF

(cf.note

SEE,

to

-x-u-x

forms

obj.

Wishram

in

consonant,

noun

tr.

masc.

per.

used

inorganic

by preceding q)
(Wishram

3d

commonly

very

prefi.x. -t-

noun

9.

indirect

laid

3"

subject

TWO

put

down,

she

and

indefinite

-q-

THE

in note

GROUND(?)

wi-

-q-

neut.

per.

OF

32

33

in form,

regularly used

60).

31

to

is

is velarized

WATER

39, and

4.

indefinite

with

reflexive

when

even

SELF,

66.

in

as

ga-

FOTms

it

ONE'S

MAKE

SELF,

indef.

-liam

tr.
verb

verb
as

stem

-i

inorganic

as

-kiax

to

glide vowel

stem

to

say

29).
to

-i-

with

he

oo"S

(cf. Chinook

3d

per.

tenseless verb

-ki-,which
prefijc

subordinated

as
=

is another

be

of verb

(cf. Kng.

do

syntactic construction,

subj. (cf. note

to

composed

masc.

(cf.note
shows

well,

i. e., gol^

i-ke'-i

he

to
tr.

is

38).

lack

of

along well)-

and

Wishram

gatcigs'lkEl, see

note

11.

obj., referring to Lik.'u'lya.

personal object. This

verb

form

is

logically

260

Indian

American

VI

Languages

677
2d person,
of simple form
location near
of independent
showing
composed
Donionstrative
pronoun,
element
-zdemonstrative
(of. also ordinary forms of independent 3d personal
+
personal pronoun
-dau
stem
(= -da + -u), for vifhich see
ya'x-ka and similarly for other genders) + demonstrative
pronoun
Syntactically ya'zdau, here used suijstantively, agrees in gender with yago'mEnil, to which it
note
54.
is no
being so used.
expressed predicate in this sentence, yago'menil (it is) his heart
refers. There
from
verb
stem
following verbs
gatci'ux and
gali'iox,both
"": Particle
.-i to
verb, to which
do, serve
43b

3d

"d

""

28.

in note

As

"*"

in note

as

ga-

-k-

to

UP

surface,

up

he

arose

POSITION,

3d

(gatkxEni'tckwould

mean

of

rest

position

from

with

{gatkxEni'yuptckthey
is

it

function

Adverbial

"

often

to

seems

used

evidently
gal-i-as

in note

Adverb

of modal

"

Adverb

with
is

there

-tck of

-kim

verb

and

(see

stem

of

water

out

to

significance, whose

form

is

of

their

continuative

longer doing so).

no

idea

emphasize

to

land

lagE'lpt

but

grammatically

note

54).

of

totality)

it is best

sidered
con-

personal object;
formal

in

significance;

cf. note

originalsignificance

58).

introduced

conditions

particlesin lieu of verb

of modal

use

Its

to verb.

coloring

give doubtful

This

(see

follows).

(without

say

-to

to

conditional

sd'qu

to

dau-

3) and

note

(which

this

significance, serving

cossative
in

(but

all),

as

out

water

suffix
sitting

expressed predicate.

no

kw6-

stems

(translated

nouns

from

to-pcf. galags'lba with

dancing

was

he

up

head)

his

suffix

local verb

himself

frequentative

or

theoreticallybe
distributive

-tck

-ptck from

-ba

from

distinguished

be

continuative

moved

as

of

would

-j/m-

(sticking

rose

appears

combined
as
isk.'u'lya

body),

one

in

change

for

gayuwi'lalEmtck

precedes)

potential and

of

up

-tck

land;

to

are

contrary-to-factimplication.

has

often

when

even

32.

"7

"

floated

and

subj. -t-

drift,

float,

to

Logically sa'g"-(rhetoricallylengthened

(which

that

stem

interior,

should

attributively

of demonstrative

Composed

"

force.

be

adverbial,

as

was

in

intr.

whenever

he
(cf. also gal-i-x-lE'-tck

of

that

dancing,

is

they

on

-tck

deprive verbs

to

verb

akni'm, idE'lxam,

to

-u-

he
4.6];gal-i'-kta-tck

out

floated

each

yuwi'lal he

force (e. g.,

-6a

94.7]). This

Texts

[Wishram

Texts

[Wishram

[op. cit.,10.5]);combined

cut.

of directive

(or -luni-)

-xEni-

it.

became

it

pi. intr. subj., referring

per.

regular replacement

before

separately

EACH

-t-

stand

to

it-m.\de-itself

cut

4.

plural subject,
expected

force.

onomatopoetic

64.

note

See

has

Lqfdp doubtless

auxiliaries.

as

by

modes

cma'nii

if, it

is characteristic

of Chinookan.

Evidently contains

60

This

explained.
Iga pu

qa'ma

occurs

38.6, for similar

incorporated);

alone

forms

and

na'it.'a,note
with

verb

(cf.

21);

la'xka

be

also in

seen

such

fonns

from

ma'ima

you

considered

in

qxa'damt (note 14).

here, and

as

passages

transfonner

-ma

likely felt

is very

not

can

be

to

(cf. Wishram

incidents

be

archaic.

Texts

6.13,

-ai- is in

these

for other

seems

independent
found

forms

la'xt.'a). Chinook

probably

it

nd'mka

of

ya'ima

alone,

occur,

from

50)

note

personal pronoims
(subject intr.
It is doubtful, however,
alone.
-aima.
verbs
from
verb
Since
stem
personal
them
formed
as
preferable to consider
by

simplest forms

intransitive

as

alone)

they

qa'ma

this

and
Is

-nmka,

stem

in

formed

i alone,

should

alone?

-ma

what,

qa-

only

myth-phrase

be

may

g., na'ima

plurals in -dike (e. g., la'imadikc

suffixed

stem

found

stereotyped

as

e.

these

whether

been

has

passages).
-aima

in

Forms

51

interrogative

word

he

in

stems

pronoun

also in

3d persons

-ai-

(e. g.,
Boas

as

explained as simple independent pronoun

not
occur
+ -m{a) + -ka
rarely in Wishram)

in

analyzed by

alone,

best

persons

(as

la'ima

it

intr.

na'ika,

note

alone,

subj.

{na,

-a-

just,

in

as

pronoun
and

ma,

sponding
corre-

(cf.lu'nka

only

57,
trasted
con-

just

three).
'"-

Adverb

"a-=

idE'lxam.

by

-u-

prefix
-u-

Demonstrative

ya, fem.

deictic

in

may

second

note

43b).

here

la, du.
be

added

element

da'uya

time,

future

without

masculine

subj.

-d-

(to),

-w-

per. sing. tr.

stem

near

19) and

Forms

material

in demonstrative

verb

location

note

see

2d

to

in

pronoim

literallyas,

means

do

3d

Wishram

like

188.1) and

Texts,

this.

per.

inorganic

pi. tr. ohj., referring

induced

consonant

suffix.

showing
-u-,

cda, pi. da).

is here

-m-x-

relative

as

qii'dau thus

54).

prefix,
-a

pronoun,

da'6a

a, neut.
-i

of future

sound,

particle qxi-(cf. qzi

(cf.note

this

directive

preceding k-

(= da-, as

as

dau-

stem

tense

to

of.relative

composed

demonstrative

without

change

pronouns

because

-u-

in

showing
in

1st

of 3d

per.

near

with

2d
masc.

person
noun

pronoun

daw

stem
in

-a

(masc.

much
less frequently;
da'yax). -dau also occurs

though

(e. g., da'uyax

location

demonstrative

independent

(e. g., da'ya) occur,

meaning

agreement

of

composed

person,

simple form

or

(e.g., ya'idau

wj'j/u'a. Chinook

that

masc.,
seems

to

Seven:

da-

preserve

wi-

is

also

masc.

da'uya

this

"a'fc"

da'ka

(=

then

2d

this

just

[cf. Wishram

that

or

sing.

be

to

da'tij/a

da'uka

3d

when

H'c^ic

In

to

UdE'xyan.

to

that

to

of

one

do

day.

this

is

sun

as

stem

to

use

4.

In

sponds
corre-

-d-iand

to

-i-

stem

to

of

-d-

of

sing.

per.

local

subj.

object.
soon.

or

suffix

noun

in

itself.
element

regularly

directive

prefix

form

of

sounds,
toward

hither,

notes

(see

-am-

duced
Intro-

k-

with

beginning

stems

or

here

is

personal

recently,

-ba

noun

-mam-

1st

expressed
now,

-ga-

verb

go.

to

just

idE'lxam.

to

consists

come

verb

of

persons)

na'ika

form.

will,

noun

2d

and

1st

numerals,

with

to

either

before

(for
to

verb

say

instead

and,

come

-ai-

and

before

employed
Instead

61,

of

being

-w-

-kim

say;

-t-,

pushed
is

power,

Wishram

forward,

-a

paralleled

in

in

which

with

when

of

note

k-

preceding

(as
sound

precedes,

Chinook

following

catch

sounds

-ugwa-

ga-).
here

(cf.
-gim-

appears

ogogoe'ma.

by

which

glottal

In

53.

Chinook

-u-

gal- and

to

k-

immediately

accent

In

as

to

transform,

words

analogously

Infiuence

to

is used

used

beginning

a-

stems

due

47)

note

alugwagi'ma

few

(al- and

verb

Inorganic,

(as in
Is

accent

go);

vowels

before

Is

gatci'ux

serves

as

(other

words

are

found

iliary.
aux-

-tci^

perhaps).

subj.,

3dper.masc.tr.

-"c-=
that

subject

referring

regularly

noun

with

pronouns

Particle

verb,

(I. e.,

note

nook
Chi-

which

kw6-,

with

53.

and

very

meaning

enough.

mean

combination

to

masc.

referring

subj.,

following

occur,

noun

in

suffixed

-yam-

to

with

preceding

to

of

stem

about

or

agreement

supernatural

those

literal

its

to

which

they

to

precedes
stand

In

jsfc/u'^ya.
object

-i-

apposition,

3dper.masc.tr.

their

noun,
-u-

order

obj., referring

being

directive

thus

prefix,

analogous
-x

verb

(TO).

p.'a'la.

in

note

Observe

You-wiLL-BECOME

as

In

daWa'x

note

note

becomes

Incorporated

of
to

6"a-

aga'lax

preserves

equated

stems

also

time,

verb

past

-d-i-

62).

time

is added

-a)

BLUEJAY,

as

ga-

verb

regularly
verb

is

In

as

in

-"-,

subj.. used,
as

just

before

note

future

of

Intr.

(here

It

stem

noun

dau'

narrative,

directly

of

subject
past

-ham

pi. Intr.

per.
-t-

be

found

only,

emphasize

to

action

directive
-a

-ga-

3d

of

composed

just,

pronoim

(cf.

-u-

prefix
pi.

(gwa

Particle

-gwa

to-day;

accent,

outside

not

can

immediate

of

because

Intr.

to

vowels,

-gim-

suffix
-ogo-

stem

pi. intr.

-gwa-

53).

6*

-t-

stress

used,

pronoun,

-ka

prefix,

to

masc.

pi.

per.

per.

-gim-).

63

53.

3d

tense

3d

note

54;

is used

demonstrative

to

note

after

al-

62

note

correlative

used

OR,

loan-word.

fco-

but

particle

directive

referring

per.

SPEAKER,

-u-

-u-

well-marked

with

regularly

personal

prefix

adverb

in

after

32)

for

phrase

3).

note

but
tense

Klickitat
as

in

as

after

obj.

suffixed

regularly
a-

i-

being

related,

suffi.xed

unnecessary,

Temporal

81

monosyllabic,

is

stem

noun

stereotyped

as

kwo'pt,

independent
and

persons)

per.

Seems
6"

used

kwo'pt

(see

go

of

iyamu'lxam.

58

59

because

w-

Here

3.
aga

Chinook

to

grammatically

and

with

regularly

is doubtless

form

3d

note

much,

enough

rather

(for

in

thus

far,

Ordinary

-a-x-

is

day

given

Analysis

kapc't

-z-

like

261

used.

that

5'

prefix,

noun

wi'gwa

so

56

as

adverbs

Languages

so]).

JUST

of

isolated

in

only

Penutian

note
28.

53.
-u-x-w-a

-m-

you

with
will

2d

as

in

per.
note

which

stop,

following

sing.
53.

amxu'xwa

is

used

as

auxiliary.

pfa'V

amiu'xwa

QUiET

desist).

obj.

with

following

reflexive

element

(see

-i- in

notes

and

28).

^f

262

Indian

American

Editorial

Indian

American

Dyk,

Library
s

the

and

of

description
reprinted
Indian

in
consonant

this

"Chinook,"

673-677.

Handbook

in

American

of

of
Bulletin

Ethnology,

Washington,

the
of

the

in

preparing

D.C.:

field

in

was

sonian
Smith-

previous

volume.

symbolism

are

is

see

the

American

phonetic
For

few

months
in

now

1933

on

Kahclamat,

in

the

his
drew

also

Philip

where

Walter

1932.

Sapir's

Collection,

Boas

Society.

paper,

North

western

for

Wishram

for

unpublished,

Yale,

at

by

grammar

diminutive-augmentative

Wishram

elaborate

and

residence

on

Wishram

used

later

were

remains

which

the

in

Wishram

on

Philosophical
of

in

files

materials

American

feature

common

(Bureau

grammar,

speaker,

description

here

Boas,

650-654,

Yale,

both

manuscript
of

at

This

collected

Dyk's

Sapir

Sapir

Wishram

young

and

638-645,

dissertation.

material

new

Franz
1

grammatical
of

student

doctoral

extensive

Part

Note

(1911).

Institution

Sapir

in

Languages,
625-627,

578-579,

40),

published

originally

Excerpts

Languages

thorough
Nichols

first

languages.
of

symbolism
survey

(1971).

of
See

tion,"
"grada-

consonant

detailed

the

treatment

of

Sapir's

exhaustive

Nootka
literature
also

Haas

(1915a)
on

is

American

(1970).

this

also

spiteof

CHARACTERISTIC

PENUTIAN

OF

FORM

STEM

its somewhat

duction of Frachtenberg's
Coos grammar
became
itsoon
top-heavyintroparative clear to me
Dr. Leo J. Frachtenberg's Comthat the morphological
and lexical
Studies in Takehnan, Kalapuyanand
resemblances between Takelma
and Coos were
and
fundamental
Chinookan
he explaintoo
to
(International numerous
Lexicography
ed
of
vol.
American
n"
Journal
Linguistics, I,
2,
by accident or plausiblyaccounted
away
valuable and welcome
for by borrowing.This in spiteof the very
pp. 175-1S2)is a decidedly
contribution to our gradually
progressinggreat differences of phoneticsand structure
that separate the two
The appearal
knowledgeof the relations between the sevelanguages.
rance
of the PacificCoast. He
stocks
of Frachtenberg's"
Siuslaw material
has
linguistic
far
deduce
does not
tionship
relatended
to
confirm
this
so
as
to
further,
genetic
only
impression,
go
between
obvious
that Coos and
it perfectly
to make
Takelma, Kalapuya,and
the basis of the lexical evidence
Chinook
on
are
Siuslaw, as Frachtenbergannounces,
make
of a single
presentedin his paper, but he does__"
linguistic
divergent
representatives
bold to
predictthat additional data will be stock. Meanwhile comparisonof Takelma,Coos,
and Siuslaw with Dixon and Kroeber's Penutian
producedin the near future
tendingto
in the
confirm such a conclusion. Elsewhere
of California (Costanoan, Miwok,
group
he
collected
of
have
I
:
states
a mass
Yokuts, Wintun, and Maidu) disclosed an
paper
material establishing
gin
orinumber
of both lexical and morconmion
a probable
phological
astonishing
for the Kusan, Siuslawan,Yakonan, and
correspondences
correspondences,
which will be
which were
first dimly brought to my
sciousness
con(perhaps)
Kalapuyanlanguages
future.
he
the
in
certain
near
presented
Though
morphological
years ago by
and Kroeber
chides Dixon
for their hasty resemblances between
and Yokuts,
Takelma
of
and
the
Hokan
Penutian
Penutian
laterand more
annouqcement
vividly
by the decidedly
In spiteof our
feel of Coos grammar.
groupings,he remarks, somewhat
tedly
unexpecIn

'

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

The

absence

concerningPenutian
unfortunate,
as

there

of conclusive
and

Hokan

evidence

is the

exist strong

reasons

slight knowledge of
what

to

believethat the Takelman, Kusan, Siuslawan,

mass

I believe

of evidence

and (perhaps)
Chinookan
Yakonan,Kalapuyan,

languages
spokenin Oregon
be Penutian

1.

may

be proven

most

of the Californian

in getting
I succeeded,
together
involved,
languages

more

to

sister-tongues.
All this is very interesting
it
to
as
me,
chimes with conclusions or hypotheses
I had
arrived at independently.
the appearance
On

Coos,

be

tendingto

IlUisirative Skctcli

an

Indian

to

Languages, BBAE

quiterespectable

unite the southern

(Handbook
40,

part

of American
2,

1914,

297-429)Lower
2.
Umpqua Texts (CU, 4, 1914) Siuslawan
(Lower Umpqua), an Illustrative Sketch (Handbook of
American
Indian
Languages, BBAE
40, part 2, 191 7,
pp.

pp.

431-629).

VI

264

American

Indian Languages 2

59

into

of

Oregon
languageswith those
differentiated stock ".
and highly

Chinook

(Yakonan)and

with Alsea
Unfamiliarity

for
it impossible

further evidence

large However,

"

both with

serving to hnk
Kalapuyaand with Coos-

Siuslaw-Alsea will no

doubt have been discovered

follow

by Frachtenberg
by the time this paper is
less,
Neverthepublished.
the chain of evidence geographically.
The greatest surprise
stillawaiting
fested
maniwas
me.
Chinookan pointsof contact soon
Tsimshian occupies
isolated posia
to be brushed
themselves too persistently
peculiarly
tion.
In its morphological
for a longwhile to take
aspects it offers
aside.After hesitating
of
of
the
hardly
specific
points resemblance to
any
possibility affiliating
up seriously
the
N
adene
and
isolated
the
of
phologically
mormost
neighboring
languages(Haida,
Chinook, one
With
the Wakashanin America,
Tlingit,
Athabaskan).
specialized
languages
Salish-Chimakuan
of Oregon,I now
with the Penutian languages
group to the south it shares,
tive
to express distribue. g., initialreduplication
find myselfforced by the evidence to admit
and plural
ideas and a series of classifying
bat
such an affiliationas not
only possible
In its
In view of the clear points suffixes appended to numeral
stems.
probable.
decidedly
and
of
shifts
the
lexical
of
contact
deeper morphologicalfeatures,however,
phonetic
guages.
has established,
if only Tsimshian stands quiteapart from these lanthat Frachtenberg
even
of
and
in a preliminary
Lexically
too, aside from a number
way, between Takelma
of a fundamental
there seem
his further hypothesis
or less patent loan-words,
to
more
Kalapuya,
be no stems
that Tsimshian shares with any of
between
connection
Kalapuya and
A
Chinook was, forme, to be looked for a priori. the neighboring
tentative comparison
languages.
with the Penutian (or,if one
I believe it onlyfairto add that the manuscript
prefers,
evidence that I possess of the relation between
of Oregon
Penutian)
hypothetically
languages
revealed a considerable number
Chinook and various languages
of corresponto the south is
dences
much stronger than the comparatively
both
in
and
in some
the
lexicalmaterial
scanty
lexical data presentedby Frachtenberg
of the more
intimate and fundamental features
'.
of the morphology.Should
it be possible
to
demonstrate (andI am
that
it
fairly
sanguine
of the nineteen cognates given by Frachten1. Even
berg
tached
be demonstrated)
thai Tsimshian is a decan
it
less than nine
Kalapuyamade

no

or

ten,

to

seems

to

me

are

me,

almost

This is particularly
obvious in the
certainly
borrowings.
of KalapuyaU skan cup
case
and u'lxayu
Both of
seal.
these nouns
have taken over
bodilythe Lower Chinook
feminine prefixu- of u'-cgancup
and u'-lxaiu seal.
Moreover, the Kalapuya,as an inland people,
could
be
hardly

As for

be

ing
borrow-

very different sort

and

bear

all the ear-marks

ot

genuineness.I take this opportunityof correcting

few
a
errors.

for

For Takelma

t'pdW

SNAIL

Ja*'-

to

finish

(pp. i8o, i8i)

CAMASS

(p.i8o) read dip'; for

tUwix. Frachtenberg's
statement
remains

of American
The

extenso

to

from Chinook.
The fifty-three
are
Takelma-Kalapuya
correspondences

unchanged

"i

in

t]ewex

in this paper I expect to present /;/

in the future. The fundamental
type of

Penutian

languageseems

inflective one,

Miwok, Yokuts and, in

The

as
more

to be a
nantly
predomiexemplified
say in
form,
specialized

tremendous

morphological

dip'

(p. i8i)read

flea

that

tribes.

data for the various assertions I have

Takelma.
(p.i8o)readt\ap'g-; in

Ttzd t'billt'; {or

would

fact in
compelledto face a most interesting
tion
differentiation and in the distribulinguistic

expectedto possess a native term for the seal.

that is merelya secondary
u'-cgan,
feminine formation made
from Chinook
This
i'-cgan(masc.) CEDAR.

alone would prove Kalapuyau'skancup

of

northern offshoot of Penutian,we

be

"

Takelma

ts

as
Kalapuya(p.i8o)is incorrect,

Takelma

possesses
should be corrected

no
to

ts ; al-ts-M

al-ts-\il.

red

(pp. i8o, i8i)

Seven:

Penutian

265

Languages

60

One of the most

exhibited by the various languages
of the more
mate
intistriking
divergences
v"'ould
is
of
Takelma
the
structural
it
here groupedtogether
due,
are
seem,
peculiarities
of
of
of
the
number
of
main types
stems
a
to two
gradual presence
change :
large
type
with repeated
vowel.
i.e.of stems
breakingdown of inflective forms and the cv, cv(c2)-,
forms (e. In the verb,this method of stem formation has,
analytic
consequent growth of more
Costanoan
less
in
to
a
in
extreme
a
and,
largeextent, taken over a grammatical
way, in
g.,
and
of
the
evolution
in some
the
cases
significance,
synthetic
Coos) ;
special
characterizing
in
aorist
verbl
ess
the
in
no
as
others, numerous,
Chinook, often, doubt,
stem,
developments,
trated
illusstem
under the influence of alien languages,
as in
proper. It is,however, frequently
the
adverb
in
and
Maidu and Tsimshian. It is,of course, entirely
as
adjective,
noun^
the Penutian languages well ^. Examplesare :
premature to group
but
the
provisional
following
genetically,
' acorn
yana
aid
v
alue
scheme may be of some
as
an
s'ight
to

visualization.

convenient

sehe-TO
lehei-to

3. Wintun
4. Maidu
Takelma

Oregon Coast

group

Olom

Coos

(non-aorist)
dead

to

(aorist)

land

FORMERLY

odo- TO

Siuslaw

HUNT

TO
RAIN
Jop'od-

Yakonan

(nou-aorist)
(aorist)

FOR

Silli'V'k'
CRICKET

Kalapuya

C. Chi nook

drift

-xiivi- TO ROT
(non-aorist)
TO
GO
SOMEWHERE
(aotist)
ginigSEED-BEATER
nwt'op'

3.

roast

yiwinspeech

Oregongroup
1

come

Yokuts

2.

(non-aorist)
(aorist)

BRING

to

perhaps
yeuue^

\ Costanoan

B.

TO

herein-KIDNEY

[ Miwok
2.

large

waga-

baxam-

Californiangroup

A.

viahai

TO
LAUGH
ilyftfs-

an

(aorist)

D. Tsimshian
of
It may

well

be that

Turningto Coos,we find that this same

not
stem
formation,thoughapparently
is very common.
with formal significance,

type
vided
pro-

as
Frachtenberg's
yet
unpublisheddata on Kalapuya and Yakonan
It is so very characteristicof the noun, indeed,
will force a readjustment
of the languages
failure to mention it in his
that Frachtenberg's
under B ; as for group A, possibly
and
Wintun
be set down as a curious
Coos grammar
must
Maidu form a closer unit, analogousto that
oversight.
By actual count I find in his Coos
noan
undoubtedly
comprisedby Miwok and Costa-

'.
2.

For

details see

The

Oregon (BBAE

Takelma

Language of

40, part 2,

191 2, pp.

western
South-

1-296),

""40,86, 109.
See A.

in this
omitting all stress and pitchaccents
3. lam
259-263(1910); paper, also normalizingall orthographiesto correspond
9: 237-271, particularly
also The Languagesof the Coast of California north of
of
the'recommendations
of the Phonetic Committee
to
San Francisco (/oc.
Association.
cit.,
Anthropological
191 1, pp. 273-455),pp. 306-508. the American
I.

L.

UCP
Languages,

Kroeber, The

Chumash

and

Costanoan

Seven:

Penutian Languages

267

62

amhaatas

to

wait for

willing

be

an

The

ivi'imtCKKT

Kalapuyaforms

misi'-a"

SISTER

ELDER

e.g.

tSimd'z' MUSKRAT

hmilta

MATCHES

aiorhin-

Chinook

qauwan

lose

to

niu'Iukwa
zui'tsm-

mU'l'U

TO

cow

CAMP
-CLOTH

BREECH

tlxmu'hv

but,suggestive
as such examples
are,

BELT

BOW-STRING

be done with them

can

their
forms of this type, though not as
in Coos, could be cited,
but,on the

more

Chinook

many

as

demonstrated

that it had ceased

gets the feeling
live and productive
method of stem

whole,one

apparent tendencyto loss of

vowels and consequent formation of consonantal
An

clusters would
the

seem

of the
persistence

Coos

confirm

to

seems

L.

have

to

type.

counteracted

Comparisonwith

this,
e.g.

and often

its numerous

that vowels

consonants

in Chinook,
frequently
mation
forso that an
originally
present type of stem
would be expected,
under
(c)vc,v(c2)the destructiveinfluence of phonetic
processes,

have

very

as such. Possibly,
however,
disappeared

evidence
compar,ative

wings
tipa'^'n,
ipz't'v
ma'qati
t'ipenc

much

the type cannot

be
exist. It is evident from internal

droppedout

Chinookan

Coos

not

apart from
statisticalcontext.
In
torn

Tsimshian
to

complex clusters of

to

crow
nia''q"li

Umpqua
(Siuslaw)

and

evidence and from

have

when

and
grammatical

Many

formation.

salmon

palam drunk (ChinookJargon)

qoloqswan (Chinook)
owl
diigulhu'

pmd-t SHARP

type,

thanaqfly
qalavisilversidesalmon

SUNSET

tsi'kwi LEGGINGS

be

several of the

CHILD

CriUVSt

to

rial
mateFrachtenberg's
also
to
applies
Kalapuya.
that he givesin his comparative

studynumber

FISH-HAWK
prs".p

t\hmS

until

answer

isavailable. This

ONLY

and

closer

study of
reveal the
eventually

material may

former

existence of the type. Such forms as

-kala MAN
also Wishram
(cf.
-gi-kal
husband),
-ka-holf

*-ka'kwale'

(cf. Wishram
clam, /av.'//;six (cf.
and
bear
(cf.
tx.^ni), ca'y.m grizzly
"

EEL

-gakwal\-saJa fresh-water
In both Coos

and

forms

repeatedvowels

with

as
related,

e.cr.

Coos

manat

in

Siuslaw,it should be noted,

sometimes

are

Takelma, to monovocalic

for the present, suggestive

isolated to constitute convincing

plural
are,
caya'm-ukc)
but

forms,

too

evidence.
crowd

nianta-^-

to

t'ipenc
wings, feathers

tlpewings

xalaw-is heat

xahu-is hot

L.U. valqa-a"
hole
"

piurcjamedicine-man

of

to dance
p:iiq-

mtdicinc

stems

as

we

turn

to
are

the Penutian
at

languages
by the
and
adjectives, verb
once

of nouns,
the
on

thatareformed

Examplesfrom
I.

with

soon

we
California,

largenumber

to dig
yafq-'
i-lq-

the type of stem

vowel is found also in Alsea

As

keepcompan\-

dance

Whether

Wishram

Taken

from

Wintun

'

pattern(c)vc,v(c2)

are

S. A. Barrett's

struck

vocabulary,
pp. 81-87

repeated of The Ethno-oeography

of the Povio and
Indians (University
of California Publications
(Yakonan)must

jicighhoring
in Ameri-

VI

268

American

Languages 2

Indian

63
apti-mother's brother
tahal tongue

It is evident

daka

I find that

at

glancethat

in evidence in Wimun.

much

the

By

type is very
actual

count

taral mush-paddle

than a third of
more
considerably
the nouns
and adjectives
listedby Barrett for the
Southerly dialect belongto it.
evident is the type in Maidu. From
Equally

kada deer-snare

Dixon's grammar

belly

anak knee
bed

kama

"

"

I may

quote

aka bitter
k'aftato
hara

to

sleep
go (D)

luaka' meat
tsaka- pitch

'

teeth

elctinfant

tsa'zva

k'me rib

pakasinew

keicelhouse

ma'

tun
hip
yaha'good

medicine

wene

bad

ivasa'

dialect)
(Southerly

ii'niknose

-tala- to crush

iniil milk

tkvi-lrattlesnake

heme

hi'ii'shell-beads

sedeblood

t'ikisand

benek

luini

/;/;//
eye
hini net

to

see

(D)

ko'so'Ilungs

gopher
tomorrow

poto intestines

ki'ivi'back

mrko'

;///;//"
nipples

arrow

arm
yiini
dung
pili'

no'Io'smoke
do'ko'knife

simi

fish-net

tco'nr

cotok pestle
SH'iio'

to roll
-piuili-

(Xortherly
dialect)

nose

month

tsibi'
nails

pifill' heart

-tibilto wind around

irdii'irabbit-skin robe

U'dhol heavy
koJo- to

beads
tii-nfl magnesite

orw-

tii'nii'k
cradle
burden

swrii't

ko'zuo'armpit

net

yoso' field-mouse
kono' baby

rain

yu'rw

ku'pirmfingers

nolo'pack-basket

sister

ti'tcw- younger
lu'iiiw dead

bono' ear

poko'sun
valley
koyo'

iinrhii'to sin"

WO'

and Ethnology,voL
Archaeology

can

rotate

head

6, 1908, pp.

no'-

to

die

i-

332).
I.

Forms

Outlines
Volume

of

marked

(D)

Wintun

1909, pp.

are

quoted from R. B. Dixon's

(Putnam Anniversary

Grammar

461-476).

2.

Maidu,
Indian

734).

an

illustrative Sketch

Languages,BBAE

40,

(Handbookof

can
Ameri-

part i, 19 10, pp. 679-

Seven:

Penutian Languages

269

64
buhl tail

comot

butu fur

bear
"rphogrizzly

suhu' smoke

coyod
antelope
topo"r^
buckeye

ku'lw

evening
face

viu'su'

tcoxJtc soaproot
so'hn tobacco

It is clear that the type

is

Maidu

as

seems,

to be rather
further,

of the

Wintun,

in

than

noun

and,

as

much

as

in

more

alive in

Wintun, it

characteristic

of the verb. This may

be

onlyapparent, however,as our knowledgeof

the verb morphologyof these languages
is far
from complete.
Turningto Yokuts, we find the type of stem
formation stillvery much
from
are

lungs

Kroeber's

lists'.

in evidence. I select

Examplesof

cohd hole
odJt ball
luocokbelt

putuc acorn
The

listmight be

number
awaty

to

dislike

tawac

to

be

paxat

to mourn

nouns

tcadax

for

,ad tears

pinity
to tell
pitid

basket

ask

to

wings

large

turn

to

dixid to make

ma

thirsty

shoulder
V'apnd
kabad

extended.
greatly

of verbs also belongto this type, e.g.

to catch
pitciiu

tabak deer-rick

capancoal

icitidto

wadak head-net

luinis to

k'twz'tback

xityiw n

tthztyhead louse

tdxitc

pullhair
be ready
be angry
be sick

"

tczhvr,
fog

i'dikto

bidikfaeces

iv:)d:"
to

dimik

to be
od:^y

falcon
prairie

sing

sky
tyipin

ciitnx

idik water

dukud

cikid arrow

dumuk

ip'i7i
groundacorns
P'ir,ik
nose
mi'kJcthroat

hupncto

dodge

to
to
to

on

skin

bury
sweat

to

k'uyuk

scratch

nuhuk

to

kneel
select

earth
lir,it
Before certain suffixes these stems, like other
lose their second vowel,e.g. :

wdho'citpanther

youth

iirta

oty^

disyllabic
stems,

hair

diikttil(imperative)
)

p:"tJ
penis

I.

UCP

dxkud-ji
(past)

Accordingto

See The Yokuts

2

Yaudanchi

Kroeber

ofSouth Central Califoinin,

Lau^uas^e
not
165-577(1907).For this paper I use only purelyphonetic,
forms

(seepp.

240-254

for

vocabularv).

so

that direct

( duhd-un

(present-future)

( duhd-ut (passive)
this

stem

alternation is

ter,
in characmorphologic,
with
the
stricomparison

VI

270

American

Indian Languages 2

65

kinglysimilar stem alternations of Takelma

TO
go
to
war
: non-aorist
zonst
p'eleg(^e-g.
this matter
feasible.
i
s
not
However,
p'elg-)
needs
further
investigation,
larly
particucertainly
not

as

conform

all of Kroeber's

seem

to

phoneticrule (lossof second

suffix beginning
with a vowel).

his

to

vowel before

be, on the other hand, that what

well

It may

forms

u'kw

hand

tirnu'k cradle
su'ku'i sand
mu'lu'-ta black
n'lu'-tared
hu'hf

stinking

From

Kroeber's material

the

verb
following

are cited :
alter- stems
nation
origina purelyphonetic
assumed
a
phological
morgradually
yar^a to sleep
function. There is nothingto indicate
kata to shut

in remote

was

in Takelma

this

at

present,

however, for Takelma.

(Moquelumnan) the presence of

the type (c)vc,v(c),is as easy to demonstrate
as in Wintun, Maidu,and Yokuts. For examples
of nouns
and adjectives
I quote from Barrett's
In Miwok

vocabularies of Coast Miwok

old

nawa

ata

'

ete to see
to lie on
etepo

kelpe

nete to count
to sit with folded leg
nipito
hilito pinch
oiuo

man

eat

to

to
koyok

elder brother

one's stomach

swallow

to

see

saka cradle

toloye

hear

panakred-headed woodpecker
patca poison

lutsu

ascend

iinii

ynnu
kusH

milk

wene

to

uhii to drink

luala Indian potatoe

helekeneck
ewe

to

medicine

to
to
to

nuxii to

come

kill
sit with stretched

killi antler

uku

ki'ti'lakbutterfly

iitciito

nails
pi'tci'

yiikuto swing

to

leg

undress
enter

stay

ko'no' bow
is perfectly
Costanoan, finally,
analogousin

loko tule

this respect, as in

olok ocean

Examplesof

posol
lungs
mo'M

quotedfrom

condor

koto grasshopper

ama

tso'to'ishort
wara

pu'tw infant

so

nouns

Kroeber

many
and
"

others,to Miwok.
are
adjectives

again

person

body

patcan blood

pu'lu'k
belly
ku'lu'm bone
sketch (pp.278-3I9)inThe Languages
2. See his Miwok
north of San Francisco,UCP
of the Coast of California
9 :
Sierra dialect is quoted.
Northern
273-435 (1911).The

pu'tcw wild onion

I

See

The

Indians,UCP

of the Porno
Etbno-geography
6

68-80.

and

neighboring 3. See vocabularies in The Chiimash

(UCP 9: 237-271 [1910]).
Languages

and

Costanoan

Seven:

271

Penutian Languages

6G

wind

wasar

furthermore,of
examples,

Some

lawan bow

lanai neck

vocalic repeti

result of
only the secondary

be

tion may

e.g.

similation,
as-

hatac foot
S. Clara

sky

tcara

wahan

(fourother dialects)

ores

other
lase-(four

lasa tongue
knife
tcipi

snow

hesexem old

bear

oroc

S. Cruz

S.

woman

S. Francisco
beard
")'Ci

jackrabbit
/c^jyw
t^d;'(?u

dialects)

J.B. Pipe

For

rabbit

of
examples

of type
verb stems
from De laCuesta's Mutsun

Costanoan

I quote
(c)wc'y{c2y

wetel large

tipa

vocabulary;
'

j/;n'child
kinirfish

atiia

^/7mbelly

ara

wznzf heart

eat

to

give

to

comb

to

axa

examine

litibow

ata

tt/fx/fish

icara

to

cut

xaiva

to

call

hair

worox

to

shout

to

/co/^oboy

saya

o/co ear

ene

koro foot,leg

eleto raise

rono^ bow

luexe

shield

to

hide

nietc to

cloud

moto

write

to

sepeto

ice
yokovi

hair

/o/oiknee

tere to

co/o^ moccasin

peleto stick
to liedown
ipili

to/o

fire

cut

laskci-white
locko-,

witi

to

^o/^o-black

wixi

to

xntii

kunuc

fall
fish

niinito strike

belly
pipe

";/n"x

make

dried

oloto become

blind

xiri

wolf

to

become

yokoto

pMJM/small
It is worth

type

are

stems
notingthat disyllabic

in

some

ot this

in that
dialects,
particularly

syllables
Monterey,sometimes reduced to monoby the loss of the second vowel,e.g. :

roto to

Monterey
xurks

neck

Juan

Bautista

tuis

jackrabbit

drown

tcorokto become

sad

iiputo pay

guard

to

Inxun

to

stick in mud

xorkos
I.

tolsknee

ashes

xopo to givewater

utu

S.

meat

be born

viokoto

of

hair

cut

tolos

tceycs

based

See
on

399-472

J.A. Mason, The

Vocabuluryof

the

[1916]).

Mutsun

Dialect

De

Cuesta

la

of Costanoan
(in UCP

1 1 :

272

VI

Indian

American

Languages

67

to

rusu

the

Takelma

decay

stem

with

repeated

finish

stem

with

single vowel

spit

to

siimti

to

ttipun
tculti

feature

jump

to

to

This

second

be

might

list

is felt

vowel

by

is shown

stem

frequentative -s-,

extended.

vastly
as

the

of

integralpart

an

after

persistence

its

That

the

infixed

or

related
between
form

epe

to

It is
the

to

the
of

else -pti many

go

epse many

the

impression

all the

to

Siuslaw

left

one's

on

mind

tku'nt-

further, just

to

die

all

in

out,

of

Coos.

Further

to

minor

phonetic

is

further

eventually

also

presence

in

far from

not

are

in

presence
a

In

Its

other

to

Umpqua

put

attached
it is

this

quite impossible

probably
will

be

to

it

will

type
to

always

interesting

to

say

of

words,

we

languages

at

remain

determine

stem

as

yaiqready

haiua-

whether

It

lui'hca-

agree

be related

from

of the

amplified

of Takelma
older

is

the

amplifying
with

the

on

to

contrary,

secondary

mav

of

help

the

aorist

to

be

to

the

activity.
these

guages
lan-

determined
is

lized
genera-

Siuslaw

{e.g.

repeating

assimilation

Penutian
and

vowel

from

More
*p'elag-').

this

is

stem

(present-past)

rt-vowel

Californian
solve

of

stem

radical

(e.g. p'elegfrom

-a-

"

it remains

stems

problems.

quite

impossible.
later

h'yats-

on

amplified

"

their

hail'-)or,

formation

present

to

of Takelma,

whether

its

conceptual significance originally

to

be

to

the

study
any

e.g.

tkwani-

indication, apparently, of durative

Assuming

stem

while

whole.
Whether

"

tanatl

dig

function

primary

tence
persis-

teristic
its charac-

Penutian

The
the

ration
ope-

indicate

demonstrated

the

in

appears
the

highly probable,

Kalapuya.
having

to

Lower

in

extent

may

amplified

tliwi'yali

close

It is,

it

laws.

(Siuslaw), however,
data

"

a-vowel),

with

in

evidence

in
north

probibilityowing

destructive

the

prove

Siuslaw

kably,
unmista-

of California.

unmistakably

as

and

Takelma

peculiar
to

and

reach

to

wi'in'-

languages

Penutian

Coos

and

verb

Penutian

is

exuberantly, represented

say

an

follow

to

tC'.Jiti-to

hau'not

form

(generally

tkwi'tl-

go
pass

type(c)vc,v(c2)-isquite

stem

archaic

in

verb

aorist

non-aorist

quite likely,indeed,

short

stem

i'iq-to
that

is

alternation

hi'tsfinal

the

and

e.g.

pass

The

betwen

vowel

specialized development

Takelma.

Coos

ele-pu to

alternation

other

an

trating
peneguages
lanlar
simi-

Seven:

Penutian

Editorial

Originally

Sapir's
a

of

whole"

There

typical
such

comparative
vowel
rather

this
of

American

is

Penutian

than

and

long,

2,

Linguistics

is

final

not

focusing

stem

1919.

1919:

56-61),

often

be

languages

compared

deletable

or

and

by

about
In

full

his

to

initial

vowel)

stem

shapes

shape

to

^e

(Golla

diagnostic

(Hymes

as

"I

the

Later

315).
tian
Penu-

work

in
of

centrality

"morphological

1957;

of

feel

gesting
sug-

1984:
trait

140).

nia
Califor-

form,"

original

'one'

lowing
fol-

year,
for

Kroeber,

to

in

emphasize

suffixation

per

wrote

(1929a:

tended
with

as

that

evidence

*yikati

Sapir

of

lexical

syllables

statement

has

Penutian

November

Sapir

'fish'

included

coupled
on

(with

Kroeber

morphology

Penutian

should

thoughts

classificatory

frequently

vowel

the

1925b).

early

*ilapita

as

stem-type

ablaut,

in

paper

in

stem-type
and

second

Kroeber

stem

his

had

Dixon

reconstructions

in

repeated

1921o,

Sapir

and

Penutian

characteristic

663-667).

of

(Dixon

languages

stem

that

publication

Penutian

of

presence

diagnostic

1920b,

completion

the

with

stems

similarly

1917e,

is evidence

the

the

(see

"characteristic

the

disyllabic
of

Hokan

after

of

suggestion

identification
for

Journal

(1921).

58-67

as

Note

International

in

published

273

Languages

Silverstein

cess,"
pro1979:

CHINOOKAN

PHONETIC

LAW

of this paper to show how

i.e. is preceded
:
by the gender-numberprefix
ticed,
law,hitherto unnophonetic
masc.
sing. e-, i(jio)ibroughtabout a number of irregularities
the use of pronominalelements in Chinoo:
are
Examples(Wishram dialect)

It is the purpose
of a
operation

the

in

incidental inferences

Certain

kan.

pointsof

fundamental

also suggest
history
referred to at
briefly
If

examine

we

transitive and

more

Absolute

linguistic

themselves. These

will be

system

of

corresponding
possessive
fixes
pre',

noun

shall

we

three apparently

note

an

modified

"

her

'

eyes

house

{-ho'-qH)
but

unrelated
involve

irregularfeatures which
alternation of g (which may
be
k or kx ^) and the palatal
sibilant

water

i't-qHi

a-ga'-skan
il-ga'-cq
is-ga'-xus
it-ga'-qH

cup

ii-tcqiua'
is-qxu's

the end of the paper.

the Chinookan

Possessive

wa-ska'n

intransitive pronominalprefixes

of the verb and

of the

on

Chinookan

wi'-lxam

village

i-tca'-lxatn

for the firstperson

prefix
possessive
are
as
:
(" my ") is -^e- (Wishram -^-, -k- ;
singular
for the third person
I. The
prefix
when
the noun
ine,
is feminpossessive
-.y- before /e-stops)
feminine (" her ") is -ga- when
the
singular
but
or
dual,
plural,
-/^e-, -kineuter,
itselfis feminine,
noun
when the noun
is masculine.
neuter, dual,or plural, (Wishram -tc-')
i.e. is preceded
Chinook
by the gender-numberprefixes Lower
(C.) and Wishram
(W.)
:
examplesare :
to

aff'ricate
tc. These

The

1.

follows

Lower

Chinook

Wishram

'

Absolute

but

sing.fem.

6-

(w) a-

neut.

L-

ii-

du.

C-,

plur.

t-

\s-tca-

when

See

Boas, Chinook

1.

Indian

F.

Bureau
Languages,

40, part
580, 581,and
For

2.

and

3. An

data.

the

I,

my

itselfis

(in Handbook

Wishram

Upper Chinookan

my

lizedfrom -^e- because

a-kni'm

W,

masculine,
of American

letin
Hthnology,Bul-

canoes

preceding
0-)

a-x-hii'm

L-gE'-qacqac
father
my grand-

C.

W.

is-qxu's eyes
i'f-pc feet

W.

is-k-xu's

i't-k-pc

559-677),particularly
pages

585.
own

"

"

d-gu'-pL\ike
{-gu-labraof

id- (it-)

of American

sake
consistency's

bow
o-pO.ike

ic-,is-

s-

noun

igii.pp.

C.

Possessive

but
I

Boas'
preserving
orthographywithout
am

dialect. I

ook
Chinfication.
modi-

quote from my

C. i-tslENiEnd wooden

i-tcE'-ts\EmEno

spoon

MS

W.

wi'-iq
body

i'-ic-iq

276

VI

Indian Languages 2

American

io6

in the firstinstance. Cases i and 2

one
irregularities
3. Aside from certain secondary
are
:
al
parallel
phonetically
in the third person dual and third person plur"
her
1.
here, the pronomwhich do not concern
us
(fem.
noun) : i-lca-" her"
a-gainal

ogical
"

of the transitiveverb differs from

(masc.noun)
subject
intransitiveverb
of
the
2. a-gthe pronominal
(fem.noun) : i-tc- my
subject
my
the
of
transitive
verb) (masc.noun)
(andpronominalobject
only in the case of the third person singular and suggest at once that the masculine prefix
the older -gaher ", -^(e)feminine, /- palatalized
masculine and third person singular
sets of forrns
the difference between the two
perhapsvia palatalized
my ", to -tea-,-/^(e)-,
sounds
khow
indicated
But
for
the
account
most
by
position
(*-"a-,
*-^^-).
part
being
forms
for
the
the
in
:
case
masc.
preceding
tc-\
prefix
3 (fem.gpronominal
(thesubjective
ly
and, in part, by and why should onlythese forms be exclusivepronominalprefix)
objective
characteristic of the subjective
transitive
the use of a
postpronominalparticle
-gwhich indicates that the preceding
pronominal verbal paradigm? If we venture to reconstruct
of a transitive them in accordance with cases i and 2, we get :
element is used as the subject
she
him
verb. For
he
")and
(and
subject)
*ag- she" (transitive
tive
distincthe
her
following
(and
"),however,
*itc- he
(transitive
subject)
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

forms

are

used

"

3d

singular,

person

him
z'-he,
she a- she,her
he

tc-

masc.

fem.

^-

forms will be better undestood

The

from the

Wishram
following

examples:
he killed him (/-is temporal
i-tc-i'-uwaq
; tche
him ")
; -ihe comes
of the house (/- he")
out
i'-tpx
she
killed
him (-^- she ")
i-g-i'-uwaq
she
of
the house (a- she ")
out
comes
a'-lpx
"

"

in the three

If we
"

"

"

"

"

1st

*'

"

(-///-

pers.

sing:

n-

exclusive dual

nt-g-

heard as
plural nc-g- (also
with
f-glide)
ntc-g-,
inclusive dual
inWish(simplified
/a:-^-

exclusive

"

in which

"

-m-

transitive

thou, thee

and
subject

as

"

ram

house

is used both

are

wc

to

hram

intransitivesubject
and

The

distribution of the forms

such

as

with

to

make

it

in

that we
probable

factor rather
phonetic

than

questionis
are
a

dealing

morphol-

sing,
dual

as

3d
these irregularities
?
explain

to

t-g-^

inclusive pluralIx-g
in Wish(simplified
2nd pers.

transitiveobject.
How

"

*ag- she and *itc- he with

forms of the transithe remaining
tive
subjective
verb, we obtain at once
a perfectly
lar
reguand intelligible
the
set of forms. Including
lows
post-pronominal-g-, the system is as fol-

"

killed him
i-m-i'-uwaq
(sing.)
you
thou ")
of the
out
a-ni-tbay-a
you will come
(a-is temporal)
he killedyou,
i-tc-m-u'woq

cases.

forms

"

Contrast

then be fect
perretical
compare the theo-

would
parallelism
phonetic

The

Transitive

Intransitive

pers.

to

/-f-)

m-

mt-g-

plural mc-g*i-tc-"i*i-gsing.masc.
*a-gsing.fem.
sing.neut.
i-gdual.

c-g-

plural

t-g-

Seven:

277

Penutian Languages

107

with
i to anterior palatalQ), which in
preceding
Compare these pronominalprefixes
^
shifted
of Chinook history
intransitive
turn
at an
(and
subjects
earlyperiod
corresponding
old
*ik\
shifted
transitive
to tc. Presumably
to
:
an
objects)

the

but I have
itc\,

pers. sing.
exclusive dual
1st

exclusive

is

(nd-)
(nlc-^

nt-

plural nc-

exclusive dual

law

plural Ixtnsing.
pers.

into its

itsconsequences are now

of
dialects,
functional
and
its
character,
strictly
operation

was

checked
probably

at

earlyperiodby

an

There
analogical
leveling.

time
may at one
"
have been such alternations as *i-tca'la
:
man

(^md-)

mt-

plural
3rdpers. sing.masc.
sing.fern.
neuter
sing.

its

run

present

tx-

dual

such. It had
as
longeroperative
longbefore Chinookan split
up

no

course

exclusive
2nd

of this. The

evidence

no

n-

"

mc-

it-ka'lukc

"

"

i-

(y-before vowels)

men

n-a'-kim"she

or

*n-i-tcim

said",which

he

"

said

"

then leveled

were

n-

out

i-

to

the forms i-ka'la :

n-a'-kim that

we

n-i'-kim :
it-ka'lukc,
But

now

there is

possess.
certain cases c/-,
erf-)
c-(in
to prove this and it is more
probable
nothing
t- (in certain cases
uplural
law had ceased to operate
that the phonetic
gwa-, Lower C. o-go-)
before the welding of noun
and verb stems
and
Aside from the irregular
with
intransitivesubjecwith
gender-number
tive
pronominal
third
forms
the
all
that such
class
It
in
is
not
at
(notobjective)
unlikely
prefixes.
person
and
is
dual and
of
whose
masculine
elements as /-,wiuse
nouns
plural(ct; ti-gwa-),
ents
elemlimited to certain cases, the transitive parof verb forms were
n-aindependent
adigm n-i-,
of elements (e.g. *w-i
derives from the intransitive
or
assemblages
obviously
then-she "),
he
then-he ", *n-a
by the addition of a transitivizing
particle
; *n-i
-gand verb stems
the pronominalelement, except in the
which became attached to noun
to
the other
first person singular
date. On
recent
("-)and second person at a comparatively
that
which
alone
such
cases
hand, we must assume
assemblages
singular
(w-),in
position
differentiatesthe transitive and intransitive as *i-tca " *i-ga hers
(masc), *i-tc3 "
is correct, the
If our
uses.
subjective
(masc),and *i-tc3" *i-g3 he
analysis
*i-gd mine
actual transitive subjects
for the third person
(transitive
subject),
*a-gd she
(transitive
ject)
subfem.
and
and
Ictwo
true
are
not
masc.
(transitive
they
singular,
subject) *c-g3
g-,
date.
firm
units
much
earlier
forms
older
formed
in
the
at
a
pronominal
nal
pronomiorigin;
such units the phoneticlaw could
stillin
Within
elements,i- and a- respectively,
evidence in the intransitive praradigm,
have
operate but not outside of them.
as such but have lefttheir tVace in
disappeared
Comparativeevidence,making use of data
the differenttreatment
of the old transitivizing
outside of Chinookan, may some
day succeed
law
which
in
twofold
form
and
with
in
o
ur
now
by
showing
confirming
phonetic
-f-,
appears

dual

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

transferred function
We

may

all three cases

as

therefore

tc-

"

he

"

and

"
o^-

she.

''

infer that in
reasonably

that certain

cases

"

"

"

*'

of

tc

in

stems

after ;"
(say-i/c,fem.,"tail of
(/^)

go back

to

"),
quadruped

do this. So far I
peculiarbut at present we cannot
alternationof^^:tc is really
know of only one other case of tc which may
morphological
a
survival of an old phonetic
with some
be presumed,
to derive
to
law,according
plausibility,
which g (k) was
k. This
is Upper Chinook
palataUzed
by immediately from palatalized
what

now

appears

as

278

VI

American

Indian Languages 2

1 08

'

of demonstrative
which forms personal
plurals
iorms*itc(py
"he"and*a^^-"she" ismerelyan
-i-tc{i),
Kathlamet
of
and personal
phase a phenomenon that seems to have
early
pronouns, e.g.
''
ta-i-tci
those
been
characteristicof Chinookan
those
La-i-tci
at all times,
(indef.),
it ", the loss of short unaccented vowels. The accent
based on pronominal
Lastems
(def.),
a'-i-tc of Chinook is a strongly
fa'-i-tc,
da'-i-tc,
tathey ; Wishram
expiratory
one, seems
dahave
been
based
erations
considstems
to
on
",
pronominal
regulated
by
morphological
they
Wishram
it
W.
inshe
a",
she";
went
out of
(contrast gahi'pa
they ",
the house
whith aluba'yashe will go out of
da'uda-i-tc these people", h'xia-i-tc yon
the house
(indef.)people", based on demonstrative
; future -a, as shown also by Lower
la'xia'.This suffixcorresponds
ogically Chinook evidence,shiftsthe accent forward),
morpholda'iida,
and has leftin its train a number
-i-kc of other forms
of phonetic
to -kc-,-di-kc,
-^^in cases like W. it-ka'- consequences,
both earlyand dialectic,
the
(e.g.nominal plural
ia'it\i-kc
cf.
chief
of
which
the
W.
of
short
lu-kc
too
are
",
men
they
disappearance
;
vowelless stems
like -iq body ",
fa'itla it too
they alone ", vowels (cf.
; da'ima-di-kc
-tcktc
cf.da'ima ; Kathlamet tata-ihc these people
",
to wash"; alternations like tiI",
ook
with independent
cf. tala-x
these ").Presumably
as verb prefix,
na'-,W.
Upper Chinfrom older *-a-kc -C
with Lower
C. -^e'-i-kc is umlautcd
my
; loss of final
which
in
-di-kc
vowels
*-a-ki-c(cf.
ia'ii\a: fa'it\i-kc
"
*da-ki-c,
forms,e.g.
protected
;
reappear
in
*-ki-coi
daIn
i-saniEF
lid
Lower
C.
: L-ia";
they ").
plural
*-sa'm^lga
personal
forms in-kc,-i}ic,nnd
-tike SEniElqa-ks
their lids
the
Lower Chinook plural
-" *-savid'lqa-),
animate
both
of
and
with
and
unaccented
the lengthening
occur
plentifully nouns,
shortening
in animate (e.g.L-q\eLxa'pu-kc
of accented vowels (e.g.Lower
C. *i-cayiin
coats ",/-w'bear
: plur.
"C early
grizzly
L-caya'm-u-kc
gala-i-kchis firrs",id'wux-ti-kc"his younger
and the weakenChinook
ing
brothers "), but not with demonstrative
or
*cayam: *caya'm-).,
of
unaccented
vowels
suffix
after
The
Chinook
Lower
consonants
personal
pronouns.
is
of
in
demonstrative
above
C.
for personal
the
Lower
/"';
-c
(cf.
examples W.'/):
plurals
q: 'g').
the old unaccented */- and *a2. As regards
(t.o.x'ltac those people",
visible,
"yon
qota-c
which we
have disappeared
must
to
probablythe same element as
people",
invis.),
suppose
before transitivizing
that
and mcthe -c- of prefixed
note
ncwe
we
(excl.)
*-gy-,
may
that 1
is
it
thou
characteristic
of
all
The
transitiveforms
I
best
nm",
(cf.
").
ye
w
hile
in
suffixes
the
the
i
s
various
in
to
unaccented,
subject
pronominal
explain
plural
way
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

''

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

-0^-

"

"

"

"

"

"

''

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

Chinookan

"

be

to

seems

to

assume

form
in palatalized
*ki,preserved

Chinook
double

element
-i-tc{i)
; a plural
-kc "C *-ki-c.
plural

Another
be Lower
"

L-aa

The
number

mother
data
of

hardlydo
I.
I.

survival of the old *-ki

C.

L-a-tcl

"

mothers

old element

an

"

in
-c

Upper
and

pluralmay

"" *i-a-ki-t:

".

in this paper suggest a

presented
further problems,which we
can

than touch upon.

The disappearance
of */- and *a- in the old

See

F.

more

Boas,op. cit.,
pp. 623, 62 5,'^627.

instances the intransitivesubjectreceives

many

the

accent.

Chinook

Lower

have undergonefurther
loss of reduced
resulting

which
upper 'dialects,
shiftsof accent
with

||

he made
(e.g.Lower C. atcE'tax
A
of such
W.
:
gatclux^. good ex^ample
"

vowels
them

to preserve
better than the

seems

the old accentual conditions

"

accentual alternation is Lower

C.

"

le'-

"

it

"

it
in aLE'nkatka
: L(tr.subj.)
subj.)
(intr.
it comes
: aLgigE'ltcxEm
flyingabove me
it singsfor him
". This is not the place
to
"

"

"

"

'

I.

Op. cit.,
p. 588.

Seven:

279

Penutian Languages

109

pursue the

but
further,

matter

that the

pointout

least

at

may

*-gi-is in
transitivizing

identical
probability
adverbial

we

the

with

"

of the

-gE-

""

prefixesgE-l- for,on

all

"

him

"

for him

"

i-gEl-

meant
originally
i-gE'-l". Similarly,
at
a

-that one-to, for him

far earlierstage, a transitive cluster like t-gE-n"

-me
(W. t-g-n-') they (subj.)
"

(obj.) or
is
".
remarkable
It
*i-tcE-mof" and -gE-tn
near
tcE-m"
with,
*i-gE'-m""
(W. tc-m-')
that the pronominalelement (indirect
-thee (obj.) really
indicated
object) he (subj.)
and
suffixed
which
he
-that
never
to
-ghn-are
ihey-that
(itis)-me ",
-gEl(itis)
-thee ". It this is correct, the original
difference
receives the accent, which either strikesthe -^eit.In other words, between the intransitive and transitive phrase
some
or
syllable
following
have been one
of sentence
of pronominal
element + tranidiom.
the treatment
He
sitivizing must
thiU of pronominal
element
he goes ", but
he
as
was
expressed
*-^"?-and
goes
But
killsher
he
that
killsher
"'.
are
as
(is)
parallel.
(
who)
-f-indirective -^e/-,
-gEmthat the pronominalelement (indirect This deictic or demonstrative *o-p'-can only
note
accented
be a reduced form of post-accentual
is frequently,
even
object)
typically,
-ka,which
adverbial prefix (really
before the
in
Chinookan
occurs
freely
numerals,prosition)
postponouns,
and adverbs as deicticelement (" only,
-/pounded;
comto, for ", with which -gEl-'\s
inia'lut I gave it (masc.) just").Examplesare W. i'xt-ka justone ",
e.g. W.
**

account

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

*'

"

"

"

"

*'

to

her,

"

C. Ld'Joc

Lower

"

"

it

was

to

her ".

na'i-ka

If -/- and

"

", a'x-ka

"

she ", Lower

C. nd'm-

ents,
elemI alone ",e'-ka thus ",kaiua't-ka soon
hi
parallel
-gEl-were
strictly
",
indeed ", W.
it should be possible
nau'it-ka
iiua't-ka to yon
to have such parallel
forms as a'-land a'-gEl- for
". This deictic '-ka,
in turn, isobviously
to her
(place)
her ", whereas we
have a'-/tive
to
consistently
merelyan encliticuse of an old demonstraher" but a-gE'lka
that
which is no
stem
or
a-gEl-' for her ". This
longerin
that
free
but
-/-and
Chinookan
which
survives
not
in Lower
can
phologically
mormean
a
re
use
only
-gvJbut
that
and
element
c-ka
and
is
C.
an
as
ka,
parallel,
petrified
temporal
-gEwhich somehow
the pronoun
that (time) in Lower
and
kaC. ka-iua't-ka
displaces
draws the accent to itself.
Itspower to take the
soon
to justthat [time]
("
", parallel
in form to W. i-wa'l-ka "to justyon [place]
elements is further
accent
")
away from preceding
indicated by the fact that it regularly
and ka-wi'x'
",
occurs
early {c{.luiix't tomorrow
with voiced 0-,not with voicelessk or affricative W. wax
"dawning") ; cf. also W. tense prefix
kx (cf,
remarks in i.).
ga-, ga-l-of remote
past time. All these
What is this old element *-^^'-,
Chinookan
elements (ka,
which now
ka-, -ka ; ga-; -gE-),
reflexes
of
strative
demonthird
as
are
a
as
wide-spread
-^(e)-,
transitivizing
finally,
appears
person
m
asculine
and
*ka
often
used
feminine
that
transitive
stem
as
a
",
singular
al
generfound in other Penutian
of reference,
term
subject
(/c[eJ- he ",g^E)- she '"),and as
firstcomponent
of the verb prefixes
he
-gEl- languages(e.g.Coos -kd in xd-ka
;
for" and -gEm
? It seems
with
Takelma j^^ that";Yokuts/fert that "[vis.]
that
likely
;
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

''

"

"

"

"

"

itis an

"

old demonstrative

is either

"

or

deicticstem

which

Miwok

i-ka

"

"

"

"

that

"

Tsimshian

-_^e absent

preceding connective,-ga absent demonstrative added to

final noun
in sentence).
pronominalelement or which serves to emphasize
the pronominal
clear that the two fundamental
is
element
and
It
or
displace
fairly
3.
the postposition
to which
(-/-,*-ni-)is at factors in the developmentof the somewhat
tachedas an enclitic.A cluster of elements like irregular
were
a
morphologyof Chinookan
related
predicatively

to

the

280

VI

American

Indian Languages 2

I 10

stress
accent
and,
strong and movable
for vowels to
result of this,the tendency

as

drop

elements to
independent
originally
Thus
i
nto
complexassemblages.
together

and for

out

melt

older
as

pronominalform */to- would have required

tense
prefixthe prc-vocalic
"-, hence

*n-iicy-.
4. It is a well known

linguistic
phenomenon
sounds,groupingsof
constructed on rather simple,
lines, sounds into phonetic
analytical,
patterns, or phonetic
processes
into a highly
of indepentended more
and more
to petrify
dent
may characterize a number
hinted
sentence-word. We have already
stocks within
or
even
languages
linguistic
synthetic
that the phonetic
at the probability
change a continuous area. Such examplesare suggestive
of phonetic
interfluences between distinct
of g to tc antedated the inclusion of certain
elements in the verb. Internal evidence makes
languagespresumablythrough the medium
the
The
it practically
certain that at least
tense
change oi g or k to dj
fixes of bilinguals.
preinfluence of a
late in coming into the verb comor tc because of the palataUzing
were
plex.
front vowel (/ or e) is
of
In the first place,the tense
or
preceding
following
prefixes
differ considerably
from those
Lower Chinook
our
perhapstoo generala process to warrant
much
in
of the upper dialects ', so
its
that it looks at
occurrence
to
importance
attaching
number
less
Nevertheof
old
of
set
a
or
languages.
though an
temporalparticles
contiguous
it is of some
adverbs (Lower C. a ; "-; W.
interest,
and, it may be, of
a, a-l; i, i-g-^
historical significance,
that the
had coalesced
to pointout
na, na-l ; ni,ni-g; ga, ga-l\ ;/-)
k- sounds
of the
with the following
changeof ^- sounds or of palatalized
pronominalprefixes
lects. to Ic- sounds is found in a continuous or nearly
verb in the independent
lifeof the various diafrom a northern pointon the
continuous area
Moreover, these elements do not behave
of
Island south to the
Vancouver
had
into
coalesced
coast
west
as
a
ever
though they
lects,
mouth
Columbia.
All
of
the
the Nootka diaphoneticgroup with the early Chinookan
and
both NootKa
forms of the transitive forms for
he" (^iicc-)
Nitinat-Makah,
proper
have altered the original
Wakashan
anterior
and
she
we
Thus, in Wishram
(^ags-').
in Kwakiutl,to
Ic- sounds, preserved
have forms like i-g-i'-uxshe made him ", in
palatal
sibilant affricatives;
Kwawhich the tense
palatal
prefix/- does not palatalizecorresponding
t
the following
Nootka
doubt
because
it
a
s
to
kiutlj
(^)appear
tc; t \
-Ic-, no
g' (^'")and
-gof
number
tc'
and
did not enter
A
the
verb
into
x
as c.
(.v)
large
;
complexuntil long (^')as
the
Salish
have
altered
after the palatalizing
effect of an /- had spent
dialects,
furthermore,
unlabialized /.'-sounds to /^-sounds. I
itsforce. If the /- had been prefixed
at the time
original
that the pronominal
on
ted
am
quotingDr. Boas' personalstatement
element^^-she "stillexisin the fuller form *agj-,
unable to givethe geographit would have rethis pointand am
ical
quired
intervocalic -g~ and the form *ig-ag3'distribution of the Salish /^-dialects. I
an
would have arisen (cf.
k'add that the Lower Chinook
modern forms like ig-a- should perhaps
she
kof
the
house
which
to
out
came
correspond ordinary
-tpa
").Similarly,Q-) sounds,
form
like
Lower
Chinook
he made
sounds in Wishram, are a comparatively
recent
a
atcE tax
them "evidently
before the tense
dialectic developmentbefore /-vowels and that
arose
aprefix
for a- could not
was
part of the verb complex,
they have nothingwhatever to do with the
have palatalized
to*- to- while the
an original
old, general
Chinookan, changeof to tc after
*-_^?of this paper.
which
is the subject
/-vowels
cit.,
Op.
pp. 577-79.
the old sentence,

which

to

seems

have

been

that similar

or

identical

"

"

"

"

"

""

"

0^

I.

Seven:

Penutian

Editorial

Originally

in

published

281

Languages

Note

International

Journal

of

American

Linguistics

4,

105-110(1926).
Silverstein

Sapir
zero

(1977),

analysis

marker,
Like

Sapir,

surrounding
ergative

of

rather

ms.

Chinookan

than

on

(1977:

the

third

"heavy

sees

morphology

corrigenda

richer

the
out

person

coast,"
an

has

prefixes, although

categorial

of

data,

comparative

ergative
for

a-,

[Chinookan]

syntax"
Sapir's

the

Silverstein

inflectional

with

working

masculine

earlier

in

posits

subject/agent

influence

resulting

he

reaffirmed

from
a

rich

the

basic
fix.
pre-

languages

elaboration

"nominative-accusative

of

sal-encliti
phra-

154).
on

his

copy

are

as

follows:

Read:
Reverse

headings
and

"transitive"

ta

-kc
inanimate
See
ag^characteristic
with

-GE-L-

-GE-M-

to

her"

tached

as

/7C9Kwakiutl

sitive"
"intran-

g-

THE

RELATIONSHIP

MIXE

OF

S.

L.

By

THE

TO

PENUTIAN

FAMILY

Freeland.

One

Morphological

gets the impressionthat the

somehow

Penutian

THE

rich and fairlyintricate

in

found

and

fall back
ideas.
but

in Mixe
There

In

in Mixe
of"

their

to

much

"belong"of

the

express

in the

are

be

word

the

find it

We

manner

the

as

Miwok

In

expressed by

in

or

comita-

tive suffix.
^

The

Mixe

material
in

Oaxaca

linguistic
survey

of

that

of
Dr.

of

Anthropology
Manuel
After

Sapirfor

write

this

Mexico

under

the

Direction

writing this article I sent

and suggestions.

criticism

group.

Ust

other

Dr.

of

it

to

Dr.

the

to

American

tongues

which

due

be

of

in

other
to

seems

of linguistic
be in the direction of sparseness
expression. Nevertheless it is true that a

similar drift is at work

very

Miwok

of

instance

in

placesin
dialects

with

eastern

compared

as

some

in the western

the

dialects.^
the
interpretation,
Mixe
of
morphologicalsparseness
remains, and naturally precludes extensive
morphological comparisons. The evidence
Mixe in the Penutian familymust
for classing
therefore necessarily^
be largelylexical. But
in spiteof its limited grammatical apparatus
Mixe
morphological traits that
possesses

Whatever

be

may

the

fact of the

have

consider

strong Penutian
these briefly:

flavour.

will

We

of

further

languages from

Sapir

was

also

Dr.

Edward

Sapir was

kind

cognates

from

the

kind

to

which
I have
the
taken
marginal notes
liberty to reproduce as footnotes with the initials K. S.
In his communication
Dr. Sapir says that Prof.
to me
Roland
B. Dixon
tian
had already been struck by the Penucharacter
him
of Zoque, and
had
sent
list of
a
Penutian
in this language.
cognates
Zoque is very
close to Mixe.
The
credit for the discovery of a Penutian
Mexico
belongs therefore to
language in southern
Dr. Dixon, by priority.
^ Cf.
in Mukne
and Coos as
analytic wearing down
with

Miwok

and

Takelma.

"

(l)INTERNAL

MODIFICATIONS

OF

THE

RADICAL.

northern

enough

some

contrasted

Central

This may
influence

tack.

new

Gamio.

enough to send me
Takelma, Coos, and
Penutian

obtained
study was
of a
during the course
region for the Department

for

by J de Angulo

on
measure

for
California,

seman-

concept "with,

same

Beche-de-mer.

this would

Maidu

for instance

as

is the verb "to have".

used

very

concrete

these

cases

connections,

which

mid

relational
which

appear

from

to

"empty words"
full concrete
meaning in

some

still retain
other

removed

has

morphology

to express

pressionsome
im-

strong tendency

morphemas

step

temas.

the

is

word-order

on

New

one

started

of

tongues

gets the

One

Oregon.

that
thin. 2

worn

Penutian

of the

some

California

compared with the

grammatical patterns

is rather bare and

least when

at

scanty,

too
morphology having reached
of
in
its
usual
intricacy
degree
great
for expressingthe relational,has
methods
thrown
the whole
and
baggage overboard

of Mixe

structure

E. S.

As

in Maidu,

in Mixe
forms

the

older

This

and

in Yokuts,

so

often appears
in several
closely allied that it is sometimes

so

difficult

in Miwok

radical

to

is

Penutian

say

which

just what
features

is the

happened

primary

in Chinookan,

one.

where

only survivals and a new

and rather complex morphology was
built
autonomous
of
of coalescences
on
top of the older system by means

sequences.

"

E. S.

are

VI

284

American

Languages 2

Indian

2q

these symbolic changes express

Maidu
and Yokuts
derivational concepts, in Miwok
differences of
temporal aspects, in Mixe
In

person.^
Examples (ahyphen indicates
:
of irrelevant affixes)
Maidu
a) tot

; tat

ivitcet

Miwok:

to

to stroke ; tet to reach

die

to

smoke

to

eat

c) yopom-ia

tco

to eat

meat.

throw;

yapam

to

grass;
to

d) witcap to tear; witcep to tear

wring; witcup to tear off.

hare

to

animal; iviicut to
the hand;

split with
thuig.

to

small

splita

small

or

run

Yokuts

to

hides; witcat

play

to

for.

b) tea

ivitcot to skin

scrape

the omission

drag ; tttt to touch

to

e)

cadik, cadak

slap.
little;witcohit to

to

awake;

tcadxin

ipe,epi to get water; hiwet, hcut

tawidc, taudj to overcome
; waid,
diikdu, dukud

to

bury; tui, toy

tcadax
to

to

walk, go,

turn;
move;

to break

waadi

up

to shoot.

Mixe:

(2) THE

INCORPORATED

in subordinated

PRONOUN.

expressionsof time and in

Miwok
is
optative modes.
rich in pronominal series,
in their
specialized
for present, past, future, subjunctive
use
and the Hke.
less
much
are
Although the}''
hortatory and

and

Yokuts

are
(Costanoan)

Mukne

ently
appar-

lacking in
Southern
the

incorporated pronouns.
uses
independent forms in

Maidu

ordinary statement,
to

seems

be

v^hat

numerous

depleted series of suffixed

those

but

possesses

the

of Miwok.

Mixe

forms

closest

come

to

old objective
used
(possibly
forms),

pronouns

Examples:

Both

Miwok

amount

and

Cf. internal
These

show

alternations

changes
Umpqua.

of

"

are

considerable

obliteration of elements

vocalic

Takelma, Coos, Lower

-

Mixe

of fusion and

amazingly

verb

themes

E. S.
like the Takelma

in

putting togethertheir

gives often
in

ones,
^

quite

forms.

verb

similar

This

impression:

e.
g. ydan- "to go": fut. yana-.
and Mixe.
Takelma
like Miwok

"

"

E. S.
E. S.

Seven:

Penutian Languages

285

30

II. Semasioi,ogicax^

(l)NATURAI,
1.

si Cf. Maid,

sun:

Muk.

3.

Rather

PREFIX.

of the Mixe

largenumber

and
bi-syllabic,

many

5. cloud:
*
Pen.

verbs
be

can

7. star:

Mixe

probably has nothing like

prefixesthat there are

Maidu, but three

discernible and
Maidu:

very

heye

creep;

kick; helom step

push

away;

over;

kapadum

burn"

bedoi

run;

hewet hurry, kadokok

roll up;

katut touch;

hat; L. Um.

hiai ;

tcarak.

Cf. Muk.

night.

mur

Cf. Miw.

swilihe, *'lswil-

isai Cf. Maid,

10.

salt kan

tco; Miw.

Cf. Muk.
Cf. Miw.

11.

dry

stone:

13.

earthquake: pumimb

14. hole:

tsutul.

Cf. Miw.

tsa

Muk.

cawa;

Cf. Maid,

Aw/

tsup.

akes, aks.

12.

tes

(cf."to

to bum

semantema).^

next

9. bum

are

bedokoi

ya; Tak.

Cf. Muk.

musa

fire; Pen.

in

quiteclearly
suggestive:
four

or

night; Wint.
x
regularly

wik-, wik-, wul-, wel-; Yok.

licit,oxit; Muk.
xii, xihi, xute go for a fire,
lighta fire ; Tak. -'/cm/- to set fire to, to catch
fire; Coos cutl to set fire,Hcil- to burn, 'tcwel-

the

of these

number

be

sien-

night (Tak.

h-yai.

8. fire: hen

foot,ka- action with the hand, and the

the

like.

Miw.
xii'n

from 5).
yots Cf. Maid,

sky: tsap

6.

They suggest
analyzed into two elements.
verbs with prefixes
very stronglythe Maidu
such as he- action with
or first-position-stems

sun.

sun

night: su, us Cf.

sinol night; Tak.
comes

in the list are

hi, hit sun, day;

Wint.

sun;

po Cf. Maid,

moon:

4.

VERBAL

fire;Miw.

sa

icnien, hismen

(also poko
pombok moon
sun,
poho night, poketcuk star); Yok. opodo,
Wint.
Kal.
upic moon;
po fire;Tak. be svm;
pyd-'n sun, day.
shine : tuks Cf Miw. lulep-shine ; Muk. tuxts day.

2.

(3)THE

EIvEMENTS:

isin.

Cf. Wint.

pomoko.

tuke; Muk.

kutui.

katcaduk

grab; pai foot, trail;-pat after.

Mixe: petc-hto climb; pegig to run; pedig
to rise; pasl-h to go
out; pa- along, by;
pa-otsm to go along; pa-witsm to creep;
pa-nas to pass by {nas"the ground"); pa-boy
to

chase; pa-son

to

follow; pa-wep

to

kick

[wep to strike) kuhath to pay ; kudigxto put ;

kutuk to command;
kuyat to play; kunas to
fall {nas ground); ni-pan to cover;
ni-kes-b
to be on
top of something high [kos,kes
above, on, upon); ni-wits to close; neksm to

In

found
of the

different

basis of

Association.
and

of

in order

obtain

The

to

and

o;

orthography
common

system of transcriptionwe

of the American
Anthropological
be well to point out that in Mixe,

It may

semantemas

the

sources

is that

of

alter somewhat

interchangeable; i'and

c are

forms

following list

to

comparison.

followed

have

the

making

it necessary

in Mixe

the

the "unrounded"

f'are

dynamic

stress

accent

to go
go, ni-neksm
one
else;kutuk to

throughthe

agency

place; kes-ets

for the benefit of

some

order, ni-kutuk to order

of another; kes-wits to

to boil);
placeto boil {ets-b
niwis-dud to open {niwits
to close)
; nipan-dud
to uncover
[nipan to cover); rswits to take
off [kes-witsto place, ni-wits to close)
;
to make
a skirt [pit
rspit-n
thread)[rspit-m

also

"to

means

[mats-b

to

to

trotisers ;

tangle");rsmats to
;
pats-bto find)

take,

let go
rsmats

is

seldom

of

further

more

than

looked

be

may

one

upon

syllablethat
confidently as
and

Wintun

Maidu,
and

unpublishedmaterial

own

this
a

in

turn

is

so

stem
di-syllabic

resolvable

under

of the Handbook

first volume

made

I have

of that

by R.
of American

of

use

of Mr.

of Maidu

Angulo, also of the grammar

in the

and

semantema,

scrutiny.

For Miwok,
my

the

invariably on

J. do
Dixon

B.

Indian

Languages.
For

Pomo

have

made

use

Angulo's unpublished material,

geography of the
Mukne
by

I have

J.

A.

Pomo

used

Indians
the

Mutsun

of my
also

by S.

own

of
A.

Dialect

and
The

J. de
Ethno-

Barrett.

For

of Costanoan

Mason.

I have
used
The
Yokuts
Language of
California by A. L. Kroeber.
Many of the kinship terms are to be found in E. W.
nologies".
Gif ford's exhaustive
work
"California Kinship TermiFor

Yokuts

Southern

E. S.

Pen.

*swil- "fire" ?

Pen.

*'tswil- "to burn"

"

American

VI

286

Indian Languages 2

31

river;

15. water,
to be

Wint.

16. wet:

23.

nuni-

to

soak

up.

upa; Yok. ciwek drizzle.

iL'ibux Cf. Maid, dp to dive; Miw. upux
upxi
bathe, swim; Yok. ep-, ip- swim; Muk.
to sip; Tak.
'pag- to bathe.
poh Cf. Maid, biye; Miw. pwc to blow;
19. wind:
put blow, pusninyis
Yok. piuate whistle; Muk.
whirlwind; Wint.
pul whistle; Tak. -p'ouwto blow; Chinook
po to blow; Kal. ptU to blow;
bmi

pjix- to spout; Tsim.

lasas.
(saps Cf. Muk.

Coos
20.

red:

21.
22.

green:
then:

28.

more:

kotcis; Muk.

stisA Cf. Maid,

Cf. Miw.

we/

this; Muk.

ne

Cf. Miw.

maak

good:
positive,

Yok.

Muk,

houu;

31. thus:
32. if:

exactly as in Mixe; Maid, -n

-its, -ats
ending, "contmuative"
(forms of the verb to be) ; Cf Miw. -ntcu to live,

he; Wint.

Cf. Miw.

sa

pen. Cf. Muk.

24.

continuative

continually.
big: mi, mik,

Mukne

tcira

(V. also old)Cf. Yok.

mix

always,
nioxodo

adult; Tak. mahai.

old; Muk. muk
pusnt.
25. little: mutsk. Cf. Muk.

pik Cf.

he; Miw.

40.

louse:

41.

bedbug:

Miw.

Cf. Muk.

ag

pol; Yok.

huk-\ Wint.

rax.

/// Cf. Maid,

dt^ louse.

hi;

(3) plants:

0.

like,as; Muk.

saka

also

this.

ke, ken, ket; Yok.

Cf. Maid,

oy

nouns,

27. Numbers:'

icutsu.
"e

manik.

Cf. Miw.
ka-, kedi.
k'a"nu; Muk.
ekwe, kwe.

30. yes,

-/it; Muk.

infinitive

26. round:

blow.

to

Cf. Miw.

te-

bakak.

not:

29. no,

verbal

tub, tsuy Cf. Miw.

17. rain:
iS. wash:

affixes: Past

Temporal

-n infinitive;
-te,-kie. "essential" : -b,-n Cf. Muk.
Tak. -n noun
used to make
suffix, sometimes

boat.

hm

cumek

Miw.

Cf.

50^

Miw.

wet;

dim

Cf. Maid,

ni

submerged;

sata.

pini.

42.

tree: kep, kip Cf. Miw.

kapiim, bark;
yapkin ; Muk.
xipur, tree.
brush, bush, forest: yuk Cf. Miw.
yomyum,
brush; Yok. yawud; Maid, yo, flower.

wood,

Yok.

43.

(2) animals:
dog:

33.

Cf.

uk.

Maid,

suku;

Muk.
hutce; Wint.
tce-jej;
hu to
34. bird: hon Cf. Maid,
hotju egg; Yok. hoy egg.

eagle: wits Cf. Miw.

eagle, witc, condor.

35.

36. snake:

Cf.

ink

wipayak;

Cf. Muk.

tsan

frog:

37.

Miw.
tcuku; Yok.
'tsixi.
cukut; Tak.
fly,horn nest; Miw.
Yok.

Note

to "two"

and
if

we

such

to Miwok

we

Muskogian.

and

otto

assume
as

m-

have
"

Chin,
to

E.

S.

Cf. Muk.

pux

us-

Mukne

in

matsk

cannot

us-tug "7" (=

utxi-n

durative

owos.

Cf. Maid,

pu, to blossom.

Cf. Maid,

people: hay

48. person,

maidik;

Miw.

mai.
md; Yok.
yayek, yadyek Cf. Miw. naya-yak, Yok.
49. man:
(also Coos -iyag plural suffix in
muk-yamk.

mokct., Mixe

Mixe

archaic
far more

as

uts

flower;

hutia.

sasuk.

(4) man:

wataksay, kotola; Wint,

Cf. Maid. mako.

39. flea; picg Cf. Muk.
wipsur.
^

46. fruit:
47.

Cf. Miw.

xuyge

sarjk Cf. Muk.

moss:

lisana.

Miw.

ak

directly
compared

45.

witisnl,

watak.

38. fish;

44.. tobacco:

but

may

be

intran.sitive

transparently in Hokan

be

-|-5)

Muk.

terms

of

Coos

muwe;

relationship).

51.

Miw.
tosdyek Cf
occayak, Yok.
latc-yamk.
mix
old man:
(also"big") Cf. Maid, muk, big;

52.

foe, enemy:

50.

related

prefix,

miw;

woman

Yok.

and

Muk.

moxodo;
was

muk,

Cf. Mukne

adult.
wayas.

Seven:

287

Penutian Languages

3^

tyedj,tat Cf. Maid.

54. father:

ete,

Cf. Yokuts

nakn

youth, boy:

53.

grandfather;Win.

35. mother:

Yok.

tagh,nana
-ajaj;Mukne

Kal.

7ii;Low.

notco.

te\ Yok.

would

tata.

Cf. Maid,

Miw.

ne;

na,

kinshipending);

Coos

Tsim.

"mother!"

nik/a

dialect)nc-^i

(Nass R.
(-H "my"), nd'd

(voc);

(voc.).

56. grandfather:ap Cf. Maid, opa, pa; Miw. apa,

father; Mukne
apa, father; Win.
apa; Yok.
Tsim.
(Nass
bapa, bap', father's mother;
R. dial.)
mother's
brother, bip'
no-beb-i',my

(voc).
57. elder
taka.

brother:

Cf. Miw.

ats

ata, tatci; Mukne

brother:
its Cf. Maid,
58. yoimger
iDi''
tcale; Mukne
tare; Miw.
sister:

59. younger

Cf. Wint.

vis

utcii; Miw.

Wa'*

Yok.

Cf. Maid,

haym
kawa,

61. elder

Miw.

kam;

yam,

I: es, -s,

68. I:

*-tsi

Cf. Miw.

n-

"

Tak.

-5, -mus;

-xi

"me",

*-si.

"

kan; Yok. na; Muk.

I/Ow. Ump.
n;

kan; Wint.
"1", -n

Coos

"my";

nanu

This

uma.

{*-'tst). (E. 8.)^

Cf. Maid.

-es

vocative

is characteristic, it
with its vmdoubtedly

contrasted

as

seem,

from

na

"I, me"; Tak. -'n, -n (trans,subj.);Chin, -n"I, me"

(Wishram dial, also indep, "a.)
Cf. Maid,
69. thou: migs, mmi, -mam,
-mem;
Miw. mi; Yok. ma;
Mukne
Wint. mi; Tak.
me;
Chin, -m-, -mi-; Tsim.
n
ma;
(thee);m-.
-i; Miw. /.
70. he: yt Cf. Maid,
Cf. Miw. -m, -me; Yok. mai;
-ma
71. we:
-m,, -em,
Mixkne
Coos
makse, fnak; Tak.
-ami;
-aw;
"

tu, t'i; Miw.

(Sapir MS.).

(SapirMS.).
60. uncle:

67.

mother"

"my

diminutive

*-si

cognate Hokan

ita;

ti/a,parents: Tak. ni-, -hin;

Chinook
-wafl; Coos e'n-dtc {-ate

"grandmother":

tc, uma-c
Penutian

-atet; Muk.

Tsim.

-Em.

-t, -te, -ta Cf. Miw.

wud
Cf. Mukne
73. which:
wit; Low.
Ump. watc.
72.

-tos, -ton, -tok, -tc.

ye:

Coos

"someone";

watt

kaw\

komoy.

sister: isyo

Cf. Maid,

cti; Miw.

De'De*

(5) BODY

PARTS

ACTIVITIES:

AND

1
(Sapir).

aunt:
tsugu Cf. Yok. guiha,
63. child: tt";g Cf. Miw. aijst, son;
mos.
64. son:
wza"; Cf. Mukne
65. daughter: ^e/, wyi's.
62.

06. diminutive

Mukne

rwis, son.

eye,

(Tak.

endearing suffix (suggestedby

Sapir)-s, -c, -j (e.g. wi'-y,daughter; Cf. ur)-g,
chUd.
Pen. stem
perhaps *ariu,child; dimin.

-dj,hence: tyed-j,father (probablydim.

ata
tat); at-s, elder brother : Miw.

of

brother:

sister:
yoimger
*-s! survives also

Maid,

ti, Miw.

Miw.

Pen.

it-s,

dimin.

*-si-),also

"

("to look")

-xanw-

Cf. Miw.

aux

Yok.

awo;

Mukne

ata, ca;

xai.

eni; Miw. He/??/,leiip;

_va"e Cf. Maid,
tadxat, palat "project tongue"; ^lukne
lase; Wint. tahal; Tak. ela; Coos Ae//a ; Low.

76. tongue:
Yok.

i^al.

Ump.
77. to

drink:

ug

ukis; Tak.

iDi'^; ut-s,
This

Wa'\

in other

75. mouth:

form
;

-xi-

*-san-w-.-

"

or

Mixe
"
*a'yiu-si
tji-s,Miw. ajj-si,
son, Mukne
ini-s,son). With stems ending in -t,-d this old
to form
diminutive combines in Mixe
-ts, -ic,

younger

Cf. Maid, hin; Miw. c'in-ti,

xin ;
c'iy,to see ; Yok. oil,to see ; Mukne
Wint. wini, to see, ca, eye; Tak. al-xi-g-,
-xi-k-,

win, is "to see"

74. eye:

nusus.

Cf. Miw.

78. to speak: mo^

dialects: Miw.

mouth;

Yok.

wcczt;

uk; Mukne

iigw-.

Miw.

Cf. Maid,

mo-,

action

ma-,

Mukne

answer;

mo-,

Cf. Miw.
ay-si, son; S. Coast Miwok
(Barrett) taiyi-s, 79. to answer:
azoy
osehe.
hena-s, boy; oyi-s,old
kuleyi-s,woman;
80. word:
old woman( ?); Mukne
ini-s,mo-s,
kops Cf. Maid, ka,
man;
potci-s,

with

}"!ons.

has-, ask; Mukne

man;

Wintun

son;

vized

"

sister
younger
*utaP); Tak. -xi,

utcu,

*utu

"

(diminuti-x

"

*-si,

(in hap-xi, child, haap-x, one's children,

cf
combinations) ;
haap'-, child in other
Chinookan
(Wishram dialect)-c in -k!acu-c,
paternal grandfather,
father,
-gak! u-c, maternal grand-k/i-c, paternal grandmother (these

Mukne

say;

Miw.

81. to call:

mo

Cf. Maid,

Miw.

wo;

"'o;

say, speak, tell; Chin, wawa,

talk (dissimilated
from
yaway-,

*-s

Low.

82.

nose

hikb Cf. Maid,

hikii;Miw.

Ump.

talk; Tak.

waa,

/fa-,say;

ko, say.

*waway- ?).

A"/j ; Mukne

hus.

suffix -c
Mukne
-s
verbalizing
Nominalizmg
(e. g. yitc-s "language" "; rite "to speak";
Tak.
-{a)x infinitive suffix of intransitive verbs
Low. Ump.
-s
"
*-(a)s;
verbalizing suffix (waas
"to speak").
"language" "" waa
=

etymologicallyrelated to respective
reciprocals:
-qcE-n, -gaka-n, -gia-n),further in
stems

are

father

(stem -am) and wa-n-aq-c,

(stem -aq-); Coos -ca, endearingsuffix

wi-n-am-c, my
my

mother

(e. g.

huumik-ca

"dear

old

woman";

umd-ca-

suffix
=

In

other

words

we

have

c-

of Maidu

diminutivizing.

cti

and

-sy-

of

Mixe

tsyo may

be

xin. Maid,

perhaps

hin, Tak.

also

Coos

two

old Penutian

stems:

is, Tak.
Miw. cln-ti,Yok. cil,Mukne
Tsim, saal "to notice",
-xan-w-,

*(i)sa or *(i)say(" Miw.

-xi-)and *{i)san,*(i)sat"

ciy-, Wint.

xil-, "to

look

ca,

Mixe

around".

"

E. S.

VI

288

American

Languages 2

Indian

33

83.

track; Miw.

Mukne

luk;

Yok.

tokoc;

Miw.

Cf.

tatsk

ear:

liiksiis.
Miw.
ka-. with the hand;
ki Cf. Maid.
64. hand:
Mukne
s. regularly.
*esu. Miw. k
eku. uka "
Muk.
hand;
ko, to hit with
E. S.); Yok.
=

Win.

Urap.
mats
nm;tr, get; Low.
to take:
mats
to lay; Tak.
lag-, put, place; (Pen.
mate-,
(Wishr.
Ta^.
mas-g-); Chin.
*matsbase
"
to lay, -a-l-ima-lx, to put into
dial.) -A--n"a,
Tsim.

to

mag-,

put dowTi.

Maidu

me,

to

Muk.

a""-;

88.

Muk.

Cf. Maid,

mid

work:

finish.

/w"

wi-. pull,press;
89. to put, place: -wits Cf. Maid.
Miw.
wtk-; Tak. -ttyhA,to spread out.
tek,
/^A, jump; Miw.
foot, leg: t'ik Cf. Maid.
go.
/^A^, walk on
kick, Aa/f, foot, tirji,
hip; Mukne
01.

koc, Cf.

knee:

ois

to

go:

93.

to

walk:

to

94.

Ump.

Low.

gouk;

103.

icwyo ; Mukne
testicles: istca

104.

anus:

wag

Cf. Miw.

by; Mukne

u-;

Miw.

105.

to

twa//,come,

ze/a/^,go;

wadix,

Tak.

wi-,

108.

love, like:

yoc-;

Chin,

-ya,

*iya,

the

foot, walk,

trail, etc.:

pa-

(pason, to follow, paboy, to chase, pesamb, to

out) Cf. Maid, be-, with the foot, puiyi, hunt.

go

Maidu

Pen.

-t from

Editorial

"

Mukne
E. S.).

ho7i; Yok.

Maid.

hut,

tsok

to

ceki ; Yok.

Cf.

Maid,

think.
dote

Mukne

-sak-; Yok.

susu.

icik;

instrument".

See

-i

nominalizing

S.
ho-n

cf. "infinitive"
"

ota, otso;
Tak.
xan.

otciko.

E.

"

heivhaw-,

Miw.
.

"Sleeping

"

suffix.
'

with

Mukne

(Cf. Hokan

Tak.

tsok Cf

fear

about.

Yok.

xtitu, belly;
horj,heart; Mukne
imagine, think; Low. Ump. hai,

haw-, to

107.

go).

action

(Cf. Wint. tcunu-s;

heart, belly,thought: hot
hon, to know,

qoq;

piss;

utcu,

pudenda.

tatsp Cf. Miw.

urinate:

opinion;
Yok.

Maid,

tcoxo,

tcala

"-.

iwi-n, weeta;

Coos

gwen;

tcatia.
Cf. Miw.
caii-tal;Mukne
pxut Cf. Miw. poii, navel; Yok. poiodo,
intestines; Mukne
pot.
puttus, belly; Wint.

Coos

Cf. Maid,

to go: y- Cf. Maid,

i-ye; Miw.
Tak.
yaw-;
-i-\ Tsim.
yaa;
to

95.

go

phallus:

-q!oxl.

Chin92.

pass

Tak.

Tak.

Atf/c,bone; Mukne

/cz ; Miw.

tsii-k Cf.

102.

106.

toes.

ogun;

kwininicu.

/ca/c, bone.

taiiha; Yok.

Cf. Miw.

dun

yok-yi Cf. Yok.

Low.
Ump.

rib: /la/c Cf. Maid,

/jaA.

^tt, posa.

kwin-ts;

Miw.

me;

cumi.

;trMm,

to do, make,
/nc;

have:

to

mo,

lean;

to

uy,

-/'o^,-puk; Wint.

Cf. Maid,

Cf. Maid,

po

neck;

100.

in-; Yok.

Cf. Maid,

uy

pak

skin:

99.

loi.

give:

comes

one.

98. bone:

to

catch.

87.

97. to sit:
Mukne

an-si.

Cf. Mukne

ava

Cf. Mukne

water;

paya,

from

kupum.

85. left hand:

86.

depart; Mukne

move,

Coos, haya-ti, to lie down

(Coos A often
iv); Yok. woi-, to sleep.

"

isu;

puy,

payta, himt.
a bed)^ Cf. Tak.
96. to stay : wi (alsoin : tti^ic,
teiay-,
to sleep ; Kal. ivai,to sleep; Tsim.
woq, to sleep;
run,

*haw-,
same

in -n,
Yokuts
ho-r]probably nouns
*hofrom
base
-n,
noun-forming

and
and

"hau-;
base.

"

Mixe

ho-t

probably

factitives

in

E. vS

Note

Linguistics6,
Originally published in International Journal of American
28-33 (1930).
Ancestral
supposed by most authorities to have been the
Mixe-Zoque is now
known
high cultures
the oldest of the archeologically
language of the Olmecs,
1976).
of Mesoamerica
(Campbell and Kaufman
expanded by
Pcnutian"
"Mexican
(Mixe-Zoque and Huave) was
Sapir's
Uto-Aztecan.
(1956)
and
Greenberg
Whorf
( 1935) to include Mayan, Totonac,
accepted

the

addition

of

Mayan

and

Totonac

but

excluded

Uto-Aztecan.

Seven:

has

Greenberg
part

of

reaction
The

accepted
affiliation

(1987)

recently

hemisphere-wide

from

Whorfs

of

uncritically
of

in

specialists

connection

Huave

reiterated

is

now

Otomanguean

version

of

Mexican

bolstered
claims

have

proposed

considered

(Campbell

with

met

Campbell
by

improbable.
1979:

Penutian
extensive

by

(see

languages

Mixe-Zoque,

to

Sapir,

with

Greenberg's

nor

Huave

by
is

scheme

Mesoamerican

289

Languages

his

classificatory

Neither

comparisons.

Penutian

Radin
The

964).

as

lexical
favorable
1979:

(1916)
most

964).
and

likely

COOS-TAKELMA-PENUTIAN
Edward

COMPARISONS

SAPiRf

and

1. Introduction

In

1.3.

1.5.

the

In the

Sapir'scomparisons

2.

our

ences.

of manuscript
Description
Phonology
Why withheld
Symbols and arrangement

1.4.

of

slight knowledge of
languages involved, I
succeeded
in getting together what
I believe to
of evidence
be a quite respectable mass
tending to
unite the southern languages with those of Oregon
"stock".
into a large and highly differentiated
spite

...

of

most

1.1. Date
1.2.

Swadesh

Morris

Californian

article Sapir refers to evidence

same

for stillfurther Penutian

1. The

Coos-Takelma-Penutian

sons
compari-

by Edward
has
Morris
Swadesh
prepared them
Sapir.
and
ductory
has
for pubhcation
provided the intropresented here

made

were

and

information

discussion.

Sapir'smanuscript, which

1.1.

Franz

part of the

forms

now

1914, the publication

J. Frachtenberg's Coos, An
of Leo
year
Illustrative Sketch, Extract from Handbook
back

dates

about

to

in the form

been

annotations

made

Penutian

Form

to in A

of

Stem

(UAL

2.58-67),pubHshed in 192L In this article

with Frachtenberg's suggestion
he concurs
of

affinities

Penutian

of

certain

Oregon

All this is very

with

conclusions

independently. On
Coos
that

the

it

grammar

Takelma

fundamental

and

Coos

of

became

soon

it chimes

arrived

I had

appearance

the morphological and

between

as

me,

at

to

plausibly

and

Siuslaw

group

lexical resemblances

were

too

numerous

and

of both

Maidu
lexical

(that

is Miluk

Dixon

and

Kroeber's

or

the

Since

Siuslaw),one
made

list

and

Coos

items

"Mil."

Siuslawan

infer that the

may

and

the added

of

Frachtenberg's
sketches. The original

then

must

four

(that is, Lower

before

after the appearance

the

include

marked

'see L.U.'

notes

Coos

additions

column

to

dialect of Coos) and

of

was

distinguishable,
a lighter

are

for additions

main

have

been

Texts, which

based

on

appeared

This

assumption is corroborated
by
of Coos Texts has
the fact that Sapir'scopy
marginal glosses of Takelma
comparisons in
in 1913.

and

be

of California

Wintun,

the Coos

for Coos,
other title.

but set 152, and

Frachtenberg's Coos

accounted

with

sets.

in

no

me

explained away
by accident
for by borrowing. The
of Frachtenberg's Siuslaw
material
appearance
has
confirm
this impression,
to
only tended
that
Coos
it perfectly obvious
further, to make
and
are
Siuslaw, as
Frachtenberg announces,
divergent representatives of a single linguistic
stock. Meanwhile
comparisons of Takelma, Coos,
or

first 151
items

berg's
Frachten-

clear to

of ink

numbered

152

is

of

Sapir'susual

columns

There

Penutian.

for the latter and

Umpqua

interestingto
or
hypotheses

prints,
re-

Comparative
Sapir, in the

in

are

of cognates, with

groups

annotations

languages,stating:

and

present manuscript consists

writing. There

small

blue

teristic
Charac-

in

8x11, handwritten

13 pages

Indian
of American
Languages (BAE-B
At least two shades
portant
40.2.297-429).It surely represents an imblue for all
a dark
part, though far from all,of the

Sapir refers

marginal

Collection.

1.2. The

Takelma,

lexical evidence

of

Sapir in books

by
like those compiled
Penutian
Glosses by Edward

PhilosophicalSociety, evidently

American

have

it may

Boas

of the

Collection

Boas

It is
relationships.
possiblethat other manuscripts will yet be
of
discovered containingthis material. Much

what

seems

to be the same

and
list,
in the
tions
made

there

lighterink.
on

are

All the

the ink used

ink

as

the

script
manu-

'L.U.' annotations

foregoingobserv^amanuscript were

in the

by inspectiononly.The

identifications

Penutian

(Costanoan, Miwok, Yokuts,

an
ber
astonishing numand morphological corresponddisclosed

132

seem

for

the

except for those

which

have been

quite obvious,
parts of the manuscript
most
affected by light.

most

part

292

VI

American

Indian

Languages 2
133

coincidingwith originalx, and that new

s developedout of older c and ch.
evidence
few
in generalseems
The
at
to bear out
criss-cross
a
points.
Sapir
diagonal
critical
later
but
is
marks
the
to
such
a
used
Sapir'stheory,
register
proof complicated
reexamination of his work. That is,at some
by the presence of more than one s-sound in
the list,
he must
time after he had made
Yokuts, Coos and perhaps other Penutian
have gone through it again,with constant
languages,and by the existence of two
x-sounds in Coos and Siuslaw. Robert Shafer
reference to the sources, checkingthe entries
has attempted a clarification
of Penutian
k
which seemed
plausibleand putting the
that on
reflection
and x-sounds,^
but he does not fullysuccriss-cross by the ones
ceed;
his material is insufficient in quantity
improbable.During this process he
seem
between
would often insert additions to the original and does not properlydistinguish
material. In the present manuscript,we find
probable cognates and similaritieswhich
confirms and
ever,
that the criss-cross sometimes
might have resulted from borrowing.Howbe expected to yield
overrides an earlier hesitancyrethe problem may
sometimes
flected
to patientresearch in the future.
questionmark or
by parenthesized
Where
in
after
Yokuts
the
57
annotations (e.g.
Sapir givestwo or more
spellings
form:
-ha-n, for a word, they may be variant phonetic
"perhaps better to Tak.
of one and the same
recordings
form,dialect
no.
55").Three asterisks between entries 55
variants (as in Yokuts), or functional variants
and 56 may be a pause mark, showing where
his
verb
in
aorist
and
in
stem
stem
had
stopped
(e.g.
temporarily
Sapir
firstkind
variation
The
horizontal
line
between
is
of
here
A
86
short
Takelma)
check-up.
eliminated to the extent possibleby using
and 87 is evidentlyanother pause mark.
The
other two
1.3. The manuscriptdoes not include any
phonemic spellings.
types
have been retained because of their value in
full analysisof phonologicalrelationships.
However, one finds phonologicalnotes at tracingphonologicalrelationships.
it was
desirable and easily
For Yokuts
various points.
Some of these merit general
The occurrence
of Yokuts
d for
comment.
graph
monopossible,by consultingNewman's
and with additional data kindlyproearlier 1 is indicated or impliedin a number
vided
of places(8,9, 19, 50, 54, 71,72,74,78,79,
by Newman, to specifythe dialect of
work' has
most of the cited forms. Where Sapirgivesa
83, 84, 87, 94, 95); Newman's
since shown
that this is a regulardialectal
singleform and it coincides with the Yawelmani dialect,
it has been labeled Yawelmani
development in Wikchamni, while the other
dialects preserve the lateral.In two cases (10, (Yy). Where
Sapir'sform is from another
than one dialect,
the
includes
have
dialect
Wintun
Takelma
s
more
or
structed
recon23) we
X,
has been
added after Sapir's
the first Yawelmani
to t; item 7, disregarding
Coos
form
Yokuts entry.
(Hanis dialect),
suggests that
I or X might be a better reconstruction. The
1.4. Why did Sapirnot publishhis Coosevidence?' The answer
is
earlier s is Takelma-Penutian
development of Takelma
x from
remarks
in
the
The
123.
posited 11,35,41,61, 75,99, 121,
following
perhapssuggestedby
originof Takelma s from earlier c is suggested (UAL 2.59, 1921):
Besides the entry numbers the manuscript
set of check marks
varying with a
a

has

instances of

in 129. This fitsin with the fact that Takelma

has

Unfamiliarity

with

Alsea

(Yakonan)

and

though it has s and the combination

it impossiblefor me
to follow
Kalapuya made
s?,the latter beingpronounced as a
*
affricate. Sapir'sidea was
Penutian, UAL, 13.205-19 (1947).
dently
eviglottalized
Some
of Sapir'scomparisons and structural
that pre-Takelma s changed to x,
no

even

'

observations

See Stanley S. Newman, Yokuts, Viking Fund

Publications in Anthropology 2 (1944),p. 16.
'

The
UAL

are

included

Relationshipof Mixe
6.28-33

(1930).

in

to the

L.

S.

Freelander,

Penutian

Family,

Seven:

293

Penutian Languages

134

chain

of evidence

Nevertheless,
geographically.
pointsof contact soon manifested
to be brushed
aside.
themselves too persistently
for a long while to take up seriAfter hesitating
ously
of affiliating
the possibility
Chinook, one
and
isolated
of the
most
morphologically
the
specializedlanguages in America, with
Penutian
find myself
languages of Oregon, I now
forced by the evidence to admit such an affiliation
but decidedlyprobable.
as not only possible
The
still awaiting me.
greatest surprisewas
Should
it be possibleto demonstrate
Tsimshian
(and I am fairlysanguine that it can be
the

to
scription,^

types, a normal

(')
position
in the word, and a risingor sustained long
accent
(')occurringon long vowels or on
vowel-sonant
in contrast
to falling
groups
tone for the normal
accent in this position.
Points of phonetic usage: x is for back
velar spirant,
c is for sibilant affricate (ts),
for shibilant affricate,
H
double letters are
used for long vowels,r is for voiced velar
ated
spirant(inCoos).The languages
are abbrevidetached
is a
demonstrated) that Tsimshian
by using the first letter for Takelma,
northern
be comoffshoot of Penutian, we would
pelled
Coos, Siuslawan,Yokuts, Wintun, the first
fact in linguistic
to face a most
interesting
letters for Chinook, Miwok, Maidu,
two
diflferentiationand in the distribution of American
Mukne
tribes.
(Costanoan Freelander's term).Yy
Chinookan

with

tonal

two

variations

accent

accordingto

"

These

show

comments

that

Sapir

is used for the Yawelmani

sidered
con-

For

convenience

dialect of Yokuts.

in

printing,Sapir's
the manuscript
to be part of a
for
dropped.Sapir's
cross
diagonal
he feltcould be demonstrated. Evidentlyhe
is
improbable comparisons
retained,his
of Kalapuya
was
awaiting the appearance
marks
check
His
omitted.
are
parenthetic
data and was
hoping to work out in detail
also indicating
questionmarks,
doubt, are
the relationship
and
shian.
Tsimof Chinookan
retained but are
after
rather
than
placed
He felt sufficiently
of himself to
sure
Other than in such matters
before
the
entry.
publiclystate his theory, but perhaps he
of arrangement, punctuation and phonetic
thought it well to wait with the specific
materials are given as fistedby
dence symbols,the
lexicaldata until he could present the eviSapir.
for the fullerpicture.
The case would
the

Coos-Takelma-Penutian

tionship
relacolumnar
largergroupingwhich
has been

arrangement

of

then be comparable to that of Sapir's

theory

kuu-x-m/e (?) (seeS); Mi kule,

Ma
kiila woman.
2. C
wife,
woman.
students asked Sapirwhy he did not publish
Mi
W
T
kul-sak
k'^aaxaX
how;
bow;
gaP
kono,
his evidence for this connection,he said it
how. 3. C walwal knife;T wiih-A;m/e;
Mi
be
better
off
he
had
until
hold
to
might
tuu\\^iu-kto
worked out and publishedthe full details of hulaya knife.4. tuu good (aor.
be good);Mi towi-s good.^5. C asoo
again,
spect,
Athapaskan phonology. However, in retroasoow-is second;Mi os(s)a,
otta two. 6. C
one
can
only regretthat this material
niika mother!;T hin-,nie'^n-ee^
mother,
not publishedlong ago.
was
W
nenin. Ma ne, Mu ana
nen-^m,
1.5. Sapir's 1914
orthography is here mother;
mother. 7. C huuI nose, Miluk fin-nuuq;T
and
modernized
spellingsare
given in
sin-,sinii-x- nose; W Xinik,suno, Y tiiDiik
form
the
In
extent possible.
to
phonemicized
tinik. 8. C helta tongue; T ela
the case of Takelma, we take the aspirates nose, Yy
Ma eni,W tahal.Mi le-mtep,le-tip,
tongue;
to be clusters of stop with h and the glotMu
m-ada-t
las,lase,lasa,Y talxat,'''aladis,
talized to be clusters with glottalstop;
"^aalat- to lick.
talxat
tongue,
tongue,
Yy
Takelma accent is here reduced,with reasonable
9. C
kxla leg; T k"el- leg; W koli leg
from
inferred
justification
Sapir'sde("*k*ili ?),Mu kolo, koro foot.Mi kollo
relatingNa-dene

and

2. 1. T

Sino-Tibetan.'* When

kulei

See

discussion

Athapaskan
UAL

and

18.178-81

(by

Morris

Sino-Tibetan

(1952).

Swadesh)

by Robert

of

Shafer,

Takelma,

Handbook

40.2.17-18

of American

(1922).

guages,
Indian Lan-

294

VI

American

Indian Languages 2

135

tak-ax- head;Mu
taxa-Shead. 40. C x'^iHux'^ ^
foot,Y kada-Sa lower leg,Yy kalassa'i*.10. C
head (?);T ?ulu-k?-i- hair of head; Mu
Miluk
Hil-li leg;T sal- foot ("*tal-?);W
ut,
Xel-ma ("*tel-?).
uri,uli hair,Yy ?otow head.Ma ono head.
41. C '))[
si water.
to drink;T xl water; Mu
11. T xuu''*n night (forx:s, cf. xi water
Ma
sewi
river.Mi kik water. 42. C Xipi^
below); W sinol night.12. T b"e sun, day.
43. C
arrow.
today;Ma poko sun, W po day, arrow; Mu tep-s, temo-x, nemo
now,
poo
Y 'i'opo-do
Iqawe to die; T lohoy-, loho- to die; Mu
day, Yy "^opmoon.
sun, "i^op-di
to sleep (plur.,
13. T n6ox rain-,W luha rain. 14. T p'^ii^re; laku- dead. 44. C cimsimt
nahi
lake.
s'i'aaw
W
reformed
from *ir)tim
T
"*tim-t
W
15.
or
"
lake;
redupl.
po fire.
W
Mu
etin-i
T
mountain
M
i
ho\
16.
to sleep.
som
("*tom?);
*t-ir)tim); eten, enen,
toX,
17. T tan rock;W Son rock. 18. C
mountain.
?er)tim,Yy ?entam a sleep-inducing
eM, Y
substance. (Is Esselen acin- after all merely
Sximl black bear; T x",mk grizzlybear; W
borrowed from Costanoan?).45. T ti interrogative
red; W
Silaibear,grizzlybear. 19. T -s'i'il
mau-ti
hi-ti
whof
enchtic; Mi
tulu-ka,tede-kit red. 20. C bni ^ood; W
-de
whatf
Ma
Y
ti
interrogative,
laiyokgood.
enclitic,
Mu
46. C n- /; T -?n I"him,
21. T ma
thou;W mi thou, [see47].22. T
-sa, -s (" *-ti).
panti-beup, panti -n (fut.)I" him; Ma ni /, W ni,Yy na?.
pamup, pam-ls sky; W
47. T ma
thou;Mu me, men, mene. Mi mi,
on, upon. 23. tqanX- (?)[tohit,to strike with
to fightwith, Yy ma?, W
sanainstrument]
mi, Ma mi thou. 48. C Xtaa
; T saansan-,
W
Mia
T
S [Xa?ay]);
T tkaa earth;Ma
-t
shoot
24.
earth
to
("*tana?).
(?)
(see
spear;
W
kau
-u-t
Ch
49.
-xadjectivesuffix;
ground.
-k-, my; T ki /,-te-k,
present participle,
with
s
uffix
jective
subkoom
Mu
-t-k
-t adjective
future participle,
ka, kan, kana /, Mi
my,
we;
Ma
-do- present participle.kanni 7, -ka, -ka-n my. 50. C -en numeral
noun,
-kila conditional.
suffix so and so many
25. T -khi?, -ki? if;W
times;T -n, -(t)an j
'
rogative.adverbial numeral
W -wi interMu
adverbial
26. C -uu interrogative
suffix;
suffix;
-na
future
numeral suffix,
Ma -nini,
Y -d,-1,
il'.
27. T -de?,the? / (intr.),
Yy -?
Mi
C
T
W
-te
-da
51.
to
/, me, my.
/,
-t,
phoophaw-,
-tee,-thee;
puux"^spout;
?anii? not; W
eleu
iin not; T
28. C
phoow- to blow;Ma bo to blow. 52. T mena
("*ene-u?),Y am, Yy ?ohom, Mi (E.)ela. bear;Y moloy bear.Ma mode brown bear.
-mak- to know,
29. T yaan-, yana- to go;W hara to go. 30. T
53. T maanto count; Ma
54. C -enii to do, to make
count, measure.
p^nx hunger;W bira to be hungry.
causative verb suffix;
31. C tk"*- to kick;T tkuuntkan-,tkuunsomething;T -(a)n(a)Y
to kick;W qow(a) to kick. 32. -eenii reciprocal Mi -ne
causative, -la,-da causative (for
-inii (relatives)
verb suffix,
1 " n, cf. no. 50),Yy -aala. 55. C -n, -ni-,
to one
another;T
-anciprocal-eene
(e.g.
reciprocalverb suffix;W -pu-ra repluralelement found in few nouns
stnall pi.,
verb suffix (?).33. T ?al- to (?), mee-n
human
beings,ceey-eene
and
ka-nan in; W el in, into. 34. T pay- out of qe-ni-xet short pi.) its irregularity
from
house (vb. prefix);
show
be
survival
W
C
it
35.
to
remote
out.
yipsn rarity
pat
three (?) (seeS [Siinx]);
T xipinithree;
Ma
noun
plural (not very
past; T -ha-n, -an
-in
Y
-in
pluralof pronouns,
sapwi three,
Yy soopin,Mu kapan, kaphan, frequent); -n,
W
-1 dual of pronouns,
kapxan three.36. C SuuX-to set fireto, m\- to numeral collective,
-li-ndual pos.,
-s^iil-to set fire -li-tdual obj.,-le-t plur.obj.,
burn,Hweel^re; T -s^iiluii-,
(?).
to, to catch fire;Ma
?oSit,Yy ?osit, -le-n plur.pos., Ma -nono many
sa, Y
Mu
56. C -e, -ii petrified
plural (e.g.
noun
Sotofire.37. C mee human
being;Mu
mai-dii Indian,mai-ki boy, tummeeX-e
old men, timil-ii men, keneeyes-e
ama
person, Ma
|
Y
T
38.
W
plural (e.g. f
yap?a person;
hunchbacks);-a petrifiednoun
may
person.
plural(for
yapaituperson. Ma yepiman, husband. 39. T
aXimaq-a big pi.);Y -i,-a noun

^|

"

Seven:

Penutian Languages

295

136

ablaut,e.g.

'i'onmid:

81. T -tkSm
?onemad-i, cf. C
black;Y qimgutan black.
82.
T
mii
then
and
tummeeX-e,
keneeyes-e),
(particle)
Yy
now,
; Yy 'i'ama'i*
with
^57,
C
liixUi
stems.
then.
83.
C
to
to
plural
-i,-a subjectcase
then,
pass out,
pass by,
hinna so and so many
each;Y -hin collective landingplace;Y day (" *lay),lay to step,to
loo- to play,
yapkan-hinmany trees)
(e.g.
(perhapsbetter kick. 84. C al-$toy; T loo-l-,
to T -ha-n,no. 55).58. T ^uuk'^- to drink; loo-sftoy; Y do to play ("*lo).85. C tooh-,
to drink,Mu
tous- to hit,
T t^omom-, toomto hit,
ukis,Mi uhu. 59. T
Yy "i^ugunstrike;
Y ka that (vis.),
ka that (indef.);
Mi i-ka that. kill;
Y do battle,
(?),do5 to beat,overcome
ta so, such,te- article with
60. C t that there,
(?),Ma -tul- to break flatthing(?),tup-,tusii-ta
T
break (cf.
that
Y
to
ta
(ka)
yonder;
117).86. C Xou- to eat;Y duy to
pos. pronoun;
that (inv.),
eat ("*\uy).87. T -(a)l-,
-Iha- continuative,
Yy ta that.
suffix (oftensuffixed to
61. C -is noun
Y -ad ("*-al)continuative,
frequentative;
verb stems: Xeey-is
88. C mauxto chew (up)
languageXee-c he spoke), -li frequentative.
of quaUty; T -(a)x (cf.Ch); Y mok
to swallow,Yy meeki-.
-s, -t-s,-en-is nouns
^89. C nix(t)infinitive (often used as verbal noun:
S
to touch;Yy niti- to squeeze
from
with
hand.
Y ?ot- to fall.
tou- to fall;
Mu
90.
-s
C
noun-forming
?ipn-axspeech);
ni^i-s
^91.
Y
stems
verb
C t^- to come in; tax- to come. 92. C
to
(e.g.
language " nm
W
s?eel- to
-s verbal noun
suf.,Mi -s noun
speak),
$anx- to shake (seeS); T s'i^elel-,
Y -0$noun
suf.62. C -ne itis (e.g. rattle(?); Y ta^itto shake. 93. C ^au- to come
ending(?),
-in- petrified
it is I);T -(a)n-,
Y taw
tive
intransin-ne
apart,to pullapart;Yy tatay-to break,
Y -in- intrans. (?),
Mi -ne, -fie intransitive
94. T helel-,
heel- to sing;Y
to overcome.
suffix;
63. C ii-ta emphatic
verbifying.
'i'uduk-,
Yy ^ilik- to sing.95. C welex- to
Mi
lie
particle;
ii-ta(ka)
that; i-,i-ni,
i-sa,
down; Y wodo to dodge(" *wolo),
i-mo, stoop,to
i-ka,i-ti that. 64. T -n noun
ending (e.g. Yy wolooyee-.96. C w^kin- to touch with
finitive
yiwi-nspeech" yiw to speak);Ma -n instick;Yy woto- to hit with a stick. 97. C
to pick,to gather(seeS); Y
ending.65. T -a'i'nperson, peopleof; yak"-,yak'^-tinin peopleof.66. C axaax maternal
to
Yy -?
seeds,yitw- to gather.98. T
gather
yamT
maternal
hasY
to touch,
uncle.;
-koy-k*!*nudge;Yy koyouncle;
'i*aga$-koyo-k*^-,
xilmother's brother,
^inl^in
C
67.
butt.
to look around
99.
C
to
(?);T
Yy "i^aagas.
Y
Y
look
to see, Yy
nimejid eyebrows and lashes. -xanawto
(out)(?); Sil'ieyebrow;
68. C cneex
sil'i-.^100. C xint- to go fast,to run
(?);Y
beard; Y jamo^ beard,Yy
to jump, Yy siUt-.
daamut-.69. C k'*'in-cthroat,
neck,k'^'in-to SilitY woy- to
swallow (Coos kw: T k^, cf. k^'ees-iswind, T
to sleep;
101. T wayaan-,
wayk^alt);T k*en- neck; Yy ?oogun, Ma kuyi sleep,Yy woo'^uy-.102. T mahay large;Y
neck. ^70. Xpene wings,feathers;
Y ^a'i'ada met, mat, mayYy mayaahay. 103. T
large,
girl.
(?).
girl;
Yy gaa'i'ina
furfeathers
khay- woman,
woman,
71. T telk-an buttocks;
Y teda anus, Yy
^104. T tola hollow tree;Y ton, toga-Sdigger
72. T nihwlk'' black bear;Y du?uxun
iooto*^.
pine.105. C k6s shell used for ornament; Y
bear ("*lu?uxu-).73. teec lice (seeS); T
gu^i^ beads. 106. T s^fxi dog;Y neSe^,^exa,
Ma
fi^eldlouse (?);Y tehethead louse,
huhu
dog. 107. T hSiiycloud;
sii,Mu
Yy ti'i^it.
74. T laap leaf;Y dapdap leaf("*lap-). Ma
T nf, nii- teats;Ma
cloud
108.
(?).
yaa
75. T bix-dlmoon
109. T
mini
Y
" *nini?).
moon
nipples(dissimilated
(?)(x " 5); 'i'upiS
break
Ma
-k'i*ootin
t
o
^76. C t(^een
(cf sun),Yy "^op.
two;
-kot-,
soot;Y neheo -k?otk'i*at-,
kel-k- to drillfor
-kut- to divide. 1 10. T kele-k,
thunder.
fog.77. T tk^'d thunder;Y taka'i'a
78. C lahX-isearth;
Ma -kel-to perforate.
Y diioiit
earth (" *luout). fire;
79. T hok--ai,-h6k-h-al hole ("*-Sok-al);
kool- to
111. C qal-to dig (?);T k'^olol-,
Y Sogod hole ("*Sogol),Yy sogol.80. T
dig; Ma -kol- to bore (?).112. T kala-p-,
-kol- to
tkism- green; Y nii'i'imat
by rolling
kal-p-to twist (thread)
; Ma
green.
toomiX:

knes:

VI

296

American

Indian

Languages 2

137

k'^'aat-to pick,pluck;
131. T -(a)pa'^
let us'.;
Ma
k'^ataay-,
-p6, -pe, -pe'^'e
let us I ^132. C -qm, -xm
114. T lopap-,loop- to
to be in a condition,
with
to be in the act of;Mi -imi continuative
seeds);Ma -lop-to move
(?).
pound (acorns,
shake
Ma
-silC
six^115.
133. C -H instrumental
to
Mu
off;
noun
-cu
(?).
suffix;
friction
92 [in different ink, comitative
to shake (?) (see no.
(?).134. C -et (-at)past passive;
Y -t passive,
-n-it future passive.135. -iiyas
ably
showing that comparison with 92 was probafter the original
made
of relationship,
entry and after
plur. of nouns
-iiye,-eeye
been
cross]). adjective
marked
with crissMi
the entry had
noun
plur.; -ya
plur.136. C han
about to,hanX shall,
hi
Y
future particle.
will;
tam-k*^Ma
T
^116.
to choke;
137. C k^'a it seems, as if,hak'*'a-ias if,kind
tama-k?-,
138. C hi'i
perhaps, it seems.
-tap- to squeeze (?). 117. T -tk^eltk^al-,of; Y akam
tk'^eel-to break in two; Ma -tala- to crush (?). particleindicatingsurprise;T his almost,
taal- to crack;Ma
-tala- to
118. T t?alal-,
tryingto but in vain; Y hiqa perhaps.139. C
crush (?).119. C -aami /, we 2, or we-thee, hei emphasizing particle,hi enclitic emsubj.intr.), phasizerindeed;Ma -hehe only,just.140. C
you 2, or you; T -(i)k-amwe (fut.
-(a)nak-am we (fut.subj. trans.),-am
qa-1down, below,under ("qa -f- at,qa- is
us,
local adverbial
-t-am
-ma(si)our, -m, -me us, me
prefix),qa-linfrom under
our; Mi
120. T -nk he (fut.trans,
(subj. 1 [sic]).
("qa- -f- ahn); Y 'i'adiddown, low, below
subj.);Mi -k,-ko him, he (subj.1, including ("*'^alil).
141. C yuu very, very much; Yy yow
future),W -k he (past).
ami,
-xi
I
T
121
(subj of passive)(" *-si)
also,again.142. T -ta*^ subordinatingsuffix
me,
;
Ma
-s(i)/, Mi mu-su,
mu-$u, $i-ma of intransitive aorist;Ma -we-te afterhaving
mo-s,
I
cf. -wea
and
thee. 122. C -aa'^is thou,ye 2, or ye
-weu
(for -wetemporal
me,
-ce-te when, while, -ya-tan past
u^
2, or us; W -s-ka,-s-ke-n thou,ye 2, ye
suffixes),
(-ka,-ke- as in Ma -nka-no thou,ye 2, ye,
(for-ya- cf. -yak temporal suffix).
participle
tial
-nka-s we 2, -nke-s we?). Mi -s thou,-tok-su
T
-na*^
143.
subordinatingsuffix of inferen123. T -x
-wono
past and transitive aorist;Ma
ye (subj.3: present and perfect).
non-agentive (quasi-passiveor reflexive),past participle(-wo- assimilated to -no,
-al-x intransitive (-x" *-s)
-us
reflexive, "-we- as above). 144. T -mai* subordinating
; Ma
Mu
-s-tap,-s-tapseimpersonal,passive(?), suffix of aorist passives,-tat from, to, in
Mi -si passive.
Y -wi-5,
-wi-s reflexive.
lated
-t locative (occursin very few iso124. C
direction,
C xeen-issick;T xil-am sick (" *xin-an)
adverbs:
k'^cn-t in back, behiml
"
; Mi
mol^mallocal adverbial
hali sick. 125. T -molo'i'mal-,
k^en- neck,nape, back),-(a)ta
to
Mi
-di in, on, at (?),Mi -ta for,Mu
Ma
turn thingsover, .stir
food in basket-bucket;
suffix;
mole to spill.
-ta-k
locative,-ta-5in, on, at. 146. T
-ta,
126. T
M
-ko having.
-k'acomitative
verb suffix;
to
phili-phal-,
philphalsquash
M
i
to whip (children);
(insects),
pilapa to ^147. C witin blood;Mi weteti,wetete red.
jectives;
tive,
^148. C -ume
where
pinch (?).127. T -hit,-thit plural of adis;Mi -m, -mo locaMi
-ti plural of adjectivesand
Mu
-me
with,at the house of,-m, -mo.
149. C -a imperative with object of third
verbs,W -te subjectivepronoun
plur.128. T
-k inferential past; Mi -ke,-ka past. 129. T
Mu
-i imperative with
object of
person;
-inis
Y
-ic
third
C
-saa
150.
"
-sii,
agentive (-s*-c-); -i^,
-is,
placeof;Y -lis
person.
-ic.
C
130.
-a-'^eiwat
causative
habitual placeof (-1agent, Yy
frequentative).
151. T -(a)n aorist passive;Y -han pasfrequentative(-eiwatfrequentative),
-iya-t
sive
causative passive
in dependent clauses. 152. See S [-uus
causative,-e-'^et (-a-'i*at)
Y -w locative.
(-et,-at passive);Y -i,-u, -a causative.
locative];
roll. 113. T
Ma

-ket- to graze.

"

"

"

297
Penutian

Seven:

Editorial

InternationalJournal

published

Originally

132-137

(1953).

in

Languages

Note

of

American

Linguistics

19,

Penutian

Comparative
Edited
Based

Victor

by

edited

Morris

by

Golla

Penutian

"Comparative

on

Glosses

Glosses

Swadesh

of

Sapir,"

(1964)

Introduction

notes, both comparative and descriplinguistic

tive,
his books
and offprints,
in
especiallydictionaries and grammars
Indian
this
of American
In
he
various
languages.
frequently began
way,
researches
which
he pursued throughout his lifetime. One
of the most
tant
importhe gathering of comparative data substantiating
of these was
his theory of
stock enlarged to include
a Penutian
languages of Oregon, the Plateau, British
and Mexico.
The
broad
outline of this theory was
first presented in
Columbia,
Penutian
of Stem"
the introductory paragraphs of "A Characteristic
Form
this
but
with
lexical
data.
That
no
(Sapir 1921b,
volume),
comparative
Sapir had
of such data is clear from
what
to him
amount
was
a satisfying
a few
published
and
miscellaneous
citations
allusions (seeespeciallySapir 1920c: 265, note
in
1)
his letters to Kroeber
(see Golla 1984: 201-204, 242-244, 314-315) and other
data reached
printduring
colleagues.Only a few fragments of Sapir'sPenutian
substantial
his lifetime, the most
being the comparisons incorporated into L. S.
"The
Freeland's
Relationship of Mixe to the Penutian
Family" (Freeland 1930,
this volume). Unfortunately, most
of Sapir'scomparative Penutian
working
It

was

Sapir'scustom
the margins of

files seem

not

in

passage

Just at the
Tsimshian
lines of
isolated.
heterodox

No

to
a

moment

A
as

1953, this volume),

of my

carding some

Sapir refers to
14-page handwritten
to

have

Mexican
many

Penutian
as

can

been

material.

be retrieved

consisted

dated

of is hinted

at in

July 6, 1918:

Penutian-Takelma-Coos-Siuslaw-Chinookan-

but

of course,

showing

"stocks"

but

Yes, my

up.

clear

(Lowie

as
quite interesting,

boy,

Tsimshian.

threads,
1965:

in my

Not

many
a

humble

bit
and

27).

is known

to exist among

his

listcontaining315 sets, later

''Coos-Takelma-Penutian
seems

have

may

Lowie,

in this passage

(probably in 1915);it includes

publishas
material.

Sapir

these
Robert

to

of the sort

Swadesh

or

am

What

Very specializedin development,

opinion, binding it to Oregonian

survivingpapers.

research

survived.

letter from

correspondences. It is technical work,

research
historical linguistic
are
opened

collation

Morris

have

to enter

publishedby
Comparisons" (Sapir and Swadesh
compiled quiteearly in Sapirs Penutian
Chinookan,

no

Under

these

circumstances,

marginal jottingsthat were

as they arc,
they nevertheless
and the general dimensions

of the

Unsystematic and abbreviated

breadth of Sapir's
knowledge of the data
of Penutian
comparative phonology and

fsimshian. Plateau

grammar.

tian,
Penu-

it is useful

to

Sapir'sraw
indicate
of his

the

theory

300

VI

comparisonsin

The

several books

from

American

through5
The
by Sapir.

sections 1

left to him

manuscriptis in
original

the Boas

A decade
(ms. 2U[P1.4]).

Languages 2

Indian

below

Collection

work

were
was

culled
done

of the American

by

Morris

Swadesh

in 1953, and Swadesh

ety
SociPhilosophical

later,Swadesh

publishedthese listsunder the title

"ComparativePenutian Glosses of Sapir"(Swadesh 1964).For the present work,
Swadesh
s lists were
thoroughly checked
againstthe publicationsannotated
the sources
(althoughthe copieswith Sapirs notes could not be found),and against
of errors
A number
in transcription
have
of Sapirs comparativeglosses.
of most
corrected. Translations of the glosses for the most
been silently
part omitted by
have
been
where
obvious
from the
not
are
supplied
they
Sapir(or Swadesh)
In a few (butfar from all)instances where Sapircited a languagewithout
context.
the form Sapirhad in mind.
to identify
form, it has been possible
givinga specific
These and all other editorial interpolations
appear in brackets.
cited allforms
1953
and
in
his 1964 publication,
both
in
his
Swadesh,
manuscript
future philological
the origiTo minimize
in a normalized
difficulties,
nal
orthography.
includes
been
restored
wherever
This
all
of
the
h
ave
possible.
orthographies
that
forms in Wintu, Tsimshian, Coos, and Lower
Umpqua in the publications
I
have
retained
annotated.
to Sapirsoriginal
marginalia,
Lacking access
Sapir
instances his re transcriptions
have
Swadesh's orthographyfor these, but in many
the
of
been supplemented (inbrackets)
by
orthography Sapir's
probablesource
work
on
This,
(most frequentlySapirsown
Takelma).
unfortunately,
published
field
could not be done with Sapirs citations of his stillunpublishedChinookan
conventions
described his normalization
data. Swadesh
as follows (1964:
182-183):
"

"

isshown by /X/ as against

/x/for the front type /G/ is a velar voiced
Back velar voiceless spirant
stop, /y is a velar voiced fricative;/i/is central vowel. /"/ is front-rounded; double letters are
in Chinook, where itis non-distinctive. The Taused for longvowels, but lengthis disregarded
kelma
,

comparisons(Sapir
givenin the system adopted for Coos-Takelma-Penutian
1953):/pt/and so forth for Sapirs/bd/ and so forth, and also for his p /orp' t' in
final or preconsonantalposition.
Aspiration,in positionswhere it is distinctive,is represented
by a separate P/ after the character; /s^/ is phoneticglottalized
by /h/;glottalization
the latter found only
The Takelma
tonal accents
are
interpretedas normal and rising,
(ts).
ment
on
long vowels and on vowel-sonant sequences; it is assumed, on the basis of Sapirs treatof "inorganic"
of tone, that the sustained (on sequences
vowel plus sonant) and the
The acute
signis used for the normal accent in its
risingmay be phonemicallyequivalent.
different forms, and the inverted circumflex is used for risingor sustained long accent.
Comparable phonemicizationhas not been attempted for the other languages.
stops

are

and Swadesh,

from Sapirscopy of Franz

(6)are marginalia
w
hich
was
Texts,New
(1912),
apparentlynot available to
Swadesh
in 1953. It is now
owned
by Professor John Dunn of the Universityof
who
Oklahoma,
graciouslyprovided the editor with a photocopy of the book
and a listof all annotations
in Sapir's
hand. This material is presentedin the
format
the
same
as
comparisons in sections 1-5.
Abbreviations
for the languagescited by Sapir,and the sources
from which
The

comparisonsin the

Boas's Tsimshian

most

of his data

Tak.
where

Takelma

last section
Series

were

obtained,

are

as

follows:

(Sapir1909c, 1912h; section

appropriate).
=

references

to the latter are

given

Seven:

Coos
L.U.
Ts.

Hanis

Lower

and

Chin.

Chinook

Wish.

Wishram

Yok.

Miw.

Coos

(Frachtenberg1913b, 1914a).

Yokuts
Miwok

(Boas 1911, 1912).

unless
(Boas 1911; Lower Chinook
Chinook
(Sapir's
fieldnotes).
(Kroeber 1907).
(Barrett1908).

The

301

Umpqua-Siuslaw (Frachtenberg1914b, 1917).

Tsimshian

Miluk

Penutian Languages

otherwise

indicated).

Wintun

comparative glossesfound in Sapir'scopy of Roland B.

Grammar"
Dixon's "Outline
of Wintun
(1909).Dixon's frequentlyinaccurate
forms are here supplemented by phonemic forms from Alice Schlichter's Wintu
ences
(1984).Section referDictionary(1981)and Harvey Pitkin's Wintu Grammar
in
Swadesh's
normalizations
to the latter are
of
the
given
parentheses.
forms
cited by Sapir have not been checked
Miwok
and Yokuts
againstthe
1908
and
Kroeber
sources
(Barrett
1907).
original
followingare

-ibi, -be, present

[-be-,visual

evidential

(262.11)]:

Miw.

-b"s, bi-s,

continuative.
inevitable
-liba,-libo,future [-le-,

(262.12)]:Miw.

future

(241.61)+ -ba-,-boh,

durative

iary
auxil-

-bo, fut. imperative,

[-kele,
hearsay evidential (243.12)]:cf. Tak. -khi^, -ki^ [suffix,"71].
[-U-,
imperativestem formant (222)]: Miw. -pa (?).
-wu, -u, imperative
future
-ut,
[= ?]: cf. Tak. -tu [?].
particle
from verbal stems
[-s,
-s, forms nouns
generalaspect (322)]:cf.Tak. agentive-"^s
[-^s
"80](?).
1st person interrogative
suffix (241.75)]:
Coos -uu [-u
-wi, interrogative
[-(w)u-,
1914a:
interrogative,
Frachtenberg
372].
where
the noun
is in the subjective
case
-t, used with adjectives,
particular
[-t,
cf.
Tak.
-t
suffix,"108.1].
[-fadjectival
aspect (320)]:
-de^
Tak. -the^, -te^ [-t'e^,
-da, first person [-da.1st person subject(243.21)]:
"60].
eleu-ibida tconmina
T am
not dancing'[^elew,
negativeauxiliary
(262.422)]:cf.
Tak. anii^ [an!negativeparticle,
"113.3].
ni hara-kila 'ifI go' [har'to go, move
away from speaker']:cf. Tiik. yana- ('to
go'],
-s, verbal noun
[-s,
genericaspect (322)]:cf. Coos -is [-isnominalizingsuffix,
Frachtenberg1914a: 365].
bira'ibe-wi 'ishe hungry'[bira-'to be hungry']:Tak. panx [banx 'hunger'],
tcona-bem
'he kicks' [c'on-,
c'una- 'to kick']:cf. Tak. tkuuntkan[t'gu"nt'gan-kila,conditional

k'i^,-gi*conditional

'to kick off'].

302

VI

American

Languages 2

Indian

'we kick each other' [-p'ure-,

reciprocal
(241.41)]:Tak. -antcon-pura-ibi-da
here
with
"55, beingcompared
-ra-].
[reciprocal,
white
Tak. yap^a
[ya-paytuman,
guardianspirit']:
'person,
ya'paitO'person'
[yap!a''person, people'],

with eye, to, at',"36.15].

[^el]:cf. Tak. al- ['face,
'down', "37.13].
pat 'out' [pat]: Tak. p^ay-[p!a-iTak.
heefrom'
'off,away',"37.3].
xan
[he*^^[xan]:
'away
panti'on, upon' [pan 'on top'+ -ti,locative suffix (500)]:Tak. pam- 'up'[bamel 'in,into'

'up into

air' "37.15].
the locative

"Sometimes

be used

particles
may

["37.93].
[kulu'edge(ofbasket)'+
'edge's'

with
kiilun'

is repeatedafter the verb,

particle
together": cf. Tak. for use before

Yok.

and in

some

tion
postposi-

nouns

type of

stem

tian type of stem"

case]: Tak.-Coos-Maidugenitive
with repeatedvowel, the "characteristic Penu[i.e.,disyllabic,
discussed in Sapir1921b].

2. Tsimshian

-n,

(Boas 1911)

followingare comparativeglossesfound in Sapir's

copy of Franz
Tsimshian
The page on which a glossis found is givenin brackets.
(1911).
The

"Tsimshian"

marked

not

'into,from

ts'Elem'out

River

paa-

along the ground' [300]: Coos

'down
y!a"a-

na-

in the Nass

are

'up along the ground' [300]: Tak.

bax-

two

cases

verbs and in

the side'

of the woods

in

Forms

dialect.

[ba'''up',"37].
[qaya^tc
'down-stream'].
(?).
q-cii[q-tsi
'inside']

qa-yaa-c

[301]: cf. L.U.

of the houses

rear

hinaw
[no"'downriver'],

Boas's

to the

Coos
[hina'"
'upriver'];

[303]:

houses'
nooc

[?],L.U.

cf. Tak.
tnu

noo

'outside,

outdoors'],
'from
lagauk-

the side of the house

to the fire'

[303]: for-k-cf.

L.U.

adverbs

in

-k.

(?).
[304]: Tak. pay- [ba-i-'out (ofhouse, water)']
Coos
'below,
[305]:
under'],
qat [qal
fro, at both ends' (Nass),lagax(Tsimshian)[309]: cf. Chin.

of water'

spl-'out

logol-'under'
lax- 'to and

laX

[xam- 'into the water']

(?).
to'
sis(Tsimshian)[316]: Tak. his
(Nass),
apparently, pretend
almost, trying',
[his,hl's 'nearly,
(?).
"114.7]
wadi- 'like' (Tsimshian)[317]: cf. Wish. tiwi.
[326]: Coos x- [?discriminative prefix,
Frachtenberg1914a: 324].
xpl-'partly'
hwin- 'innermost
part'(Nass),wun(Tsimshian)[329]: Tak., Chin. [ ?].
qa- 'location' (Nass), g-i-(Tsimshian)[331]: cf. Coos, L.U. [ ?].
'off

sa-

[309]: Tak.

xam-

his- 'to do

to

an-,

used

terms,

to

and

transform

instruments

even

[n-'in, at, to,

verbs

on,

into nouns,

(Nass),n-,

with'],prob.

a-n-

and
nE-

express

abstract

terms,

local

(Tsimshian)[333]: cf. Coos

'it-on',cf. Chin.

-n-.

n-

Seven:

303

Penutian Languages

[334]: cf. Tak. comitative -k"^- (-(a)gw"46].

[334]: cf. Tak. wa- [wa-instrumental, "38](?).
however, rather' (Nass),y!a^ai
(Tsimshian) [339]: cf. Coos,
iagai'already,
tak. [ ?].
-En, causative
[344]: Tak. -an- [-an-"45].
who

'one
yu-..-k"

has'

ha- instrument'

-sk", expresses

(Nass),-sk

primarilythe elimination
(Tsimshian) [344]: Tak.

of the
-xa-,

-x-

object of the transitive verb

suffix,
[-xa-intransitivizing

"53].
-A, instead

of -sk with

words

(Tsimshian)[346]: Not
-ani (?).
k^. Cf. Coos
-s, used

in Nass

and

[346]: cf. Tak.

-ES,

times

few

[347]: Tak.

at

ending in p, t, s, ts, q,
all. Evidentlysuffix has

in Tsimshian

in

placeof

-k and

L, and

sometimes

different

meaning

x,

in 1
from

-tk after k, x, k^, q, and

-x.

after p in

place(?)of -sk, denotes

back

of

object(Tsimshian)

-xa-.

of many
Frachtenberg1914a:

transitive

-d, indicative

verbs

[347]:

cf. Coos

328].
[348]: Chin. [ ?].
(Tsimshian)
ga"
'I kill' (Tsimshian)[348]: cf. Coos
dzak 'dead', dzak-d-u
speared him'],
'to take'

[-t,transitive,

cf.

ck'^i-t-s [tskwits
'he

of words beginningin hw (Nass),w (Tsimshian)[372]: cf. Coos

reduplication
(seevocabularyunder w-) [Frachtenberg1913b: 194-195].
sami 'bear' [377]: Tak. xamk
'meat' (Nass),cf. Tsimshian
smax[xam'k'
bear'],
'grizzly
ie' 'to go (sg.)'
[381]: cf. Tak. [?yana-'to go'].Chin. [ ?].
L6 'to go (pi.)'
[381]: cf. Coos [ ?].
(Tsimshian)[381]: Tak. [ ?] (?).
gaksk 'to wake up (sg.)'
1st pi.objective(Tsimshian)[381,
-Em
384]: cf. Tak. [-am,"62].
awa'" 'proximity',
awa'"t 'near him (hisproximity)'
(Tsimshian)[393]: Tak.
=

waa-ta

'to, at-him'].
[wa'^-(da)

gwa" 'that' (Tsimshian)[394]: cf. Chin.

[ ?].
(Tsimshian)[395,406]: cf. Tak., Chin., Coos,
nda 'where' [406]: Chin, ta-n, sa-n, Tak. ne'k-ti [nek'di
'who?', "105].
indef.
of
-\
transitive,
-L, imperative
obj. (Nass), (Tsimshian) [407]:
-1, demonstrative

Coos

element

cf.

1.

dzE, tsE, weakens

statements

[408]: Wish, -ci^,Coos

na-cii

berg
Frachten[natsi,

restrictive particle,
Frachtenberg 1914a: 394].
387],ci [tsi,
optsE 'else, lest' [408]: Wish. pu.
'if (event assumed
not
ami
as
likelyto happen) (Tsimshian) [409]: Tak.
mii^wa
[ml'^wa'probably,
perhaps'].
1914a:

3. Coos
The

followingare

Sapir's
copy

of Leo

(FrachtenbergTexts)

comparative glossesfound in the vocabulary section

Frachtenberg'sCoos Texts (1913b).

of

Languages 2

Indian

American

VI

304

'toy': Tak. lou-si [lo"-s-i].

(?).
a'lqas*fear": Tak. hin^x [hin^x]
be
mistaken':
Tak. iils^-ak^ [i'lts!-ak'^
to
alts- 'to be in the wrong
'bad'].
place,
Tak.
take
to
ai^- 'to kill (pi.object),
ey-yi-[ei[y]-i-].
away':
a'lEC

a"qe"

'to

take off:
Tak.

'thou':

ni-

Tak.

'mother':

e^natc

is 'we

aaq- [aq-].
[seeSection 4 below].
L.U.

[ni-].

(inclusive)':L.U.

two

[-ns].

-ns

ey [ei].
Tak. liw- [liw-].

Tak.

ix- 'canoe':
ilx- 'to look':

'they': Tak. [seeSection 4 below].

hi ("114)].
itE, emphatic particle:Tak. [cf.
Section
4
Tak.
below].
[see
in, negation:
'no' ("113)].
Tak. [cf.
hit (hiit)
I'n-ta 'not so, bad':
'to talk to'](?).
Tak. hiim-t- [hi'm-dI'l-'to tell,to say, to send':
(?).
yEq- 'to go away': Tak. yew- [yeu-'to go back, return']
ask
'to
Tak.
'to
to
(?).
(tr.)']
coax,
persuade':
yamat- [yamatyatyi'pSEn'three': Tak. xipini[xib'ni].
yi'qa'nevertheless,rightaway': Tak. [ ?].
Tak. yuluyal[yuluyal-].
yux"- 'to rub':
divide':
Tak.
[yowo-,yo"^s- 'to start (when startled)'
yuwil-'to
yowo-, yows*^(?)"
'to pullforcibly']
Tak. yonk^- [yonk!(?).
yut- 'to tear off:
ilxa'ka

weste'n

"l"k^-i-

Tak.
Tak.

wispa'ya'arrow':
wif

Tak.

times':

'so many

'forehead':

wint

waiwii

'littlegirl':Tak.

wa'wa

hawax

[hawax 'rottenness,

wilaw

odor'](?).
[waya'knife'],

pus, foul

wiil-ii [wi'li'
'(stone)knife'],
waya

Tak.

'knife':

wa'lwal

Tak.

'sickness':

waha'^tcas

female'],
'girl,
[waiwi'
[ ?].
=

(?).
'head-hair']
[ii'liikl-i(?).
[wilau]

[wo"-ld-'to go far,go to get'].

'to put around
(neck, head)'],
weL-, wIL- 'to twist': Tak. wiik*^- [wi'k!Tak. wiim-at- [wi'm-ad'to exercise supernatural
wl'n- 'to cheat':
power upon']
'to lie down
(pi.)':Tak. wayaan-, way- [waya^n-,wai- 'to sleep'],
ha'yati
ha^- 'to think, to imagine': Tak. hewe-haw
[hewe-haw-].
han, temporal particle:Tak. [ ?].
'to look

Tak.

far,to search':

wow-lt-

han-

'to

hant- 'to
hak-

Tak.

wrestle':

pick out,

'to crawl':

to

Tak.

Chin.

Tak.

choose':
waka-xa-

'relatives of
hala'qi:s,hali'qas
halt! 'now':

[hemem-].

hemem-

henee-t-

husband':

Tak.

alta.

halk"- 'to take off:

climb

Tak.

weet-kTak.

'to take
[we^t'-g[hilw-].

away

hilw-

halq-,helaq
up':
halq 'tir-tree': Tak. x6 [x6](?).
he, temporalparticle:Tak. [seeSection
'to

'to wait for']

(?).
[hene'^-dup'].
[wayau-'daughter-in-law']
wayaw-

[wage-xa-'to climb

below].

from, depriveof](?).

Seven:

Penutian

305

Languages

'tongue': Tak. ela- [ela-].

hen, particle
denotinghearsay: Tak. [ ?].
Tak. [seeSection 4 below].
henl- 'a while, a long time':
Tak. [seeSection 4 below].
he'lmi 'tomorrow':
Tak. wowk'to arrive':
[wo"g-].
helq-,he'laq
Tak.
hitc,particle
denotingsurprise:
[seeSection 4 below].
hrk!am
'to have firstmenstrual
'monthlycourses': Tak. wtHilh-am- [wii^lk-am(?).
courses']
hu"'mik- 'old woman':
Tak. wuun[wu"n-'to be, grow old']
(?).
off:
Tak. potpat- [bot'bad'to pullout (somebody's)
pEnL- 'to tear off,to come
heilta

hair'],
pa^w-

'to smoke

'to
(a pipe)': Tak. phoy-amt- [p'oy-amd-

smoke

(wasps)']

out

Chin. paal-.
ptwk^- [bii'^k!-].
to pieces':Tak. philiphal'to squash,whip'].
[p'ilip'alTak. pilw-[bilw'to jump (at),
'to break, to crush':
pilx"fightwith']
(?).
Tak.
'to
to
look
'to
come
pidjappear':
piis[bi'sup (from water),
up, liftup
one's head' (used only in myths)].
'to blow'].
pux"- 'to spout': Tak. phowphaw-i- [p'oyp'aw-imEanl'yas'parents,grown-up people': Tak. ma- [ma-'father'].

pa^-

'to fill': Tak.

'to tear, to smash

pils-

maha-

'to

to look

watch,

ma'qaL

'crow':

ma'luk"

red
'(Indian)

ma^L!

'flood':
'vulva':

Tak.

after':

mel

[mel].

paint': Tak.

cf. Chin.
Tak.

cf. Hokan.

maanx

(?).
[manx 'white paint']

maX-ni.

min-

(?).
[min-'vagina']
[mAhwI-].
mi^la 'liver,
waist':
Tak. p^an [p!an'liver'].
'arrow':
Tak. smelaw'^x [smela"^x].
mi'iaq
ml'naqas'pole': Tak. mal [mal'salmon-spear
shaft'].
da'mil 'strong,
male being,husband':
Tak. tomxaw
[domxau 'bigcrooked-nosed
ma'x"

mitsl'le

'pregnant':Tak.

salmon'].
'something':Tak.

al-til[al-dil
'all'].

drl

tE 'that there':

Tak.

mix^ii-

[ ?].
=

'to be in

'to get up'].

uprightposition':Tak. t^epe-,teep- [t!ebe-,de"-"bta, conjunction: Tak. [ ?].
Tak. t'-^ilii-,
dlln- 'to distribute to'].
tat'n- 'to fix,to divide':
tiln- [t!ili-,
te'lex- 'crosspiece':
Tak. tele-p'to stick into',taia-k- [dala-gto pierce
[dele-b-]
tEW-

nose,

ears'].

ti'k- 'to stand':

Tak.

ti'lpl
'gopher': Tak.
'to
tlyet-

store

tl^- 'to coil':

ti'ntc 'remnants
to

tiiktak-

'to
[di'k'dagthiis |t'i's].

erect,

cause

to stand

up'j.

t""lt^al- [dult!al'to stuff (basket)with'].

up food':
Tak. t^uukuuy-,ttmk^- [tlugui-,
(garment)'].
dii^gw-'to wear
of meal':

Tak.

daitaay- [t!ayai-,
t'-^ayay-,

eat'](?).

toh- 'to hit, to strike':

Tak.

'to push'](?).
toy-k^[dui-k!-

'to go

to

get

thing
some-

Seven:

a
kwE'li7Es 'intestines,

created

person

307

Penutian Languages

from

the intestines':

Tak.

k^aas

[gwas

'entrails'].
kwe'ik- 'girl',
kwe's 'young woman,

girl':Tak. khay^-[k'ai^-].
'to blaze, glow'],
of. Tak.
[giil-k!k'ii'^nax [for
:
detail].
phonological
Tak. k*?otot-,
koot- [k!odod-,
kwit- 'to leave':
go"d- 'to bury'].
kwiL- 'to dig(clams)': Tak. k^olol-,kool- [k!olol-,
go"l-'to dig'].
k^elkxla 'foot,leg': Tak. sal- [s-al'foot'], [gwel-'leg']
(?).
'to twist (hazelswitch)'].
k!a 'rope': Tak. k^ank^an[k!ank!ank!a' 'to listen,to keep quiet': Tak. skek^ii- [sgek!i''to listen'].
Wish.
'butter-ball'
[ducksp.]:
[ ?].
k!walxa'ya
kwil-, k!"hil- 'to burn':

k"l-k^-

Tak.

k'winax

kiwa'sis 'wind':

Tak.

[gwaPt'].
k^^aay [k!wal'grass'].

k^alt

k!wehe

'willow':

Tak.

k!wints

'throat,neck', k!winTak.

g-a'we 'sea otter':

k-i'nwis

'to swallow':

[t'gam'elk

tkam

'lazy',k-i'ria"

'tired':

Tak.

Tak.

k^en-

[gwen-'neck, nape'].
armor)'](?).
[genaw- 'lie curled up dog-

(hide,hide

kenaw-

fashion'].
k-ow-

'to

throw

munch,

mass

to

pick and

of small

Tak.

eat':

k^owoo-, kuuw-

'to

objects'].

practice':Tak. k^emn- [k!emn-'to make,

k-!si'lis 'green': Tak. tkism- [t'gis-m-]
(?).
k-!em-

[k!owo"-,
gu"w-

'to

treat

as'].

[sgelw-'to shout'].
Tak. noo^s [n6"^s
'next door'].
Tak.
kool-holohal- [-holohal'to
'to
k^olol-,
dig':
[k!olol-,
qalgo"l-'to dig'],
(?).
dig into (ashes)']
'to
qal- cry (sing.)':cf. Chin. [ ?].
'to breathe']
(?).
qa'ya'breath': Tak. hekehak- [hegehagworld':
Tak.
qa'yis'sky,day,
(?).
haay [hai'cloud']
qai'na'cold': Tak. tkuun-p-[t'gu"n-p'-]
(?).
qa"'m'(tc)
qa"'wa 'evening,night',
'evening':Tak. hoo-xa [ho"xa'yesterday',
"112.2].
to hang': Tak. xataxat-na'to
qEto" 'to be in suspendedposition,
[xadaxat'-nahang up in a row'].
'to let alone'].
q!al-'to take out': Tak. k^^alk^- [kiwalgwq!a'na'young': Tak. k^^al-thaa [k!wal-t'a''
'youngest(oftwo or more)'].
Tak.
k^^al
q!e}e'pitchwood':
[k!war].
Tak. k^uum-an'to fix,prepare']
(?).
q!m- 'to eat, to cook':
[k!u^'m-ank-ele 'shouts':

Tak.

skelw-

qano'tc'outside':

xa'yusLatc 'relatives by marriage after death of person

causing
kinship': Tak. ximni- [ximni-].
'to be sick, to be sorry',
xii'nis 'sick': Tak. xilam [xil-am
xan'sick, dead

that

son,
per-

ghost'].
xa'ka

'he, she, it':

Tak.

haa^ka

'that yonder',"104][seeSection
[ha'^^ga

below].
xo'xwel

'frog':cf. L.

x"kwi'natc

'maternal

Chin.

aunt':

[ ?].
=

Tak.

xaka-

[xaga-].

American

VI

308

xwelap 'lungs': cf.

xwi'nLis

'snot':

xwi'lux"

'head':

L.

(?).[See different comparison

[xu"l-i'brains']

xuul-i-

Tak.

[ ?].
[xin].

Chin.
xin

Tak.

Indian Languages

below.]
Tak. tk"y^s [-t'gu'^s-].
xqas
Tak.
xlls 'slime':
xla^px [xle^p-x'roundish
camass'].

in

Section

'white':

il- 'to look

around':

Eqa"'we
E'71 'good, nice':
aa-

'to

Tak.

Tak.

put around':

atclya-'to
aix"- 'to

call

xanan-

by

jab':

tuu

Tak.

name':

Tak.

[xanan-'to

look

out

cake

of deer-fat

or

(?).
(pi.)']

[loho-'to die'].
(?).
[dii]

(sing.)':Tak.

'to die

dough-like

loho-

laatTak.

laaw-t-an-

'to put (belt)around

waist'],
[la^dlaalaw- [la^law'to name,
call'],
'to hurt'],
[lau-d-an-

'to become'],
[la-^'l-i'stand
to
objects)': Tak. lemk^(of inanimate
emuprightposition,
[seelim- below],
[lemk!-'(people)move,
go, to take along (pi.obj.)']

ewi

'it is, that is':

'to be

Tak.

laaHi-

in

e'xalx

'string':Tak.

e'xum

'buzzard':

ic- 'to shake,

move

laaw-

Tak.

moxo

[la^w-'to twine (basket)'],

[moxo].

Chin.
(intransitive)':

-la.

[lewe^iaw-'to swing (shells)in one's ear'],

smilismal[-smilismal- 'to swing'](?).
in war-dance']
'feathers worn
Tak. xliwi [xliwi
i'kwit 'feathers':
(?).
Tak. miil- [mlli'-d^x-il- 'to like, to love':
(?).
abbreviated
form of dl4 ['something']:Chin. t-.
'to go': Tak. yaana(?).
[ya'^n-]
im- 'to put inside (pi.object)': Tak. lemek^[lemek!-'(people)move,
go, to
take along (pi.object)']
(?) [seelem- above],
'to
to
wiggle': cf. Ts. [ ?].
move,
^yuwilTak. likii-n- [ligi'-n'to rest'],
h- 'to get weir, the- (the-)'to rest':
cf. L.U. hin [tin],
n'nas 'name':
Tak. lep-t-[lep'-d-]
k"- 'to sew':
(?).
kwilt'red':
Tak. al-s^iil [al-ts!il]
(?).
qalk"-'to bite': Tak. lek^ei- [legwel-'to suck'].
Tak. khewekhaw-alLala^- 'to bark, to growl, to shout, to wail':
[k'ewet'aw-al'to bark at']
(?).
icla7- 'to swing':

Tak.

lewe^law-

khapa- [k'aba-'son'](?).
[gos-'clamshell']
(?).
Lkwa^Tak. skoot- [sg6"d-'to cut'](?).
'to cut off:
Lx-- 'to drift (away)': Tak. thiyii'to float'].
[t'iyi'L!ta 'land, earth, country, ground, place': Tak. tkaa [t'ga].
L!ka- 'to string': Tak. tpaak- [t'ba^g'to tie up (hair,
sinew)'].
L!kw'to put away'].
'to cover
up': Tak. tpook-tpak-[t'bo"k't'bag-

L'^va
Loc

'son

'clam':

(vocative)':
Tak.

kos

Tak.

Seven:

L!k--

'to pour,

L!le- 'to

to
out

come

The

following are
Frachtenberg's Coos
of Coos

given

309

Languages

'tears roil
spilK: Tak. tkiiy-al-x(t'gi'y-al-x(from water)': Tak. theek- [t'e'^g-].

4. Coos

copy

Penutian

Texts

down

ones

face'].

(Frachtenberg Grammar)

the

in Sapir'scopy
of Leo
comparative glosses found
those
in his
(1914a),omitting comparisons duplicating
(Section 3, above). The page on which a gloss is found is

in brackets.

[313]: Tak.
"112.3],hem-ti [hemdi 'when', "113.2].
In, negative particle[314]: Tak. anii^ [anP "113.3].
he'niye

'a

while', he'nihen

"Hiatus
....

vowels

of

'many

times'

he^ne

[he'^ne''then',

Broadly speaking, it may be said that the coming-together of two

is avoided
of infixing
like quantitiesand qualities
h
a weak
by means

-h- ["24].
[314]: cf. Tak. ["inorganic"]
'next day' [314]: Tak.
helmi'his
te-wenxa
[dewenxa 'tomorrow', "112.2].
'head' [316]: Tak. "l"k^ixwi'lux"
parison
[ii'liikl-i'head-hair']
[seedifferent comin Section
3].
1st
[321]: Tak. -a^n [-a^n1st person sg. transitive subject (aorist)],
n-,
person
-an
[-an(future),"63].
2nd
e*-,
[321]: Tak. -te'^,-'^t[-de^,-'^t',2nd person sg. possessive,"90].
person
nkwa'xLa
'with bows' [322]: Tak. kaP
[gal^'bow, gun'].
max^ii^
Tak.
mix^ii^
'become
[mAhwi^] ?
[see
mitsT'ltfye
pregnant' [323]:
also Section
3].
ntcla'ha
[i.e.,legs,feet]'[323]: Tak. s^aaks^ak'[equipped]with walkers
'to
[ts!a^k'ts!ag-step'],
-tx- [indirective,
-t, transitive [327]: Tak. -s-, from
"47].
Tak.
from
transitive
-t-s.
-ts,
-s-,
[327,329]:
suffix forming verbs
suffix [327,334]: Tak. -ii [-1,
-I,e', neutral [ mediopassive]
of position,"57].
suffix [328]: Tak. -s ["87.8]
(?).
-s, general nominal
intransitive
cf.
Tak.
-aai,
-xa["53].
[332]:
(?).
yoyo^waai 'is stopping'[332,364]: cf. Tak. yo-, yowo- ['besitting']
between

them"

-me",

reciprocal[332]:

cf. Tak.

-an-

["55].

[333]: cf. Tak. -k^i-, -k^i- [-gwi-,-k'wi- "54].

laatsxEm
herself
in'
lasg-'to touch'].
[333]: cf. Tak. las^ak-, lask- [lats!ag-,
'put
-e'wa(t),
-o"wa(t),frequentative[336]: cf. Tak. -eeha, -iiha [-eha,-Iha "43.6].
[hemeg- 'to take out, off'],
nhaml'yat 'I brought it out' [340]: Tak. hemek-ani, transitive [341]: Tak. -an- [causative,
"45].
-ts-XEm,

-t-XEm,

reflexive

310

VI

tsak"kw-, -tskw-

'to

Indian Languages 2

American

spear'[341]:Tak.
3].

saak^-

'to shoot (arrow),

paddle
[sa^gw-

[seeSection
(canoe)']

[341]:Tak. saansancomparison].
\\ tqanLLii'nl
'theymutually strike
tqa'nL-'to

'to fight']
[sa^nsan[seeSection

strike'

one

another'

ferent
3 for dif-

[341]: Tak. sana-x-in-iyan-

[sana-x-in-iyan-].
'to fightwith, "go" for'
fight'[342]: Tak. te-wiliw-alt- [de-wiliw-ald'go,proceed,run')](?).
("
344]: Tak. -yaw- [-iau-,
impersonal,"58].
-ayu, -e'yu,-lyu,(past)passive[327,
Tak.
(?).
[347]:
-lya ["83]
-aya", past participle
cf. L.U. and umlautingforce
of
formation
from-ii,
in
[347]:
[-1]
participle
past
-a,
wil- 'to

wiliw-

in Coos,

[348]: Chin, -ksi,-ksn (?).

'this'[348]: Chin, ti-ka.

k-ela 'hand'

te*L

-It,suffixed

that

to verbs

are

pers. obj.[348]: cf. Tak.

transitivized

by

means

of the transitive suffix -aya, 3

[ ?].
=

something'[349]: Tak. causative -an- ["45].

(?).
-a, transitive verbs [354]: cf. Tak. ["44-51]
infinitive ["74].
Tak.
suffix
[intransitive]
-(a)x,
-is,nominalizing
[360]:
formants
-an
["66].
-onis,-si,verbal noun
[363]: cf. Tak. passive[(aorist)]
'to see']
it' [364]: Tak. xiik- [xi'g
L!x-T'nt 'he examined
(?).

suffix,'to do, make

-enl, verbalizing

e^niitc 'mother', ni'kla

hin

'mother!',vocative

[366]: Tak.

ni-

'his mother'],
[ni-(xa)
-

'(my)mother'],
[(wi-)hln

[366]: cf. Chin. [ ?].

[t'ad-].
mi'nkatc 'son-in-law' [366]: Tak. mot-, moo[mot',mo"-](?).
.'
t
o
'belongingto',
[367]: Tak. -^iixi [-^r'xi
-ex, -lyEX,-lyetEX 'pertaining
"108.10].
yiqantcimex mii 'the last [ previous]generation' (" yiqantc 'behind')
from temporaladverbs,
suffix formingadjectives
[367]: Tak. -imik^i [-imik!i,
"108.7].
slaatc 'cousin' [371]: cf. Tak. snaa
vocative,"91](?).
[s-na'momma!'
-dan
suffix,'times' (innumerals) [373]: Tak. -an, -tan [-an,
-en, multiphcative

vocative
teka'^tsi 'granddaughter!',
aunt'
a'tatc 'paternal

[366]: Tak.

that-

"111].
'small child'],
[374]: Tak. haap- [ha'-'p'Tak.
-(h)an ["99].
being',men, plural[374]:

hl''me 'children'
ma

'human

from L!ta 'earth, ground, country'[375]: ? from

derived
L!ta'yas'village',
world, people',X'ayuus[L!ayu's],
(cf.L.U. X'ay[L!a'"']
'place,
[L!tay-]
X'taaylocative
hu^mi'k-ca
-I, found

form)

-as.

[SeeSection 3 for Takelma comparison],

[375]: cf. Chin, wi-na-m-s wa-n-aq-s.

'dear old woman'

suffixed to the article,

[377]: cf. Ts. -ii(-1)
expressinginstrumentality

(?)"
final reduplication
[380]: cf. Tak.
he

["30].

[381]:
[hou](?).
[384-5]: Tak.
'usually,
frequently,
habitually'

tco'xtcox 'rabbit'

Tak. hoow

-wi^

[-wi'^
'every,"101](?).

Seven:

311

Penutian Languages

at a state of affairs that has

surprise
c*^,expresses slight
to one's expectations
[389]: cf. Chin. s-.

into existence

come

trary
con-

almost, trying',
"114.7].
[391]:Tak. his [his'nearly,
surprise
L 'must, necessarily'
[392]: Chin. XX (?).
(exhortative
particle)
like
'let
I
should
a while' (exhoriL
better,
tative
to,
me,
hamiL, mIL,
you may, please,
Tak. mii^wa [ml'^wa
perhaps',
'probably,
[392]: Ts. amii [ami],
particle)
hitc,indicates

"114.6].
(independentpronoun) [396]: L.U.

n'ne, 1st person

-n.

[-nx].
[396]: L.U. -ns.
i'cne,2nd person dual [396]: L.U. -c [-ts].
xwin'ne, dual exclusive [396]: L.U. -Xun [-xiin].
lin'ne,1st person plural[396]: L.U. -nl,inclusive,-nXan
cin'ne,2nd person plural[396]: L.U. -ci [-tci].
e^ne, 2nd

-nX

[396]: L.U.

person

i'sne,dual inclusive

exclusive.
[-nxan],

plural[396]: cf. Chin. 1- (?).

singularreflexive (cf.tet 'body')[400]: Tak. -ta^x [-da^x
ntet, 1st person
restrictive suffix,"denotingthe isolation of the person,"e.g. 'onlyI',"103].
itxa,3rd person

demonstrative
stem, "104].
[ha'^^
'to become'].
lewi 'itis'[402]: Tak. laalii-[la^l-i'suffix,"112.2].
of
suffix
adverbial
modality[405]: Tak. -xa, -x [adverbial
-tc,
i 'when, as, since, while' [409]: Tak. isi^ [T's-i^
although,even if,
'despite,
"114.4].
a'watu 'whether or not' [411]:Wish, awa-ci^ 'or'.
as qualifiers
nouns
[412]: cf. Tak. ["88].
k!al- 'to shout' [413,
sgelew-].
416]: Tak. skelw-, skelew- [sgelw-,
xamk
Tak.
cx-Iml 'bear' [415]:
bear'].
[xam'k''grizzly

la",ha" 'he, it is'[401]: Tak. haa^-

5. Siuslaw

(FrachtenbergGrammar)

followingare comparativeglossesfound
The
Siuslawan
(Lower Umpqua) (1917).
berg's
given in brackets.
The

nak

nx-l-k becomes
winx-

'to be afraid'

page

on

copy
which

of Leo
a

Frachten-

glossis found

firstperson imperative
[501]: cf. Tak. -xi
laalawTak.
[la''law-].
[514]:

-Imts, indirect

objectof
name'

'to
[520]: cf. Coos will- [wilWish.
cf.
[ ?].
-t, present tense [527]:

look

ma-'tcposition',

'to

wihc-

Sapirs

is

-t-k.
[446]: cf. Wish. -tX-k becomes
hin^x
cf.
Tak.
[hin^x'fear'].
[446]:

Jan- 'to call

by

in

'to send'

for, to

[?].

(?).
search']

mate-

'to be

mask-

in

horizontal

[mats!ag-,
masg-

-a, nominal

objectof

an

[541]:cf. Yokuts

'to

lay'[536]:

mas'^ak-,

put'].

action, also the local idea of

-a.

cf. Tak.

rest

accusative

ing]
case-end-

yi

312

-a, modal

Indian Languages 2

American

[557]: cf. Tsim. adv.

[560]: cf. Chin. [ ?].

adverbs

-a.

qa'wl'blood'
suffix indicating
place[563]: cf. Coos
-a^mu,
nominalizing
suffix [564]: cf. Tak. -t [-(i)t'
"108.1].
-t, adjectival
=

-ame.

'beard'.
[ts'na'x]
of nouns
-wi, suffix found in a small number
[565]: cf. Coos -eyeewe [-eyawe,
1914a:
of
noun
364].
agency, Frachtenberg
one's hair' [565]: cf. Chin. [ ?].
'to comb
tsxanof final consonants
[567]: cf. Tak. ["30].
duplication
'to shoot (arrow),
paddle (canoe)'],
tcaq- 'to spear'[568]: Tak. saak^- [sa^gwTak.
'wildcat'
[570]:
yaak^ [yak'^].
hlq"
to Tak. aorist verb stem
stem
[573]: equivalent
["39-40].
amplification
Tak.
skelelshout'
'shout',sgelel[sgelew(?).
'keepshouting']
[575]:
tqut-'to
2 x (2),-n cf. Tak. -an, -tan [-an, -dan multiplicative
xa'ts!un 'four' [586]:
suffix,"111].
into water',"37.16]
river,
qo'x"m 'offshore,out in the water' [589]: Tak. xam- ['in
tsami'tsEm

'chin'

[565]: Coos

cneex

[589]: cf. Ts. [ ?].

aldu 'Hkewise' [592]: Tak. altii [aldl
'all'].
il [il
Tak. altii-1,
-tiil [aldI-1,
-dil 'all,
"I 'and' [592]: Coos
indeed'],
'surely,
everything'].
aL 'now' [593]: L. Chin, alta,alqa.
hanhan
'indeed,to be sure' [594]: Coos han [temporal
particle],
Chin.
of
L.
na.
[599]:
na, particle interrogation

stim, stimk

'there'

6. Tsimshian

(Boas Texts)

followingare comparativeglossesfound in the vocabularysection (pp.

Texts, New Series (1912).
256-284)of Sapir's
copy of Franz Boas's Tsimshian
The

Chin. aiaq.
'successfully':
'proximity':Tak. wa- ['to,
togetherwith'].

ayaawa'

ap 'bee':

Wish,

wa-ba.

am-

'only': Wish,

ami

'if:

amuks

cf. Tak.

nai-ma,
mT''wa

'to listen':

al 'but':

L.U.

"1

L. Ch.

nam-ka.

['probably,
(?).
perhaps']

(cf.mu

'ear'?).

['then,
so, and', introductory
(?),Coos
particle]

indeed'].
a'Mks 'servant':

cf. Kwakiutl

Elk",

at 'not' (in interrogative

sentences): cf. Na-dene.
emx

'beard':

Chin,

-miqcu.

il ['surely,

Seven:

sing.': Chin,

'to go,

ya"

Tak.

y!an 'excrement':

wak-

cf. L.U.
hit-c

'brother',waik-

walp,pi.huwalp
'to invite':

wa

'to

woq

Tak.

yew-.

[= ?].

(?).

'elder brother':

'house':

Tak.

sleep':

-ya, Tak. yana-.

'urine' (?).
xa^n-

return':

'to
yaltk,pi.yilyaltk
'fat':
yei,pi.yikyei
L.U.
y!u'"ta'man':

Tak.

Tak.

wai-, Yok.

wa^-, Chin.

awi.

wih.

['togo for,go

wo"-

Tak.

313

Penutian Languages

to

get'](?).

woi.

'innermost

part',wun-^aus 'brain' (cf.gaus 'head'): Chin, -wan,

of (me)'],
ha-^win-i-(de)
['inside
wul 'being':Tak. wala' ['really,
to find out']
come
(?).
wuir^l, pi.wulwuir^l 'to rub': Tak. yul-,final red[upIication].
hau 'to say': ? " *waw-.
haowi'n 'before':
Tak. ha'wi- ['still,
(?).
yet',"113.2]
hats! 'hardly,
now':
Coos [he 'the',ha 'his,
demon, ha- (cf.
her,its']),
ha^x 'goose': cf. Tak. [ha^k'a^].
haldEm'upward': cf. lak. hilw- ['to
climb'].
hi- 'beginning':L.U. hlq!-['to
begin'],
wun-

ha 'to shout':
han

L.U.

'salmon'

hum

hal-.

SE-wI-ha'n
.

Tak.

'twins

cf. Nootka.
( making plentiful)':
=

'to smell

something': cf. Chin.

hu^t 'to escape, pi.': Tak. ho"gw- ['to
run
(withoutexpressedgoalof motion)'].
L.U. hant'hu"tk, pi.hukhu'ot'^ 'to call,summon':
huk- 'expert'
(par.):Tak. yok'y-['to
know'](?).
Chin,
-wan
bEn, pi."a-bE'n
(?).
'belly':
.

bEla'x

'moss':

Tak.

balax, pi.bilba'lax
pe 'liver': cf. Tak.

blls.

'ghost':Tak.
p!an.

bu", pi.gabu'o'to blow':

pha'r'to

relate':

Tak.

bilam

cf. Tak.,

['having
nothing,empty'](?).

Coos,

Chin,

tell a myth to']

(?),L.U. pulk-na-['to
['to
p!al-gspeak']

cf. p!al'button'.
p!El-mu''ear-ornament':
'to smoke
( to enjoysmoke)': cf. Southern
p!ia'n'smoke', x-p!ia'n
'thou (transitive
cf.
Tak.
m
Chin.,
subject)':
'reddish'
mEsi'^n 'copper': cf. Hokan, Algonquian.
mES=

'breast':

mEsx

m!an-

mag

Chin,

'up through the

'to

Paiute.

put down

one

-mxtc

'heart'.

air':

cf. Hokan

mak-sk
object',

'up,sky'.
'to

put down

several

objects':cf. Tak.

[masg-'to put'].
ma'Mk

'to burn':

mat, pi.mElmal
mu

'ear':

cf. Tak.
'to tell':

[me^l-'to blaze'],
cf. Tak. [malg-'to tell,speak to'],

Hokan?

du'la,pi.ga-du'la
'tongue': cf. Wintun.

tgi-'down

throughthe

air':

Tak.

roll down
['tears
t'gi'y-

one's

face'].

Seven:

ta"

'to

latk

toga
Ika'ak

'to
'to

slide':

L.U.

go,

['to descend,

sLox"

Languages

slide

Chin.

move':

'sister'

Penutian

pi.':
(said

Coos

by

la-

man):

['to go'].
Chin,

-ixt

(?).

down'].

315

Section

Wakashan

Eight:

and

Salishan

Languages

Introduction

Within

assuming his duties as Chief of the Anthropological

in September 1910, Sapir set out
for
Division, Geological Survey of Canada,
and ethnographic field work
British Columbia
for linguistic
the Nootka
of
on
connection
Island.
between
Vancouver
A genetic
Nootka
and
Kwakiutl
had
been
proposed by Boas (1891:678-679), and although this was accepted by
Powell
the details
"Wakashan,"
(1891),who provided the family with the name
of the relationshipremained
This was
to be worked
the sort of task Sapir
out.
work
relished, and his first report on his Nootka
vey
(1911e)was a preliminary surof Nootka-Kwakiutl
He
continued
to
comparative linguistics. apparently
for several years. The notes
work
the projectintermittently
he accumulated,
on
Collection
in
the
of
in
the
Franz
Boas
the
American
now
Library
Philosophical
and W1.3; cf. Freeman
1966: 216, item
Society (manuscripts 497.3 B63c Wla.2
the basis of an
extensive
"Wakashan
parative
Com1954, 380, item 3836), formed
Vocabulary" (American Philosophical Society Library, manuscripts
497.3
B63c
Wla.26
and
1966: 380, items
Wl.l; cf. Freeman
3837-3838) prepared
Swadesh
in 1950-51, which
is published for the first time in
by Morris
Volume

XII

few

weeks

of The

of

Collected

Works.

twice, from September to December,

1910, and from
Sapir visited the Nootka
Tom
was
September, 1913, through February, 1914. His principal informant
blind
and
From
a
n
man
1921e,
1922y).
(Sayach'apis), elderly
(19181,
Sayach'apis
and others
guage
lanan
Sapir obtained
extraordinarilydetailed record of Nootka
and culture, including 71 texts, several
of considerable
length. During
the second
and
tripSapir taught two of his young interpreters,Frank Williams
Alex Thomas
of
take
dictation
latter
to
a grandson
(the
;
Sayach'apis),
phonetic
he arranged for them
and collect other data after
to continue
to transcribe
texts
his departure (1915j:172).This
collaboration
the
on
was
explicitlymodeled
George
relationshipFranz Boas had developed with his Kwakiutl
interpreter,
of Thomas
Hunt, and proved just as successful, particularlyin the case
(Golla
1984:
addition
documentation
of
In
to
133-134).
providing
aspects of
many
contributions
Nootka
culture from
a native" point of view, Thomas's
eventually
than doubled
collection
of
Nootka
texts.
more
Although Sapir worked
Sapir's
able to see
these materials
on
fairlysteadilyduring his Ottawa
years, he was
The
in
his
three
small
fraction
of
it
into
until
late
career.
a
only
print
papers
very
tions
(1911e,1924g, and 1929e),the short monograph (1915a), and the set of annota(1916c) that are reprinted here represent nearly all of Sapir'spublished
work
Nootka
nography
ethNootka
before
1939 (for his publicationson
on
linguistics
and
1922aa,
1921e,
1919e,
1913b,
1914b, 1915h,
1911e, 1912a,
see
1922y,
1925c, all in Volume

IV).

320

VI

"Some

of Nootka

Aspects

American

Language

Relationshipof Kwakiutl
Linguistic
Wolf

Nootka

Ritual,"

appears

and

and

(1911e),subtitled

Culture"

Nootka,"

is

of two

one

studies

"The

lished
pub-

other part, "The

in the full article reprintedin Volume
IV.)

the firstfruits of

togetheras

Languages 2

Indian

Sapirs

1910 field work.

(The

with a firm
comparative linguistics
Nootka
between
correspondences
in morphology and providesa number
and Kwakiutl; he sketches the parallels
related
discusses
he
of cognate affixes;
morphologicalprocesses, particularly
of procomparative syntax in a treatment
nominal
reduplication;and he broaches
listof
concludes
with
40
He
and
a
apparently
conjunctions.
systems
aim

Sapirs

here

is to

outlines

structural basis. He

cognate

stems

provide Wakashan

and

the basic sound

affixes.

(1915a)
Types of Speech in Nootka"
monograph on "Abnormal
of
in
Wishram
consonant
with
s
symbolism
description
Sapir
belongstogether
and his experihis paper on male and female speech in Yana (1929d),
mental
(in1911g),
of
of
sound
of
the
an
as
expression
symbolism
(1929m)
psychology
study
of
between
formal
tures,
strucin
the
his enduring interest
linguistic
points contact
universals. This paper is sometimes
and psychological
social categories,
literature as a pioneeringstudy of variation correlated
cited in the sociolinguistic
In fact,Sapir's
with such factors as age, sex, class,and ethnicity.
subject
variation as such, but a set of literary-rhetorical
here is not sociolinguistic
The

devices

short

used

in both

formal

and

informal

Nootka

discourse

to index

the social

topic(having thus a clear link to Sapir'sdiscussion of

these are regularpatPaiute myths, 1910d).
"recitative" in Southern
terns
Typically,
the speech
of phoneticalteration used in traditional narratives to identify
actions of salient mythic characters or of socially
or
stereotypedgroups such as
of these devices
At least some
deformed
individuals, or outcasts.
foreigners,
of
interaction
for
conversational
used
in
a
are
variety interpersonal
regularly
ends, includingaffection, mockery, and social exclusiveness.
from
Rival Whalers, A Nitinat Story" (1924g),a short text obtained
"The
in order to present
Sayach'apisin 1913, is provided with a word-by-word analysis
Nootka
structure.
introduction
"serviceable"
to
a
Publishingan
linguistic
was
a device
Sapirhad earlier resorted to
analyzedtext in lieu of a full grammar
hands what could
and
for
Yana
for Wishram
(1923m).In Sapir's
(191 Ig:673-677)
information
is crafted into a tightly
pasticheof disconnected
easilybe a mere
and derivational proinflectional
Most major
statement.
cesses
organizeddescriptive
wide
in
several
a
are
full),
(with
given
range of
paradigms
explained
and
the
complex morphosyntax
morphophonemic alternations are exemplified,
of Nootka
words is thoroughlyexplored.Although superseded as a formal presentation
1939)
by the grammaticalsketch in Nootka Texts (Sapirand Swadesh
Rival Whalers"
"The
the orthography of which
is also fullyphonemic
structure.
remains
the best pedagogicalintroduction
to Nootka
linguistic
Nootka
the
"Nootka
is
brief
Words"
on
a
ter
regisbaby-talk
(1929e)
Baby
report
alterations, specialmorphological
a small set of lexical substitutions,phonological
devices, and other specialfeatures used by or in speaking to small
children
and should be read in conjunctionwith the paragraph on the use of

categorizationof

the

"

"

"

"

Wakashan

Eight:

the

diminutive

in

talk

baby

in

Salishan

and

"Abnormal

32 1

Languages

of

Types

Speech

in Nootka"

(1915a:

and

Haas,

3-4).
the

During
carried

to

of

year

selection

largely

(Sapir

and

(Sapir
Alex

Nootka

in

1910

in

The

Sapir

time

It is all that
the

of his Comox
of

into

by Sapir
and

Sapir

(1920: 295;

prepared
Coast
is

XII,

taken
whereas

the

Alberni

Canal,

numerous

read

as

Nootka

at

his

also

see

Straits

first

with

Salish

visit

the

to

whose

man

Comparisons,"

(see

for

the

Swadesh

1984:

"Mosan"

by
108).

hypothesis,
originally

1953:
North

lished
pub-

compiled

Golla

Chimakuan

of

or

apparently

was

and

linguistics,
in part

Nootka

afterward

classification

general

phonetic

Nootka

century

Northwest

Volume

his

(1915f),

from

evidence

Wakashan,

all of

virtually

wholly

during

1949),
shortly

or

of
death

Sapir's

Wakashan

deal

Comox"

fashion,

lexical

volume

and

26-28)
American

posed
pro-

rated
incorpolanguages

1929a).

also

18th
the

work

Salishan,

by Frachtenberg

have

or

that

two

Swadesh

Sapir's own

of

genetic linkage

(1921a

of

list of

of considerable

many

as

list of "Salishan-Wakashan

(as part

survives

Sapir

in

XI-XII.)

collected

incidental

short

after

texts,

Nootka

in

Alex

ing
prepar-

and

second

Swadesh

by
of the

with
include

that

XI). A

Volumes

Reduplication

typically

Comox.

the

(See

section

sketch,

unpublished,

notes.

data

on

posthumously
at

remained

"Noun

is based

was

half

over

so,

have

in this

languages.

mother

published

was

Even

Volume

to

linguisticscontaining

grammatical

1939,

specifically concerned

reprinted

Nootka

texts,

for

view

and

result, published

Nootka

on

made

with

eventual

Mary

(cf.Swadesh

were

Swadesh,

The

volume

Swadesh

ethnographic

those

language,

and

1955).

interest,

ethnographic

Salishan

major

with

publication.

Thomas's,

Swadesh

papers

was

Swadesh

Sapir's direction

arrangements

work

Sapir's (and Thomas's)

texts,

Besides

1934

intensive
for

Morris

under

of

summer

for

materials

elements

Sapir's

field work

Sapir's death,

of

lexical

the
Yale

to

Nootka

some

the

In

come

Sapir's students,

Nootkan

1933).

Thomas

of

two

further

out

Swadesh

the

1930s

of America"

minor

was

in

with

the

which
the

near

observations

on

preliminary

essay

published

(1916c);
but

work,

Sound,

dialect

retranscription of,

vocabulary

northern

Sapir

on

differences
Nootkan

interest.
of

familiar,

end

of

notes

the

between
internal

the

the

which

The
Nootka

that

of

chain.
the

to,

mous
anony-

in "Vocabularies

contribution,

part

was

southern

the

this

without

not

by

and

Boas

two

dialect

Sapir's
dialects

in

appears

vocabulary

Barkley

diversity.

from

Sound

notes

and

was

chain,
and

include
may

be

THE

CHIEFS.

RIVAL

KWAKIUTL

RECORDED

STORY

HUNT."

GEORGE

BY

Synopsis.
and

Fast-Runner
friends.

close

berries,and

The

latter makes

After

careless
and

enough

boxes

down

been

not

and

and

clansmen, observing

that

accorded

the

before

canoes

rebukes

his friend

to

for his

order
for

by

to

second

"smother
borrow

the

"

copper,
it."

his

The

The

to

the

[The

text

by

Mr.

of

spelling

the
see

invite

Fast-Runner

Ill

to

his friend

feasting-songsare

After

of the
washed

not

his

ness
unwilling-

expresses

the

fire.

Looked

sends

Throw-away

-at-askance,"
this by

meets

copper,

do

to

rival,and

as

to

tries

to

so

he

Hence

so.

his fire

"

in

sending

also into the fire

is unable

Sapir, whom
that

now

died

has

Expedition
of that

have

adopted

by

series,p.

5.

"

down
to

Professor
For

Editor.]
108

four

by Mr.
thank

the

latter

for
Boas

is

assigned

are
feasting-dishes

Hunt

has

having
in

his

explanation

of

been

his

sends

feast, and

The

Then

sung.

Publications.

the

returns

Throw-away.

originally written

as

Edward

Jesup
Vol.

fellow-

guests thereupon leave.

attendants

'

by

food, lies
his

has

possessing another

beaten

three

superiorityin wealth,

it into

fellow-clansmen,but

following day

seat, and

his

putting this

not

the

example.

Throw-away

Fast-Runner

and

Crane,"

himself

virtuallyconfesses

his

berries

and

clan

of

eat

with

been

tells his fellowmen

copper,

burning."

Throw-away,

from

one

out."

fire

to

Fast-Runner

puts

own

his

the

has

blanket, while

"

his

and

seat

food-receptacles. Throw-away

show

and

his

his friend

Throw-away
and

that

as

to

and

brought in, filled

with

haughtiness;

in

that

arises and

them

using

putting

assigned

chief,in

dirtyfood,and,

keep

"

been

and

feast of salmon-

clan

own

proceeding

attendant
their

his

displeased,follow

"Sea-Monster"

copper

retaliates

is

Kwakiutl,

give a

Fast-Runner

of

the

invite

are

his face

he

for his

of the

eat

out

of

to

canoes

put before

covers

dirty treatment
out

cleaned

silence,Fast-Runner's

long

four

Fast-runner, instead

his back

on

to

has

sung,

have

to

of grease,

chiefs.

other

his mind

up

Fast-Runner

feasting-songshave

chiefs

are

his four attendants

sends

Fast-Runner.

Throw-away

his

filled

kindly

revised

the

system

changed
Kwakiutl
letters

Texts
and

of

sounds

324

VI

American

Indian

Languages 2

109

-apples,wild

crab

with

and

then

sends

with

the

his

of

to

The

intense

have

heat

and

gets up

away

his

his

eats

directed

intention

the

to

winter

and

sons

are

the

sung,

and

stand

day

are

Here

next

the

butchered

body

by
up

by

evening

their

secret

wishes
the

war-

done

the
him

dancers

GrislyBears
her,
are

to

Bear

son

the

At

his

causes

approach
carved

mask

paratory
pre-

daughter

behindhand,

of the

mask

the

for

out

his

for

"caught,"

are

perform
and

shame

songs
monies,
cere-

proper

they

are

attendant

and

she

' '

tamed
asks

of

one

requests that
on

and

boards,

they
a

singingThe

night.

are

who

Throw-away,
his

the
the
be

high

two

slave's

is

war-dancers

put into

now

scalp.

war-dancers

wall

ficing
sacri-

in

recklessness

his

and

Grisly Bears,

gives Throw-away
' '

following

is scalped,pursued, and

and

than

man

the

people

of Fast-Runner

warriors

slave

richer

The

repairto the

continuouslythrough
and

his

begs

Throw-away.

Fast-Runner's

The

tied down

his

of
Fast-

As

and

Grisly-Bear

are

rival.

likewise.

be

eat, whence

to

Cannibals.
a

out, he

fellow-clansmen

do

to

has

Throw-away

canoes.

Fast-Runner

songs.
to

and

Grisly Bears

be

die

to

his

his winter-dance

dance

to

not

his rival's deeds

outdo

Sea-Monster

Grisly

attempt

four

his

to

to

Fool-Dancers, Cannibals,

shows

the

in

does

so.

disappear."
a

he

Fast-Runner.

to

into his house

disappeared

clearlyoutdone.
the

given

his

not

of

begins with

brought

slave

and

"

"

the

eaten
a

has

children

they sing and

for and

sent

in

invited

house.

day

is

then
him

by

order

war-dancer,

Sea-Monster
canoe

Fast-Runner

all

be

"disappeared"

The

son.

to

is to

daughter, who

his

' '

to

period, Throw-away

ceremonial

do

determines

Fast-Runner,

fire.

near

but

the

by
the

the guests of Fast-Runner

they

in

break

to

wishes

begun
that

showing

ceremonial. Throw-away

daughters also

two

has

his

Fast-Runner

ground

secretlyinforms

this,and

of

"disappear," whereupon
two

leave, and

to

on

blaze

Then

winter-dance

hears

however,

Runner,

the

him.

Throw-away

give

to

lying

house

and

again,
the

rival's

with

and,

latter's

fragments.
"

it up

crab-apples,thus

least affected

time

Some

the

his

extinguished."

"

great physical pain,

After

ground.

later

is

Throw-away

his attendants

by

build

"

into

puts
been

the

offered, and

back, however,

come

Fool-Dancer,
to

with

return

to

as

the

of

friend, who

of the

in the

not

so

causes

holds

and

flinch

fire

soon

his

returns

dirtyfood

his fire has

attendants

They

canoes.

drive

his

Throw-away

but

eat,

Throw-away

that

says

not

They

which

put before

the

taste

home.

and

sends

the

does

not

recklessness

leave,

on

heat

the

on

new

these

puts

his

arises

puts

father-in-law's
four

will

"Day-Face,"

copper

then

he

four attendants

his

Fast-Runner

He

that

by saying

insult

and

grease,

Throw-away

fellow-clansmen.

his

friend's

fire.

cherries,and

the

In

sing

what

she

fire.

So

of fire -wood

is

put

Salishan

and

Wakashan

Eight:

325

Languages

no

fire,and

the

about
inside

be

to

for the

tied

will

they

to

life after four

while

the

told

dead

if

they

The

After

having

are

four

been

are

to

not

do

slaves

war-dancers

put into the fire.

slaves

are

just

to be

and

acquiesce

in boxes.

preserved

to

true

war-

put into the fire,

will

are

back

come

burned

hidden, being supposed

days they pretend

put

substitutes

as

otherwise

but

so,

the

like

burned

when

scream

be

ostensibly to

are

adorned

are

These

They

days.

real

slaves
boards.

on

struck

be

as

two

Two

down

war-dancers.

Fast-Runner

daughters of

burned.

and

dancers

the

death,

to

have

to

been

revive,the ashes of the

Now

is

Throw-away

pletely
com-

worsted.

Throw-away
men

says

slain

are

Mr.

off to

goes

by them, only

George Hunt,
in the

friends

one

story of the

true

turned

out

be

to

first of

is

; but

at

and

all his

This,"

"

who

enemies

lax

Kwakiutl,

he

tale.

chiefs

two

worst

g-a'lasa Kwa'g-ule

They lived, it
said, the

true

were

the end."

at

Qa'logwise.

Wa,

Crooked-Beach.

Well,

the

^na'mok-aleda

laE'm^awIse
it is said

Nootka

survivingto tell the

man

is the

beginning, and

Go'kula^laeda

now

"

fightagainst the

they

friends

were

SE'riLlEmexa

g-i'gama^yasa
to

each

chief

Sun

of the

tribe

other, the

TsEx^wi'dEx-Luia
named

Fast-Runner

the chief of the

and

Hair-turned-up-inFront

(long ago)
a'laEl

laE'm^lawIse

^i'dEX'Lula.

Wa,

Throw-away

Well,

then

it is said

la'xulapla.

really

they loved

la

it is said

la

ga'la

they

long time

now

^na'mok-ala,

to

Well,

^na'la.
day.

(knew)

Well,

'na'xwaEm

lae

all,it is said,

Well,

other.

(secrets).

laE'm^lawiseda
then

friends

were

each

Wa,

thoughts

other's

Wa,

each

^ne^na'qa^e.

q!a'^lap!xes
each

Wa,

other.

laE'm^lawIse

they watched

named

tribe

(long ago).

then

Ts!ex-

Lo'yalalawaxa

g-i gama'yasa

it is said

Wa,
Well,

lax

TsEx^wl'de.

of

Fast- Runner.

the

ga'lasa
first of the

laE'm'^lawise
then

it is said

Wa,
Well,

Kwa'gule
Kwakiutl

TslEx^i'de
Throw-away

xu'lsaxa
were

downcast

ha'nak-axes
asked

laE'm

ne'la.ses

then

he told of his

leave of his

^riE'mxsa
one

^nEmo'kwe,
friend

k!we'lats!eneLasa
going to be a place of
giving a feast with

326

VI

Indian

American

Languages 2

III

la'xa

qIa'mdzEkvva

qle'nEme

salmon-berries

many

he'x-^ldaEm^la'wTse
it is

right away,
e'k'os

^ne'ka

Fast- Runner

said.

be

may

Kwakiutl

Well,

(clans).

^ya, qast,

"

"

la^mo'x

friend !

Now

that

g'o'kulotex

happy

qaxs
for

tribe,

our

your

xE'nLElaex

^ne'x-^lae.

xu'Isa,"
they

very

TslEx^i'de

asked

a^yi'lkwe

his

Well,

as

as, it is

soon

that

mo'kwa

hung about
waists

Le'^lalaxa

^lae
it is said,

to

Kwakiutl

house

dEnE'me.

their

house.

lae'da
then

when

the

the

la'xda^x"-

Wa,

cedar-bark

the

Kwa'kug-ule

invite the

said,

g'o'kwe.
his

out

g'o'kwaxs

swept

was

yae'ltsEmtsa

four

attendants

they sweep

e'kwasE^wa

gwal
finished

said,

out

a^yi'lkwe

it is

right away,

e'x%itsE^weses

qa

attendants

g i'FEm^la'wise

Wa,

Well,

it is said.

axk-a'laxes

Throw-away

he'x-^idaEm^la'wise

Wa,

he said,

are

downcast,"

Wa,

e'k'lex^IdesEns

that

so

Kwa'kug-ula.

said,

qa

word,

your

first

TsEx^wi'de

wa'ldEmaqos

good

ga'la

to the

then

Well,

they,

(belts).
TslEx^i'de.

gi'gama^e

qaes
for their

Wa,

Throw-away.

chief

Well,

went

g i'l^mese
as

soon

%e'laeLexs

gax

as

all

came

la'e

TslEx^i'daxes

axk'la^le
asked

then

in, when

his

Throw-away

they
lO

a^yi'lkwe

they

he'x-^ida^mesa

go

call

again

TsEx%i'de.

^nEmo'kwe

his

four

attendants

Wa,
Well,

Fast-Runner.

friend

g-i'Fmese g-a'xe

a^yi'lkwae'tse^staq. Wa,

mo'kwe

the

right away

e'tse^stasE%es

las

qa
that

attendants

again called

Well,

as

soon

came

as

him.

TsEx^wi'de

g'a'xeLa,

Fast-Runner

into

came

la'e

TslEx^i'de

axkMa'Iaq
asked

Throw-away

then

that

him

las

qa
he

go

house,

k!wa'ga^lil
sit down

in the

at

the

sat

down

house,

15

rear

of his

g-i'l^mese

Wa,

house.

Well,

as

soon

as

house

la'asa

k!wa'g-a^ll}Exs
he

^nEqe'walelases g'o'kwe.

la'xa

in the

the

feasters

when

mo'sgEme
four

then

kiwe'le

klwe'^'lala
sang

feasting-

dE'nx^ida,
began

to

sing

yi'sa
with

songs

klwe'la^layo q!a'mq!EmdEma.
means

of

feasting

songs.

g-i'l^mese gwal

Wa,
Well,

as

soon

as

they finished

Wakashan

Eight:

Salishan

and

327

Languages

112

klwe'^laleda
sing

to

k!we'laxs

the

feasters,

then

when

Wa,

xwaguma.

into

four

small

(long)

house

la'e

ts!o'xwEgEntsE^waxs

hawe'xaEm

then

xwa'xu-

mo'ts!aqe

brought

were

they

laE'm

Well,

canoes.

LEle'LEmeda

la'e

they

never

inside

washed

were

then

when

qupIa'laxsElayowa
used

were

for

qle'nEme

in

pouring

they

q!a'mdzEk"

laq.

Wa,

salmon-berries

into

Well,

many

la-

them.

^me'se

^na'xwaEm

then

^naE'ngoyaleda mo'tslaqe xwa'xuxwagumaxa

half

all

qIa'mdzEkwe.

Well, then

four

it is

mo'sgEme

taken

were

little canoes

(long)

ax^e'tsE%a

la'^lae

Wa,

salmon-berries.

full the

four

dE'ngwats!e

grease-boxes

(round)

said

L!e"^na

qa^s

olachen-oil

that

so

^na'l^nEmtsIaqe
each

put in the

were

each

small

Well,

canoe.

into

(box)

one

g-i'PEm^la'wise gwal

Wa,

xwa'xwaguma.

(long)

la'xa

^na'FnEmsgEme

k!u'nq!EgEmaeda

as

soon

as,

finished

it is

said, they

then

put in,

were

LE'lLElbEntsE^a

la'e

k!u'nqasoxs

it

small

at

put down

lax

TsEx^wi'de

at

Fast-Runner

that

so

canoe,

went

they

each

ha'nx-d/.amolelEm
was

lifted up
end the

was

when

le

qa^s

xwa'xwagume

^nE^me'mote.

LE%e's

Wa,
Well,

clan.

his

and

in front

ha'nxdzamolelEm

^nE'mtslaqe

la'^laeda
it is said

(canoe)

one

was

in front

put down

lax

O'dze^stalise

at

Wrong-aroundWorld

the

LE%e's
and

%E^me'mota

clan of

Maa'mtagila,

TsEx^wlMe.

Wa,

la'^laeda

Fast-Runner.

Well,

it is said

^nE^me'-

SE'nLlEmae

yixs

Sun

while

Maa'mtag-ila,

clan

his

motas

10

tribe

the

^nE'mtslaqe xwa'xwagum
small

(long)

one

canoe

the

was

put down

in front

k-EqEwede.
(Chiefs).

at

Chiefs

the

la'^'laeda

Wa,

it is said

Well,

lax

Ge'xsEme

la'xa

ha'nx-dzamolelEm

(clan)
E'lxLa^e
last

one

gi'gama^yase
their chief

to

Ki'mMet-by-

ha'nx-dzamolelEm
was

put

down

in front

lax
at

the

yixs

Lla'qwagila
Copper-Maker

when

he

was

gi'gama^yasa
chief

of

the

La'alaxsEnt!ayo.
Breakers-(of-allTribes).

Wa,
Well,

15

VI

328

Languages 2

Indian

American

"3
la'e

g-i'l^Emla'^wise ^wi'lga^lllExs
as

as, it is

soon

all had

said,

been

lay

down

in his seat

back

TslEx^i'de

it is said

then

blanket

face

only

Lla'^ya.

Wa,

(of)black

Well,

bear.

his

with

over

laE'm'^lawise

his

covered

he

and

^nEx^una'^e

^naxu'mdeses

qa^s

his

on

put

a'Em

Fast-Runner

floor,

on

tIe'xbEtalel

TsEx^wi'de

then

a^yi'lkwe

axk'la'laxes
his

asked

Throw-away

wa'xesexa

qa
that

attendants

they

tell to

ahead

yo's^itses

wa'g*es

k!we'ie

qa

feasters

that

they

should

with

eat

with

kiwe'ie

^na'xwamaeda

in the

folds

their blankets

only,

it is

klvvei

^na'xwa

a'Em'^la'wisa
said,

for

k'a'k'EtslEnaqe. Wa,

of

Well,

spoons.

their

TsEx^wi'de,

do'qwalax

feasters

all the

qaxs

spoons,

spoons
their

qe'qEplEpElaxes
carried

feasters

all the

k'a'k'EtslEnaqe,

go

the

qaxs
for

Fast-Runner,

kept looking

they

at

bad

that

recognized

na'qa^e

ya'x-sE^mae

^ma'lt!allmaaqexs

heart

the

k!wa^e'lase.

la'xes
at

place of sitting

his

floor.

on

Well,

only,

it is

la

klvve'ie

a'Em^lawisa

Wa,

feasters

said,

la

^na'xwaEm
all

then

tle'x-alila
lay

now

he'lat!a^la
it is

lO

long

that, however,

Well,

ya'q!eg-a^}a.

up

"

g-i'gamek-,
chief here

our

V^,

la'xg-a
at

g'o'lg'Ekulot, we'g-a

qa^s
that

15

here.

his

this

he

gone

eat

dirty things of

these

washed

out

this

his

la'xox
at this

manner

floor

not

^mo'xulax.
dirty (chief).

feasting-dishes

^nex-

k-!e'sek-

for he

le'loqlulela

tslo'xulExsaxes
he

Throw-away,

^mo'^mxselayoxsa

ha'^mx-^idexwa

la'Lox
have

friend

of his

goon

gvvae'lasg-as

TslEx^i'dex, yixs

^nEmo'kwox

g-o'kwasos

it is said he

then

fellow-tribesmen!

"O

fellow-feasters,

his

laE'm*la'wise

Well,

on

house

of

attendant

Wa,

spoke.

he

klwe'l^wEote

la'xes
to

this

it is said

Well,

do'qulaxg-in
see

la'^lae

Wa,

Fast-Runner.

said

floor,

a^yi'lkwas

the

said,

TsEx^vvi'de.

^ne'k-a,

on

stood

then

also,

on

La'xulile

la'e

gae'iExs

o'gwaqa.

backs

their

the

Wa,

down

says

Wa'lax'de
Could

not

xwa'xuxwagumaxs
small

canoes

when

he

Wakashan

Eight:

Salishan

and

329

Languages

114
k-!e's^mex-dex

gu'xalESElasa
he

not

began

he'mEnala^ma'axEl
they

pour

t.'e'tlElema
what

soaking-recep-

LE'^vva

1 hali-

and

hali-

dried

he

what

the

meant

mo'qwasde).

the

).

(?)

yo'^mets

Wa,

this is

Well,

but-heads

Dut-fins

gwo^yo's

your

q.'wa'iobEse la'xg-exs

yo'sasoso'xda

qa
be

that

wish

with

eaten

spoons

the

soot

^ne'x-^lae.

lelo'qulelaqos TsIex^iM,"

he

feasting-dishes.Throw-away,"

your

(that is

soaked

LE'^wa

ma'leqasde

the

and

for

gwo^yo'seda

(he'Em

was

qaxs

these,

into

salmon-berries

tacles for that

p!E'Lasde

la'qwaq,

qla'mdzEkwe

the

t!e'lats!exa

all the time

were

to

said, it is

la'xos

inside

now

Wa,

la'^lae

Well,

it is said

in

he'x-^lda^me

immediately

said.

TslEx^i'de

La'

Throw-away

got up

Ilia.

xu

laE'm^lae

Wa,

in the

Well,

then,

la'xes

word

talk

wa'ldEmos.

la'^lae

Well,

it is said

he

not

proudly.

Well,

go

he

said

as

friend!

"O

q!e'q!ade

gwex-s

is you

just

^ya, qast,

said.

laxs

a'Em

on

^ne'k-a

Ha'aqos
That

Wa'g-adza

word.

account

Wa,

LE'mlEmqIa'loL.

very

you

qa'es
on

attendants.

xe'iileI

gwa'ldzas
don't

a^yi'lkwe.

his

to

it is

said,

house.

wa'ldEma

^ne'x'tslots

k-!es

if you

much

having

gwa'exsdaasaos,"

to

wish,"

your

of your

^ne'x'^lae.
he

Well,

said, it is

TsEx^wi'de

he'x-^IdaEm^la'wise

Wa,

immediately,

it is

said,

La'xuliia.

Fast-Runner

got up

Well,

he

it is said

said,

Throw-away

^mo'xul.

given for

and

Well,

a^yi'lkwe

among

qa
that

he

you,"
las
they
and

shall

meet

your
deed.

'^ne'x'^laexs

q!e'q!adaga'%ayos,"
having

now

go

not

food

get

say

qEn
that

his

copper

ya
o

me.

Truly I

am

'^ya'Iaqases

la'e

Lla'qwase

A'la^meg'in

dirty

then

said, as

ax^e'dEx

to

^ma'^moxwalaLOL.

la^me'sEn

Wa,

ha^mgi^la'yo g'a'xEn,

dirty things

the

attendants

friend

^ma'^moxselaqwe

ha'^mapexa

dirty man

'

^ne'x-

Ts!Ex*^i'd, k-!e'sEn

^ya, qast,

^ne'ka

la'^lae

much

10

house.

said.

eat

Wa,

in the

he

sent

his

Tsle'gese.

Wa,

Sea-Monster.

Well,

Salishan

and

Wakashan

Eight:

331

Languages

ii6

laE'm

Wa,
Well,

%Ema'x-Es

then

just as

lo^

if

dzn'mas

with

lelao'xwasa

he covered

of

cost

Lla'LlEqwa

the

coppers

with

lax

klwe'lasdEtna

the

to

kli'lxaxa

Le'gadEs

of his

lEgwe'le.

la'g-ilas

that is

k!we'lase.
feast.

of

reason

la'La

Wa,

that

so

he'^mes

Well,

fire of the

qa

friend,

Wa,

iire.

putting out

name

of

house

lEgwe'lasa

^nEmo'kwe,

go'kvvases

the

being burned
by the

nothing

having

fire of

xi'xsE^watsa

k-!eo'ses
it be

lEgwe'lts

feast-place

TslEx^i'de

Well, but then

Throw-away

the

^nEma'xEs

lo^

just as if

mo'xLalases

with

he

lighted his

fire with

Lle'^na

LE'^wa

olachen-

and

copper.

La'giias

fuel.

That

grease

k-!e'ses

qa
for

copper

his house.

dying

as

la'a^lase
then

copper.

k.'we'lasdEmas

the

lEgwe'las

feast-place

fire of

TsEx^wi'de

La'sLEntses

Fast-Runner

pushed

fire his

on

said,

TslEx'^'i'de

it is

on

the fire his

as, it

soon

is

Lla'qwa

out

pushing

of

g-i'^Em^lawise

Well,

place of the

LasLa'lases

also

k-!i'lx^ede

its not

Wi,

g'o'kwas.

it is in

o'gwaqa

is

reason

Lla'qwa,

^mEx"stE%e'sa

then

Well,

his

lEqwa'.

the

laE'm

Lla'qwa. Wa,

dak

Throw-away

-la'lax

asked

for

L.'a'qwa

la'xes
to

copper

his

said

*nE^me'mota
clan

Lo'yalalawa.

Wa,

Hair-turned-up-

Well,

laE'l
it is

in-Front.

la^me'
then

was

beaten

went

the

out

kiwel
feasters

his copper.

no

his house.

la'xsde.

Wa,

then

10

Well,

then

k'li'lxEkwe
extinguished

was

Wa,

a'Em^la'wise

Well,

just,it is

la^me'

Well,

passed.

la^me'

Well,

way.

fire of

the

Lla'qwas. Wa,

was

Wa,

lEgwe'lts g-o'kwas.

past feasting-place

ho'qawElseda

la'xeq.
in that

Throw-away

k!we'lasdEmax-de
the

there

said

Ts.'Ex^i'de

ya'k-awe

he

k'leo's

hawe'xa

they

never

la

said,

now

yo's^Id la'xa
wiih

ate

at

the

spoons

kIwe'ladzEm
given

in feast

qla'mdzEkwa.
salmon-berries.

Wa,

la'^lae

Well,

it is

q!a'FaLElex na'qa^yases^nEmo'kwe
find

out

the

thought

of his

friend

TsEx^wi'de

said,

Fast- Runner

TslEx^i'de.

Wa,

Throw

Well,

away.

^ncxwished

qa^s
that he

laE'm'la'wise
then

it is said he

ic

332

VI

American

Indian

Languages

117

a^yi'lkwe

axk!a'laxes

attendants

his

asked

that

lE'nsde.

^nEmo'kwaxa

the

friend

they

invite

go
and

Le'lanEmx-dases

the

that

ones

had

invited

laE'm^la'wise

Wa,

his attendants

invited

day.

them.

he'x-^idaEm^la'wise

Wa,

immediately,

Well,

been

by his

a^yi'lkwas Le'^'lalaq.

it is said

then

Well,

past

Le'^lalax

las

qa

it is

Le'lanEme

g-a'xeda

said,

invited

the

came

ho'gweLa.

ones

Wa,

into

came

Well,

house.

TslEx^i'de

le'x'aEtn^la'wise
only,

it is

T.sEx'vvi'de

k'!es

Throw-away

said,

'^ya'laqaxcsa^yi'lkwe

Fast- Runner

sent

his

out

attendants

laE'm^^lawise

g'a'xa. Wa,

not

then

it is said

e'tse^staq.Wa,

k!e's-

Well,

came.

las

qa
to

and

go

call him

Well,

not,

again.

^lat!a
however,
it is

la'k'Elax

ge'x"^idedaa^yi'lkwaxs g'a'xae
attendants

long

were

when

TslEx^i'de.

Wa,

Throw-away.

Well,

following

came

the

said,

TsEx^l'de

he'x'^idaEm^la'wise
immediately,

it is

Fast-Runner

said,

laE'm^lae

q!a'x"sldzeq. Wa,
led

his

feet.

then

Well,

it is

said

%ex-

that

wished

he

^nE^me'mote.

klwa'g-a'^lilaLla'salilases

las

qa

of his

outside

sit down

go

he

Wa,

clan.

Well,

and

there

then

nExwa'Lala

two

were

each

10

a^yi'lkvvaslax

ma^e'ma^lokweda

laE'm

side

his attendants

on

both

sides

of him

at

the

the

la'xa

fire of his

g-i'l'-Em^la'wise

Wa,

lEgwe'lases g'o'kwe.

to the

neighborhood

la'xa

wax'sano'LEma^yas

at

house.

Well,

as

soon

as,

it is

said, he

klwag-a^ll'laxs,la'as
sat

then

down,

began to sing
feast-songsthe

they

four

feast-giver

there

Well,

songs.

sung

were

g i'FEm^la'wise

Wa,

q!a'mq!EmdEma.

mo'sgEm

klwe'laya^layu

k!we'lg"a^'ledakiwe'lasa

as

as, it is

soon

said,

feasters

stopped the
tsE'lwats!e
apple

mo'sgEm
four

boxes

dE'nxElaxs

k!we'lala

qlwe'l^ededa

then

singing

boxes,

were

qa^s ga'xe

k!ek!i'myaxLa,

(round)

ax'^e'tsE^a

la'e

and

they

came

taken

tsecrab-

out

mExa'lelEm
put down

were
on

15

lax
at

the

ma^sta'yasa
near

by

to

the

a^we'LElasa
inside of door
of the

klvve'layats!g'o'kvva. Wa,
feastingreceptacle

house.

Well,

ground
la'^lae
it is

said

Salishan

and

Wakashan

Eight:

333

Languages

ii8

ax^e'tsE^vveda

e'tled
again

taken

were

four

out

Lle'^na.

dE'ngwatsle

mo'sgEme

grease-boxes (of)olachen-

(round)

Wa,

la'^lae

Well,

it is said

grease.

taken

were

two

out

it

on

dishes.

also,it is

Well,

grisly- feasting-dish.

it

on

one

^nEme'x'La

he'Em^la'wisa

lo'qulela. Wa,

na'na

that, it is said,

Well,

feasting-

double-headed

serpent

^nEme'xxa

he'Em^la'vvisa

lo'quleia. Wa,

si'siul

ma'^lEx-La

ax^e'tsE%eda

said,

one

bear

na'ne

also, it is said,

Well,

feasting

grisly-

^nEme'x-La

he'Em^la'wisa

Wa,

lo'qulela.

one

dish.

bear

a'LanEm

lo'qulela.

wolf

feasting-dish.

TsEx%l'de.

were

half

then

poured

were

with

they

then

Well,

k'a'x-^itso'^ses

first

it

Well,

as

soon

as, it is

before

set

was

it.

^nEmo'kwe
friend

his

k-a'x"^Itsa

^wi'^la

g-i'l^Em^a'wise

Wa,

Throw-away.

g"il

that

all

said,

full

they were
with

he'Em

also, it is said,

TslEx^l'de.

q6'qut!as.

then

Well,

grease.

laE'm^laxaa'wise

Wa,

crab-apples,

laE'm

Wa,

olachen-

into

tsElx",

feasting-dishesof

Lle'^na.

k!u'nq!Eqas6^sa

la'e

Well,

cherries.

lo'Elquleiaxa

full the

Wa,

wild

with

naE'nguya'leda

it is said

then

t.'E'lse.

poured into

were

they

laE'm^lawise

of
feasting-dishes

guxtsla'laso^sa

it is said

then

Well,

Fast-Runner.

lo'Elqulelas 5

the

then

is all

That

laE'm^lawise

Wa,

la'e

HEm%ex-Lago

were

10

before

set

the

io'Elquleiaxs

la'e

a^yi'lkwas

when
feasting-dishes,

then

his attendants

they

with

eat

go

ahead

urged

he'x'^idaEm^la'wise

wa'g'es yo's^eda. Wa,

immediately,

Well,

k.'we'le

wa'xaxa

it is

said,

TslEx'^i'de

La'xullia.

Throw-away

stood

up in
the house.

spoons.

la'^lae

Wa,

ya'q!eg-a^la. Wa,
Well,

spoke.

it is said

Well,

la'^lae

said,

"^ya,
"O

qast,
friend!

he

k-!e'seg-inhe
I

%e'k-a

it is said

he

not

qa
that

feasters

the

that

plax^aLE'lela'xos

g-a'xile qEn
reason

of

that

should

taste

of your

kIwe'ladzEmaqos,
your

feasling-objects,

coming

yO'Laxs
you

that

a'laaqos
really are

mo'xula
dirty

bEgwa'nEma,
man,

qfist, qaxs
friend, since

hawe'xaaqos
you

never

15

334

VI

Languages

Indian

American

119

ha^maa'tslex,

tsIo'xug-indxEn
inside

washed

my

it is

then

said,
said, when

he

not, it is

said

they

it is

it under

took

laE'm

Well,

then

la'^lae ^ne'ka

got up

friend!

"O

and

in

ya'qlega^e.

he

Go

on

will

now

wa'ldEm
word

kIwe'lasdEmaqEn
feasting-place

my

o'gwaqa
go

also

he

Wa,
Well,

la'^lae

look

said, it

is

so

that

look

said,

sent

as

a^yi'lkwa
attendants

four

lax
in the

in his

excited

was

mo'kwe

his

they might

he

la'xes

xwa'sa

la'e

^ya'laqases

axe'ilaxa

for what

sit down

in house

it is said he

d6'x%edEx

do'qwale

k!wa'g-a^lllLOL,qEn

^ne'x"^laexs

also,"

Well,

this my

will vou
you

again

o'gwaqa,'

Wa,

spoke.

k-!i'lx^edEn

in house

fool-dance.

la'^laeda
it is said the

Well,

extinguished

now

e'tla^lilEL

la

We'g-il

nulEmalaena^e.

gwaqa
also he

this is

fire in house.

shoved

house

"^ya, qast, la^mo'x

said.

lEgwe'la.

La'ya-

he

Wa,

qa^s

La'xulila

TsEx^wi'de

he

^mo'^nakula.

Wa,

Moving-Load.

Well,

k-!e's^Em^lawise
not

then, it is said,

qa
that

go'kwases

nEgu'mpe

of his

father-in-law

house

take

and

15

Wa,

Fast-Runner.

chief

Fast- Runner

it is said

qa^s
and

TsEx^wi'de

gi'gama^e

the

they

im-

of the

chief

las

he'x

Wa,
Well,

copper

feast-giver.

fire of the

i'gama^e

for my

Well,

of the

lEgwe'lasa

the

qEn

Wa,

into

went

Lla'qwa

the

klwe'lase.

fire of the

house

10

they

da'x-^idxa

lEgwe'lasa

the

to

k'li'lxax

Well,

ho'gwcLa.

Day-Face,

copper

said. Throw-away

house

out

said,

Wa,

out.

'^nE'lgEmala.

Lla'qwa

in hand

TslEx^l'de

lax

boleses

put

thing)

the

^idaEm^la'wise
mediately,

(some-

out

and

house.

dag-i'lqElaxa
carried

take

they

went

again

came

dadag'ill'lEla

la'x-da^xwa.

e't!ed

g'a'xae

long
they

laE'm^lae
it is

immediately,
they

when

said,

then

it is

ga'laxs

however,

he'x-'^idaEm^la'wise

Wa,
Well,

k-!e's"lat!a

las

that

go

his house.

in

attendants

he

g-o'kwas.

lax

feasting-dishes,"

a^yi'lkwa qa

four

his

out

sent

lelo'qulelaqos,"

your

^ya'laqasesmo'kwe

la'e

^ne'x'^laexs

yi'xos

food-receptacle

ho'qawElseda
went

house

out

of
the

mo'kwe
four

335

Languages

Salishan

and

Wakashan

Eight:

I20

la'e

a^yi'lkwaxs

then

when

attendants

la'xes

lase

up
house

had

also

Lx)ad

Moving-

k!we'}a.

g'a'xene^me

for he

place

in

stood

come

as

sitting-

his

at

^ne'k-a:

la'^ae

Wa,

said,

it is said he

Well,

feaster.

k!wae'-

la'xes

^mo'^akula

La'xullle

in house

^ya'laqalas

nEgu'mp,
"O

son-in-law

ax^e'tsE^wa

lase

qa
that

send

they

be

go

taken

and

mo'tslaqa
four

t!e't!Egu'na
flat-bowed

(long)

immediately,
Lo^me's
and

said,

ha^ya'Fa

also

young

canoes

your
in house,"

qa
that

men

les
they

sent

out

his

to

Well,

is

mo'kwe

a^yi'lkwa
attendants

four

mo'tslaqe

tso'tsoxsEndxa
break

Wa,

said, it
said.

^ya'laqases

Fast-Runner

^ne'x'^lae.
he

fire

for

TsEx^wl'de

he'x-^ldaEm^la'wise
it is

lEgwe'los,"

qas

alo'-

four

piecesthe

new

his

t!e't!Egu'na.

laq

flat-bowed

canoes.

Wa,

k-!e's4at!a

Well,

not, it is

ga'xae

ga'laxs
.

said,

long

when

however,

^we'g-iLEla'yoweda
carried

into

house

shoulders

piled

broken

on

la'^lae,

t!e't!Egu'na. Wa,
flat-bowed

Well,

canoes.

the

^mo'x''Lalayo
were

tso'gukwe

up

la'xa
at

the

kIwe'lasdEma
feasting-place

lEgwe'la
fire in house

g-o'kwas
the

house

of

then

it is

said

they

TsexFast-

336

VI

American

Indian

Languages 2

121

TslEx^i'daxs

qlwe'nalElile
in house

moved

wa'x-'^mae

Throw-away

la

pEne'^nakule

became

although

covered
blisters

pp.'e'g-a^yas,la'xes
his knee

at

ene

^nExuma'lases

me

just being

his

face

being
with

^nEx^una"^ya

Well,

as

as, it

soon

is

la'e

TslEx^l'de

then

Throw-away

past bear-skin

his

began

die

to

lEgwe'laxs

the

out

fire when

klwa'g-a^lll qa^s yo's^ldexes lo'quleda

down

sat

and

^nEma'x'Es

laE'm
then

Well,

L.'E'ntsEmx-de

covered

said,

with

ate

he

Wa,

skin of

the

g-i'FEm^la'wisek'li'lx-a^nakuleda

Wa,

blanket.

Lle'sas

with

ne'laxs

if

this is just

spoon

he

crab-

of his

out

l6^

tsElx".

dish of

apples.

tslE'x-^aLEle

k-!e'sae

showed

he

not

became

sick,

that

wa'x'^mae

gwe'x-^ldaasaq
what

had

done

been

la

he

although

he

now

As

was

la'e

tsE'lxwe

feasters the

crab-apples

soon

as

it

it is

long,

was

la'e

Fast- Runner.

ho'qawElseda

then

attendants

went

out

k-leo's

e'tled

nothing

again

gwe'g'ilasa. Wa,
of

way

k!we'le.

of

feasters.

the

house

said,

the

the

stopped speaking

ga'laEm^a'wise

Wa,

of

attendants

praised by

were

the

Well,

eating with
spoons

g'i'Fmeseqlwe'Fideda a^yi'lkwaxs
as

gwal yo's^ededa
finished

as

tslE'lwaqaso^s a'^yi'lkwasTsEx%l'de.

then

they

Well,

soon

burnt.

him

kiwe'laxa

Wa,

i'Pmese

lEgu'la.

doing

laEm^la'then

Well,

it is

thus.

lo

TslEx^l'de

Wise

Le'^alaxes

^nE^me'moteda

Lo'yalalawaxa
^

said

invited

Throw-away

his

clan

(were)

the

Hair-turnedupin-Front

ga'nuLe.

Wa,

night.

Well,

laEm^la'wise
then

it is said

ne'lases

he

told that

he

at

ya'^wix-ilaexsda^e. Wa,
desired

to

give a winter-

Well,

dance.

he'x-^ldaEm^Ia'wise
immediately,

it is

^mo'^las

^nE^me'motas
his

said.

clan

were

wa'ldEmas.

Wa,

his word.

ful
grate-

Well,

for

laE'm^ae
then
said

it is

tried

for that

find

out

that

he

might beat

TsEx%i'de
Fast- Runner

;
;

said

qa'^s
that he

he
thus

gwe'x-'^lde. Wa,
did.

Well,

he'x'^idaEm^la'wise
immediately,

it is

said,

he

qla'^le
watched

to

yak-a'masex

he

la'g-iias^nex*
reason

qa^s

sEna'nEmaq

wax"

TsEx'

Wl

Fast-Runner

dax

wa'idEmas.
his word.

Wa,
Well,

laE^m^Iaxaa'wise
then

it is

said, also he

Salishan

and

Wakashan

Eight:

337

Languages

122

^nE^me'motaxa

Le'^lalaxes

o'gwaqa

invited

also

his

clans

^'nE^me'motaxs

ne'iaxes

lE^ma'e

o'gwaqal ya'wix-ilalxatslawu'nxe.
will

also

will

laEm^la'wise

Well,

then

^nex*

in the

be

he

laEm^a'wise

their words

were

Throw-away.

his

la'e

wa'ldEmasexs

gwa'ie

it is said

then

Well,

rival

always equal
to

Wa,

TslEx^l'de.

qa^s a'lagawa^eses hayo'te

that

wished

he

it is said

winter.

winter-

give

dance

Wa,

it is said he

then

Well,

night.

that he

clan

told his

laEm'^la'wise

Wa,

ga'nuLe.

at

then

when

ho'qawElsa.

they

went

k-!e's"lat!a

Wi,

LE^we's

TslEx^i'de

xuno'x"s

when

long

said,
however.

Well,

it is

immediately,

boy the

said, also

his child.

girl

xuno'x"s

bEgwa'nEme

disappeared

xuno'x"s.

ts!a'ts!EdagEme

x-is^i'de

he'x-'^'idaEm^laxaa'wise

Wa,

ba'bagume

disappeared the

his

and

Throw-away

child of

x'is^l'deda

la'e

ga'iaxs

not, it is

Well,

of

out

house.

finished

of

child

the

man

the

ma^o'kwe

LE^we's

TsEx^wl'de

his

and

Fast-Runner

ts!eMaqe

two

la'e

sa'sEmaxa
children

women

then

at

the

ga'nuFeda.

e'tled

e'tled

it is said

Well,

night.

again

la'4ae

Wa,

ga'nul^edExs
it

again

night when

was

[next]
^nEmo'kwe

x'is^l'deda

la'e

disappeared

then

laE'm^ae
then

danced

laE'm^lawise
it is said

then

first

Kwakiutl

10

Well,

Wa,

Kwa'kug'ula.

ga'la

winter-

Well,

clans.

the

dance

said

his child.

man

ts!e'ts!aqeda

it is

Wa,

xuno'x"s.

bEgwa'nEm

one

TslEx^i'de

he'laxa

Throw-away

hired

g'ltle'noxwe

the

wood-carver

las

qa
he

that

go

and

g-i'ta qae'.
for him.

carve

Wa,
Well,

then

it is

said

Lo'gweltsa

qa
that

it be

the

treasure

to'x%ldeLe
was

to

be

dancer

war-

sea

monster

carving of the

TslEx^i'daxs

xuno'x"s
child of

girl the

Throw-away
when

of the

qo
if she

wood-carver

the

ts!a'ts!EdagEme

supernatural
in house

gitle'noxwe
tsle'gese g-ita"-'yasa

laE'm^ae

ga'xL
should

come

ne'l^'ldELo.
should

show

lierself.

Wa,
Well,

she

laEm^la'then

it

15

Wakashan

Eight:

339

Languages

Salishan

and

124
ho'x^wEsdesa
went

qa^s

beach

up

and

la

la'xa

ho'gweL
inside

went

went

to

lo'bEkvve.

the

Wa,

la'^lae

Well,

it is said

(emptied one)

they

winter-dance
house.

la'e

ga'nuFldExs
night

came

brought
by singing, the

were

tsle'gese

la'xa

sea-monster

at

was

caught

Well,

then, it is said,

ones.

laE'm^lae
then

Well,

ogwe'waliiasa

the

floor
up from
of house the

came

that, it is said,

Well,

gwa'le

TslEx^i'de

finished

Throw-away

then

Well,

he'Em^la'wise

Wa,

house.

laE'm

Wa,

g-o'kwe.

of the

rear

ya'vvixila. 5
giving winter-

done.

was

the

g-a'xustalileda

it is said

of the

treasure

all that

laEm^la'wise

Wa,

war-dancer.

supernatural

wa'lox%ede.

Wa,

went

to'x^wlde.

tsle'gese Lo'gwa^yasa
the

their

to

senses

sea-monster

da'nEme.

nana'qamasE%eda

when

dance.

Wa,

la'4ae

Well,

it is

TsEx^wi'de

said,

Lla'yogulsa.

Fast-Runner

the

on

then

las

Le'^lala

they

invite

go

ground.

TsEx^wiMe

laE'mxa^e

Wa,
Well,

him

with

changed

^ya'laqases

Fast- Runner

also

sent

Hvu^na'laxa

la

secretlyin the

qa

attendants

ga'ia

that

la'xes

ga'nuLa

long

now

a^yi'Ikwe

his

night

his

to

and

^nE^me'mote.

gi'FEm^la'wise

Wa,

clans.

Well,

as

soon

as,

it is

%!'^laeLExs

g*ax

said, they

all into

came

the

house

LEne'x'^ItsE^we

la'e
then

barred

was

t!ex-i'lasa
door

the

ts!a'gats!e

g'6x"s

winter-ceremonial

of the

the

of

receptacle

TsEx^wi'de.

Wa,

Fast-Runner.

Well,

laE'm4awise

TsEx^wi'daxes

ne'le

E'lkwas

told

the attendant

then it is said

10

house

Fast- Runner

his

of

^nE^me'motaxs

lE^ma'e

clan that

e'tledEl

yix
that

they

^na'x'^IdEL.

again

lal

he'^mesexs
that

Well,

is when

qa^s we'g'iL e't!edEi

TsEx%i'de

that

Fast-Runner

he

will

hi'La

go

will

again

dza'qwaltsa
evening of

future

sit in the

go

Wa,

morning.

k!wa'iaixa

lE^ma'e

^ne'k'es

he

said his

do harm

to

the

future

gi'gama^e,
chief

^nEmo'kwe

mo'mas^idElxes
will

la'La

his

friend

on

TslEx^i'de
Throw-away

qo
if

lal
will

go

ne'l^idELes
will show
his

x-e'xisala.
disappeared
ones.

"

"

Wa,
Well,

laE'm^la'wisEns
then

we

are

told

15
to

340

VI

Languages 2

Indian

American

125

gwa'laial
be

g-o'xHvedeLEnsaqEk-

qEns
that

ready

shall

we

qa^go

hitn

help

ha^ala'lasoLo,"

if he

be

will

his

^ne'x-^ae.

^na'xwaEm^'la'wise

he said, it is

All,

it is

^nE^me'motas

said,

his clan

said

ready.

laE'm^lawise

Well,

then

wa'ldEmasexs

gwa'le

it is said

finished

la'e

their words

ho'qavvElsa.

they

went

when

laE'm^awise

Wa,
Well,

then

^na'xwa

it is said

ga'x'staeiaxs

all

ga'lae

bed

to

went

laE'm^awise

Wa,
Well,

la

then

lE'nsa.
next

now

a'l^Em

it is said

they

first

awoke

house.

at

immediately, it is said,
they

tsle'daqe

LE'we's

winter-dancers

of

out

went

as)

soon

tslEx-^i'dxa

soon

Well,

gwe'gudza

(as

ho'qawElsa.

they

he'x-^idaEm^a'wise

Wa,

day.

of

out

the house.

when

all

they

when

gwa'laia. Wa,
are

by

lE^ma'e %i'^la

^ne'kExs

said.

faced

rival,"

and

their

(sparrows)

Wa,

g-i'l^Em^a'wise gwa'lExs

Well,

as

as, it is

soon

la'e

Le'^lale

TsExVi'daxa

then

invited

Fast- Runner

finished

said.

the

when

10

gwe'gudza

LE'%a

winter-dancers

and

las

the

he'yasEla

they

and

women

la'xa

breakfast

go

soon

it is

as,

eating

TsExHvi'de.

Wa,

Fast-Runner.

Well,

of

lae'da

ha^ma'pExs

finished

qa
that

children

winter-ceremonial
house

g'i'FEm^la'wise gwal

grng-inanEme

the

ts!a'gats!as

the

at

and

as

Lo'^ma

tsle'daqe

then

when

a^yi'lkwe
attendants

the

o'paiaxa
whispered to

said, they
*na'

gwe'gudza

xwa

all the

qia'mdase

la'xa

singing-place

in the

bEgwanEme

that

they

a'Lle.

to

go

kiwa'iaase
sitting-place

the

la'xa
to

Well,

immediately,

qa^s

q!wa'g"a4ii
and

they

le
went

it is

the

be'-

he'x-^ldaEm^la'wisa

Wa,

inland.

^wi'^la

la'xa

la.s

qa

winter-dancers

said, the

a'Le^sta.
around

Wa,
Well,

inland.

15

g-i'FEm^la'wise
as

soon

as,

it is said,

they

%i'^la
all

la
went

la'eda

klusE'lsExs
to

the

sit down

on

ground,

when

then

the

nema
song-

Wakashan

Eight:

Salishan

and

341

Languages

126

dE'nx^Itsa

gade

began

masters

sing

to

also the

Well,

as

as, it is

soon

Fast- Runner

songs

ne^na'gade

finished

song-masters

ya'qleg'a^a.

La'^lae

began

Then

to

speak.

%i'^lal

Wa,

grisly bears.

Well,
la'e

singing when

then

will

dress

'^ya,^ne'^nEmokwa',

"

"O

said,

friends!

he

qlwa'lax'alxwa

all

will

you

na'ne.

dE'nxElaxs

^ne'k'a:

it is

said

now

of the

the

TsEx%i'de

laE'ms

war-dancers.

the

qIa'mqiEmdEmasa

gwa'la

said,

of

songs

two

g'l'PEm^la'wise

to'x^wlde.

q!a'mq!EmdEmasa

two

ma%sE'me

he'^mesa

Wa,

ma^ltsE'me
the

ga'nuLex,

this

e'k-!eqEleL6s

qas
that

night,

be

may

happy

you

na'^nax^meq.

gwe'gudza
winter-dancers

him.

answered

Wa,

la'^lae

Well,

it is said

^ne'k-a

He'LEnu^x"

"

said,

This

"

shall

we

they

gwe'laLe

"

^ne'x-^lae.

shall do

Wa,

la'^lae

Well,

it is

they said.

thus,"

he'x-^ida^ma

said, immediately

and

walked

la

asked

went

la'da

those

wash

a^yi'lkwaxs

four

had

who

la'e

immediately,

LE%e's

it is

went

their

laE'm^lae

k-iki'lnala.

then it is said

they tried
them

they

to

bring

gaa'la.

daylight

early
morning.

came

ax^e'dxa
a'^yi'lk"
took

the

Wa,
Well,

mo'tslaqe
four

Wa,
Well,

children.

a'FEm^la'wisc
just, it

la'e

gwa'lExs

is

finished

when

said, they

back.

^na"^nakulaxa
in the

Well,

winter-dancers

g-i'nginanEme.

all the

Wa,

gwe'gudza

all the

^'na'xwa

and

women

song-experts,

got ready

LE%a'

ts!e'daqe

10

the

%a'xwa

xwa'nal^ededa

said,

as, it is

soon

qIa'mtlEsde,

of the

out

woods

Well,

as

ho'x^wult'.eda

then

attendants

he'x-^idaEm^a'wise

g-i'FEm^la'wise

Well,

said,

the

attendants

attendants

dances.

their bodies

mo'kwe

went

to

Wa,

le'ladEnokwe.

xa'set!alaxa

they

and

a^yi'lk"

four

it is said.

qa's^id qa^s

Wa,

mo'kwe

the

(long)

he'x'^idaEm^la'wise
immediately,

awa'
great

it is

la'da

said,

tIe't.'Eguna qa
flat-bowed
canoes

and

mo'kwe

the

went

four

LE'nkwesesa
tied

them
with

together
the

15

342

VI

Indian

American

Languages 2

127

four

it is said

Well,

poles.

long

(long)

pak-EE'ntso*^sa

la'^lae

Wa,

dzo'xuma.
mo'ts.'aqe g-i'lsgilt!a

covered

were

sao'kwc.
boards.

Wa,

g"i'FEm^la'wisc gwa'lExs

Well,

as

as, it is

soon

said,

laq

gwe'gudza

all the

winter-dancers

and

it is said

just

in the

in house

sat

daxs

long

k-!e's'^lat!a

Well,

not, however,
it is

(emptied
one).

opposite

the

at

end

Wi,

Qa'logwise.

Well,

Beach.

Crooked-

point of

came,

of

northern

point
lax

ha'ng-a^les

g-a'x'^lae
it is

said,

gwa'klodilba^e

lax

when

awl'lbes

taking.

the

to

Wa,

back

taking

the

dances

lo'bEkwe.

Eyo'x^ed

ga'xae

da.

la'xa

winter-dance

house

they

ga'leda

grisly

the

went

le'laenenokwe
having

la'xa

kludzl'l

a'Em

LaE'm^lae
Then

nena'ne

la'da

not

bears

all those

and

fool-dancers

the

canoes

said

'^na'xweda

Lo^

no'EniEmala

it is

then

them.
LE'wa'

into

went

k-!es

laE'm^lae

Wa,
Well,

on

then

when

they
^na'xwa

ho'x^aLExseda

la'e

finished

were

over

with

they

said,

in front

being

at

the

of beach

lo'bEkwe.

LlEma'esasa
beach

it is said

then

Well,

house

winter-dance

of the

na'ne

^nE'me

laE'm'^lawise

Wi,

grislybear

one

(emptied one).
lax

hax"ts!a'gvvewe
lay

down

bow

tiEgu'na.

^nE'mtslaqe

gwiwa^yasa

in the

inside

of

one

flat-bowed

(long)

of bov

10

canoe.

^nE'me

Wa,

la'^'laxaeda

Well,

also, it is said,

one

the

(other)

^nE'mtslaqe.

Well,
(long)
(mother canoe).

it is said

were

g-i'l'Em^la'wise
soon

as,

grisly

that

it is

said,

bow

of the

ya'wix'a'lag"iiExsa Wi,
moved

not

about

in

Well,

canoe,

sung

teto'x^wlda.

ma^lo'kwe

for the

gvval

q!a'mtasoxs

la'e

for

then

were

sung

Wa.
Well,

war-dancers.

two

finished

la'xa
in the

qa^s

q!a'k*6 bEgwa'nEma
slave

stout

pole

in the

^ya'lagEma
was

sent

when

^walatsa'yokwe

dzo'xume

thus

they

they

15

lax

also

k'!es

it is said

then

a'gwlwa'^yasa

gwa'la

bear

q!a'mt!etsE^weda

laE'm'lawise

as

he'xat!

laE'm^lae

Wa,

one

then

na'ne

man

that

he

le
'go

^wa'lega^yasa t!et!Egu'ne. Wa,

large one
the

among

flat-bowed

Well,

q!o'dEg-ivvaletsa
keep

bow

with

g i'PEm^la'wise
as

soon

as,

said, he

it is

Wakashan

Eight:

and Salishan

343

Languages

128

haxsE'mlExsaq.
fell uf"on
in

him

Wa,

la'^lae ^nEmo'kwase

Well,

it is said

ax^e'dxes
'^na'xulalese,

his friend

Warrior-all-round-

his

took

the-World

canoe.

qa^s k-!e'ltse^stales mak'inxE'ndalaxox

k'le'LEnxe

and

sharp-edged

with

around

cut

it

close

awE'nxa^yaxsEns
edge of

this

to

our

he

(knife)

SE^ya'x.
hair.

Wa,

g i'FEm^la'wise

Well,

as

as, it is

soon

Ifi'lgEwe

said,

k!e'La^yasexs
where

met

it

cut

was

when

la'e

ne'xodEx

then

pulledoff the

Lle'tsEma^yas
scalp of

xo'msdasa

the

q!a'k-owe.

of the

head

Wa,

slave.

Well,

he

la'^lae

LaxSvuito'dxa

it is said

they pushed

out

the

and

cannibals

la'xa

lo'bEkwe

from

winter-dance

and

house

they

the

lax
at

beach

Well,

ne^na'ne

the

la

qa^s

LlEma'esas

the

slave.

LE%a'

ga'xaeda ha'Emats!
came

of

as

as, it is
he

soon

the

canoe

and

the

pursued

Beach.

water,
when

ho'qawEls
went

la'e

slave

into

went

the

fool-dancers

out

dzExwae'sEla

then

when

Crooked-

he

said,

no'EniEmala

the

qia'kaxs

qa'qayaxa

went

Qa'logwise.

of

LE^wa'

grislybears

la^sta'xs

g'i'FEm^la'wise

qla'k'o. Wa,

along

ran

he

Wa,

he'^mes

Well,

and

la

that

is

qaqaya'atsa
place of

then

suing
pur-

of the

ne^na'naq

LE^vva'

grislybears

and

no'EnlEmala

qa^s sa'k'apleq.

fool-dancers

the

that

tried

they

him

tried

to

throw

Well,

wao'kwaq.

Wa,

la'^laeda

ne^na'ne

several

Well,

it is said the

grislybears

at

him.

tried

claws

at

laq.

Wa,

we'gaa^latla

him.

Well,

not

he

lax

reached,

to

Qa'IogwIsaxs
Crooked-Beach

la'e
when

he

ya'x%alesa.
fell down
on

he'x'^ldaEm^'la'wisa
immediately,

it is

dead

beach

g-i'l^Em^'la'wisegwal
as

soon

as, it is

said,he

Wii,

laE'm

Well,

then

finished

1e4

la'xeq.

dead
he

there.

cut

up

in

cut

up

when

Wa,
Well,

q!a'kox"de,

pieces the
la'eda

sa'kwasoxs
was

side

is

sEsox"sE'ndxa

fool-dancers

south

on

of

beach.

no'EnlEmala

said,the

strike

their

^na'lanegwesas

the

however,

Well,

to

with

xexElya'yowe

10

said,

Ui'qaplEses

stones

Wa,

it is

him.

spear

na'papleda

la'^'lae

Wa,

to

then

the

former

slave.

ha'Emats!a
cannibals

jr

344

VI

Indian

American

GEORGE

129
la'xa

ho'qunts!es
down

went

HUNT

LlEma'ese

qa^s

beach

the

to

to

Languages 2

that

they

ha^mx-^l'dEq.

la

Wa,

him.

eat

go

Well,

beach

la'^lae
it is

o'gwaqa'^ma
also

said,

of it.

LE%a'

grislybears

and

wel?.x"dze'^lae

Wa,

laq.

the

ne^na'ne

Well

it

not

fool-dancers

the

ge'x-^idExs

took, it is said,

long

ha^mek'la'la

no'EnlEmala

when

asked

to

eat

la'e

'""wi'^laq
qaxs

they

(ate)him

for

all up

ma^itso'gugiya^eda bEgwa'nEme
120

the

were

la'^laeda
it is said

the

ha'^ma'pxa q!a'k'oxMe.

men

ne^na'ne,
grislybears,

former

eating the
ma^le'

yi'xa
that is the

Well,

slave.

he'x-^idaEm

da'nEma,
novices

two

Wa,

immediately

(taken ones).
le'nEmax
took

SE^ya'x-das
his

away

past

hair

qa^s

took

each

they

ha^mg'i'^layo laq.
was

given

and

Well,

to

them.

food

TsEx%l'de
Fast- Runner

he'^mesexs

Wa,

that

it from

then

Well,

other.

lE^ma'e

is

k*!e'lakas6^s

he

killed

was

by

when

qae's hayo'te TslEx^i'de.

on

laE'm

Wa,

le'nEmapleq.

and

account

rival

Throw-away.

Wa,

la^me'

Well,

ya'k-aweda

then

was

of his

beaten
the

10

15

^wl"leda
all those

k
who

i'm'yaxdaxa
had

surrounded
the

i'sa'lax-de.
former

peared

disapones.

Wa,
Well,

g-i'FEm^a'wise
as

soon

is

as, it

said.

Eight:

Wakashan

Salishan

and

345

Languages

130

dza'qwaxs

la'e

evening

then

came,

a^'yi'lkwasTsExHvi'de
attendants

of

Fast-Runner

walked

the

when

%i'^laeLeda
all into

came

he'x'^idaEm^la'wise
it is

immediately,

as

soon

house

ga'la
the

tamed

were

it is

finished

said,

with

teto'x^wlda.

Wa,

war-dancers.

Well,

two

la'aEl

gwa'iExs,

they

Kwakiutl

ma^e'

the

then

it

as, it is

soon

Wa,
Well,

ne'^na'na.

Wa,

grislybears.

Well,

ma'lo'kwe

their sacred

sang

the

songs

g-i'pEm^la'wiseqlwe'FedExs
as

la'e

dE'nx^ededa

stopped speaking, then

began

said, they

ne^na'gade.

Wa,

g-a'xeda

Well,

song-

sing

to

the

ma^lo'kwe

the

came

said,

clans.

ya'laqweda

is said

it,

however,

not,

Kwa'kugula.

first

ya'lasE^weda

said,

g-i'FEm^a'wise
as, it is

Well,

(to call).

g-a'laxs g-a'xae
long

k-!e's'lat!a

qa's^Ida. Wa,

teto'x^wid

^yEx%uit!a'-

war-dancers

two

dancing

they

as

masters.

lllEl

la^stali'lEle

qa^s
and

out

came

of house,

went

then

Well,

at

lEqawa'lllasa

the

house.

of the

dE'nxElasa

gwal

it is said

"o'kwe.

fire in middle

in house

they

laE'm^la'wise

Wa,

la'xa

around

finished

q!a'm-

'nE'msgEme

singing with

(round)

one

song.

they
dEma.

he'x'^ldaEm^la'wisa

Wa,

immediately,

Well,

it is

ya'yaq!antemiie
speaker of the house

said,

la
went

lax
the

to

the

ma^lo'kwe

qlwae'lasasa
standing-place

teto'x^wlda.

two

laE'm^lawise

Wa,

war-dancers.

Well,

then

10

it is said

of the

wuLa'sE%eda

it is

la'xes

desired

%e'ka:

to'x^wide

"

Wa,

(thing).

Well,

Wa'laqeleg'anu^x"

said,

war-dancer

said,

axe'xsdESE%a.

for her

war-dancer

one

he'x-^ldaEm^lawise
immediately,

to'x^wid

^nEmo'kwe

asked

was

"

We

desire

the

qEnu^x"
that

be

we

la'xwa

lEqwi'lasE^e
made

^ne'x-^lae.

lEgwe'lex,"

into that

fire

she

house-fire,"

Wa,
Well,

is said.

[put into fire]

la'^Iaeda

ya'yaq!antemile

it is said

of the

speaker

said,

it

house

la'xcs

e'talas
repeated

it

to

^nE^me'mote

his

yi.s

clan

the

the

wa'ldEmasa
word

of the

teto'x^wide.
war-dancers.

Wa,

he'x-^idaEm^^lawisa

Well, immediately,

it is said, the

mo'kwe
four

a^^yi'l.x^'.s
15
attendants

of

Wakashan

Eight:

Salishan

and

347

Languages

132

tE'mg-ik"

lEqwa'

qa^s

fire-wood

blocks

and

they

lEgwi'le.

tasa
the

Well,

lEgwl'le laq.
in it.

fire

Wa,

laE'm^lawise

Well,

then,

it is

ma^lo'kwe

into

teto'x^ld

qo

war-dancers

if

two

account

on

that when

Well,

^ne'k-a

la'e
then

gwa'lala
it is

then

will

will

be

put

the

on

fire.

la ^na'^nEmax
made

Well, then

laxLa'nowe

qa^s

should

that

war-dancers

LE%a'

iyaak"

just like

la

also the

ma^lExsa'

taken

were

two

ax'^e'tsE^a

it is said

q!wa'xe,

taken

were

hemlock-

LO^

qeqExIma^yasa

also

hemlock

Wa,
Well,

war-dancers.

la'^laxae

Well,

then

^na'^nEmax-iyaak"

also, it
is said,they

a'laklala

to'x^wlda.

true

war-dancer.

head-rings

teto'x^wlde,

of the

Wa,

branches.

put

short roof-boards

flat

place of lying on
back

la'^lae

be

top

on

ts!a'ts!aox"sEme

nELEdza'yaatsa

now

middle

teto'x^wide

ax^e'tsE%a

la

lEgwi'le. Wa,

ready

into it.

in

they
la'xa

over

latslo'^yoLo laq.

lal

said the

they

laE'm

Well,

then

he'^maaxs

look

could

it.

of the

Wa,

heltsla'pElcda

hardly

putting head

the

in centre

was

ha'lsElaEm^la

out

qae'da

then

xixtsla'laq. Wa,

in the

man

nExts!E%e'da

la

only

said,

lax

g'i'ltlExsdebEgwa'nEm
tall

and

around

the

at

a'^mese

Wa,

fire.

piled up

were

awi'^s-

lax

qElxasusta'lasE'^we

made

were

just like

laE'm-

Wa,
Well,

10

then

of the

the

^lawise

qEximda'yo

it is said

were

la'xa

tied around

to

q!a'q!Ek*o

the

ma^lo'k"

slaves

tsle'daqa.

two

women.

they

Wa,

laE'm^lawise
then

Well,

it is said

la

ne'nELEdzodayo

now

laid

were

laE'm^lawise

Well,

then

same

manner

as

yii^eda'yoweda

it is said

gwa'laasasa

on

la'xa
on

ts!a'ts!Ets!aox"sEme.

the

short

were

ma^lo'kwe

long

tied the

teto'x'^wida.

two

laq

lax

cedar-bark

to

in

ropes

them

the

Wa,
Well,

war-dancers.

two

dEnE'm

gi'ltle

the

ma^o'kwe

roof-boards,

their backs

they

Wa,

down

laE'm^lawiseda
then

it is said
the

ba'bEbaklwa
warriors

^ne'x'xa
said

to

the

ma^lo'kwe
two

ts!e'daq q!a'q!Eka :
women

slaves.

15

348

Vf

Languages 2

Indian

American

133

^ya, sa'sEm,

"

gu'no

children!

"O

do

not

gwaLlEXLa'laLOL,
will

you

gwaLlEXLa'lalaxo

la'LEs
then

well,

scream,

if you

scream

wa,

lal

qa'so

will

mo'plEnxwa^s^Eml
four

you

lax'La'not
will be

you

k"!es

(times)day

g'ax

not

come

will,

g-i'pEml^its

q!ula'x'^idELOL. Wa,
will

you

life.

to

come

la^me'sEnu^x"

then

Well,

soon

shall strike

we

of your

the

be

that

so

you

die.

you

well,

XEk'la'l

laE'ms
then

Well,

will

you

stay

away

^na'xwa

laE'm^lawise

Wa,

they said, it

by this,"

you

necks

la'xaq," ^ne'x-^lae.

IcIe'^U

as

wa,

will scream,

qa^s lelE'^'laos. Wa,

kwe'xaplELOL
nape

will

as

gwaLlEXLa'laLoL,

will

it is said

then

Well,

ya'qleg'a^e-

all

spoke

is said.

dead

^we'^woselaga

da

slaves.

women

women

poor

la'^lae

q!a'q!Ek-a. Wa,

ts!e'daq

^ne'k-a:

it is said

Well,

said,

they

"We'g-a
"

Go

ha'^lilalax

a'Em

do

only

on

qEnu'^x" k*!e'se
for

it

iak!we'masg-anu^x" ne^na'qek*

this

quickly

we

strong in

are

k-!e'sel

gwa'LlEXLa'la qEnu'^x"

not

we

laE'mx-

scream

so

that

shall

we

hearts

our

ga'ial qEnu'^x"
shall be

not

that

we

long

shall

shall

come

gwa'llla.
were

ready.
la

qa^s
that

they
la

again

Well,

la'^laeda
it is said

La'g ililaxa
carry

up

the

put it on

the

they

fool-dancers

la

on

of

la'e

it is

said

they

TsEx^wi'de

by

Fast- Runner

teto'xSvlde,
war-dancers

gwe'gudza.

Wa,

winter-dancers.

Well,

Well,

^na'xwa

as

as, it is

soon

laE'm^lae
it is said

stood

xo'lexulila.
they

were

said,

qlwa'ga^lila

all

then

then

that

g-i'FEm^la'wise

house

qa*s
they

Wa,

fire.

when

on

then

the

lEgwi'le.

the

no'EnlEmalaxs
fool-dancers

were

place of lying tied

la'xa

top

invited

ya'gudzayaatsa

now

Well,

Le'^lalaso^s

no'Enlamala

the

laE'm^lae

Wa,

said, it is said.

board

Lax"LE'ndEs

ga'xeda

life,"

to

come

Wa,

go
and

go

came

^ne'x'da^x^^Iae.
q!ula'x-^ida,"

e'tledEl

ga'xei

10

all confused

(running about).

up

in

the

Wa,
Well,

Wakashan

Eight:

Salishan

and

349

Languages

134
laE'm^lawisa

no'EnlEmala

took

and

war-dancers

in

up

qa^s

teto'x^ide

La'g-a^lllaxa

fool -dancers

it is said the

they

the

x'i'lplede

la'xa

ogwewali'iaxs

in the

of house

turned

rear

around

when

la'xa

go'kwe.

in the

house.

la'^lae

Wa,

they

house

the

at

with

them

o^stall'Jasa

la'xa

around

turned

in

around

went

X'i'lpled

it is said

Well.

la^stali'lElas

la'e
then

of the

door

they

g'o'kwe.
house.

Wa,

la'^lae

e't!ed

Well,

it is said

again

went

la'xa

ili'lEla
back

went
inner

then

rear

they

helk*!ote'waliie.

Wa,

la'^lae

right-hand side.

Well,

it is said

the

at

to

to

when

they

heyak

la'e

lag'iyoll'lElaxs

axa'Hlaxa
the

put down

they

room

a'lak-!ala teto'x^id

la'^lae

qa^s q!ula'Fedeq. Wa,

and

war-dancers

true

hid them.

Well,

they

slaves

two

took

the

up

they
le

q!a'q!Ek*o qa^s

ma^lo'kwe

La'g-a^lllaxa

it is said

and

laltla'lii la'xa
went

went

out

gEmxote'walile.

the

at

side.

left-hand

they

Wa,

la'^lae

Well,

it is said

around

la'e

when

then

la'^laeda

^nEmo'kwe

stopped

^nEmo'kwe

it is said

was

taken

la'xa

stopped

at

Well,

slave.

and

around

^weI-

le'El

qa's

went

10

was

he

[other]

g-a^ll'lEm

Wi,

q!a'k"o.

one

he^stali'lElaya

one

the

door

the

to

went

they

%Elg'a^li'lEma
was

o^sta'li-

la'xa

le

and

with

them

they

laxs

qa^s

le^stall'iElas
went

la'e

Ogwewali'iaxs

the

of house

rear

when

xi'l-

^nE^ma'x-^it
at

same

turned

time

they

LE'*wa

pled
around

and

door

the

waxsano'dxa

la'e

o^stali'lElaxs

then

when

were

on

qElxase'lakwe

lEgwi'la.
fire.

piled-up

Wa,

la"^lae

Well,

it is said

La^na'kulamatsE^wa
were
one

ma%'x"de
two

former

qIa'qiEkoxs
slaves

la'e
then

when

they

gwa'LlEXLalaxs
screamed

la'e
when

they

la'xxana.
were

top

we'qumaxa.
were

shoved

down.

put

Wa,
on

Well,

(ofpile).

Wa,
Well,

each side

of the

they

placed upright
after

another

laE'm'^lae
then

it is

said

they

laE'm^lae
then

it is

said

they

havve'xa
never

lelE'^la.
were

the

dead.

Wa,
Weil,

15

Vf

350

Languages 2

Indian

American

135

gi'FEm^la'wise
as

as, it is

soon

q!u'lx-^idExs

la'e

burned

then

said,

ashes

to

ma^tsE'me

ax^e'tsE%a
taken

were

two

they
xa'xExatsEma
small

la'xa

qa^s g-a'xe ha'nEmg-a^lllEm

boxes

and

down

put

were

came

floor

ogwewali'le.

the

rear

o^sta'lile.

Wa,

on

at

of house,

they

he'^latla

Wa,
Well,

that,however,
it is

door.

the

at

one

long

^naFnEmo'kwe
each

was

la'^lae
it is said

Well,

k!ip!e'tsE^we xa'lxEqasa

gi'lt!a klipLa'lae qa^s

taken

were

^nE'msgEmeda

said,

ax'-e'tsE^a

le'da

tongs

slave

and

then

put
tongs

with

g-i'FEm^la'wise^wl'^lts!axs

Wa,

box.

into

Well,

as

as, it is

soon

^nal^nE'msgEme

the

each

to

one

(round)

yikuyE'ntsE^wa

la'e

all in

were

of

bones

the

picked up

were

in

were

they
xa'xatsEma.

they

la'xa
k-!ipts!a'layo

le

q!a'k-oqa^s

(person)

and

then

they

covered

were

said,they

ha'nga^lllEm la'xa ogwewali'lasa

yi'ses ye'yik"ya^e. Wa,

la'^ae

with

it is said

their

Well,

covers.

placed

were

ts!a'gats!e.Wa,

la'^lae

winter-dance

it is

Well,

the

of the

rear

^na'las

mo'plEnxwa^se
four times

said,

at

on

floor

they

day

day

of

he

gwae'lExs

that

la'e

teto'x^wide.

laE'm^Iae
then

Well,

then

qlula'x-^ldbola.Wa,

they

pretended

the

songs

truly

la
then

TslEx^i'de

^ya'k'owe
beaten

was

Well,

to

alive.

become

a'lax-^ld

it is

laE'm

Wa,

war-dancers.

their

sang

sacred

10

in

house

ya'laqweda

then

thus

being

house.

la'^lae

la'xeq. Wa,
after that.

Throw-away

it is said

Well,

said

TslEx^i'de

^nexsaid

Throw-away

le

qa'^s
that

he

wl'naxa

would

make

go

dzE^la'lasa
of the

lake

^nE'mgese.
^nE''mges.

Wa,

going
through

the

la'^lae

te'nox%ed

it is said

poled

la'xa

g*a'sa

Nootka

war

upon

Well,

Mo'tsladxwe

la'xa

canoes

the

on

at

the

Wa,

wa.

river.

Well,

they

la'gaa
g'i'FEm^la'wise
as

soon

as, it is

went

la'xa
to

t!ex i'las
road

the

of

^ya'^yats!eqa^s

splittheir

and

canoe

la

la'xa
to the

nEg-a',
mountain.

then

Wa,
Well,

g i'FEm^la'wise
as

soon

as, it is

said, they

yu'dux"sEnd
in three

carried

it

shoulders

on

their

e'k'!e^sta

they

went

up

when

la'g'aa
came

pieces

they

^we'k'ilk-ilaqexsla'e

went

they

15

la'e

Nootka

Inlet

said, they

LE'mx'^idxes

TiE'se

lax
to

the

was

river of

TIe'sc
Nootka
Inlet

Eight:

Wakashan

Salishan

and

351

Languages

136
la'e

tlE'mx-^ldxes

then

sewed

^a'^yatsle qa^s

together their

and

canoe

yo'Ix-^ide la'xa

they

drifted down

at

wa.

the

river.

they

g'i'PEm^la'wise

Wa,
Well,

as

la'x'SE^yod

as, it is

soon

arrived

said,they
sex"sale'sEla

la'e

at

were

shot

at

the

river

narrow

la'e

passage
when

q!a'yaxaxs

only

were

they

la'EnaLlEme.

by

a'Em

then

Wa

laE'm^lae

Well,

arrows.

then

lE'^le

it is

was

said

TslEx^i'de
Throw-away

qlu'laxa

le'Elote.

LE'we's
and

his

g'a'xe

crew.

ae'daaqa.

alive

Wa,

la'^lae

Well,

it is said

^nEmo'kwa

Well,

that

one

he'^me

Wa,

back.

killed

q!a'lag-iltsa

is the

reason

that

of knowing
of the

ga'la

Kwa'g'ul

first

Kwakiutl

qexs
that

^ya'k-owe Ts!Ex*l'de
was

startled
when

they

was

then

they

tlo'kwaxs

ha'nialExsElaso^sa

then

at

la'e

vvaxs

mouth

la'xa

paddled through

la'xa

at

beaten

Throw-away

lE'^mae
they

la'xeq.

Wa,
Well,

Originally published in
Stechert, 108-136(1906).

Boas

Wa,

killed.

were

after that.

Editorial

lelE'^la.

laE'm
then

Well.

la^me^
then

la'ba.
end.

Note

Anniversary

Volume.

New

York:

G.

E.

versary
honoring Boas on the 25th anniStudent
records
work.
at
was
published
Columbia
University (Murray and Dynes 1986) show that Sapir enrolled in
"American
Boas's introductorycourse
on
Languages" in 1903-04 while he was
with a second
an
College, and that he continued
undergraduate in Columbia
in
in 1904-05
course
during the time he was enrolled as a Master s candidate
Germanic
catalogue for those years, the
Philology.According to the Columbia
"translation
and grammatical interpretation
of Indian
myths" formed
part of
Rival
the work
of both courses,
and it is entirelypossiblethat Sapir edited "The
Chiefs" for this purpose.
of those transcribed
The text was
one
by George Hunt.
Boas's native Kwakiutl
collaborator, and the originalmanuscript is preserved
materials
in the Columbia
Hunt's
Kwakiutl
University Library.
among
This

paper,

contribution

of his doctorate,

to

the Festschrift

Sapir'sfirst

352

VI

George

Hunt,

association.
1886.
in

Chicago

and

(Boas

Boas"

Sapir,

impressed
similar
McGuff

Pete

(Navajo),
these

men

psychological

later

Hunt

by

the

Alex

formed

World

of

work

the

1906).

ix-xviii).

Boas

in

See

for

also

Helen

in

Exposition

Hunt

monographs
Hunt

40-year

Kwakiutl

write

to

transmittal

introduction

his

collaboration

close

described

Boas

the

to

taught

texts

resulting

practices,

trip

their

large

during

Boas

Columbian

and

collecting

began

of

relationships
Tony
Thomas

an

of

field

the

productiveness

(Wishram),

reality

their

two

initial

visit

to

for

transcribed

Boas

to

explicitly
work

to

Codere,

The

in

co-

some

Religion

"George

Hunt

xxviii-xxxi).

working

and

material

Kwakiutls,

of

and

gathered

his

Hunt

facilitate

(1930:
1966:

Boas

established

for

orthographic

Indians

(in

during

1902-05,

Hunt

his

Kwakiutl

the

Hunt

with

publication,

including

detail,

and

To
and

phonetically,
and

Hnguistic

delegation

time.

that

editing

authored

of

of

part

as

met

Kwakiutl,

and

arranged

Boas

from

Kwakiutl
for

first

Boas
1893

In

dated

ethnographic

of

quantities

of

speaker

native

Languages

Indian

American

important

phonemes

with

Tillohash

part

Boas-Hunt

The
of

Sapir

collaboration,

native

orthographic
s

speakers,

Paiute),

(Southern

(Nootka).

(1933c).

the
several

famous

ing
includ-

Albert

doval
San-

practices
discussion

of

of
the

Some

of

Aspects

Nootka

and

Language

Culture

[excerpt]

The

The

LinguisticRelationship

Wakashan

Kwakiuti

and

Xaisla, and

linguisticstock
the

Nootka

is divided

Aht;

or

He'ttsa^q",the

of Kwakiuti

the

latter Northern

and

into

former

Nootka

main

two

embraces

branches,

Kwakiuti

the

proper,

Nootka

(from about Cape Beale north

the
of
Vancouver
to Cape Cook
west
coast
on
Nootka
Island)and Southern
or
Nitinat (south of Cape Beale to Cape Flattery).
By careful comparison of the two
branches
Wakashan
in part reconstruct
one
can
a Wakashan
"Ursprache," but the
between
actual differences
Kwakiuti
and Nootka
in fact very great; they differ
are
perhaps as much as Slavic and Latin.
and Nootka,
while both showing characteristic
[16]As regards phonetics,Kwakiuti
Coast
Northwest
The sonant
mediate
interfeatures,differ rather considerably.
or
stop series of Kwakiuti

being replaced by
possess

and

Kwakiuti
and

k-

Nootka

in common,

are

Nootka,

cognate

p. Besides

Nootka

Wakashan

is absent

has

in Nootka,
the

Nootka

^-series,which

c-series, which

which
/:--series,

with

Kwakiuti

in turn

tc, k-f with

p and
Kwakiuti

is doubtless
Nootka

tcf, and

x-

b for instance
and

derived

Nootka
from

lacks; thus Kwakiuti

with

c.

There

is

no

the
g/ in

/ and n. The
velars q! and x, while
corresponding to both Kwakiuti
found
in
the
not
Nootka,
infrequently
are
regular Nootka
atives
representof Kwakiuti
q! and x; q! has developed into a peculiarlyharsh and choky
glottalstop, which I write ^, x into a strangulated-sounding h which I write //,
these two
consonants
'ain and
respectivelyresembling Arabic
ha; ordinary
and
h are
also frequently found
in Nootka.
As
regards phonetic processes,
Kwakiuti
and Nootka
in
initial
clusters in words;
no
consonant
allowing
agree
initial Kwakiuti
and
Nootka
^/
Kwakiuti
are
^m, ^'n, w, ^'y,and
undoubtedly
related
and
Nootka
to ordinary Kwakiuti
/ as are
and
Kwakiuti
m,
n,
w, y,
Kwakiuti
and Nootkap.^ t!,kf, iJ, tsf,qf, Kwakiuti
tcHo
k-!, and Nootka
nonfortis Kwakiuti
and Nootka/?, t, k, l, ts, q, Kwakiuti
tc. In both
k-, and Nootka
n

somewhat

Kwakiuti

and

Nootka

certain

derivative

the stem;

suffixes

"harden"

the final consonant

of

Kwakiuti
thusp, q, and i,become
/7.^qf, and ^7, Nootka
/;.^^\ and ^'y.
The
to be represented in Nootka
seems
"softening"of Kwakiuti
by but a few
final
and
phonetic
stray
Syllabically
glottalstops
glottallyaffected
processes.
such as -^/ and -p!
which
consonants
in Kwakiuti,
are
common
are
entirely
absent
in Nootka.
Medial
and final consonant
clusters are not as freelyallowed
in Nootka
in Kwakiuti, / often serving in Nootka
to lightenthem
as
(cf.Nootka
with
Kwakiuti
All
final
and
vowels
-qEmit, 'round
thing',
-^Einl'mask').
"

"

Eight: Wakashan

and

with

certain

to go in order

endeavor,
try to

get';Nootka

cases

the

as

same

{e in

verb stems

In Kwakiutl
second

to';Kwakiutl

that of the stem,

definite vocalism

suffixes

-kfok'" 'to look

of
syllable

some

355

Sallshan Languages

the second
type is employed in forming iteratives,

former

distributives

has

and

(such as
-^ydla'to go

in

Kwakiutl

In
like').
in Kwakiutl
cases,

the

ending in vowels

others)in
inserts-

the iterative,
while Nootka

-fa, Nootka

-fas 'to

for';Nootka

-////"'to

repeatedvowel

the second

in

to look

Nootka

forming pluralsor

is in all

type of reduplication

the

reduplicating
ble.
sylla-

after the first,

k- after the

iteratives of like form

insert

and

iterative sd' Lsdtc, -tc being probably identical

sd- 'to crawl' forms
y; Nootka
-k-. One
other striking
with Kwakiutl
resemblance
of detail between
Kwakiutl
and Nootka
in -kwin'
In

be noted:

may

both

Kwakiutl

diminutives

in

and Nootka

-Etn

nouns

of the stem.
'toy'requirereduplication

regard

to

there

pronominal development

Kwakiutl

between

and

Nootka.

While

is considerable

difference

there

is,practically
speaking,but one
series of personalpronominal suffixes in Kwakiutl, there are three in Nootka
for second person singular,
of which the
(represented,
by -e^its,-k\ and -sok'),
second

and

indicative
and

third
forms

related:
etymologically

are

of verbs, the second

possessiveforms

certain

modal

inclusive and

of nouns,

forms.

exclusive,while

in subordinate

while

Kwakiutl

the first Nootka

the third
distinct

has

Nootka

series is used

in

clauses, interrogatives,
to

seems

be confined

to

[19]

forms

for first person

plural
form for both. Pronominal

has

only one
extent, incorporatedin Kwakiutl; in
objectsare,
of the first person
Nootka, however, only in the case
(second series)of the
of
A
in
forms
is brought about
imperative. great degree complexity pronominal
in Kwakiutl
the
combination
of
the
affixes
with syntactic
by
pronominal
(subjective,
and instrumental)
and demonstrative
elements.
Nootka
has
objective,
of
this
and
demonstrative
of
the
but a
none
syntactic
complexity
pronoun,
series of forms is found built up of the second pronominal series and an element
is not made
the authority
of the speaker.
-tc implyingthat the statement
on
Almost
all Nootka
and Kwakiutl
words are noun
verb forms, there being
or
almost no particles
properlyspeaking.Such apparent Nootka conjunctiveand
^onoi.
as
'because', ^oyi''when, if, and ^okwil 'to' are morcase
phologically
particles
verb forms built up of a stem^o'a certain one, thing'
and derivative
s
uffixes.
There
in
Nootka
a
however,
is,
verbifying
syntactically
important
conjunctiveelement ^ani' 'that' to which may be appended pronominal affixes
of the second
series and which
in the
a particle
perhaps be considered
may
to

proper
Kwakiutl
Other

of the word.

sense

6-

at least a considerable

forming nouns

'to be at',Kwakiutl

very

is used

of

are:

Nootka

body-partsthat

or

do

(as indicated

regardto vocabularyKwakiutl and

striking
morphologicalagreements
to find comparativelyfew stems
however,

to

in

occur

note

that many

by

noun

with

forms.

Kwakiutl

dps-, used
Nootka
hit-,hi-

pairs,and

is hin, hit-

ing"
(before "harden-

derivative

between
held
are

suffix)'.
greatly.
Consideringthe
them
it is somewhat
pointing
disapIt is highlyimporcommon.
tant,

differ

Nootka

of these

^6-, is cognate

primarilyin

^ap-, ^am-,

he- 'that';peculiarto Nootka

suffixes)'to be
In

stems"

"empty

Nootka

"empty stem,"

'something,'which, however,

Wakashan

in
chiefly

The

in

rather

colorless

in content

and

356

thus

hardly

Such

Kwakiutl

are

Nootka
Nootka
Kwakiutl

Nootka

and

in

of

confirmed

been

has

Kwakiutl

1890
in

from
in

published
in

full

"Some

Volume

in

Association.
For

Sapir's

much

fuller

"Wakashan

the

Philosophical
Sapir

(1938b,
(v,
of

and

II),

Volume

vv,

/, and

with

the

which

Kwakiutlan

and

Nootkan

he

or

of

branches,

thus';

Thus

Dr.

Kwakiutl

in

the

Wakashan

the

is

appears

first

with
the

is

paper
Swadesh's

time

Volume

pean"
Indo-Euro-

on

glottalized
from

sonorant

the

confined

surveyed

in

Jacobsen

to

studies

(1979).

sonants
con-

coalescence

work

Recent

sonorants.

XIL

"Glottalized

on

Note

see

ing
reworkAmerican

in

paper
a

arisen

been

based,

Collection,

late

have

plain

largely

this

Boas

in

that

originally

article

cal
Anthropologi-

Morris

on

Kwakiutl,
showed

the

American

which

for

Culture",

incorporated.

on

(now

preceding
has

'above'.

(1911);

the

based

and

where

nasals)

following

Wakashan,

data

the

Wakashan

Nootka,

do

or

between

and

been

published

comparative

to

Navaho,

in

^riEm-,

evidence.

new

of

have

Sapir

Library),

Society

Continuants

of

be

'to

'77c/-

15-28

13,

Vocabulary,"

materials

returned

also

of

presentation

qwi-

we-,

Kwakiutl

relationship
by

permission

by

[20]

time';

Language

corrections

ms.

Comparative

unpublished

of

Reprinted

IV.

long

tcdn-

Kwakiutl

Note

Anthropologist

American

the

'a

times.

Nootka

g-dl-,
be';

Nootka

way

Nootka

of

Aspects

'to

Nootka

close

every

post-Wakashan

Kwakiutl

ek-!-,
the

Editorial

Excerpt

in

'o//-

qe'

'thus',

gwe-

'you';

50-

announcement

Nootka

g"?,

Kwakiutl

Nootka

.s^o-,

first

Nootka

be',

Kwakiutl

'one';

^'nup-

Boas'

ax-

'not';

wik"

wi-,

borrowed

'daylight';

^nds

do,

'to

Languages

been

having

Nootka

^nd-,

Kwakiutl

first';

be

'to

of

suspected

be

to

Indian

American

Vf

on

within

parative
com-

the

Abnormal

in

interesting
of

speech

the

status,

sex,

statement

make

we

experience.

Quaker.

reference

to

Such

speaking.

often

most

used

speaking
a

is the

speaker

in

of

which
words
means,

in

"baby-

these

the

reference

but

consonant

sounds,

is

by
or

that

the

is, by

employment

vocalic

of

changes,

is,by morphologic

is

about

brought

that

person.

words

or

words
of

presence

imply

but

thing
some-

specialized

more

all

by
the

it

use

cases

of

in

special

lexical, stylistic, or

syntactic

special grammatical

elements,

or
or

by

and

signalized,

comprised
not

person

Generally

thus
A

as

special
the

an

explicit

an

special

exist.

to

to

languages

is thus

frequent,

third

in

or

where

listening

are

also
that

person-implications

locutions,

or

the

to

to

words"

less

of

use

there

addressed

person

regard

common

of the

"thee"

all

of

man

Quaker

dog

fair inference

is there

in

Nootka

direct

"big

say

are

to

or

matters

quite possible, though

also

type

or

are

we

to

speaker,

any

use

cases

addressed

obscene

of

that

these

means

Thus,

number

women;

of

one

use

regard

the

we

it is

the

serious-minded

hear

neither
person

of

to

suspect

by

When

not

we

effected

locutions.

it is

as

of

dog barks,"

we

implications

specific
in

"the

in

without

of,

spoken

when

In

baby

characteristics

baby,

"you,"

say

orthodox

are

to

Further,

would

most

of

is

problem

something

characteristics.

instead

talking

are

implying

person

such

to

as

or

cultural

other

or

age,

bow-wow"

that

devices

addressed,

person

and

linguistic

various

Speech

Nootka

in

An

of

Types

addition

phonetic

of
means.

meaningless

358

Vf

To

all

enumerate

of

classifications
types,

those

referring to

used

make

by

and

such

which,

t, k,

least

at

and

q^

nasals

in

V, and

n,

rj.

of

northern

California,

in

speaking

to

forms

latter

{-hi in Southern

-na

final

vowels

to

element

an

Most

-n.

differentiate

the

the

the

as

in

men

of the
More

according
addressed,

characteristic

the

to

social

superiors

in reference

speech.

An

of.

spoken

prefixes;
European
of

second

second
*

1911.

Handbook
p.

'

See

American

imply

to, in

so

teristic
charac-

Here

sleep."

(French,
person

Indian

in

Key

at

end

of

this paper.

the

to

languages,

as

inferiors

reflected
use

belongs

but

reflexive

also

German,

Bulletin

40

use

Russian,

instead
to

the

of the

people
of

Bureau

with
of

or

in their

in Nahuatl
addressed

person

nothing

forms

etiquette

is the

of

ing,
speak-

person

or

indirectives

pronominal

politely expressed

more

speaking

Languages,

the

clearly

with

-Ilia

plurals,

singulars,

of American

or

discrimination

speakers
is

respect

Indonesian

instance

is thus

sleeps"

third

the

morphologically

-lia, -Ha,

to

and

another

79.

Phonetic

further

forms

of the

belong

grading
one

be

status

Here

of

to

languages

person

sex

the

suffix

distinctions

spoken

to

seems

Asiatic

are

in

"he

or

males

person
use

replaced
lengthen

however,

women

social

or

of.

to

forms
These

himself

causes

is

Yana,

the

East

analogous

causatives

or

rank

spoken

or

the

of reverential

the

to

language

in

of several

which

by

speaking

of

sex

final

latter.

widespread

forms

is the

the

such

fuller

vowels;

further

while

make
In

the

ending,

women,

that

whether

from

who

interrogative,

p,

ing
correspond-

women,

final

noun

speakers.

as

discriminating factor
far

common

languages

sexes

of

final

linguistic stock

differ

unvoicing

of the

speech

express

the

dialects,

Boas,^

to

the

by

Such

Eskimo

as

males,

"

forms

or

females.

to

isolated

used
to

or

in the

words

women
an

afield.

rank-discrimination.

to

according

Yana,

forms

Yana),

in the

by aspiration

the

another

one

by the

used

by

In

resulting
far

prominently

most

certain

the

of

one

between

by

times,

pronounced

were

m,

out

restricted

is made

earlier

view

lead

and

are

as

distinction, for instance,

in

stand

distinction

person-implication

of

point

beings,
to

of

would

sex-discrimination

languages
males

the

seem

Languages

possible types
from

human

however,

Two

Several

the

language,

in

expressed

Indian

American

in

as

so

and

"he
many

others)
logical

more

whom

American

one

Ethnology,

Wakashan

Eight:

is not
in

the

on

where

Yana,

been

Californian

the

class

of

time

same

bizarre

by

character.

The

November,

the

Watts,

data

this

on

Alex

with

subject

Thomas,

Vancouver

in the
of

the

At

less

glaringly
general

more

obtained

in

linguistic research
the

among

the

Nootka

informant
tribe.

Hopdtdas'atH"

Indian

young

presently.

and

island;

of the

the

chiefly

were

Canada

of

obtained

were

of

indicate

belong

latter

of ethnologic

course

chief

young

given

these

presented

canal,

have

to

which

to

parallels

Geological Survey

of Alberni

Indians

Dan

in

1910,
the

for

serve

the

the

in

nature

merely

be

to

render

to

here

data

parallel

other

similar

intended

are

them

providing

each

its

Kroeber.^

examples

will

they

address
of

has

usage

linguistic phenomena

Nootka

specialized

more

the

and
remarks

preliminary

general

sisters

examples

Goddard^

given by

These

and

359

Languages

This

terms.

brothers

other

pluraP;

intimate

most

Salishan

and

winter

was

Further

of 1913-14

from

tribe

TsUcd'atH"

of

the

region.

same

It is

possible

physical

some

of, partly by

often

and

"consonantal

of

consonants

that

consonants

meaningless

consonants

word.

are

children, unusually

adults,

that

those
In

physical

suffering
lame,

are

speaking

to

regular

diminutive

though

the

before

comes

so

temporal,

"do

so!"

little

so,

and

verb

be

"go

Goddard,

Kalo

Kroeber,

The

vol. 9,

p.

321

Texts,

ibid., 1909,

Languages

(Porno).

vol.

of the Coast

5,

inserting

do

"to

methods
short

is

speaking

footnote

of California

!")

north

in

to

males.
add

Arncrican

the
even

intrinsically
The

suffixes.

thus;"

and

of

body

hunchbacks,

it.

by

pronominal

143,

ing
alter-

forms,

nothing

when

p.

other

denoted

of California
Publications
Sapir, Yana
Texts, University
vol. 9, 1910, p. 95, footnote
139;
101, footnote
Ethnology,
p.

'

the

circumcised

or

'

"

in

these

it is customary

{qwis-

one!"

in

eye,

and

connotes

modal,

singular imperative,

person

qwis'istci"

to

also

may

qwlstci" "do

normal

the

-'is

affected

or

by

of the

persons,

child

in

people, unusually

defect

them,

indicated

some

of

means

sibilants,to other

case

to

speech
spoken

or

either

clusters

heavy

or

about

affection

diminutive;

fat

from

suflfix

word

classes

left-handed

or

in this

in

partly by

consists

related

consonant

or

the

those

person

play

word,

imply

to

addressed

elements,

phonetically

are

The

the

Consonantal

play."

certain

of

suflSxed

of

means

in Nootka

customary

characteristic

-'is

Thus,

-tci' second

changed
to

to

child.

Archaeology

and

150.
185.

of San

Francisco,

ibid., 1911,

^f

360

is

In

child.

child,

changed

suffix

except

word

waidLaH

not

"I

inceptive;

-ciL-

wants

one

to

speaking

to

love,

child

that

in

the

occur

('o//"-"to

is"

habit

of

using
the

though

does

talking

In

-aq'

fat

people

or

is used
the

Thus,

to;"

verbal

intransitive

-okw-

{-iV

eat, fatty?"

tense

-/c' second
who

People
the

(s, th, t^!;

Polish

for

compare,

c),

sounds;

which
the

s,

it"

{'o-

start

for,

to

"to

-ma'

third

Other

person

examples
"to

(ha'w-

time;

eat;"

"did

you

rogative;
inter-

-na-

singular).

suffix;
c,

past

comes,

shortened

ha'okwdqiVnak'^

denoting

small

abnormally

(s, is, is!;

eats;"

the

quotative)

goes
-tsa-

vowels;

and

suffix);
suffix

person

diminutive

consonants

c-

are

be, do;" -V-,

size,
to

"he

-we'in^

haughty.

unusual

cihwe' in^

"he

one,

If

as

of

as

more

no

analogous

'otsatciLdq'ma\

becomes

"he, clumsy

ha'gkwaq'ma'

are:

after

down

people

"something;"

the

themselves.

is set

inceptive;

to;"

others,

of

were

manner

"to

name

have

to

belittle

to

hinV

to

little

Dan

to

to

'otsdtciLma'

used

inceptive,

stem

-a"L-

meaning

indicative)

in

normal

verb

come;"

stem

noun

-tciL-

present

and

extent,

hinVciLaq'we'in^;

"empty"

with

an

he

great
about

or

"to

-tw*

becomes

go

to

in order

compared

itself.

mother

("my)

by

in

some

about

"of, belonging

referred

or
as

{hin- "empty"

it is said"
of

too

to

-'is.

diminutive

form

children

element

suffixed

the

addressed

than
this

were

used

expected,

whale

-ok^
said

suffix

diminutive

persons

importance
chief

the

people

be

"I
whom

lullabies, in

'.emiti'

diminutive;

Some

be

might

by

sung

for

not

speaking

as

be

to

walciL'tsan

in

occur

'oH'^'eso"

-'is-

be;"

"name").

lemiW

forms

represented

words

As

home;"

child

would

form

the

Thus,

return

to
to

stranger.

lullaby supposed

child,

is

changed

addressed
this

other

and

child

be

but

is

"to

diminutive

time.

{wal-

about

addressing
the

use

same

home"

when

speaking

when

to

the

at

may

show

the

which

its

"I")

-an

verbal

diminutive

Thus,

going

am

others

or

present

person

is

one

customary

affection

little one"

going home,

am

of

seem

third

{-ma'^

oneself
bo

to

show

to

so"

about

Languages

qurls'ismd'when

to

speaking

it does

does

"he

Similarly, qwisma^
indicative)

Indian

American

Polish

sound
diminutive

become
s

spoken

in such

moreover,

tc, id)

are

and

of

all sibilant

cases,

palatalized
Sanskrit

f ;

acoustically midway
-'is itself

becomes

forms

in

sounds

c-

for

ts,

between
-'is.

pare
com-

s-

Thus,

Eight:

hinVciLweHn*

"he

"he,

'Uwe'in*
also

used

from

"to

not;"

of

man,

preceding

change

Quite analogously
from

are

have

one

suffix
and

talk

-'il.

in

This

Thus,

inceptive;

LliLJL'ilma'.

ie'mi'il

as

"little

should

apt

are
one

to

not

again

in

of
on,

and

provided

these

may
cal

such

use

Hunchbacks
forms

that

being

forms

the

in their

contempt

the

change

Deer
is associated
with
sore
eyes
be found in P. Radin,
Some
Mylks
Memoir
48 (No.
Survey of Canada,

the

generally
are

also

diminutive
of

also

is referred

of

are

To'mic."

referred

to

addressed

s-

sounds

when

adult,
and

with

also

as

or

As
in

the

will be

tc/dsti-

Lldltimifinit'.

spoken

and

of

in

peculiarity
c-

in other
Indian
An
mythologies.
Ojibwa
Tales of the Ojibwa of Southeaatern
Ontario,
Series],p. 3 (episode d).
2, Anthropological
and

that

referring

Mink,

suffix,a further

ordinary

It

unless

mythological

the

is, in parallel

teasing.

used

to

of

fashion,

presence
or

forms

Thus,

(k.'wdpi')

in this

Se'mi

(or

people, particularly

L!aL!dtck!in^

is

one-eyed

-tciL-

becomes

Indian

eye,

son").
per-

qwll-

cut;"

Sammy

good

one

tc

"to

to

indicative)

cross-eyed,

"little

and

ts

-'is itself

changed

Another

if addressed

mink.

with

only

such

showing

"Mink-son,"

mits'miC

is

To'miVil

offended

later

deer^

the

to

has

as

remarked

purpose

express
seen

to

become

would

who

I;

"one-eyed

named

s-

corresponding

{tdi- "to

present

Indian

all

daddtckHn'-

is

cuts"

as

the

again

diminutive

so"

cross-eyed Sammy."

referred

be

"he

Nootka),

tribe, To'mic,

same

fashion,

is termed

does

person

who

the

such

that

become

(cf. Lladdtck'sul

tditciLma'

in

into

speech

"he

full-grown

pronounced

as

Here
feature

the

category

and

squint,

and

meet

of those

this

blind.
added

lI);

of

style

third

the

become

qimsma'

-ma'

who

ton-

connexion.

Under

the

spirants (s

or

fashion"

Similarly,

those

not

shall

spoken

or

eye.

stem

because

-auk'

in another

converted

are

tc !

sore-eyed

'ilma'.

the

with

used,

stops
and

ts !

l;

becomes

is

sounds

c-

lateral

become

but

out,

run

eye

voiceless

of

cross-eyed people,

diminutive
sounds

are

verb

We

suffix).
on

wrens.

indicative;
to

addressed

are

in wiMh"^

as

(wik-

diphthongized

dwarfs,
defect

some

included

again

to

and

word,

singular present

further

forms

"-

sparrows

afraid"

not

hinVkiL-

to

These

the

intransitive

h,

changed

as

to

am

first person

timbred

a-

"I

afraid;" -uk\

this consonantal

suffering

birds,

such

^ is added

toHauk^

-d//"

is

say"

361

Languages

they say."

comes,

small

to

wikdn"

"to be

stem

they

meaningless

t6Hauk'

verb

Httle

Salishan

and

comes,

refer

to

Sometimes

be

Wakashan

sounds

einmplo
Gooloji-

Eight:

from

Similarly,

be

are:

from

tlitcxLaH

the

as

left-handed
take

not

about

to

who

use

H'icVklin'' "to make

of the

is inserted

cV

TsUcd^atn'^

Tfdctxmis

because

examples

"he comes;"
Similar
one

forms

classes

Thus,

having

the

which

stem

singular present

person

'utcxHsdmaH.

"now

forms

also

are

Raven,
Cowards

referring
thin

to

the

side

expressed
'

that

clan

to

by side,

to

feast

Dr.

noted

Paul

of these

suggests

and

Radio,
Indians

on

the
the

"now

he

that

for his

he
to

or

of

('o"so
first

-maH

is formed
becomes

is."

These

the

logical
mytho-

gluttony.
one's

small"

voice

words

by speaking

in
in

timidity.
of

in several

the

eat

precise

relations

the

consider

also
with

spoon

above

the

and

of contempt,

Winnebago
guests

it"

comes"

regularly

in other

doubtless

much

for

vowels)

fellow

in

to

syllable

eat;"

to

after

ravens,

that

notice

first

to

mental

some

hunger

by "making

smallness,

mere

depends

According

bear

to

addressing them,

interesting
of

refer

to

satirized

be

voice

notions

found

the

or

used

the

refer

to

by "something"

used

greedy

comes,

character

may

piping

It is

he

as

Other

referred

or

desire

hinini'aLma"

Similarly,

hitcxnini'aLma'
tcx-

indicative,

to

hininima'

used

by

after

"I

"to

word.

referred

from

forms

rendered

suffix

ingless
mean-

of the

circumcised.

addressed

inserted

be

the

as

"Slaying-while-

characterized

'ou'^sdmaH

may

talking

"to eat."
in

are

tcx

verbifying

-u^sd-

born

made

people

from

Thus,

"empty"
so;"

greedy

will

known

syllable

humorously

hd'ok'""

individuals

of

in

these

hict'ninnna'

are:

are

meaningless

word.

and

changes

to

who

larly
particu-

forms

T!6xmis

been

having

of forms

and

also

In

first

is often

from
/idcf'pA;'"

phonetic

quality.

his

class

and

two

or

of

of this

forms

used.
the

named

moving-from-beach-to-beach,"

speaking

with

males,

are

after

Indians,

Such

left-handed.^

be

sounds"

cC-

come";

It is customary,

circumcised

to

or

in

acquainted

to

also

may

"to

{Hi- "to throw;"

used

left-hand

supposed

are

of

suffix

-ai)

singular indicative).

twitted.

these

stem

before

hinln^

it down"

appropriately

thus

verb

{su-

-kwi-

to

from

"I throw

is well

one

being

jokers,

element

be

that
at

speaking

One

it"

diminutive

first person

might

person

bears,

In

last

offence

for

The

hitcH'^nin^

Examples

inceptive suffix;-an

form

takes

he

363

Languages

inceptive suffix,changed

tHtcHHciLan

-tcib

"now

sutcH^kwiL^itslaLma'.

omitted.

and

Salishan

and

sukwi'ttLma'

"to take;" -kwiL

is formed

Wakashan

of

nuance

subsisting
the

bear

in their

usages,

of affection

to

be

left hand.

are

feeling

between

left-handed.

!"

Languages

Indian

American

^J

364

child

for

or

might

be

intended

young

man

and

is

would

of the

speaking
but

referred

so

satirized

of

This

may

rather

nature

and

in

is too

Added

referring

in

For

affords

to

suffix
suffix
denote

or

child.

respect

Totecuyo

or

plural

-tzino
'

Dictionnaire

de

to

ness
sensitive-

us"

final

la Langue

suffix,

being

-a

Nahuatl

ou

the

Remi

of

this

is

Sim6on,^

verb

the

to

of

the

reverentials

prefixes.

otechmo-chiuilitzino

in

tech-

first

third

reflexive

person

following -li-,verb
.-li
.

dropped
s.v.

ing
speak-

"serves

reflexive

mo-

Meiicaine,

nouns

diminutive

(o preterit prefix;
wo-

tive
diminu-

when

is the

with

have

we

diminutive

like

or

America.

in

regular

suffix

from

are:

chiua, because
dative

addressing

Uto-Aztekan

type

element

generally,

prefix;

objective

reverential,

as

this

Simeon

created

Lord

-li

make;"

ness
blind-

that

that

speech

verb

employed

to,

Remi

prefix; chiui-, from

"to

it is

in

form

to

Derived

according

love;"

referred

of

Paiute

used

with

Cognate

given by
"our

of

subject

feeling

Nootka

employed

is

-tzinoa, "which,"

Examples

person

Southern

Nahuatl.

-tzin{tli)of

already

type

In

of all sorts, is also

of

the

easily paralleled

the

of

-tsi-, which

adverbs

and

acquired

often

diminutive

forms

not

are

forms

parallel.

close

suffix

peculiar

Nootka

verbal

diminutive

inferior.

as

well-known

the

is set
normal

the

light-heartedly,an

treated

of the

use

the

children,

to

obtain

to

normal

of the

Outside

the

be

when

of

made

is not

merely
he

whereby

more

traits

not

person,

stamped
is

adults

of
the

that

respect

some

be

speech

is considered.

Indian

of the

events,

may

to

gains weight

which

explanation

seen

an

grave

this

to

affliction

It

when

ear-shot

in

which

addressing children,

extent

congenital,

life than

speech-mockery.

in

that

is to

blindness,

explain why

late

of

of

reserve

no

significant

course

to

insult.

an

forms

within

inherent

falling short

as

as

or

when

or

when

are

as

accidental

the

resented

further

seems

individual

type

to

grandpa,

addressed

when

little

is

backed
hump-

or

old

squinting

with

referred

lame

poor

of abnormal

types
used

whole, avoided
It

What

of.

spoken

contempt

are

chiefly such

in

by

apart

for

various

the

to.

are

acquired

affection

promptly

be

persons

the

on

are,

or

convey

reviewed

have

we

addressed

good-natured

to

significant that

that

person

spirit of pitying

in the

meant

the

and

speaker

the

tzinoa.

stem

himself;"

"for

because

of

preterit

Eight:

definite

in

tense;

prefix;

gubject;
-tzinoa
such

reverential).

fashion
and

one,"

fast, honoured

"you

in

and

diminutive

speech.^ The

to

express

of

sibilants

the

the

in the

of I to

diminutive

forming

nose," from
obtain

also

of

one

modalities

express

in

investigation

than

attention

expected

to

of

turn

The

smallness,

consonants

s-

the

tendency

of

type

"little

in

play

fruitful

should

accorded

been

connexion

field

receive
It

it.
with

to

for

more

be

may

notions
and

affection, respect,

contempt,

to

seems

consonantal
a

linguisticsand

in

consonantal
and

America,
of

In

play.

is illustrated

place regularly

is doubtless

particularly

largeness,

l-n
in

matter

attitude

hitherto

up

all parts

-p.'o; thus, ntnimaupla

This

American
has

takes

convey

in

consonantal

to

currency

Sahaptin.

in

to

illustrates

process

some

consonant
to

consonantism

ltlimau{na) "nose."

is another

play

subject

in

nouns

peculiar

consonants

c-

further

This

n.

some

revered

consonantal

respectively

of diminutive

phenomenon

change

of

of

employed

notions

be

to

in

himself,

cases

the

Chinookan,

here

America

the

to
are

of diminution

idea

in

of

change

for

us

fast;"

"to

stem

rendered

sir."

augmentative

of

Yana

may

just considered

characteristic

be

created

psychologically

similar

Nootka

changes

has

singular

person

verb

gaua

forms

Lord

"our

as:

Strikingly
play

These

sive
posses-

timo-qauhtzinoa

{ti- second

from

reflexive;^ gauh-,

365

plural

and

"lord");

fast"

"you

Languages

first person

to-

stem

noun

Olmos)

mo-

Salishan

and

article,"the";

tecuyo

from

(quoted

Wakashan

of
sex-

differences.
Such

evidently

are

purely grammatical
quite

analogous

devices

in

attention

beings

in such
"

This

to

fact,^

verb

This
are

and

that

in

or

stylisticas

is borne

found

always

to

I have

American

have

been

much
the

sidered
con-

as

fact

as

already

mythology

of

that

literary
drawn
certain

by speech peculiarities.

play

by

out

employed

songs.

of consonantal

have

as

be definitely characterized

seems

is

increments

rhetorical

myths

employment

cases

processes

the

apt

are

The

of

sort.

American
to

and

changes

consonant

or

decidedly

of similar
humorous

devices
effect.

intrinsically reflexive.

the Language
and
Chinook,
See Sapir, Preliminary
of the Upper
Report on
Mythology
detail, Sapir, section
American
N.S., 9, 1907,
537, 538;
and, in greater
Anthropologist,
pp.
in Wishram,"
"Diminutive
and Augmentative
Consonantism
in Boas, Handbook
of American
on
Indian

Languages,
"

1910,

Sapir,
pp.

Song

455-472.

pp.

638-645.

Recitative

Takelma,

in

Paiute
Mythology,
and
Ute, Chinookan,

Journal

Nootka

of

American

examples

are

XXIII,
Folk-Lore,
given, p. 471.

there

VI

366

Indian

American

Languages

10

culture-hero

The

inserting

of

{hln- empty

in

and

and

"black

Mink

style

In

the

consonantal
about

the

see

at

of
the

once

intimate

rather

latter

character

tsl),the
of view

observe

that

{I, L,

exact

of the
both

reverse

Nootka
of the

But

the

the

also

regularly

There

Mink

are

two;

the

one

of

but

these

at

sibilants

is

times

the

for

like

anterior

series

change

palatals,

as

is,

s,

the

for

the

of consonants.
this.

He

corresponding

to

s, is, dz, and

found

in
than

ts!).
Boas'
these

be instanced

Now

it is perhaps

of anterior
of

responding
cor-

significant to

'y may

"dead").^

in Kwakiutl

the

This

From

character

'I to y and

the

to

with

be

to

in

of

parallel,

feeling

palatals

regular

h'lt

change

it is

content

changes

of I and

of

laterals

respectively

less

seem

curiously

(Kwakiutl-Nootka)
"

phonetic

(thus ss'yt

significant that
to

become

Ml

speech

respectively

lateral

we

Mink.

have

is not

all anterior

and

they

changes

and

still other

texts,

sibilant

Kwakiutl

eye,

types

process.

Kwakiutl

speech

two

interesting

phonetics,

the

Here

-'is).

the

Nootka

sons.
rea-

characterized

the

become

lI

of

and

transforms

(x'. A;',g

Mink

as

of

and
of the

two

that

of the

all

palatals

original Wakashan

preserved

in

Kwakiutl,

Mink's
data on
and
Kwakiutl
Texts
G. Hunt,
peculiarities of speech, see F. Boas
of the
Series, Publications
Pacific
vol. X,
1906, footnotes
Jesup North
Expedition,
and
to
82
Kwakiutl
Anthr
154:
Boas,
to
Tales, Columbia
Contributions
pages
University
II, 1910, footnotes
126-154.
pology, volume
on
pp.

Second

For

ts

Deer

defect

Kwakiutl

transforms
I,

for

in

(from

an

the

psychology

interchangeability

sibilants

of

regularly

sounds

s-

and

that

to

Nootka

further

place,

offers

I,

for tdmis

employed

between

second

Mink

contrast,

-'il

series,

c to

noticed

some

being

suffix

the

and

have

it

speech
c

Limil

The

those

connexion

In

Deer

that

or

and

interest

been

with

of course,

diminutive

play.

consonant

Nootka

point

forms,

the

have

-'z'
as

the

(s

says

particular

it will

those

to

of

type

use

is of

identical

are

Deer

-usa-

water;"
In

laterals

water!"

inasmuch

of the

"canoe."

tddpats

place,

addressed

or

by

dz,

for

the

the

hlxnusa'e.

the

l/). Thus,

word;

from

time,

same

sibilants,whether

talking

first

changes

latter

or

tc! to

of

the

of

of

of

out

up

at

habit

umlauted

-use-,

move

is in the

vowel

out

up

corresponding

the

bear;" U.dpaL

and

the

into

l, tsf and

tc to

all

first

''come

song-vocalism,

Mink

transformed

are

"

with

song,

the

be;"

"to

singular) becomes,

Deer

of the

do,

i,

mythology

after

htnuse'i"

"to

following

imperative
occurs

form

stem

of

because

meaningless

normal

the

thus,

of Nootka

KwdtiydV

"

Wakashan

Eight:

Salishan

and

367

Languages

11

to

Kwakiutl
the

for

for

normal

of

bearing

Kwakiutl

is

the

writer

all

changes

Similarly,

ordinary

speech
by

The

only

peculiaritiesof
of

speech

which

Where

the

may
case

with
to

sung

sound

foreign

'
*

confined

to

ture
litera-

into
the

effect

lateral
clicks

of

of

cerebral

is aimed

at

of

in

be

of

songs

in

former
of Nootka

such

of the

the

probably
and

forms

sounds

in the

language.
of another

abnormal

an

foreign language,
Southern

Paiute.

Language

study

language

as

is the

examples

of

other

hand,

the

On

the

sound

Paiute, which,

many

spontaneously

is

often

normal

the

occur

texts, contain

developed

Aspects

the

texts

Sometimes

in the

are

America,

from

but

and

stylisticconventions,

of songs.

songs

extremely

an

Song

that

otherwise

not

Mohave

The

shows

well

primitive lore,

language,

definite

types

unknown

otherwise

compound

do

often

so

supposedly

may

of the

to

is

here.

on

generally

type of

mourning

sounds.

touched

be

is also

play

diction
field of

neglected,

according

which

vocalic

Song

form

the

See Boas, Handbook

and
Bleek
Lloyd,
Footnotes
on
the

can

simply

Ibid.

possibly

all

comic

and

songs.

borrowed

1 See
Sapir, Some
N.S., 13, 1911, p. 16.
^

be

Bushman

click, consisting

consonant

for different

texts

sounds

new

will

The

speech

transforms

Evidently

forms

song

happens

be

in

trickster,consistently

normal

compound

rather

in songs

tribe, as

of

of it

vary

found

are

of

Baboon

modified

are

may

Mink,

clicks

"mutilated"

'Z.^

play

Bushman

is

click.^

though

represent

immediately

is not

mythology

striking parallels.

Indian

phase

one

in

cases.

in

important,

in

across

into

phenomenon

illustrated

'y)

that

possibility

Kwakiutl

the

dental

these

and

consonant

recently published

cerebral

clicks.^

in both

of

Kwakiutl

to

cases

propos

fact

change

such

determine;

some

came

the

followed

in

the

mythological

device

as

like the

Mantis, who,

'Z), is

to

on.

reading

In

similar

{y

spirants

in

nsdzt

strikingly

suffixes

on

to

easy

play

America.

facts

these

not

Consonant

{I and

"hardening"

farther

suggested

palatal

'y, corresponding

I to

form

Suggestive also, a

sonant

laterals

sonant

preceding
The

of

Mink

is

nutci\

cognate

so-called

Nootka

Thus,

UEg't "mountain"

Mink

by

use

Nootka.^

normal

Nootka

regular

the

in

consonants

c-

or
case

in imitation
in the

Culture, American

I,
of

frequent

Anthropologist,

Indian
of American
Languages, pp. 430, 435; Sapir, loc. cit.
6 and 8.
Folklore, 1911, footnotes
of Bushman
on
pp.
least
this is indicjited
At
18 and 22.
orthography,
by Block's
pp.
found.
is
click
not
to
indicate
otherwise
meant
a special
sign

Specimens

though

368

Languages

Indian

American

VI

12

Nootka

of 77,

use

plausible in

the

both

has

Wakashan,

is

compared,

are

it

would

this

seem,

them.

with

obvious
the

to

in

speech-sound

happens

have

to

voiced

in the

stops

seeking

from

which,

play

we

one

as

illustrated

have

thinks

that

take

of

lisping,

is

alveolar

sibilants

sometimes

-k!in}
'

Sounds

are

found

falling
in

types

song

simply
also

sibilants

or

also

outside

by

the

diction.

of

speech

sound

of") and

are

have
this

the

found

to

was

Nootka.

{nini- reduplicated
of

consists

the
regular phonetic system
operation of other
systems
in Wishram
Thus,
(Upper

of
of

the

the

language

the

fricatives

the

among

in

ordinary

Information

stops).

some

sort

changed

interdental

even

ninikHn^

tions
substitu-

of

that

stops)

defects

originated,

who

case

means

for

of consonant

have

those

familiar

plus
New

phenomenon,

consonant

or

of

speech
most

which

is called

these

make

developed

changes

correspondingly

of five

"to

the

The

(sometimes

dental

corresponding

first of

in

place

English

The

vocalic

defect.

specific speech

obtained

the

nasals

types

could

is

lately

in songs.'

basic

various

Nootka

from

that

of German

ambil

simple

have

we

attention

becomes

the

wider

example

Karesau-Papua

apil

starting point,

An

as

corresponding

comparatively

some

easily

(and

normal

into

changes

than,

writer's

may

much

consonant

America

to

stops
of the

songs

the

Thus,

Guinea.
In

voiceless

of

change

the

the

to

come

one

entering

of course,

mythology.

in

parallel changes

are

seen,

more

no

are

songs

words

English

to

so

under

that

Conventional

such

Indians

is

psychological significance.^

both.

least

at

of

fact, has,

restricted

rj) are,

handling

This

associations.

dissimilar

words

that

inference

same

far

so

to

fact

difficulty by

the

in

as

The

correspond

I and

Z in

primitive

cognate

is the

more

to

with

when

to

Nootka

is

significant in

respect

speech,

of

change
is

connexion

(Paiute I;

quite differently

react

"

in

Nootka

explanation

Nootka,

only

have

to

seen

this

in

I, while

pronounced

contain

that

and

circumstances,

ordinary

latter

regular Nootka

the

agreeing

special song-sounds

the

normal

to

interchange, again,

interest

particular

Of

of
n-l

doubtless

Kwakiutl,

as

quite foreign
songs;

case

This

songs.

many

of

classes

certain

in

sound

stem;

involuntary
may

be

ously
spontane-

play than
of certain
analogy
about
the
d, k to g) brought
of
the
correlate
augmentative

consonantal

Chinookan),

(or vocalic)

the

value
of augmentative
(as of p to 6, ( to
changes
otherwise
unknown
in Chinookan,
as
dj, a sound
See
Handbook
Irnlian
638, 639, 640.
tc or
Languages,
Is sounds.
of AmeTxran
pp.
' See
Ober Musik
der
Father
W.
abstract
of
und
Karesau-Papuas
Schmidt,
Gesange
Deulsch
Bericht
iiber den
III.
der Internationalen
Neu-Guinea,
MusikgesalLschaft,
Kongress
297.
1909, p
consonant

creation

of

Wakashan

Eight:

369

Languages

Salishan

and

13

of

nasalizing

all

hayd'akaH

is

indicative)

Indian

that
and

which

is due

velum

father-in

law
his

visit

to

to

the

son-in-law,

by

shut

off

of

the

defect

this

who

is

Ucluelet

observed

was

have

to

passage

speaking

In

nose.

the

have

Watts,

inability, muscular

an

to

as

of Dan

Dan

singular present

who

people

normal

the

Thus,

first person

(-an
by

definitely stated

so

through

not

came

writer

continuants.

know"

pronounced
The

hqijq 'qkqii.

and

vowels

do

"I

this

or

nervous,

of

the

twang,"
the

raise

to

breath

outgoing

forms

ninik/in*

elk,

the

by

"nasal

are

used.
A

second
hahdt/in^

or

sound
I

clear

no

supposed

idea

articulation

faulty
it, it

is

the

articulating against
is due

cleft

to

and

I become

that

of

All

palate.

exaggerated

an

"I

tc.'op'tdop'cinil

"to

"stretch

reduplicated

tdop'c-

t/op^t/op'dinid.This
Thomas,

''sweater,"

gave
are

in

consonants

with

that

the

phenomena

subject
be

it

are

thus

defect

tstska'

on

the

form

for

As

otV

always

to

and

(tc.'op'becomes

Watts;

tcfop'tcfop'cimil

is

distinct
series.

outward

keep
fact,

Such

in

the

of

Such

teeth

the

con-

-aq'sul,

stem;

who

of

obtained,

suffix

lips").

those

sons
per-

here.

case

was

verb

their

of

resemblance

information

the

series

quite striking

-a'

for

correspondent.

three

stem;

of

is

yukwan

of Dan

istskaq'sul (tsisk-verb

matter

c,

t!6Vk';

neck")

authority

stronger

"at

s,

effect

thing;"
"some-

sweater"

the

The

which

-ak'sul

supposed

saying ts-]-.

'

also

while

stem

noun

interdental

even

of

speech defect

becomes

its hahdtUn^

play

(tsisk-verb
or

"all"

of

given

acoustic

neck;

confound
or

becomes

misheard
to

rests

of the

(presumably

becomes

"at

addressed.

significance)

perhaps

-inil

of consonant

speech
as

the

dental

when

resemblance

tinuative

to

single

imitated

known

around

tlop'tlop'timil as

Nootka

"I")

palate.

basis

(dental),

(6).

difficulty in

the

The

tclotck"

-an

from

hahdt'kfin^

are

This
third

t- sounds

('o- empty

stem;
latter

starting

Those

who

it"

to;"

go

it have

to

make

the

examples

tc affricatives

simple

in

organic

Perhaps

lisp. Thus,

go

-tsi'yukw-

palate.

fricatives

to

the

subject

^s and

interdental

'otsVyukwaH

Alex

hard

"to

hole

the

from

hahdCklin^

-k!in^

to

what

just

those

become
aflfricatives)

lateral

due

is, but, judging

that

is termed

stem;

be

to

to

as

evident

seems

articulation

reduplicated

{hahaCand

of"),

have

defective

of

type

as

open
are

are

and
tstska

Salishan

and

Wakashan

Eight:

371

Languages

15

the

to

of bringing about
greater difl"culty

of the

root

This

and

tongue

defect,

etymologically

two

grammatical
this
in

from

Children

are

the

as

mere

they

the

habit

into

In the

out.

indicate

(Nootka

first

and

between

speech

play,

inclined

am

at

Further,

myth-character
I

such

effect, in the

speech

the

pace

for the

character
of

the

diminutive

combination,
pity

and

element

both

affection
and

of the

of

affix

spoken

Nootka
of

no

of

with

between

the

play,

latter

the

on

observation

of

and

other.

consonant

involuntarily humorous

use

incorrectly, has

of the

the

or

with

play,

consonant

and

same

similar

their

of

symbolized

by

jesting attitude

the

use

represent

psychologically,
use

set

indirectly, myth-

or

contempt

or

needs

"mocking-forms,"

articulate

linguistically

of

or

lished
estab-

mocking-forms,

and

to

-tzinoa)
have

and, directly

mocking

stand

elements

been

and

humorous

at, yet

to

seem

speech

purely linguistic point

with

that

guessed

person

and

place,

forms
classes

of

morphological

contact

the

ized
social-

certain

suggested,

the

district,

the

types

than

more

consonantal

of those

The

various

the

the

striking.

-tsi-; Nahuatl

that

consciously

forms.

of

hand,

one

take

in both

be

points

with

as

the

from

believe

to

of

defects

the

on

forms

substitutions

substitutions

use

least

is

nature

individual

become

addressing

or

of definite

Paiute

-aq*;
definite

consonantal

of

the

clear

seems

with

analogy

already

characteristic

particular comment,
view.

part

the

or

it

of
has

of

anatomical

the

to

defect

The

by

because

due

lose

adults, particularly

members

speech

hardly

can

be

play.

generally

peculiarity,

the

speaking

in

place,

some

-is

all

genesis

Nootka

in

of

and

certain

In

resulting

consonantal

physiological

hardly

ill-favoured

probabilities,

certain

of

peculiarity.

explanation

use

of

resulting

forms

of

kutdt'oq, but

Upernavik
can

in

are

be

mouth.

theoretically.

the

to

the

confusion

with

kutdt'oq, whether

originally

was

that

mutilation

to

habit

in Nootka

people
The

the

dialectic

employed
of

or

it the

least

at

However,

because

carelessness

or

what

that

or

in the

consonants

the

to

remain

for

As

of

front

with

parallel

are

defects

older.

grow

kutdt'oq

disability
but

forms

always
of

farther

ambiguities,

speech

impediment.
that

series

particularly apt

women,

force

than

noted, brings

distinct

kutdt'oq

respect

habit

be

lexical

or

Nootka

the velum

it should

between

contact

of

the

diminutive

implied by

the

372

VI

Indian

American

Languages

16

of

imitation
desired

either

relegated

be

traceable

is in part

is

in the

fairly clear
taken

be

cases

the

kutdt'oq habit

the

influence
the

in
is

individual

an

marked

by

peculiarity

some

exercised

great

comic

both

on

and

the

forms

lacking

not

in America

so

of the

case

the

in

not

language,
well-known
to

to

song
A

few

the
to

or

of

extension
that

one

with

is

favourite

of

speak

River
of

instance
of the

diction;

to

find

with

dialect

use

of
the

by
some

to

This

songs.

of

imitation

speak

as

be

used

speech

funny

the

dialect

or

sive,
impres-

dialect

of the

and

use

in

and

other

of

in

are

of

language,
characters,

proper
a

of

out

Skeena

divergent

totally

Melanesian

distinct

America.

tribes, according

neighbouring

Melanesians

characters

mythological

texts

common

met

is the

the

Tsimshian

whose

the

thus,

such

TxdmsEm

the

of

unintelligible and, therefore,

often

songs

of

by

neighbouring

Nass

forms

peculiar

of

be

to

we

dialect

the

undoubtedly

has

of

Notes
given
interesting
by A. Skinner,
are
examplea
American
of the
Museum
Anthropological
Papers
SauUeaux,
1912. p. 82.
' See
27
American
Bulletin
of
Bureau
of
Texts,
Tsimshian
Boas,
78, 171.
18. 20. 30. 35, 46. 61-64,
'

Northern
vol. IX,

people

an

habit

home-dialect
as

frequently

are

Codrington,

own

of

use

river.^ Examples
dialect,

of

be

which

produced

the

Hence

making

talk

who

from

different

in interest.

in the

on

effect

novel

or

divergent enough
yet

in action

comparing

or

factor

another

foreigners, particularly

of

speech

Mink

sight of, of

class

of

of temper

influence

by myth-characters
is the

lost

would

habit

factor

Kwakiutl

character.^

is, however,

There

to

This

Indian

be

of

forcibly suggests

The

not

apply

to

life.

American

mythological

as

forms

ordinary

in

well-known

the

should

some

contributing

of

socializing

terrible," both

"enfant

possibility

The

as

in

may

The

forms.

motive

characters

Eskimo

children

of the

likely example

myth-character

of

use

of the

myth-character

mocking-forms.

play

attitude.

ure's
nat-

characters

terrible"

humorous

consonant

this

of

speech

the
of

speech.

that

certain

among

of

creation

very

and

and

symbolize

to

or

of

that

of such
to

"enfant

of many

treatment

mythology,

American

the

that

it is

possibilities,
to

or

play

defects

speech

to

talkers

consonant

observed

be

it may

passing

In

either

whom

other

among

of poor

the

Hence

step-children.

may,

class

the

to

character

myth

humorously

treat

to

defect.

speech

tribe

(Norfolk

Mota

on

for their

the

Eastern

of

Natural

Ethnology,

Cree

and

History,
1902,

pp.

8,

Wakashan

Eight:

Salishan

and

yiZ

Languages

17

island

of Banks

island.

islands)

Also

in

the

of

America,

characteristic
the

fail

rather

to

arouse

generallj' attained
tends

and

the

Kwakiutl

palatal
that

just possible

of

difficulty

with

Kwakiutl

and

more

and

Nootka

of

these

tendency,

The

Nootka

tribes,

of

"nasal

be

may
course,

taken

be.
tribal

sound

or

as

the

normal

arbitrary,

and

form
but

is instructive

would
note

Uchucklesit

(for

there

the

TsUcd'atH"

harbour,
are

few

TsUcd'atH"

now)

or

and
canal

Alberni
this

speech

is, of
of

point
two

of

tribe

canal, speak
rumbling

parture
de-

these

defects.

Houtcuq' Lis'atH"
in

of

purposes

speech;

inlet of Alberni
left

England

the

one

on

general

on

For

other

other

to

so
as

real

much

the

any

the

the

New

of

to

here.

not

form

individual

Indians,

western

of them

with

Mink

speech

imitate

(cf. our

that

the

belonging

Nootka

so

It

the

valuable

head

tc

Kwakiutl-

on

laid

by

to

speech peculiaritiescoincide
to

be

the

of

both

Data

those

spoken

k-

part of children

grammatical

sound

the
mind.

naive

frequently

of

and
than

common

"drawl").

now

Barkley

the

articulation

Southern

of

It

According

spoke

and

cases

of

on

primarily

being

Nootka

purely

tribe

one

more

on

tribes.

Nootka

that

would

peculiarities

and

the

HopdtcIas'atH"

of

that

is

due

cases

afford

assume

It

Nootka

the

sibilants.

as

children

vocabulary

twang"

to

rest

tendency

stress

intonation

paper

whole,

palatals

the

is
to

strike

would

Wakashan

such

northern

the

the

similar

sounds.

in

are

the

in
a

original
tc-

illustrative

changes

perhaps

speech

peculiarities of

this

the

Indians

supposed

Nootka

few

Kwakiutl

peculiarities of

traits

but

anterior

that

sounds

of

with

out

divergent

number

is not

vocalic

above

pointed
of

is

foreign style

sounds

interpretation
too

consonant

pronounce

of

this

the

ts-

Nootka

of

speech

plausible, on

seems

Nootka

ts-

altogether

are

change,

Mink

the

inconsiderable

quite

to

and

cases,

to

passage

sounds

the

imitation

an

the

in

k-

Mink,

involved

was

anterior

counds

of

it

imitation

dealing

so

to

of conventional

In

k-

these

that

so

are

imitation

resorted

all
of

number

palatal

of

often
In

at,

of

change

or

itself to

anterior

and

accuracy

aimed

even

reduce

to

real

of Saddle

rituals, which

are

laugh.

displacements.

language

The

or

dialect

impersonation

consonantal

change

to

the

observe,

to

of

episodes

hearty

important

often

clownish

the

songs

peculiarities of foreigners

speech

never

for their

use

or

fashion

374

VI

American

Indian

Languages

18

(JoL!o:en^)

they

The

tribes.

said

are

to

referred

peculiarity
of velar

ordinary

use

between

the

the

to

due

resonance,

of

root

their

use

throat

more

seems

to

to

the

velum

the other

than

more

of the

tightening

and

tongue

than
be

passage
the

perhaps

or

throat.
Hoidi'atH'^

The
of

shore

speech

than

Ho'.di'atH"
of

matter

'nac-

fact, this

forms,

(tc.'a-noun

At

that

rate, the

any

convenient

tribal

northern

Clayoquot

tdHtdua',
talking.

which

jest, consists

not

gives

the

northern

Nootka

stutterers

and

In
tribes

imitating
to

the

south

peculiarity,
in

the

Nitinats
of

Barkley

the

out

vowels

out

end

speak

to

of

manner

imitated
as

of

cadence.

in

in

what
some-

sentence,
The

said

most

to

be

all

jest.

{Nlttna' atn")
that

La'okwi'atH'^
said

are

the

in

to

(cf. inserted

the

Tc.'vq^Lis'atn'^,are

sound

main

based

usage,

is often

sliding

imitated

itself is

tribe

drawn

which

towards

speech

accurate

people.)

with

long

lengthening

pitch

accordingly

the

kinsmen,
be,

usages

north,

or

perfectly analogous

for left-handed

proceeding

as

Nutcmdqemiyis.

cripple-mocking
tcu"

drawling

tribe,

are

form

to

of

the

mocking

"to

Alex

tc- insert

to

termed

me

inserted.

was

the

meant

tribes, beginning

rise in
flow

is in

and

much

so

exaggerated
which

and

the

Apparently

suffix

Hdidi'atn'^

Thus,

of

in

first person

tc that

nor

similarly

that

with

upon

stems

verbifying

their

example

inserted

refers

as

(as

justified,as

verb

HotcidVatH'^; Numdqemiyis,

an

Nootka

at"

tc

the

tdatcyVis, though

seized
at

of

use

tdayi'is "give

-yi-

like

made

Thomas,

look

used

full clear-cut

fun

is

here

sound

Alex

pronouncing

have

as

character

Kwatiyat

The
of

to

country,

and

are

be

can

etymologically
both

peculiarity.

peculiarity,

myth

certain

"to

certainly not,

tribal

have

we

poking
are

referred

Evidently,
a

the

their

of

inlet

that

of

humorously

for

of

means

renderings

not

was

as

more

'ndcciL

something

TsUcd'atH'^

it in ways

using

on

it

singular imperative

say

southern

liberal

of

"water;"

person

singular object) they

maintained

of

the

far

to

probably

stem

second

-is

give;"

in

according

'natc-

itself); instead

Ts.'ud'atH"
water"

is

usage

in other

and,

instead

'ndtcciL

say

As

to.

consists

Thus,

and

speak LfdLfatdin'^,a spluttering

to

referred

peculiarity

ordinarily.

river

Sarita

said

are

being apparently

their

sounds

sound

Barkley

effect

out,

of

Indians

a
,

speak

group
a

very

of

Nootka

divergent

Wakashan

Eight:

Salishan

and

375

Languages

19

the

dialect,
word,

this

as

Nitinat.

-ag' for large

The

supposed

device

is

strikingly

Great

dialect

among

have

the

for

As

tribes

spoken

and

themselves,
If

In

the

to

the

due

linguistic

they originally spoke

related
the

Bob,

Boas'

to

leading

father

whose

they

proverbial

said

are

anywhere

one

the

fast,

to

well-

man

is still

membered
re-

tsiska^).

fast.

too

speech

by Tyee

to-day

is,

is also

simply

closely

or

Sproat

Nootka.

was

which

were

about

this

Nootka

with

homes

tstska', that

the

habit

into

Pindd'atc

as

very

talks

Indians

of sufiixed

use

and

seen,

among

dialect

identical

talk

to

tstska'

over

TsUcd^atH"

talk

to

the

Hopdtdas'atH'*
to

we

Salish

in the

apparently

the

in

one

earliest

river

have

speech defect

recognized

PEnLatc;

said

were

As

carried

they

peculiarity found
(a

lakes,

Hopdtdas'atH'',

that

the

to

the

to

common

very

whose

Somass

along

sounds.

individual

of the

fact

island

of the

and

similar

Hopdtdas'atH'* Indians,

Central

recognized

be

to

added

always

persons.

interior

confound

case

is

real old

in the

and

syllable

This

is

syllable -aq'

meaningless

by the
the

among

Nootka

is that

saying

other

he

is

TsUcd'atH".
It

will, as
for

forms

various

with

tribal

Finally,

the

also

between

the

attitude

will

causes

is

be

felt

however,
difficult
character

or

form

otherwise

association,
in the

same

if
way

and

associations

arose

to

that

or

to

large extent,

of

group

given outward
in which

established

by historical

become

of

related

any

tion
associa-

proof

in

mind

the
Such

individuals.

expression,

or,

associative

can

idea

an

become
becomes

by

would,
be

may

and

sound

of

spontaneously,

inherent

sort.

though

of

out

productive,

associations

individual

or

summarily

phenomena
of

individual
ruled

it may

less

the

of

type

suppose,

or

more

virtue

relation

simple psychological

certain

unconnected

individual

once

that

also

inclined

correctly, by

more

mocking
only with

not

psychological

the
be

not

direct

impossible,

or

and

association

as

be

even

direct

should

an

connected

are

devices, but,

change

further

of

of

possibility

such

that

admitted,

peculiarities.

speech

quite obvious,

analogy,

the

mythological

symbolizes

That

court.

be

to

people

of

consonant

it

have

seen,

classes

and

defects

speech

have

we

put it

to

of

value
of

ticular
par-

individual

socialized
socialized.

376

VI

Languages

Indian

American

20

The

be

uninteresting

not

himself

writer

the

diminutive

thickish

The

the

of

may,

To

some

manner

of

the

of

primary

been

also

data

The

obtaining

with

as

may

in the

table

All

historical
processes

mythfurther

Moreover,
with

connexion
far

the

and

direct

The

of

of

simpler

imitation
association
after

they symbolize,
data

me

diminutive

are

language,

between

distinct

the

sense,

possibility.

in this

between

various

as

paper

classes

tribal

defects, and

is intended

associations

logical
mytho-

of persons,

speech

in tabular

the

satirize

to

peculiarities,
The

form.

emphasize

to

the

to

designed

animals, linguistic devices

conveniently grouped

most

trusion
pro-

to

hoc.
the

historical

language

forward

characterize, speech
be

the

types

all.

the

mocking-forms,

forms.

foreigners.

the

after

with

stylistic

These

song

of

association

in Nootka
and

and

defects, children's

former

brought

presented

show

to

tricks

suggested

beings
or

forms,

peculiaritiesof

phonetic

ad
of

speech,

with

hunchback.

been

and

presented

speech

of

phenomena
of the

has

been

of

sounds.

of

changes

suggests

auto-suggestion

of

intrinsically

consonants

c-

them,

image

that

note

consonant

together

linguistic

use

quite specialized

these

has

forms

animal

has

evidence

merely

symbolic

and

the

as

various

augmentative

character

consonants,

to

far-fetched

so

pronouncing

evidence

datum

of

not

seems

in

be

course,

the

association

It

psychology.

feels, the

of certain

of these

jaw

between

involving
and

the

clumsiness

summarize,

connexion

of

lower

squat

same

this

quality
the

of

he

value

Nootka

in

humpbackedness

in

enough

thinks

the

quite parallel to

psychological

feels, or

Moreover,

Wishram.

in

as

augmentative

or

of is

thought

familiar

associations

sound-colour
may

here

of association

type

ment
arrange-

purely linguistic

similarities.
Phonetic

a, short

met;

in German

as

i, short

and

German

voll;

close

as

in French

short

and

a,

See;

long
i,

u,

close
as

long

as

and

ete) i,
in French

in German
and

close

as

open

short

and

and

as

English

open
e, short

English put;

close

in

in French

as

in

and

jini;

o,

chaud.

Bahn;
as

in

as

open

o, short

English it;

in

as

and

e, short

Mann;

open

short

Key.

in German

e,

long

and

Sie;

o,

close

as

long

and

in

German

close

as

in

Wakashan

Eight:

Salishan

and

371

Languages

21

German

ro/i; e, long

in

as

English

(Nootka),

c, like

of

ch

tive,

in

sh

English

used

and

ts, palatal voiceless

acoustically midway
tc,

voiceless

q, voiceless

and

"

pronounced

approximately

ky

fc- -position, ch

of

of

English

like

of

spirant

far

as

and

German

ich;

sing; rj (Eskimo),
lateral
spirant;

voiced
'

(written

glottal stop;

in

breath-release

g'

are

oral

of
of

spirant

voiceless

nasal

of

of q-

of

Bach;

of

spirant

k-

position,

ng

position.
voiceless

(Kwakiutl),

Kwakiutl
it

lateral

corresponding

or

Arabic
or

ha;

lated-sounding
strangu-

aspiration

(p", V, k\

consonant

.' denotes

stops);

laryngeal

(Nootka),

simultaneous
that

to

of

and

glottalized stops

{p!, t!, kf, q!, l!, ts!,tc!,ts!,tc!,k-!), that

with

or

closure

is, such

of glottis, but

glottal release.

All

other

with
sonants
con-

English.

k'is

'ain;

vowel

preceding
voiceless

accent;

vowel

6,

form

ch

strangulated-sounding

spirant,

prior
in

stress

which

nasal

Arabic

laryngeal

pronounced

as

in

and

upper;

voiceless

corresponding

Nahuatl);

(Nootka),

of

release

'

l,

to

aflfricatives

as

of

German

as

17, voiced

voiced

resonance

aspirated

are

affricative,

affricative.

stop, similar

and

tl in

and

labialized

qw,
x,

as

thin.

English

back

is,

respectively

are

front

(Kwakiutl),

x-

gy;

in

qof;

and

dj,

palatal stops (palatalized k-stops),

I, voiceless
affricative

th in

tc);

respectively;

ts-tc

teeth

/;

affrica-

for

joy;
tz

sibilant

g-position;

anterior

(Kwakiutl),

"

lower

stop like Semitic

voiceless

x,

and

s-c

with

spirant,

velar

fc-position, not
k

between

pronounced

interdental

same;

(in

voiceless

is used

and

barely

m,

(see below).

English

Nahuatl

whispered)

or

ch

of

Rose;

quality;

and

corresponding

affricative, j
hats

after

Nahuatl

German

unclear

preceding

tc.

(in

of

voiceless

open

low.

so

rather

not

of

church

and

sit

tc

final

ship:

voiced

instead);

and

syllabic
(yet

not

like

of

and

/e/e; d, long

tongue

vowel

a-timbre

English

corresponding
in

as

English

of

i-vowel

open

denotes

(Nootka),

back

murmured

or

in French

as

obscure

occurring

articulated
"

short

short

(Nootka),

open

yet with

saw,

(Kwakiutl),

and

*, denotes

sounds);

placed;

consonant.

+,

preceding
denotes

long

nasalization

(except

consonant

of vowel

under

,,

denotes

excessive

length

of

preceding

Wakashan

Eight:

Salishan

and

Editorial

Originally
Survey,

published

Department
the

Although

Memoir

as

of
formal

(for

an

excellent

recently
(Aoki

the

to

noted

phonetic

190;

1975:

spirit

of

Sapir's

of

work.

sporadically.

1969).

of

Hymes's

(1979;

symbolism,

revised

5,

Geological

particularly

discussed
the

in

of

Hymes

and
the

and

work

literary
has

similar

65-76)

of

uses

been

figures

expressive
1981:

utive/augmentative
dimin-

Americanist

attention

Coyote
study

in

rhetorical

Some
the

Series

(1915).

much

1971),

stereotyping

literature

Ottawa

been

Nichols

only

Anthropological

consonantal

have

see

Toelken

traditional

Takelma
the

survey

been

have

these

62,

patterns
devices,

379

Note

Canada.

Mines,

Languages

given
in

resources

is closest

myth
of
to

Noun

Reduplication
Salish

in

Comox,
of

Language
Island

Vancouver

INTRODUCTION.

of

the

of

Northwest

One
group

is initial

forms

to

in

particular

bristle

seems

to

never

been

of the

stock.

with

Indeed,

of

During

the

American

the

opportunity

linguistic

some

the

B.C.,

east

Comox.

coast

The

data

of

on

the

subject,
of

of

use

which

detail,

has

dialects

numerous

study,

language,

the

at

is still

prosecuting

Geological
living

now

one

same

of the

in

Salish

island

represented

in

ethnologic
of

Survey
two

incidentally

was

Comox,

Vancouver

dialect

while

the

Indians

Nootka

Salish

1910,

for

linguistic research

the

grammatical

Salish

The

intricacies
of

chiefly

linguistics.
of

autumn

of

any

verb

exuberant

but

the

and

noun

concepts,

make

to

for

thorough

both

linguistic

iteration.

purposes,

treated

phonetically adequate,

Alberni,

and

embracing

Chemakum
in

irregularities and

adequately

desiderata

and

grammatical

known

are

for grammatical

reduplication

among

of

variety

plurality, distribution,

languages

time

Salish,

of

processes

languages,

reduplication, employed

indicate

of

those

grammatical

Coast

Pacific

Kwakiutl-Nootka,

Tsimshian,
stocks,

characteristic

most

near

these

language
the

to

near

gather

spoken

present

notes

Canada

reserves

found

seems

and

town
to

on

of
be

^f

382

Comox

SdlolV''
This

stated

was

apply

to

uses

Catl61tq

time

mainly
have

with
in

For

nouns.

various

of

form.

that

nouns

data

supplementary

some

The

secured
e

(short

'

1889,

open

ete);

French
close

and

(short

in French

as

See
5th

F.

First

Boas,

Report

on

as

in

General

North-Weatern

heads,

of

which

used

in

of

speak

to

reduplicated
and

phonetics

added.

and

Mann);

(short

on

Tribes

in

as

open

the
of

Canada,

open
of British
p.

10.

material

Comox

(as

in

(short

close
i

German

Columbia,

Report

in

as

(short

in

as

bat);

English

and

English hit);

and

Indians

the

in

English 7net);

Report

not

Comox

on

found

vowels

fini);

all

tive,
diminu-

PHONETICS.

(as in German

are:

short

tion
reduplica-

linguistic material

Our

always

taken

was

of

secured,

three

also

are

material

the

problem

were

are

of

obtained, plural,

remarks

I.

Vowels.

forms

with
leaves

study,

Comox

on

to the

nouns

itself into

introductory

few

spent

pertinent
of the

their

to

rather

the

together

accuracy

of reduplication.

divides

number

small

time

plural

types

naturally

thus

the

most

diminutive

and
involve

of

material

securing

essential

the

to

as

Most

presented.

here
up

doubt

for

room

no

from

derived

evidence

internal

convincing

obtained,

data

the

of

character

elementary

speaks

claim

not

However,

Comox.

of

he

in

whom

people,
that

does

and

nowadays

English

command

only

being

obtained

add

fair to

and

Hopdtdas'atH"
was

mother's

his

among

it is

time;

to

and

perfect

living

the

Comox

of

knowledge

when

Nootka

purposes

blood,
Indians,

with

living
of

member

mixed

of

of Nootka

tribe

himself

he

Comox,

His

years,

visits from

he

"The

(southernmost

Indian

Ts'.ictiatH"

the

to

was

and

Nootkas.

earher

his

belongs

intents
of

tribe

tribes,
Valdes

adds,

Boas

Lekwiltok'"

Bill, an

Tommy

was

his mother

all

to

he

tribe.)

father

while

Salish

Passage,

"Discovery

the

which

Qatloltq,

Inlets."^

by

language.

same

of Coast

group

Mala-^pina

informant

whose

northern

K'omoks

Boas'

with

identical

the

on

identical.

be

to

of the

dialect

Coola, inhabiting

called

are

Kwakiutl
The

spoken

Uohos,
stated

was

northern

most

and

Bute

Island,

the

to

Bella

excluding

be

to

evidently

is

term

Columbia,

British

of

mainland

which

with

(Q!6mgx"s),

proper

Languages

Indian

American

and

dort);
B.

A.

A.

S.,

Eight:

and

close

as

English 'put).

Of

(short

in

which

sound,

one

and

(particularly
does

latter

and

from

has

(as

in German

as

in

English

as

in

German

Bahn);

close

English

close

but

poor,

%, and

i is often

speaking, though

inorganic vowels,

of
e

and

l;

6, u,

etymologically
probably

As

not

long

vowels

end

with

short

case

noted
to

by

While

they

velars.

by

long

variant

of

happens
always

not

serve

The
vowels

cannot

in

they
as

glides

to 6.

in

by

form
with

vary

what

of

is
it is

occur;

and

often

American

held

with

out

which

Indian

give
Such

Southern

cannot

to

superior

the

whole

vowel

vowels

noted

be

the

short

short

least
in

extent

in

normal

rearticulations

particularly

consonants,
are

at

them

the

considered

in
been

have

considerable

following

stress, but

even

has

Boas

Takelma

languages,

Paiute, and,

quasi-diphthongal long vowels

followed

to

seem

occurs

sometimes
to

to

stances,
circum-

etymologically

often

not

the

e.

occur

long vowels;
as

does

Nootka;

in

not

in

as

lengthened

as

open

representatives

effect.

Takelma,

in

extent,

of the
to

seem

related

rearticulations

writer

moderate

Comox,

are

quasi-diphthongal

the

Tsimshian.

forms

mere

it does

sound.

see);

Similarly

interpreted

case

and

sound,

one

but

"r-vanish");

(long

beer,

parallel phonetic

of

likewise

are

infrequently

the

each

etymologically
a

under

be

to

in which

single

considered

be

and

and

or

close

Sohn)

without

but

as:

mere,

and

English

German

in

vowel

long

English

"r-vanish").

variants

are

clearly

indicated

(long

in

as

as

English rule) ;

vowels,
I

close

born,

and

be

are

in

as

open

roll, or

English

related

in French

as

open

and

without

short

corresponding
e,

in

as

and

and

English

in

as

open

and

(long

as

which

o,

to

is

These

"r-vanish");

(long

in

vowels

found).

(long

and

case

every

short

without

i.

or

consonants

common.

the

(long

hear, but

See);

(long and
u

not

"r-vanish");

(long

of
been

preceding

certain

etymologically

in

seem

is not

each

to

(long d, however,
d

and

but

lower

i to

doubtless

are

larly,
simi-

surroundings;

to

as

open

etymologically

are

e), while

palatalize

to

these,

Corresponding

without

sometimes

often,

occur

tend

consonants

I) tend

by phonetic

and

(short

i, and

e,

383

Languages

and

beau);

vowels,

respectively,

distinct

kept

these

(possibly

not

and

in French

Velar

Salishan

and

is modified

u.

i to

following

to

Wakashan

here

vowels,

indicated
the

vocalic

VI

384

There

found:

are

consonants)
and

0"

latter

of the

quality

o";

followed

q^, and

i'

the

(here
these

of

Some

weak

by

by

vocalic

following consonant;
second

"

of

is

vowels

of

representing

sometimes

At

; and

etymological

of

preceding

in Idl^bo'm'

-ol-);
despite

in

case

can

"steel-head
and

quality
Nootka

with

e-

vowels

Examples
ld'"b-

well

be
as

brevity,

are:

I6""bnm'

in

morphologically
timbre-echo

(that

"steel-head

be

to

as

glides, timbre-echos

salmon"

extreme

qe'wan

vowel

short

from

as

but, yet

articulated

phonetically explained

qt'w^x
by

just

or

is sometimes

vowels.

(-^?6-reduced
?

being

or

i).

merely

voiceless

or

clam"

and

its dull

is indicated

taken

consonants,
"small

which

"murmured"

than

which

found,

English

(obscure

on

clusters

consonant

weakly

rather

are

thongized
diph-

also

vowels

(as in

unclear

so

significance

with

dispensed

Comox

these

yet in this

"clam";

are

quasi-

wholly

are

short

a;

rather

long

with

final consonant.

quality

quality),

from

vowels

audible;

of

short

(very

are:

in

dulled

short

times

barely

of the

lighten

to

marked

shortened

depends

of normal

meant

consonant).

/cwpw"mi"a;" "hill,"in

obscure

e",

are

secondarily

timbre

short

such

vowels

are

timbre

u-

vowels

sometimes

inorganic,

the

to

that

is i" in

forms

and

or

whose

somewhat

clearly

less

quality)

due

Such

glides.

as

long

such

dulled

inorganic origin

serve

glide

occur

secondarily
short

of

velar

following

vowels

glide

the

Short

such
are

the

the

to

represent

from

character

diphthongal

either

glide

palatal

consonants)

also

cases

vowels.

anterior

velar

rearticulating vowels;

well

may

Differing

vowels.

is

of

short

before

before

(occurs
number

w".

in normal

as

(occurs

e'

e^;

i^

i';

and

vowels

e%'

Languages

indicated

being

a";

1';

Indian

American

and

is

organic,

reduced

salmon,"

qt^w^x is evidently identical; borrowing

"^
and
in hew^qen" "swan"
and
place);
"

from

with
has

of

a,

which

doubtless

its diminutive

hew'^qAdol.
Another

vokale")
vowels

stops

class
is

of

formed

occurring
('). Such

"murmured"

by
in

vowels

are

occur

often

are

of

only

final
in

part

immediately

languages)

vowel
in

voiceless,

after

"murmured

preceding

'Murmel-

not

position

a'",e'*,V\ ai'\ o'?,d'";

in American

(German

articulated, yet

syllabically

repetitions

type

weakly

vowels

i.e.,reduced
(such

vowels

glottal
echoes,"

fully

breakings
some

cases

we

voiced
of this
have

Wakashan

Eight:

vowels

murmured

also

and

quality
vowels

Some

a'' and

are

apt

on

the

be

to

linger

and

on

(sometimes

vocalic
of

Examples
consonants

are:

In

"porpoise."
a-timbre

in

definite

is also

such

in

"skin;"

(see

found

short

after

t,

inorganic diphthongs

diphthongs
Vowels

du.

unite,

each

a.i

distinct

as

ai,

by

from

'

The

Consonants.

full, including,
to

six

are

stop

voiced

these

for

consonants

so,
may

to

are

are

with

"woman."

formed

and

vowels

by

found

true

as

long diphthongs
that

do

separated
Stress

not

by

so

(thus,

is indicated

accent

places

while
be

of

series
the

Comox

regards

no

are

represented

in the

differ

of articulation,

nasals, voiceless
all of these

means

complete,
are

fairly

(voiceless stops,

articulation.

others

that

manner

stops, voiced

by

is

series

recognized

spirants), though
all

of

distinct
As

be

stops, voiced

glottalized stop

spirants nearly

eleven

does,

series

"fortis"

represented
and

sdW"

been

ai).

represent

Aspiration

are

system

of articulation.

distinct

and

value,

unrounded

they

diphthongs

diphthong

consonant

it

as

place

glottalized or
spirants,

true

A;'",

fc-sounds).

vowels.

over

according

its full

preserving

as

have

forming

normally

Hence

after

in

as

(also au), di, ei,

au

(aspirations

of

cases

below).

following glides (e.g.,i"), there

and

echoes

such

definite

syllabically

w-timbre.

frequent

k!6"ddt!"

with

orthography

very

glottalized
in

(o)-vowels
by

is

production.

"

heard

was

with

for

also

A;-sounds

w-timbre

Excluding

below

are

Id'^dak'"'

labialized

original

di,

(see

sounds, however,
as

and

followed

glottalized)

x"

t!

After

e.

regularly

is not

A;.'",
X", q'",q!", and
vowels,

the

its

after

timbre-echoes

be

voiceless

consonant

during

audible

be

as

the

oral

position,

consonant

noticeable
if

quality
the

failing to

may,

pld'alats!'^"skunk"

in

are

vowel

echo;

may

despite preceding

consonant

These

vocalic

in

that

means

following

Id^g^et!""herring"

A;-sounds

when

of

unaspirated
"

preceding

dependent

acoustically

timbre

such

different

immediately

simply

the

by

aspirated)

spirant, the

This

become

thus

of

are

glottalized ("fortis") consonants,

characteristic

disturbed

materially

that

timbre-echoes

by

vowel.

chamber

resonance

from

a'O-

followed

preceding

385

Languages

glottal stops

distinct

notably

consonants,

are

final

after

etymologically

(such

Salishan

and

quite
form

The
the

voiceless
voiceless
All

defective.
of

table

:
"

well

to

as

likely

writer

the

to

southern

more

normalize

to

what

heard,

was

true

nasals.

carefully noted,

are

other

distinct, that
however,

k!w,

and

This

us

their

surds

voiceless

is,

and

in this

q!w

into

weak

and

similarly

after

to

seem

of

Changes.

extent,

generally
their

of

proper

strictlyphonetic

of

to

and

and

pure

palatalizing of

the

i in

also, however,
morphological

Many
w.

It

cases
seems

simple

are

w,

but

q', d').

vowels

are

also, though

best

are

taken

is to

be

are

up

As

in

more

considered

of g", also the

change
These

circumstances.

clearly brought

to

out

in

ion
connex-

due

to

original

processes.

of g", perhaps
that

most

Long

are

of

n,

is heard

noted,

reduplication.

phonetic

are

these, however,

in character

neighbourhood

appropriate

with

of

types

to i in the

changes

As

d"),

n").

were

and

and

and

Comox,

significance, they

under

and

reduction

in

(-a'

release

m"

before
vowels

less often

or

affected

breath

written

quality.

vowel

grammatical
place

glottally

and

processes

of

changes

n'

Final

k!w

noted,

Final

qa).

h\

heard.

be

aspiration

consonant)

Lengthening

phonological

important

by

5'",

similarly,

(written ^)

q^'a for

finals

fc'" and

significance (examples

etymological

no

are

after

'

by

q, it may

g/".

(sometimes

they

(indicated by
be

Sound

less

n'

glottal release, when

consonants

final

followed

syllabic

as

qw

less often

or

kw,

become

w-timbre;

(thus,

from

wi' and

occur

followed

consistently

not

distinct

written

are

has

of

with.

operate

spirant glide

m'

forms

and

thirty-six (or thirtyto

and

should

{k, k!,

secondary
than

fc.'"and

often

vowels,

was

etymologically
which

also

are

for other

this

though

of

etymologically

are

variants,

stops

is attacked

vowel

following

and

become

released

is often
the

position

record

dj, it

(voiceless stops

kw

aspiration-release

made

be

"intermediates"),

not

table

mere

less

(written p\ t\ k\ fc^',q\ tc^);

that

the

merely
no

and

origin {g^

consonants

aspirated

when

arises

aspiration)

are

gives

of

series

them

distinct

organically

secondary

in

be

here

faithful

stops,

sonant

listed

to

prove

may

xw.)

three)

of

is, none

will

these

heard, being presented.

secondary

true

consonants

point,

seems

conditions

phonetic
attempt

this
be

to

of

as

No

it

languages, yet

certain

on

thought

or

h and

all the

X,

under

orthography

Eliminating
be

that

become

semi-nasals

Salish

Coast

387

Languages

Salishan

and

Wakashan

Eight:

when

all,are
it

came

undoubtedly
to

stand

between

vowels

VI

388

American

Indian

Languages

it would

(not,

also

glottal stop),
Thus,

g^.

initiallyin

diminutive

as

qt'w^x "steel-head

from
head

salmon"

(plur.)."

and

This

with

-g"-.

plur.

UoHleg^em

given

in

their

"canoe"

in

"five

forms

evidently

group

of

Coast

from

n6xwU

tuq "nine,"^ i.e.,tux

also
On

Comox
other

the

between

hand

"fire," and

Such

'dwdk'"

to

"

-w-

dj

as

and

g^ and

internal
formations
"tooth"

Salish
1902,
'

of

Ethnological

Survey

See

Kwakiutl,

C.

Ethnology,

F.

British

Tribes

of

of

Canada,

Hill-Tout,
British
Columbia,

Ethnological
'

Report

F.

(cf. KwantlEn
Compare

Siciatl

htwus*.

found

"hail,"
clear

1911,

p.

is

is

with

xwd'awVC

how

this

is

-w-

perhaps
See

quite

not

VIII

Type
with

Moreover,

believe

to

reason

that

as

of

vincing
con-

plural

Comox

with

p.

of the

Mainland

Association

djidis

Comox

IlalkomilBm,
for

the

djicin*

division

Advancement

of

of the
Science,

65.
of

American

Indian

Bulletin

Languages,

40,

Bureau

447.

64.

p.

in

of Eighteen
Languages
spoken
of Science,
Advancement
1890, 6th

Vocabulary
for
p.

British

Report

on

Columbia,
western
North-

the

148.

Ethnological

Report

the

of

Studies

of the

British

Association

HalkomilBm,

Mainland
for

the

division

Advancement

Canada,
p. 86.
Boas,
Comparative
of Eighteen
Vocabulary
Languages
spoken
Association
of British
for the Advancement
of Science,
1890, 6th
Tribes
of Canada,
14'
p.

Survey

is afforded

case

been

yenis "tooth;"^

Handbook

Association

C.

(cf.

yicin.^

Canada,

of

Hill-Tout,
ibid.,
Boas,
Comparative
of

case

Kwakiutl

and

is not

hand.

at

KwantlEn
Siciatl

Boas,

test

*tuwux).

have

there

so

evidence.

C. Hill-Tout,
Ethnological Studies
Columbia,
of British
of British
Report
F.

or

PEntlatc

there

See

Report
'

such

compare

American
'

evidence

for
compare

"foot"

related,

are

related, though

are

test

from

It

Cowichan

-g''-.

Just

from

ts.'atsldwicin^

"tobacco."

canoes;"

of

*tAwux''

of words

are

"four

interesting

such

with

number

vowels.

related

"chief"

-dg^il

numerals,'^ i.e.,-axwil;

loanword

*tAWAX''

be

canoes," seyatsd^g^il
mdsdui

An

tux, contracted

or

ht'g^os

in

in

Another
"

tigH^x" "nine"

will
suffix

explained

"three

formed

internal

is formed

(cf. KwantlEn,

"deer"^).

gtwas

in

examples

is

"canoe").

doubtless

"deer,"

Comox

*-dwil

plurals,

moon"

"sun,

-dul

salmon

stems

other

-agitl "canoe"

Salish,

cf. Comox

Kwakiutl

with

of

from

also

tcddd^g^il

as

compared

is

by

place.

proper

as

So

steel-head

class

derived

{"*t!AWt!ewem);

-dgHl

qPgyas

explains

Similarly,
"little steel-

qeqeg^e^x

"little

into

xt^xig^icin'

above).

is formed

vowel,

o-

is found

noted

t!eg"em {"*t!ewem)

such

canoes",

perhaps

law

plus

regularly passed

"bone"

-ig^-,as

vowel

preceding

cases,

qeqAuqd'''g"e^x

from

Thus,

many

salmon"

phonetic

by reduplicating

of

cases

of xAucin*

{-Ag^- becomes

"*xtxAwidirC

is

including

seem,

of

of the
Science,

Salish
1902,

of

in

British

Report

on

Columbia,
the

western
North-

Wakashan

Eight:

Salishan

and

389

Languages

NOUNS

II.

number

considerable

reduplicated

form,

grammatical
of

Many

of

animal

are

but

be

to

seem

Ten

likely others

Very

hd^mho^m

blue

and

the

distinct

the

Reduplicating.

gH'gH'- panther

qe'n'qen"^duck

II.

"Arrow"

rather

in the

vowels

alike

second.

hd'ihei'

duck

glottal stop

Type

in the

with

with

Completely Reduplicating

belongs perhaps
lose

nouns

sea-gull

syllables

both

vowel

short

butter-ball

te'ltoV small

fish-hawk

qwVqwi'
have

"sea-gull"

Type

cation
reduplimaterial

xop'xop' humming-bird

grouse

with

quite

exist.

pok'^'pok"''liver

in quality but

of

with

e.

arrow

Type

Both

I.

of

these

reduplicating syllable.

Reduplicating Syllable: cvci.'

III.

titctitcVc owl

kiva'kwd'^djo'

squirrel

grey

dog-wood
t.'Aq't.'Aqdi

Type

mf'mau

Reduplicating Syllable:

IV.

k^It'k^Idk^!

cat

td'itca.iq'salt-water
In

'

of

In

stem,

these
vi

formulae

second

vowel,

reduplicating

represents
and

ce.

crow

hunter

hunter"

"salt-water

so

no

such.

are

limited

tsU'xHsHx"

and

of

as

some

types

rather

k'^dck'^acbluejay

"Duck"

noun

these

in

appear

being

cases

to

of

fairly
in

Completely

I.

Type

these

belonging

illustrated

always

nouns

in

names,

evidently onomatopoetic.

available.

Comox

reduplication

significance,

them

REDUPLICATED.

NORMALLY

on.

first consonant
V

represents

of
any

icl- is broken

stem,

long

first vowel,

vowel,

"" any

into

ci

accond

shortened

tcl'i-.

consonant

vowel.

Languages

Indian

American

VI

390

10

Only

from

differ

They

certain

two

or

one

Reduplicating Syllable:

V.

Type

the

in that

preceding

e'ddjam'

VI.

qwdqumi^s

hail

xwdxwadjo'm

fly (word

q.iq'td'amas game
down

VIII.

Reduplicating Syllable:

has

been

found

X.

peculiar type

very

like

which

man

IV)

Type

been

one

that

made,

q'td'ahas
with

game,
was

threw

opponents,
the

from

Formed

pit,

of this

type:

Reduplicating Syllable:

also

(doubly
only

butter-ball
qliqlq.'d'adje'uk''^

the

cv'.

Reduplicating Syllable:

IX.

example

this

in

form).

eo.

"

necklace

otherwise

'

in

djd'''dja'tree

Type

sides

mouse

ball^

mat

Type

Of

cv.

(of bird)

Type
rush
qd''^qa'^

mink

diminutive

probably
wooden

ca.

marten

tdatddH'.dn"

with

or

Syllable:

Reduplicating

VII.

ts!ats!dwicin'

tofxHal

cd

mdmstco^m

one

type.

cating
redupli-

man

young

Syllable:

Reduplicating

pocket-knife

qoqgwVm^

of the

in).

nit

Type

Only

vowel

of this

woman

young

LdLdpx

found

"

Type

xdxe'*

diminutive

probably

also:

the

we'wdlos

qwi'^qwdH! .dd'^^k' butterfly

Possibly

been

is short.

syllable

(form

have

examples

ci.

the

same

and

had
the

ball

number
All
everyone

it into

pit.

Those

put
it.
game

the

The

side

was

suspended

that

6rst
for

covered
each.

on

and

man.

has

consonant,

been

found:

"

duck

guarded
by one
ball
wooden

the

up

"wooden

reduplicating
example

one

cec.

but

made
a

the
tried

of

while

with
Each

the

two
to

other

There
spruce-roots."
were
had
of
goal consisting
a
in the
centre.
guards gathered
side

catch
side

it,

with

run

tried

to

take

it to

the

the

ball

the
After
four
goals won
game.
and
general free-for-all fight took
a

ten

goal

two

little

One
of

away

the

from

goals

place.

had

Salishan

and

Wakashan

Eight:

391

Languages

11

Here

also

may

III.

is

(form

augmentative?)

larger

reduplication,
plural,

in

still other
of

second

'ess

numerously

I.

xApd'^

Syllable:

cvci

Adit's

qwxd'qw

salmon

qlwAVq'.wAVlHcirC

Lp'Lp'Am'^

(type viii?)

xAp'xApd^"^

cedar

qo'^qd'^'a''

hemlock
qo'^'a''^

q!dp!xwai

occur.

xd'^xa'd

cockle
red

repeated, though

sd^'^sa'an"

clam

big

Lp'Am'

lengthening
stem-vowel;

cherry

tobacco

bush

HeH.'t'ibdi

xd'a.idatc

-e-

first
organic)
is in-

(type viii?)

'au'dwdk'^

many

of tobacco

qfwA'ix

of

(type viii?)
p.'e'p.'t'ixdi

p'.tHxdi alder

'dwdk'''

(with

q!ap!q!dp!exwai

oak

t.'t'ibdi wild

The
which

lIaxlIaxwo''-

qlwAt'lHcin" humpback
xd'd

in

xop'xop'xop^

salmon

cohoe

plural.

no

is that

ts!6xts!oxd'"

salmon

dog

singular

qwAsqwASAm

grouse

codfish

LlAxwd'"'

are

for

kumkumdqirC
whale

xop'xdp' humming-bird
ts!oxd""

form

plural by

plural tlAk^HlAkom"^

woolly

qwASAm

stem

also

Reduplicating

humpbacked

qwAdPs

of

types

sea-lion

kuvidqin^

to

their
used

are

plural reduplication

beaver

lAkoni"^

form

stems

seem

consonants

represented

Type

nouns

NOUNS.

OF

nouns

different

cases

persistent type
first and

of Comox

number

few

while

both

sd^arC

q!6tix''fires

cf.

PLURALS

REDUPLICATED

far the

most

"

around.

scattered

and

given:

fire

qldq.'tux'*big

By

be

wood

stump

qlwAiqfwA'ix
xd'''xa'a.idaic

ches
bun-

392

VI

Languages

Indian

American

12

mAqsm

plural niAqimAqsin'

nose

foot
djiciti^

djicdjicirC

djidis tooth

djiddjidis
L.'^k'L.'ikuinAS

heart

dikuiriKS

xAuxAUcirC

bone

xAucirC

k^it! little

AmaW

q!wdVq!waVAm

river

qlwdt'Am
pdxai'

ts!Amis!

finger

index

tslAmdla"

kHV.kHt!

finger

pdxpaxai'

creek

ildq'L.'aqe'^nac

Lfdqe'nac spring
kupu^'mi^x''

(with

kup'kupumt"x"

hill

of

shortening

second

stem-vowel)
old

Lldxai'

LfdxLlaxai'

man

qAl'qAlq!

qAl'q! warrior

LfAmL.'Ams

house

L.'Ams

box

ajiSAm

xAsxASAm

coiled

kwd'am

l! Ap' l! Apdtil

bag

L.'pdtjlbasket
q!dk'"

kwd'^kwa'am

basket

storage

qlak'^'qlak""

board

k^Iik^dyu

k^Hk^'k^Hk^dyu

oar

SAq'Ak'" war-club

sAq'sAqAk'""

lAq!" bow

lAq.'HAq!"
tcHVtdit'

knife

tcHCqdmin

blanket

lAq'.ASmountain-goat

lAqUAq'.AS
L.'Ap^LfApitsfd'"

yellow-cedar
L.'pi'ts.'d''^

q!Asq!As'

shirt

q.'As'Addibuckskin

and

II.

if there

from

Reduplicating Syllable: cac.

the

stem-consonants

these

A-vowel.
or

differs

type

second

between

tdxtcixdos

red-eyed

Type

This

pdq'paq'dos

white-eyed

tdxdos

consonants

If the
are

vowel
two

addi

LlAq/LlAqfadn'^

Lldq.'acin" moccasin
pdq'dos

qdmin"

siplsiplAmi^n'

stick

sipfAvitn" shinny

preceding
are

is not,
is followed

successive

in

reduplicated,
but

is

or

vowels,

the

replaced by

broken
the

both

that, while

by
second

stem
an

first
vowel

inorganic

glottal stop,
consonant

is

Wakashan

Eight:

and

Salishan

393

Languages

13

the

just

repeated

the

same,

reduplicating syllable.
tdin-

and

l!aI-

Three

whether

sub-types
remains

td, k^, I, or
(sub-type

Sub-type

under

listed

to

Several

as

Type
to

are

such

I,

be

(/) (sub-type

6),

reduplicate

with

nouns

should

a),
or

is

II

according

palatalized by

is labialized

by

plural

to

xw

qlALlqld^L!

otter
otter

qlAsqld^sa'

xd'^'wa

fur

seal

xAuxd'wa

hair

k!6"ddt!"

^As^dsx''

seal

klwAd'k.'wd^dot!'?

porpoise

of

vowel

pIdqiAddtc
qen^qerC

stem)

qAd' qeri'
qerC

hAuhew^qerC
qAuqt'w^x

salmon

devil-fish

tAqftd^qlwa'
mAt.'mdHldi

clam

horse

ening
(with lengthof

of

xwdsAbdi

bush

soapberry

stem)

gooseberry

As'dsdH

xwAsxwdSAbdi

bush

t'.e'^^de'qwai
salmon-berry
t/d'abuxwdi

vowel

mAtdimdHdirC

louse

huckleberry

first

SAmsd^^ba^

mussel

mdHdirC

second

plAqlp'.dq'.Addtc

goose

duck

hew^qen' swan
qt'w'^xsteel-head
td^qfwa'

(with
of

shortening

bush

bush

t!Ant!e'''de'qwai
t!Amt!

Amuxwdi

(with

of d'a
to

qex"

tc,

mAxmi'xdl

sea

dsd'i

s,

LlAiLld'aVd'nC

wolf

qld^sa"

sd^^ba"

to

a.

qld^L.'land

mdt'.di

belong

perhaps

c).

L/d^ard'm'

dsx"

as

and

stem-A

recognized,

(sub-type

bear

mi'xdl

L.'d'al-

tc'.e'dd- and

respectively.

reduplicating-A,
here.

Thus,

the

in

being neglected

glottal stop

ring finger

bld^qlwdi fish-gill

a)

qAx^qex^

L!Aq!''L!d''q!wdi

sopAdatc

tail

sAp'so'^pAdatc

tsldmuql

cloud

tslAmits'.dmuql

duction
re-

of stem

Eight:

Wakashan

Salishan

and

Languages

395

15

In

first of these

the

simplex

(as

unreduplicated

stem

first and

the

Sub-type

II

form

be

we

dj-

and

sub-types

III

can

vowel

reduplicating

sub-type

be

due

of

consonants,

is short

II,

not

in

it not

in
of

according

nouns

that

might

as

-au,

or

consonant,
These

w.

were

contraction

(sub-type a)

co.

second

I), but

Type
to

or

co

original

Type

recognized,

they

perhaps
(-w-

-o-

after

original -yiw-).

to

whether

the

long (sub-type 6).

totd'ag^ax''
tqtd'agHn

spear

b.

Idla^gyet!"

Id^g^et!"herring
pleg^di

example

a.

salmon

III

Sub-type

simpler

"

their

as

seen,

under

td^ag^ax"^fern
td'agHn

g"

already

(probably

-o-

on

second

second

is available:

have

(cf. xAuxAUciii'^

g^-) or

first and

the

above).

reduplicating syllable

expected

In

already reduplicated

but

above),
it.

salmon"

example

nouns

have

considered

Sub-type

the

the

on

Reduplicating Syllable:

these

as

not

plural xuCxwdtoqo^m

all of

be

Two

one

III.

their

of

(cf."tyee

Type

representing,
could

unstead

from

"falls"

xwdtoqo'm

Nearly

is built

"bluejay"

in

abstracted

Only

c.

plural

e.g.,

third,

reduplicated

are

the

p!d'^p!eg^di

halibut

*g^ug''Vg"l^(not obtained

gT/figvppanther

as

in

such,

implied

but

plural

diminutive

gyVg^ugH'gH'

ther
"pan-

cubs")
t.'cg^emsun,
Mg^os

It is not

djudjig^in'

song

loHd^dak'"

skin

clear

and

hd'^he'gvqs

chief

djigHn'
Id^dak'"

tldH.'eg^emsun

moon

why

"skin"

should

reduplicate with

o-vowel.

moon

^I

396

Indian

American

Languages

16

Syllable:

Reduplicating

IV.

Type

Syncope

cv;

Stem

First

of

Vowel.

Only

g"-, the

with

another
form

-g^ of

stem

of

this

to

it;,

As

type.

it

with

uniting

begins
before

immediately

plural, coming

the

reverts

consonant,

found

been

has

example

one

preceding

to

au.

married

g^dq'dhas
That

differ

though

belonging

from

Type

it

keeps

qd'um'

its

have

group

the

I in that

}6kd"min

stem-vowels

vowel

is

and

shortened,

quality.
xduxdug^as

qduqd'um'

eye

qd^'mai"

parison
com-

cvc.

long

reduplicated

bear

grizzly

xdug"as

this

to

by
"^

woman.

Syllable:

Reduplicating

V.

Type

"married

s-wd-wskus

KwantlEn

with

is corroborated

presupposed

be

is to

*wdq'dhas

Nouns

plural g"duq'dhas

woman

mai'
qiirnqo"'

ground

on

snow

luk'loko'^min

bailer

ti'hd''ddn'

chief's

pole

heq'sd^min

Reduplicating

VI.

Type

Syllable:

tdhtihd''ddn'

wife
for

caci.

poling

hdq'heq'sd"min'

canoe

'dVolqai'' (with

6lqai''snake

of

first

ing
shortenstem-

vowel)
'dt^aL

leggings

aL

"Leggings"

Type
q!6a'dda

'

C.

British

well

Reduplicating

Hill-Tout,

belong

I.

Type

to

Syllable:

cv.

q!oq!oa'dda
titl

(house)

a'dx"

snow-flake

Columbia,
Survey
Ethnological
of

VII.

as

ear

tt (L.'.-ims)
big
dx"

just

of course,

may,

Ethnological
of
Report
of Canada,

Studies
British
p.

89.

of the Mainland
for
Association

(LfAvis) big (houses)

falling snow

HalkomilBm,
Advancement

the

division
of

of the Salish
1902,

Science,

Eight:

Wakashan

Salishan

and

39ri

Languages

17

VIII.

Type

According
I

or

this

e,

the

varying

to

latter

phonetic

are:

ft'x"

q,

and

g!

The

x.

either
of

examples

kivPkwudjdk''^

cedar

tltPxwai'

also
-ai'

djd^'dja'

have

we

plural q!t'q!dik'"

trout

yellow

ce.

"

qldik'''eagle
kwudjak''^

Syllable:

circumstances

after

occurring

obtained

type

Reduplicating

(may
to

belong

type

in

note

vii;

plural)
tained
ob-

*djidjd'''dja" (not

tree

implied

but

such,

as

tive
diminu-

by

plural

djedjidjd-

'"dja)
sd'idJA^

leaf

tcitcdyac

neck

sayd^ada
qd^ya'

water

s"'yal

lake

xd'adjaic
tcu"i

stsa'idJA'

hand

tcdyac

stsayd'ada
qtqd'ya^
stsd'yal
xtxd'adjaic

stone

child

tcttcu'i

k.'oyokobPn

fisherman

(or -mVd)

sidjdqo'p'

basket

IdidatdAn

woman's

kfwtk!

hat

oy okomi

'n

stsidjdqo'p'

cedar-bark

ItldidatctAn

skirt

Eliminating
just

well

as

"yellow
be

reckoned

however,

reason,

diminutive

plurals

to

may
-I-

observed

or

including
{-ay-,
-idj-);

-ay-,

-a'y-, -oy-),

dj, as

we

saw

these

above,

vowel
is

back

to

plural type
as

of

cases

result

II

Type

may

(there

*tiyix";

is
see

f), all these

II, reduplicating
It

of -Ay-.

contain

nouns

out,

VII

Type

either

(-di-, -a'l-,-u'i-), vowel

groups
or

pointed

was

to

goes

contracted
of

stems

broken

as

il'x"

explained

the

being
the

that
diminutive

plausibly

-e-

that

and

which,
belonging

as

believe

I b

type
be

cedar,"

will
i-

be

thongs,
diphplus

plus dj {-udj-, -d'^dj-, -d^adj-,

probably

resultant

of original y.

398

VI

Indian

American

Languages

18

IX

Sub-type
tdd

(or ca).

Reduplicating Syllable: cd

IX.

Type

(with d).

tcldtclel

plural

rain

qd'"qwai speaker

qiuaq6'"qwai

ylp'i'x" hole

ydyipl'x'*

IX

Sub-type

{with a).

salt-water
tct'itca.iq^

X.

Type

These

plural reduplication
and

Stem-vowel

First

reduplicated

are

nouns

tcatcVitca.iq*

hunter

begin with,

to

of

change

Changed

the

to

and

e.

substitute

first stem-vowel

to

for

(long

open).
few

The

examples

we'wdlos

ky.'t'ky.'dky!

is

g",

of

-I-

Reduplicating Syllables:

XI.

have

plural

In

formation.
in

i;

to

(see Type

of this

found

been

the

the

the

second,

cdCAC.

doubly

first,the

ing
reduplicatcoming

a,

reduplicating

after
-Ay-

VIII).

gyagndg^ddPrn

slave

g^d^di'm
tdyac

e"ddjam'
k"!e''k"!dk"!

palatalized

becomes

woman

examples

two

type

we"wdlgs

crow

Type

Only

"

man

young

e'ddja7n' young

are:

idtltdyac

killer-whale

Irregular Plurals.

Several
has
two

been
that

no

above

follow
but

djd'"dja' tree
fawn

are

them

quite irregular.

breaking

of

-a-

irregular, but

somewhat

are

difficultyin assigning

reduplication

inAVq"

listed

plurals

The

to

definite

second

types.

shows

to d'a-.

djadj'id'm
mamd'

aliq'
"

not

there
The

only

Wakashan

Eight:

Salishan

and

399

Languages

19

few

Such

plural.

to

the

change

nouns

are:

entirely

stem

passing

this

Involving

ssiir")

ninig^ap'lai (diminutive

of stem

change

same

married

Rather

is:

nig^dpHahai'
is:

"

tatfndtcap^ leg
the

keeps

nig^dp'tai)

"

man

different,presumably,

which

singular

plural nig'-^dp'tai
of

girl(diminutive

of

sdHux'^

from

"

sQ.lV'^ woman
sa'as?r"

in

tcuklu'ndtcap'
suffix

same

in

the

while

plural,

the

changing

stem.

Nouns

Quite

of these

Some
a

number

of

re-reduplication
easily

might

that

possible
of

some

form

by

plural

are:

informants.

qivdqumi^s

dim.

that

marten

sea-gull

xdxe'i

are:

nit

for

nouns

which

arrow

informant

my

would

give

"

pVk! ground-hog

raccoon

skunk
p.'d'alats!"

^dmaxHdjo'"

Vraven

"

ant

""

,.

p. 'ah

tdeq"

qeix

robin

mo'os

"robin," tdAq'tcfeq',which

plural, was

in these

nouns,

of

thorn.

any

nouns

for

plur.

qlt'etcelk

as

given

is

xivdxwadjo'77i'fly

butterfly

knife

plurals

For

It

mink

qwVqwV

hdiihei'

Non-reduplicated

""

been

such

found)

LaLdpx"^

v!dxd'"
^

clearly

are

so.

Reduplicated

pok^^pok'"^ liver

mdyos

is

"

diminutive:

(probably

no

to do

have

plurals might

xHs'.ix'' fish-hawk
is'.i'

is

there

mdmstco'm

Ald^'k"

plural.

no

however,

it usage

were

owl

qwi^qwdH!

and

Others,

gypgyp panther
titditcVc

form

consistently applied, against

reduplicated,

other

which

begin with,

to

plurals.

forming

be

secured

means

no

reduplicated

these

no

by

one

in

Plurals.

were

nouns

reduplicated

are

feeling, though

as

without

explicitly denied.
qax

or

q.ix

might

well

If necessary

"many"

can

salmon-egg
head

enough
to

be

l)e

express

expected
plurality

juxtaposed

before

400

VI

Languages

Indian

American

20

REDUPLICATED

IV.

in

Diminutives

by

of

means

syllable

from

according
syllable

from
so

the

that

found

are

made

to

Short

(i

be

discussing

recognized, according
mimosas

Thus,

from

of

the

cating
redupliresult

subjected,

It will

ready

be

types
tageous
advan-

various

features

reference

be

may

as^such.

"

of
of

followed

stem,

reduplication

c-

whether

yno^os

also

never

less distinct

the

way

types

types
to

ing
reduplicat-

is often
or

consonant

Two

i).

or

forms,

complications

more

are:

initial

of

that

stem

that

so

the

stem,

recognized.

the

characteristics

{I.) Reduplication
a.

of

diminutives,

when

Diminutivizing

the

formed

are

reduplicating syllable

Further

number
may

the

from

purely analytical

in

them

in that

the

rules

which

to

NOUNS.

diminutive

of

of

forms.

large

formations
list in

to

different

changes
a

vowel

the

plural

altogether

of diminutive

that

first consonant

to

of

internal

Reduplicated

reduplicated plurals

Moreover,

is formed

OF

Salish languages,

in other

as

rei:"eatsthe

second.

the

Comox,

reduplication.

differ

however,

DIMINUTIVES

is

"head";

or

be

may

accented.

is not

qeqn^ya'

by

from

qd^ya^

"water.'
b.

Long

c.

e,

(i

Thus

LllLlAXWd'*

"dog-salmon."

accented.

always

accented.

i), always

or

lIaxwo''-

from

Thus

from
qfe'^q'.e^L!

landq.'d'^L!"

otter."
d.

V, which

from
e.

V,

which

be

accented.

Thus,

lolko"min

"bailer."

is

accented.

regularly

Thus,

k!6k!gddf!"

from

"porpoise."

k!6"ddt!'^
f. Short

not

may

or

may

loko^min

accented

a,

or

LdLV'tm'^

Thus,

not.

from

lV' attC

"cockle."

Thus,

g.

Long

a.

h.

Long

d'a.

i. Short

Breaking

inserted
of

Glottalizing
should
Thus.

djig^in' "song."

sd/f"

from
This

in stem.

tcdyac
of final

"house."

occur

may

as

diphthong.

or

Thus,

"hand."

consonant

include

from

"woman."

dAms

(non-final) yowel

probably
Idtbo'm'

from

from

LloLld'ami's

from
tcitcd^'^yac
b.

sd^aslV^

Thus,
Thus,

0.

(2.)Glottal stop
a.

djddjd''gHn'

(generally

breaking

16'^^hom'

"small

of

vowel

clam."

or

n);

when

this
final.

Eight:

Wakashan

Salishan

and

401

Languages

21

(3.)Quantitative
a.

vocalic

Lengthening

These

changes (increments).
(last) stem

of

voweL

include

tdtig'^dx"from

Thus,

td'agyax"""fern."
b.

Change
plural

to

wd

or

of

wa

of

from

kwikumkwd'''mdqin'

diminutive

Thus,

stem.

plural

kumkumdqin"

"sea-lions."
c.

Lengthening
from

of inorganic
"box."

XASAm

(cf. 4b),

in

as

(or

Less

e)

i.

full

often,

kwekwi'im'

from

Thus,

i.

to

is

kwd'am

xexsim'

changed

"coiled

to

storage

basket."
d.

Insertion

inorganic

and

Insertion

absence

short

of

Lengthening

of

or

being

equivalent.
before

xt^xigHctn^

of 3c,

perhaps

Thus,

syllable

sidered
con-

qeqAli'q!

with

ened
length-

second

(note

Umlaut

of

from

i)

Thns, qlwdq.'wd''^-

d.

These

short

to

include

(i). Thus,

xexd'adjeHc

from

"stone."

Umlaut

of

Change

(non-final) to

changes.

{or d), rarely

qle^qle^k'^from
c.

form

q'.wAHx "wood."

from

xd'adjaic
b.

vowel

(a, i)

vowel

Thus,

(4.)Qualitative vocalic
a.

of

another

"bone."

xAucin^

djix

but

probably

qAl'q! "warrior."
vowel.

f.

is

phonologically

as

from
e.

This

i.

of

of

long

to

o,

{i, i).

Thus,

from

td'mic

qfak^"-"board."
vowel

stem

to a'a.

tot"'amic

Thus,

"man."

(5.)Vocalic
a.

Shortening of

is

doubtless

qwi'qwV*

there

is

present,

one

readily

of

stem

from

as

as

in

after

Long

vowels

short

ones.

grouped
with

before

rhythm.

may

lengthening
Thus,

qicrl''Such

their

glottal stop,

from

qd'um' "eye."

reduplicating

Thus,

lengthened

"sea-gull.

gmV/iw'
lose

qeqawem"

vowel

vowel.

syllable

shortening

syllables regularly

Syncope
accented

i)

be

may

quantitative

to

second

(note

shortened

before

This

i).

due

head

this

vowel

stem

(or inserted

vowel

b.

Under

reduction.

thus

syllable

fall out

se''sp'xos

from

if

with

quite

as

sdpdxos

"horn."
These

twenty-two

combinations,

so

diminutivizing
that

large

features

number

of

occur

in

various

possible types

of

Wakashan

Eight:

Salishan

and

403

Languages

23

II.

Type
In

Reduplicating
diminutives

these

vowel

broken

to

seems

the
the

taking
shortened

be

Syllable:
first vowel

form

of the

v'v.

(-'d becomes

If the

form
be

and

last

rhythm

better

is

long,

it

xexA'a'"

the

Though

vowel

gleq'/e'e'etc

clam

big

final

the

broken,

pipi'ik!

qfs^etcelk
xd'd

is

stem

2a.

-'").

diminutive

pi'k! ground-hog

feature

stem:

ce;

diminutive
the

to

explained

as

second,

breaking

correspond

to

seems

the

final

of the

last

-a'"

(-d) of

the

in

here

perhaps

may

vowel

exactly

stem

(feature 2b).

Type

or

qd.'unC

Syllable:

Reduplicating

III.

features

stem:

ce:

d, 5a, 2b.

qeqaweni"

eye

less
{-e- doubt-

merely
of

Type

Reduplicating Syllable:

IV.

coiled

kwd'am

Type

ce;

stem:

basket

Reduplicating

red

xApd^^

Syllable:

ce;

26.

stem:

feature

5b.

xexpd'''

Reduplicating Syllable:

features 4a, 3c,

LlidkuinAS

cedar

VI

-1-)

kwekwi'im'

heart

hHkuinAS

Type

storage

variant

qv/i^qwi'qwi"^

sea-gull

qwPqui"

3a

ce;

stem:

features

5b,

46.

qwAsAm

pdxai'

Type
XASAVi

wooll}^

qweq'"se''m-ol

grouse

creek

Reduplicating Syllable:

VII.

box

pfp'xe'*

ce;

stem:

features 5b, dc,

xexsim'

2a.

404

VI

Indian

American

Languages

24

VIII.

Type
this

In

or

quality,

various

Sub-type

VIII

redupHcating

the

not

stem

may

Diminutive

in

be

regard

la

belongs qwi'qwdH!
Diminutive

b.

of diminutive)

"

Ala^'k"

features

"butterfly."

la,

(accent

5a

"

dsiyd'ada

(sa-short-

to

has

before
be

to

xexA'd.idatc

(-a.i-

probably

VIII

sd'yal

features

la, 3a

VIII

Diminutive

d.

IX.

Here

features

la, 4b:

vowels.
two

the

again

Sub-type
tcdyac

IX
hand

a.

Syllable:

reduplicating

vowel

is characterized

According

sub-types

are

"

pipuk'^pVk'*'

Reduplicating

however,

stem,

"

mimdHdin'

pdh'^'pok'"'liver

Type

(or c) :

sisd'ydl
louse

mdHdirC

Sub-type

Diminutive

c.

lent
equiva-

-di-)

to

lake

y,

ized
palatal-

si-)

to

stump

which,

sa-,

coming

Sub-type

third

on

neck

ened

xa'aidaic

or

qwiq6'''qwai

also

VIII

sayd'ada

length

qeqd'ya'

probably

syllable

to

tsUts.'dtcHlbai

water

Sub-type

to

only:

diminutive

qd'^qwai speaker
Here

According
vocalic

recognized.

feature

spruce

ce.

is unaccented.

is modified

sub-types

a.

tsldtdilbai

qd'ya'

the

type

whether

Reduplicating Syllable:

to
to

whether

be

Diminutive

by
or

is
the

not

stem:

ce;

feature

unaccented

an

breaking
umlaut

also

la, 2a:

The

e.

of

one

takes

recognized.

features

2a.

"

tcitcd'''yac

of

its

place,

Wakashan

Eight:

Salishan

and

405

Languages

25

IX

Sub-type

xd'adjaic
As

Diminutive

b.

features

la, 2a,

diminutive

stone

irregular representative

of

this

4a:

"

xexd'adje'ic

type

be

perhaps

may

sidered
con-

:
"

qe'n'qen'duck

qeqA'dd-ol

(built

unreduplicated

X.

Type
Various
not

or

sub-types

the

to

are

vowels

stem

Sub-type

Reduplicating Syllable:

are

Diminutive

a.

be

quantitatively
feature

lb

tsfoxd""

only:

"

tcHtdel

plVpHg^di

codfish

LlAxwd'^

ts!i'ts!ox6'"

dog-salmon

LltiJAXwd'^

x"^p! baby-basket

xt'xd^p!

p!oxo^"

pH'p.'oxd''

raven

hole

yip'Vx"

whether

to

modified.

halibut

pleg^di

ct.

recognized, according

tclel rain

on

plex)
sim-

ytyipVx'^

L.'pi'ts.'d'"yellow-cedar

bark

l!i' dpttsfa'^

blanket
titctitcl'c little owl

tititctitcl^c

knacky dc

bluejay

kH'^k^dc

qoqgwVm'

small

In
the

the

last two

breast

feathers

examples

already reduplicated

form

abstracted
X

Sub-type

b.

from

the

qivi'^quwihn'
diminutive

simplex,

but

is
from

formed,
the

not

unreduplicated

it.

Diminutive

features

lb, 3c:

"

Llpdtil bag

hlt'Llpdlil

tcleq''robin

tdiHcH^q'

kumdqin'

sea-lion

kwi'kumdqip'^

djicin' foot
Uq!''

dji'djichC

bow

Sub-type

from

li'Hi'q!'*
c.

Diminutive

features

lb, 5a,

3c

(or 3a)

"

qlwAt'lHcin" humpback

salmon

qlwtq'.utVtcin"

t.'d'abuxwdi

bush

tUt! Amuxwdi

gooseberry

pld'alats!" skunk

pltp'.A^ldts!

heard
(mis-

for -p!aI-?)

406

VI

Indian

American

Languages

26

Sub-type

Diminutive

d.

features

howe

xAucin'

lb, 3e, 3c:"

diminutive

{-igH-"

arg'xrg^/dn'

*-AWA-)
It
while

should

noted

"little

distinct

reduplicating

-e-

Type

to

basket"
in

this

that

similar

externally

xt'Td^p!
quite

be

with

of

diminutive

plural

formation,

formation

the

latter,

to

and

being

as

have

we

limited

to

(of.,e.g.,

is in

qlt'q.'dik'""eagles"),

origin,
-Ay-

of

type
VIII

reality
its

tracing

seen,

with

nouns

z'-diph-

thongs.

XI.

Type

horse

mdV.ai

Syllable:

Reduplicating

ct;

clam

26.

feature

steyn:

me'mAtfa''-

(me'-

haps
per-

misheard

for

me-)
hdihei

htheihei'^

{hdihei'7) arrow

qlAs^Addi

buckskin

Type

XII.

shirt

q!t''q!as'add'i

Reduplicating Syllable: ct;

board
g.'dfc'"
aL

t'eL

XIII.

There
vowel

qlt'qle'k"''

leggings

Type

Reduplicating

Syllable: ct;

sub-types, according

two

are

whether

to

feature

stem:

or

the

not

5b.

stem

is modified.

Sub-type

XIII

q'.dpfxwai

a.

Diminutive

features

oak

kivik'"p-VV

cedar-bark

wild-cherry

H'lq.'wdinqp'^

mat

bush

t'.i'V.bdi

dog-wood
i'.Aq't'.Aqdi
the

duplicatod
simplex.

last

example

stem

The

"

Lli'^Uqlwdi

kup-il''nn"x''hill

V.eHbdi

5 b:

p'.i'plxdi

L!d"q!wdi fish-gill

Idqlwdinop'

b,

qliq.'plxivai

alder

pleixdi

In

46.

stem:

t'.et'.qdi
the

abstracted
broken

stem

diminutive

is built

from

the

vowels

-ei-

up

already
of

"alder"

on

the

unre-

reduplicated
and

"wild-

Salishan

and

Wakashan

Eight:

407

Languages

27

bush"

cherry
trace

which

in the

this

in

but
',.

of

'.

imply

sd'an'

cohoe
the

Here
vowels

disappear
With

these

treated,

not

as

but

vowel,

features

lb, 5b,

3c:

two

as

"

li'l'qUs
Llt^Uqlaccn''
for

XIV.

sts'ad-ol

broken

LlAqlacin"^ moccasins

Type

p!

"

blanket

lAq'.ASmountain-goat

and

following q!

to

consonant.

Diminutive

b.

due

contrast:

without

apparently

diminutive

intervening

XIII

Sub-type

is

be

part

salmon

-a'a-

with

may

diminutive

Reduplicating

Syllable:

-en"?)

features 5a,

stem:

eg;

heard
(mis-

Sc, 2b.

tUg^evi
-i- is for

Type

because

-A-,

XV

tH'tHgHm^

moon

sun,

of

following g^.

Syllable:

Reduplicating

SAg'iA;'"war-club

qd'^qa' rush
toVxHal

The

except

that

the

areat

XVII.

it is the
more

base

is built

applies

same

to

often

as

on

uf)

the

reduplicating syllable

diminutive

the

same

are

time

nouns

implied unredupli-

diminutive

nearly represents

of the

with

happens
the

of "rush
of

the

mat,"
simplex,

simple stem,

that

is

form.

Reduplicating Syllable: ce';

sub-types
the

"necklace,"

begin with,

here

taken

as

of

The

stem.

doubtless

Two

te'H'x"lal

diminutive

which

Type

qe'^qa''^

necklace

reduplicated
cated

Reduplicating Syllable: ce'.

mat

to

4a.

sVsqek'^

XVI.

Type

features 5b,

stem:

ce;

found, according

to

quantitative changes

stem:

whether
in the

feature

or

stem.

not

4a

orb.

there

408

VI

American

Indian

Languages

28

XVII

Sub-type

Diminutive

a.

features

land-otter

qfa^t!

qld^sa"

Ic, 4b:

diminutive

"

qle'^qle'L.'

sea-otter

q!e''q!e^s(note

loss

of

-a')
XVII

Sub-type

steel-head

qt'W^x
-gy- is from

:"

qe'qeg^e'x
It is not

-w-.

(or b)

4a

clear

whether

-qeg^e^x represents

*-qewex.

or

XVIII.

features, Ic, 5a,

salmon

original

*-qewe'x

Type

Diminutive

b.

Reduplicating Syllable:

features Sc,

stem:

ce;

2b
.

q.'wdt'Am

river

q!we'q!wat'im' {qlwe'equivalent

not

q!we^-;

see

plural type
XIX.

Type
There

Reduplicating

XIX

Sub-type

sdpaxos

sub-types,

two

are

latter

ce';

with

features

modified

stem

iv)

6b.

vowel.

"

se''sp'xos

XIX

for

poling

he'^hq^sd^min"

canoe

Diminutive

b.

beaver

less for

feature

stem:

Ic, 5b:

horn

tlAkom"

features

Ic, 5b,

(-/;p-doubt-

3c:

"

Ue'Hikwim'

-kwA-)

XX.

Type
Here

the

Diminutive

a.

heg'sd^min" pole
Sub-type

Syllable:

to

tive
diminu-

again

there

Reduplicating Syllable:
are

two

sub-types,

the

cv.

latter

with

vocalic

reduction.

Sub-type

XX

Diminutive

a.

xdug^as grizzly
Here

probably

Sub-type

XX

Diminutive

woman's

"

xdxdug^as
also

xwdxadjo'm'
features

Id^gyet!"herring
IdidatctAu

Id:

bear

belongs
b.

feature

"fly."

Id, 5a,

3c

or

d:

Idlig^et!" {-icedar-bark

laltdatctin

skirt
t!6'mV

paddle

"

tlgUAbiH'

"

-a-)

{-I- "-Ai-)

Eight:

Wakashan

Salishan

and

409

Languages

29

Type

XXI.

There

three

are

of the

treatment

Sub-type

Reduplicating Syllable:

XXI

sub-types,

based

Diminutive

a.

XXI

waxdHsU

Sub-type

features
diminutive

Diminutive

b.

XXI

features

Diminutive

features

XXII

3a:

"

Id, 5a,

5b:

"

stem

a.

b.

features

stem:

depending

whether

on

not

or

Diminutive

features

Id, 3c, 2b:

Diminutive

features

2b:

Id, 5a, 3a,

"

sasidjd'" (-1- reduced

Sa

or

cv;

-a'i-)

features 5a,

stem:

c.

kfd'^ddt!'? porpoise

k!6k!od6th

mdyos

mdmiyo"s

raccoon

fern
td'ag''ax''

(-?'-palatalized
from

-A-,

from

-a-)

-A-,

from

td'ag^in salmon-spear

duced
re-

{-i-palataltdtig'-'dx""
ized
from

y^d^di^m

the

sas'dHs'.VnC

Reduplicating Syllable:

slave

c,

"

from

XXIII.

or

is reduced.

sd'idJA^ leaf

Type

3a

26.

tyee salmon

sdtslAin

Sub-type

sub-types,

two

of the

XXII

"

l6lko"m%n

and

Sub-type

5b:

Id, 5b,

Reduplicating Syllable c'^;

are

further

yd.ixai'*

bailer

first vowel

in the

wauxdHsli*

c.

XXII.

There

Id,

pipe

I6kd"mtn

Type

diflferences

5b.

stem.

yaxai'* pack-basket
Sub-type

on

feature

stem:

cv;

duced
re-

-d'a-)

tdtigHn (dit.)
(-i- palatalized

g^dg^idVm

from
from

duced
-.1-, re-

-d"-)

Eight:

Wakashan

Salishan

and

411

Languages

31

XXVI.

Type
Three

the

Reduplicating Syllable:

sub-types
undergoes

stem

Sub-type

XXVI

be

to

are

recognized, according

further

no

change

Diminutive

a.

or

is further

features

mouth

sOstn'

diminutive

pldqlAddtc

wife

"

sossin"

so^'spAdatc
bush

soapberry

xwdx"sabdi

tix'^sal tongue

tlHx'^sal

huckleberry

osd'i

bush

'6'ASd'i
be

bear

{-'os-

further

than
mi'xdl

whether

to

modified.

tiVhdddn'

tail

xwdsAbdi

le, 5b:

5b.

p.'dp.'qiAddtc

goose

ti'hd'^ddn' chief's

sopAdatc

feature

stem:

cv;

cannot

reduced

-'as-)

mt'mExdl

{-e- is

ly
mere-

glide)
siplAmirC shinny
mitdli

stick

beaver-tooth

sPsp!

die

Ami^n"

mi'm{i)tdli
merely

"Bear,"

type

well

short

"beaver-tooth

stem-vowels,

are

die,"

and

better

perhaps

"oar,"

listed

with

X.

Sub-type

XXVI

kd'^SAd'

Sub-type

b.

Diminutive

Type

features

XXVI

c.

XXVII.

Diminutive

features

bush

le, 5b, 5a, 3a:

Syllable:

b, 4

"

cv;

stem:

features

b.

mountain

XXVIII.

"

V.eV.dAqwdi

Reduplicating
5

tld^qlaV

le, 5b, 3c:

kok'sid'

star

V.e'^'de^qwaisalmon-berry

Type

glide)

si'^sqeV

stick,"

"shinny
have

is

k^!t'k"!k^dyu

ky'.ikydyuoar

si'^qeVdug hole,
which

i-i-

t!dt!q!eH"

Reduplicating

Syllable:

(or a), 3a,

cv;

stem:

features

5b

2a.

td'^qlwa'devil-fish

tdCqlwd^"

djd'^dja' tree

djddjidjd^"

{-ifrom

reduced

from

atalized
pal-.4-

-a"-)

^f

412

Indian

American

Languages

32

XXIX.

Type

but

by

XXIX

Sub-type

in the

example

one

Lp'Am'

been

have

sub-types

Two

Reduplicating Syllable:
found

kwudjdk'"

Two

If, 3b,

Reduplicating Syllable:
be

may

of the
XXX

Sub-type

features

"

recognized,

the

feature Sf.

stem:

ca;

second

with

further

stem.

Diminutive

a.

features

Ig,

wood

qlwA'ix

2a:

kwakwd'^djak'''

sub-types

modification

"

LdLV'im''

trout

XXX.

Type

Diminutive

b.

2b:

If, 3c,

diminutive

XXIX

represented

obtained.

features

cockle

Sub-type

illustrated, each

material

Diminutive

a.

ca.

3f

:
"

qlwdqlwcC^djix

{-dj-

glide

"*-y-,

-a'"- and
XXX

Sub-type

XXXI.

sdlV"*

wolf

Sub-type
d),

Reduplicating
each

involving
XXXII

Syllable:

girl

represented
further

example,

one

found,

are

of stem.

change

Diminutive

a.

by

feature J^c.

stem:

co;

features

li

(perhaps

totd'amic

man

Sub-type

XXXII

Diminutive

b.

features

house

L'.Ams

rather

Besides

diminutives

forming
stem

nouns

diminutives

li, 4c,

boy
3d:

"

Lfoild'amPs

Diminutive

the

5b.

4c:-

td'mic

animal

feature

Ud'aLfrd'm'

sub-types,

second

-i-).

"

stem:

sd'aslV''

XXXII.

internal

Syllable: cv'v;

woman

Two
the

Ig, 3f, 3c:

djddjd'gHn"

Reduplicating

Lfd'ard'm"

Type

features

{"*dJAWAn')

djig^in" song
Type

Diminutive

b.

tween
be-

change,
by

means

in

Comox
of

-o?(r") or

in

by

-ol,-ol.
means

also

can
a

suffix

of
make

-dl{t'")or

-ol{V")

are

nouns

reduplication

and

diminutives

-oi(r").
whose

of

Some

of

simplex

is

Wakashan

Eight:

Salishan

and

Languages

413

33

already

reduplicated

redupHcated

plural),

duplicated

rhythmic
is

others

short,

1.

of

is

those

to

the

suffix

are:

Of

those

formed

suffixed
last

to

vowel

form
unre-

whose

is

last
The

long.

the

at

law

phonetic

stems

no

from

reduplication

interesting

an

whose

which

nouns

diminutive

By

-o?(r")

-pZ(r")

obtained

have

not.

balance

all.

not

yet

somo

nouns,

time,

same

(cf. reduplicated

of

vowel

examples

"

-dl{V-)
hew^qen'

diminutive

swan

mi'^mau

Jiew^qAdol

cat

q.'dik'" eagle

qldikol

^q!eq!Auq!dikdl
little
duck

qe'n'qen'

hawk

chicken

tsfitsqU'^nas

ts!itfiq!e'^nasdlV
"

robin

tdeq'

eagles

qeqA'ddol

tditdeqHdeqolV"

little

robins
cohoe

sd'arC

jsis^adol

salmon

[sisosg^dddl
xdp'xop'^

bird

humming

plur.

xop'xdpoIC'^

gvfigvii panther

The

last

perhaps

they

*gH^gHyul.
"little
2.

two

irregular

seem

respectively

were

-ol

has

also

been

as

regards

misheard
found

in

rhythmic
for

*x6p'xopdlt'''

mim'ini'dl

A;'" mdmstco'm

mink."

-p^ (r")
hdhnhd'm

blue

qwdqumi^s
qwAsAm

grouse

woolly

tsU'x^tsHx^

kwa'kwd'^djo'

hd^mho^mol

qwdqunii^solV"

marten
grouse

fish-hawk

grey-squirrel

balance;

qweq'"se^mol
tsU'xHsUxwol

kwa'kwd'^djgl

and

414

Vf

Indian

American

Languages

34

DIMINUTIVE

REDUPLICATED

DOUBLY

V.

NOUNS.

OF

plurals

The

of diminutives

first

the

second

that

invariably

Hence

diminutive

they

plural

of the

the

on

plurals

and

characteristics

the

In

simplex.

the

order

be

said

of

both

the

and

which

the

non-diminutive

belong

will

be

The

types
not

or

from

of the

may

better
to

assist

reduplicating syllable
X, XI,
the
the

plural

Sub-type

is

XII, XIII, XIV,

remaining

a.

of the

part

to

of

and

of

psycholo

be

from

to

formed
has

often

regards

as

roughly

combine,
and

plural

in

the

following

ce;

influence
the

the

simplex

inner
Thus

formation
the

diminutive

of

the

of

the

types

to

singular

lists.

followed by plural of simplex.

analogous
and

the

speaking,

diminutive

the

cross-referencing,
and

is

plural type.

pluralized

both

XV.
word

simplex, sub-types

Plural

of

reduplicating syllable.

plural

Reduplicating Syllable:

I.

idea,

diminutives.

understand

to

in the

indicated

second

singular

plural,

reduplicated,

diminutive

reduplicating syllable

whole,

the

on

vowel

plural

not

diminutive

the

diminutive

Type

the

morphologically,

are

diminutive

of the

plurals

diminutive

said,

simplex,

form

first

plurals,

be

may

changes

stem

rule, doubly

type, the

of diminutive

diminutivized

While

the

plurality;

of

almost

gically,

as

are,

reduplicating syllable expressing

the

PLURALS

to

that

of diminutive

According
is somewhat
may

unchanged:

be
"

to

whether
modified

recognized.

Wakashan

Eight:

Salishan

and

415

Languages

35

plur. dit.

k"!ik''dyu oar

dim.

XXVI

a.

dim.

plur.

k^Hk^li-

kv'k^Hkmyu

qwdqumi's

marten

-olV'*

plur.

no

(type
on

dit.

dit.

sip.'Amtn' shinny-stick

sisip!sip!amVn'
qwtqumqwdqumVs

based

I,

of

stem-form

unreduplicated
plied
im-

simplex,
in

dim
.

plur.)
basket

xd^p! baby
t.'d'abuxwdi

Idqfwdinop'

k.'o^dot!'?

tsldmuql
mitdli

a.

xexAptxd'^p!

dit.

c.

t!it!Amt!

a.

lilAqfHdqfwdinop'^

Abuxwdi

cedardit.

mat

dd'qlwdi

berry
goose-

bush

bark

a.

ii

fish-gill
porpoise
cloud

beaver-tooth

dit.
dit.

dit.

XIII

dit.
XXIII,

dit.

lUl!

Aq!"ild^qlwdi

k!wik!wAd'k!6"doi!^

tsUts.'Amtsldmuql

416

VI

Indian

American

Languages

36

sd'idJA' leaf

plur. viii.

djd'^dja'

irregular

tree

dim.

b. dim.

xxii

plur. smsd'trfj^'

djedjidjd^''dja''

xxviii.

(built
type

yipi^x'* hole

ix.

type

feature

3a,

djidis

tooth

c,

or

b.

Plural

of

on

plur.

i)

simplex

modified

by

diminutive

simplex

modified

by

diminutive

I.

L.'pdtilbag
foot

dit.

lAq.'AS mountaingoat

blanket

dit.

L.'Aqlacin^' moccasin

dit.

tfAkom"^

I.

tfo'mV

beaver

paddle

waxdHs.'i

td^qlwa'

II

devil-fish

dit.

djig'^in'song

5a:

c.

Plural

of

"

bailer

I6k6"min

b.

Ill

Sub-type
feature

a.

dit.

pipe

ti'hd''ddn'

chief's

V.

XXI

VI.

XXVI

liluk'ldko^mtn

c.

a.

titahtihd'^ddn'

wife

Sub-type
feature

W'^bonC

2b:

Plural

of

simplex

modified

by

diminutive

"

small

kloyokobVn

d.

clam

ii

b.

XXV

a.

lilimld""bo^7rC

man
fisherVIII.

dit.

of

viii)

dit.

djicin'

plur.

yeyip'yip'l'x''

a.

(built

Sub-type

on

k!wtk!wlk!oyokobi'n"

of

Eight:

Wakashan

and

Salishan

All

Languages

37

Sub-type
feature

4b:

tld'^qlaV

Plural

e.

of

modified

simplex

mountain

plur.

ii

dim.

a.

xxviii.

dim.

Sub-type
features

Plural

f.

3b, 2a,

kumaqirC

diminutive

by

"

3c:

of

modified

simplex

diminutive

by

"

sea-lion

couple

of

plur. t!et!Aq!t!d''q!eH'

i.

aberrant

diminutive

under

type

ii

Type

II.

Reduplicating

b.

kwikurnkwd"'

plurals

with

ce-

mdqirC

are

given

f.

Syllable:

ce;

followed

by

plural of

simplex.
The

reduplicating syllable

types

I, II, III, IV,

be

here

to

recognized

V,
as

VI,

is

analogous

VII,

in type

i.

VIII,

to

that

IX.

of

diminutive

Sub-types

are

Eight:

Wakashan

and

Salishan

419

Languages

39

II

Sub-type
features

3a

4a

pdxai'

c, and

or

II

Sub-type
feature

or

Plural

c.

d.
b

2b:

of

simplex

modified

by

diminutive

of

simplex

modified

by

diminutive

"

Plural

:
"

creek

i.

VI.

pipAxpaxe'*

q!dk'" board

dit.

XII.

qfeqlak'^'qltk'*

SAg'ifc'" war-club

dit.

XV.

Sub-type
changed
xd'a

to

II
cau-:

Reduplicating

e.

syllable of plural

of

simplex

"

big clam

II.

xexAuxd'A

change

(note
of

xa'd-

-xd'a, perhaps
to

rhythmic
of

dim.

ogy
anal-

sing.

xexA^d'A)
qfdik'" eagle

VIII.

-ol

to

due

q!eqfAuq!dik-dl

VI

420

Indian

American

Languages

40

These

diminutive

strange

otherwise

than

as

xexAUxd'wa

as

and

formed

"little

xexAUXAUcin'

"fur

feature

V.t'ihdi

/.

(for

4c

included)

seal"

II

Sub-type

by analogy
fur

"little

logically justified.
xd^'wa'

plurals

diminutive

seals," xexauxdug^as
bones,"

The

where

parallelism

explained

be

hardly

can

of such

-xAU-{-xau-)

of

plurals

"little

xd'd

bears,"

is etymo-

clam"

"big

and

particularly plausible.

seems

Plural

of

convenience

modified

simplex
of

comparison

diminutive

by

with

form

one

wild

cherry

plur.

(or viii),dim.

xiii

dim.

a.

bush

plur.

t!et!Amt!d'abdi

(really belongs
type

based

i;

of type

steel-head

II.

to
on

reduplicated
qe'w^x

is

ce

"

ral
plu-

ii)

b.I.

XVII

salmon

qeqAuqd'''g^e*x
{-g^e^x as

dim.

in

sing.)
ft*x"

yellow

cedar

lb.

VIII.

titold'ayix'' {tVx*
"

Hiyix'',U- being

modified

-to-, cf
is

ta'a-

to
.

type

;
e,

and

peculiar

probably

II

due

is
to

analogy

of

ag^ax''

"little

titotd'-

ferns")
diminutive

Another

reduplicating
type
safari'

The
have

I, is:

syllable

plural
for

with

erratic

plurality

-o-

and

vowel

stem)

(in

belonging

both
to

"

cohoe

mon
sal-

material

operated

XIII

at
here.

hand

does

not

permit

sisoso'dd-ol

a.

to

see

what

analogies

Wakashan

Eight:

Salishan

and

421

Languages

41

Type

III.

Reduplicating

Syllable:

plural of simplex
A

feature

new

reduplicating
are

here

also

Sub-type
xdp'xop'

is here

to

III

introduced,

characteristic

vowel
be

reduplicating

ee;

the
of

shortening
the

of the

plural.

Plural

a.

of simplex

plur.

dim.

i.

otherwise

not

-olV"

bird

dim.

^"^"6^'" herring
skin

iii

b.

xxb.

iii

b.

xxiii.

water

xd'a.idatc

:
"

plur.

ed
xwexop'xo^p'^ (basunredupli-

on

qd'ya*

long

Sub-types

modified

cated

Id^dak'"*

of

recognized.

hum-

ming

vowel

shortened.

stump

(type

simplex)

lilola^g^et!"
leiold" dak""

viii.

viii

a.

qeqeqd'ya'

i.

viii

b.

xexexd'

aidatc

plied
im-

VIII

dim.

in

plur.)
sd'yal lake

viii

IdidatctAn

dit.

viii

c.

xx

sjsjsd'yal

woman's

lilildidatctAn
.

skirt

cedar-bark

III

Sub-type
feature

2a:

Plural

b.

features

Plural

c.

3b

or

of

4a

by

diminutive

and

2a:

tcitcUcd'yac

by

viiib.

sisfsd'ya'ada

diminutive

"

dit.

d.

a.

modified

simplex

viii.

III

stone

ix

f:

trout

Sub-type

xd'adjatc

III

neck

kwudjak'"^

features

viii.

2a, and

sayd^ada

modified

simplex

"

tcdyac hand

Sub-type

of

Plural

of

b.

xxix

simplex

modified

kwikwikwd'^djak'''

by

diminutive

"

viii.

ixb.

xexexd'

adje'ic

VI

422

American

Indian

Languages

42

It

Reduplicating Syllable:

IV.

Type

that

seems

the

considered

morphological

(see plural type X,

and

diminutive

reduplicating

diminutive

by

the

characteristic

form

equivalent
type XVI),

in this

Various

to

of

the

the

tends

of double

whether

unmodified

with

syllable

plural reduplication.

recognized, according

be

is followed

followed by simplex.

ce;

reduplication
of combined

case

sub-types

by

or

to

are

reduplicating

(or modified) simplex,

diminutive,

be

to

syllable
modified

the

still further

form

modified.

IV

Sub-type
ic.'e'ddo

b.

modified

Simplex

dog

ii

diminutive

by

feature

tcle'tdin'am"

xxvb
.

regular
(ir-

that

in
of

stem

is

with

perhaps

IV

to

e:

c.

Reduplicating

vowel

of

-d'm

diminutive

(dim.

in

form)

qwi^qwdH.'Ald'k*butterfly
(dim.
mAqsirC

qwe^qwdHfAla'k'

form)

nose

me'mAqsi^n

b.

i.

basket

dit.

IV.

river

dit.

xviii

coiled

kwd'am

storage

q!wdt'

in

Am

ttx'^sal tongue

kw^'^kwi'im'

ii

qlwe'^q'.wat tm'
'

XXVI
.

a.

te'Hx'^sal

of

changed

xwe''xwAdjd'm'

fly

cf.

'trees')

"

xwdxwadjo'm'

-o

ed;
dropp-

-dm'

djddjid'm
Sub-type

5a:-

Wakashan

Eight:

Salishan

and

423

Languages

43

Sub-type
I;

to

IV

d.

Reduplicating

further

stem

modified

wood

q'.wAHx

plur.

vowel

of

by diminutive
dim.

i.

diminutive

features

changed

dim.

xxxa.

and

5a

3c:

"

plur.

q!we''q!wadjix

Sub-type
to

IV

e;

sdtslAm

tyee

vowel

Reduplicating

e.

further

stem

modified

mon
sal-

by
II

of

diminutive

a.

diminutive
feature

XXII

changed

5b:

"

a.

se'^stsli^m'^

V.

Type

Reduplicating

modified

simplex

tlc'^'de'qwai
berry

Syllable:

diminutive

by

salmon-

plur.

ii

followed

ce;

features

a.

dim.

5a

and

xxvi

3a:

plur.

t'.e't'.AnV.An'qwai
{-"'-

is

lost,

diminutive
5
mouth

sdstn^

VI.

lib.

xxvi

MISCELLANEOUS

a.

LINGUISTIC

haik'"

b)

se'sossin'

MATERIAL.

1.

pd'a

IL

op'an

2.

sd'a

20.

simcyd'a

200.

sd'mitc

3.

tcdlas

30.

tcanaux'^cyd^a

300.

tcd'adagHtc

4.

mos

40.

mosalcyd'a

400.

mosd'ag'^itc

5.

siydtcis

50.

seyatsfalcyd'a

500.

seatsd'agHtc

6.

tfdxam

60.

V.dxamalcyd'a

600.

tlaxamd'ag^itc
tslotcisd'ag^ltc

pd'"

7.

ts'.o'HcVs

70.

ts.'otci'alcyd'a

700.

8.

td'atcPs

80.

td'atdsalcyd'a

800.

td'atclsd'ag^ltc

9.

tigH^'x''

90.

tigHxwalcyd'a

900.

tig^ixwd' ag^itc

10.
2000

6p'

an

is sdba

Vsd'ntc

100.

Vsd'agHtc

or

sd'a

1000.

Vsd'agHtc.

fsd'agHtc

cf.

feature

Numerals.

(oT-ab)

of

plural

"

dim.

c.

bush

by

424

VI

Indian

American

Languages

44

Numerals

The

with

series

classifying suffixes, referring

"dollars"

for

objects, including
Body-part

vals,"

as

refers,

objects

have

they

properly
heads

as

Examples

suffixes.

composition

head:

such

been

termed

(better perhaps

of

objects

speaking,

to

round

and

of

by

class

to

turnips.

body-part

Boas,

derivation),

which

are:

"substantioccur

only

in

"

"pdq-e'^q'warC white-headed
idx

"

red-headed

e'q'warC
(or -ad')

hand:

pdq'd'''dja'white-handed
tcixo'"dja' red-handed

eye:

white-eyed

pdq-dos

white-eyed

pdq'paq'dos

or

two

(plur.; refers
eyes

of

to

several

persons

person)

one

red-eyed

tcixdos
tdxtcixdos
nose:

to

red-eyed

(plur.)

ts!dts!e'miq'"^red-nosed
paqe'^q'"" white-nosed
t!dt'ts!d'''miq'"
nose

foot:

pdq'dn'

pdq'paq'cin'

With

qloa'dda

these
"white

bleeds

white-footed

contrast

ears."

white-footed

independent

(plur.)

use

of

"ear"

in

pdq^paq*

Wakashan

Eight:

Salishan

and

425

Languages

45

Possessive

and

data
consider

md'os

tAn

md'gs

tAmsi

head

your

pronouns.

head

my

mo^os

Comox

on

mentary
frag-

very

do

heads

our

mo^osap'

Ia

your

(plur.) heads
his

mo'gss

tA

(visible)

head

ku

mo'oss

tA

and

ku

his

Possessive

'd tsi mo'

'd' tA

mo'oss

OS

'd tA mo'oss
the

Possessive

head

my

mo'

head

the

is
is

see

mo'os

tc'kludAxwad

dA

mo'oss

tc'kludAxwad

das

tciHcdyac

tc^k/udAxwad

dA

ttHc'""

to'mic

to'mic

you

he

is

tt'^djan sdlV"

am

tV"

tV^'djaux" sdW''

I
I

big

man

are

big
a

his
see

are:

head

your

see

his

"

man

man

big
are

head

(tlbig)
big

woman

big

are:

head

your

see

suffixes

you

(literally,sore

headache

objects

my

see

tdHcdyacs

am

has

verb

das

titc to'mic

"

sore

tc'kludAxwad

Subjective pronominal

are:

sore)

woman)

tsi mo'os

wad

be

subjects

sore

woman

modifying

pronouns

verb

('a'to

sore

6-d?r" the

her-head

tc'kfudA

is
head

your

his
tA

visible)
(in-

invisibilityrespectively.

visibilityand

modifying

pronouns

OS

'd' tAn

your

heads

(invisible)

head

articles implying

are

ible)
(vis-

mo'osap'
(plur.)

ku

not

reliable.

particularly

as

Only

pronouns.

secured

were

them

tAtsi

subjective

woman

hands
hands

"

Eight:

Wakashan

Salishan

and

Languages

427

47

s-kdpk'Eii head

Shuswap

plur.

s-k'

ably
(prob-

Epkdpqsn^

for

misprint
-kspkapk' En)
k'est bad

(probably

ky'Eskest^

for

misprint
s-k'elg Indian

Okanagan

cdsuQ

River

Thompson

s-k'slk'tlo^

stone

CEncaEnQ"^
fire

camp

s-pam

s-pEmpdm^
(-t-

s-niknikidp^

s-nikidp coj'ote

very

and

open

is close

-I-

hence

cirdp
example

An

type

iEiuwU

Okanagan

II is:

"

contracted

-aw-

to

-p-

-g^-) is:

(Comox

-w-

-t-;

iib)

cipcirdp^

tree

(reduphcating

III

retained

with

-0-), but

or

of

our

type

of type

example

River

interesting Thompson

An

valent
equi-

s-QUsquasit^ {type II c)

walk

to

is

short,

and

to

s-Quasit

-k^est)

"

(based

totuit*

boy

on

duplicated
simplex
of

unre-

form

; final

of
vowel

apparently

stem

shortened)
This

the

in

usage

follows

example

languages,

the

this:

with

b.

illustrating diversity of

As

"

tutu'u'^wuV^

boy

and

This
differ

follows

type
in

markedly

the

regard

to

'
*

'

Jacob

Ibid., p.
Ibid., p.
F. Boas,
F. Boas,
Some

"F.

Boas.

the

quantity

Shuswap

(-U-

is short

close)
stem

and
agrees

itself

to

seems

rhythm

from

better

with

"

tutuwtut^

boy

131.
135.

Lillooet

name

ibid.,

Report
Report
linguistic material

B.A.A.S..
B.A.A.S.,

Report
Report

Lower

(Indian

vocalic

stem.

tuwtui

which

a, besides

Okanagan

cognate

Okanagan:

III

Salish

different

in

stem

same

tu'u''wut'

Lillooet

Lower

of

treatment

compare

III

type

Yisp).
p.

131.

12th

6th

N.W.

on
on

N.W.
was

Tribes, p. 28.
135.
Tribes,
p.
iu January,
obtained

1912,

from

nace

Languages

Indian

American

VI

428

48

seem

that

Comox,

is

It would
sented

in

Examples

are:

which

VII,

type

is

in Interior

typically developed

more

repre

Salish

"

plur. tsUsttQ^

tsitQ house

Shuswap

gitia
River

Thompson

only sporadically

old

gigitia^

woman

tcltQ house

IciidtQ^

s-tsuk'

s-tsutsuk'^

picture

s-k'dk'qa dog

s-k'ak'dk'qa^

s-pEpEzuzo^(this form,

bird

s-pEzuzo

however,
be

really

may

diminutive

plural,
utive,
dimin-

being

s-pEzuzo

with

final
of

is

Comox

orthography)
qwAnis)
Salish
to

of type

languages

different

Type

to

I.
to

with

contrast

qwAd'qwAdi^s
Here

again

form

the

normally

musk-

s-kikElUQoa

interesting

this

humpbacked

we

the

see

plural

outside

also is illustrated

IX

lalEm

according

of Comox.

Examples

hdiiweqas* (-u-

frog

similated
mela

Tcil'Qeuk
ibid., p.
F. Boas,
Obtained

Report

B.A.A.S..

12

from

mdmela^

son

Report

N.W.

on

Tribes,

p.

28.

from

Report
1902,

on

"

N.W.

Tribes,

Ethnological

p.

Survey

129.
of

Canada,

p.

ably
presum-

haw-

131.

Jacob.
Ignace
6th
F. Boas,
Report B.A.A.S.,
B.A.A.S..
"C.
Hill-Tout.
Report
"

are

laldlEni'^

glide;

'

different

for

stem

same

our

( "qwAn-

whales

tendency

of the

house

wuqas

'

in

plural (qogwinis

types.

Nanaimo

"

ral
plued
form-

s-pEzpEzo,^ type I)

It is

s-pEz6

whose

"animal,"

duplication,
re-

20.

dis-

*wdw-?)

Eight:

Wakashan

Salishan

and

429

Languages

49

Type

is illustrated

Nanaimo

in

"

k'dk'En

k'"lak'En}

plur.

post

apparentl}'
The

last

method

of

plural formation,

examples

of this

inserted

one

k''dmi

flower

ydsuk
There

Salish
this

that

of these

One

paper.

-E-),which

write

of this

type

may

are

be

Comox.

in

ydlsuk^
of

types
in the

is to

prefix

palatalized

material

the

stem.

Examples

"

s-Emtyeg^

Tcil'Qeuk

s-wtEka

s-iwtska^

man

{-a- palatalized
-i-,-T- by S-?)

to

with

is

perhaps

Tcil'Qeuk

laldlEm

IsldlEm, suggests,
ca-reduplication
sldm
-I-

be

may

of

'
*
"
"

stone

s-mEvidW

Boas,
Ibid., p.

Report
131.

CA-reduplication
Tcil'Qeuk

(type IX).
from

{e to

s-weEkdtl

6th
,

1902,

Report

yESidm
(or

*SEsld7n

changes

B.A.A.S

with

compared

as

that

Report

occurs
are:

"

IeW

good

"houses,"

Vocalic

Examples

ca-.

s-mdlt

6th
F. Boas,
Report B.A.A.S.,
128.
ibid., p
B.A.A.S.,
C.
Hill-Tout,
Report
F

with

that

one

lEldlEm^

in turn,

Tcil'Qeuk

of another

house

dissimilated

stem?).

form

IdlEm

la

Shuswap
Nanaimo

reduced

reduplication

frequency,

some

in

given
Hill-Tout

s-mtysg deer

type

in

and

(Boas

-a-

-j-,to

to

formation

plural

Comox

Nanaimo

This

as

Other

stElEktyu^

hat

represented

not

are

far

as

k''dlami^

horse

still other

be

to

seem

at

another

spdlak'Em}

maid

stEktyu

also

hala'pst^ (type IX)

tciletciek'an^(type VII)

mink

spdk'Em

e)

our

least

is

"

deer

tcitdek'an

Tcil'Qeuk

found,

material,

-lia)- are:

hd'pet

Nanaimo

-la-, shows

not

available

from

judged

be

can

its inserted

with

example,

(d

and

N.W.

Ethnolocical
on

N.W.

are

from

"chiefs"^

from

reduplicate

y-

illustrated

woEkdil^

boy
on

d)

does

Tcil'Qeuk

is reduced

Tribes,

p.

Survey
Tribe-,

p.

129.
of

Canada,

128.

p.

20.

in:

"

430

VI

Indian

American

Languages

50

youth

s-wtwilus

s-wAvrilus^
be

(this

may

ever,
how-

considered,

from

formed

as

plex
sim-

unreduplicated
according
Type
With

the

men"

latter

from

To

last

of

analysis

II

Type

by secondary
VIII),

out

justifiable,forms,

favoured

in

the

seen,

unravel

To

the

Salish, however,

in

material,

others

for

another,

of

history

types

that,

so

than

comparison,

in different

(and other)

has

made

yet been

as

of

body

abundant

more

have

we

as

be

to

seem

reduplicated

far

exhibits

language

differently treated

requires

of

purposes

etymologically

not

Salish

this

III and

Types

secondary

in

is sometimes

stem

same

Comox

(of

that

from

cases

at

Type

to

particular

one

any

of these

wide-spread

It is conceivable

(cf.,e.g.,

now

language,

one

languages.
plurals

"young

however,

reduction

form).
in

of
may,

purely analogical,

new

Certain

great irregularity.

which

of

capable

processes

that

so

number

plural,

developed

for

pace

are

reduced

have

phonetic

the

set

be

to

be

may

which

sub-types,

the

forming

turn

there

that

it is clear

up,

methods

which

we"wdlos

Coraox

compare

IX)

we^wdlos.

sum

Salish

example

to

accessible.
Diminutive

forcibly

more

there

here

is

the

to

data

Salish

in the

Comox

not

latter

the

At

Some
'

time

examples,
e-

C.

former

for

only

is

vocalic

the

vowel

and

only

the

of

in

as

so

of
a

to

many

cation
Redupli-

stem.

characteristic
umlaut

forms;

many
e

or

found.
of the
Hill-Tout,

types

Report

represented,

B.A.A.S.,

outside

1902, Ethnological

Survey

of

while

second.

the

also

Comox,

of Canada,

in

stem

reduplicated,

never

of

few

carried

of the

consonants

tendency,

reduction

for

reduplication

first)are

marked

also

seems

stem

first two

even

able
Avail-

consistently

reduplicated,
a

that

so

most

diminutive

and

the

first is

there

vowel
of

breaking
be

to

only

to.

plural

the

The

applies
formations,

represented.

of types

quite scanty,

are

infrequently

same

with
also

in the

diminutive

Salish

variety

referred

between

is that

(though

be

here

can

difference

out

study

still greater

comparative
points

of

remark

last

The

reduplication.

p. 20

are:

"

seem

Eight:

Wakashan

and

Salishan

431

Languages

51

Type

X.

Nanaimo

IdlEm

house

diminutive

(based
cated

Okanagan

XXVI

flower

s-pak'sm

Comparable

perhaps
River

Thompson
black

bear

little

x")

our

(e

Comox

to

in

River

"

?)
those

Among

listed

these

examples

as

is

for

Comox

be

may

Isldm?

house

given:

(based

simplex;
to

-E-

on

Comox
F.

Boas,

C.

Hill-Tout,

Royal
'
*
"
"
'
'
*

Report

6th

B.A.A.S..
Report

Anthropological

Report

on

N.W.

Tribes,

the

F. Boas,
ibid.
Boas,
ibid., p. 131.
1902
C. Hill-Tout,
B.A.A.S.,
Report
Boas,
ibid., p. 129.
12th
B.A.A.S.,
Boas,
Report
Report
ibid.
Boas,
ibid.
Hill-Tout,

Ethnological
on

N.W.

p.

Survey

Tribes,

p.

unre-

of

change

of

perhaps
that

to

-%-)

to

-A-

of

129.

of British
vol.
Ireland,

Ethnology
of the Okandkin
and
Britain
of Great
Institute
on

"

form

is

-a-

parallel

'

with

c-mEmeiis^

duplicated

'

doubtedly
un-

reduplication

of which

deer

c-mtits
IdlEm

is:

s-pdpaats' {-aa-^-d'a-

than

Salish.

(cf.plural types above),

Thompson

XXX

Type

e)

our

types

Tcil'qeuk

th"

girl*

s-pdpk'sm^

s-pee'tc
=

diminutive
exist

CA-

simplex)

a.

Nanaimo

Other

unredupli-

on

HtnotEm

(H

Type

lUEm^

of

29.

Columbia,
xli,

Canada,

1911,

p.

20.

Journal
p.

143.

of

Languages

Indian

American

VI

432

52

apparently

Similar

to

reduplicating

with

tj^pe

represented

in the

Thompson

River

to

-z-

of

-y-,

Comox

from

the

has

by

this

is not

these,

and

Comox

writer,

forms

with

far

so

from

seems

from

Examples

are:

as

from

change

known,

as

few

Interior
that

likely

very

diminutivizing

as

of the

most

material

"

sE-m'Em'letc

woman

c-muldtc

River*

it

in Salish

apparent

s-mulcitc

Lillooet'

Thompson

of

the

published.

been

Upper

of

frequently employed

are

though

elements,

be

to

evidently representatives

are

Neither

analogy

obtained

forms

glottal stops
that

"bird,"

spEzuzu

happen

spEyiizu^,

"

counterpart.

Judging
Salish

River

is:

reduplication,

"

-kA'As)

diminutive

interior

Thompson

(?

not

Such

is:

s-eniElet^

stem-vowel,

but

Comox,

with

specialized tj^pes.

very

has

in

collected.

qEzuzum^

from

of

breaking

of

(loss

above),

kEkEES-f^

material

and

"large,"

plural types
diminutive

with

exist

diminutive

reduplication

bad

well

without

(but

stone

and

kss

may

s-, cf.

after

cv-,

River

Thompson

of

incomplete

s-mdlt

Reduplicating

qzum

its

consonant

Tcil'Qeuk

This

type VII

for

2a), except

feature

Comox

girl

c-mu'ni'ldtc

woman

(type XXVIa)
data

Comparative
enable

that
a

in those

by

first two
the

the

plurals

diminutive

but

plural

of the

consonants

type).

s-muhnu'fdtc

plur.

in

clearly
Comox,

in

other

first contains
the

(plural type),

stem

only (diminutive

Lillooet

as

pluralized diminutive;

Salish

quite

is not,

to

scanty

Interior

indicate

to

seem

too

are

Some

interest.

reduplicating sj'Uables, the

tv/o

first consonant

Upper

of
writer

plural,

the

of

the

languages

diminutivized

words,

much

gather

to

us

obtained

forms

diminutive

on

second

the

syllable

Examples

are:

dim.

sE-tnErn'letc

dim.

plural

"

girl

women

SE-mEVmEm'letc

Thompson

River

c-muhnuldtc
women

'
'

dim.

c-mu'm'ldtc

dim.

pi. c-mElmu'm'ldtc

Hill-Tout,
ibid.
Boas, ibid.

'
L'ppcr Lillooet
Aide^i'q.'t).F has here
* .Some
Thompson

forms
been

River

were

used
forms

obtained
to

in

indicate
were

very

obtained

January,
short
in

1912,
obscure

January,

from
vowel

1912,

Chief
of
from

(Indian

Jim

undeiined

Chief

name

quality.

Tetlenitsa.

Eight:

Wakashan

Salishan

and

Languages

433

53

This

difference
each

respects
in

the

of

use

of

division

morphologic

of

SaHsh

features

published

Department

Survey,

and

Pluralizing
(Kuipers

after

shortly
by

it, summarizes
of

number

Paul
in

reduplication
Salishan
"chameleons"

Comox

has

languages
in

the

of

Salishan

survey

Kroeber
Comox.
been
Snohomish

Sapir's

and

cites

not

go

(1988)

has

recently

much

reduplicative

described
dialect

in

detail;
of

6,

Geological

universal

in

reduplication
and

does

The

way

generally.

Series

nearly

paper

(169-170)

but

many

own

(1915).
is

data

Salish

Anthropological
Ottawa

of

its

gone
to

reduplication

appearance

languages,

remarks.

63,

Mines,

in

Note

Canada.

Haeberlin's

the
the

other

Memoir

diminutive

612).

1978:

as

of

that

has

common

Editorial

Originally

indicates

again

treatment

dialectic

similar

Sapir's

published

see

in

particular
(1966).

piled
com-

stimulated
from

patterns

morphology

Lushootseed

(1918),

undoubtedly

beyond

Salishan

of

own

study
several
Hess's

parative
com-

of

tive
incepother

study

of

THE

RIVAL

(Nootka Text

followingtext

The

November,

witli Translation

dictated

was

Tom

by

191 5,

WHALERS,

to

me

in

'ath tribe of Nootka.

The

and

STORY

Analysis).

Grammatical

'uvk"t'.9

the
(Sa'ya't'capis
of
the
one
"),

Stands up high on the beach

oldest and best informed men
of the T'sica'"

NITINAT

t'si't'k'p-.tl"

w-.'k'at}uk''"

fire. Now

of

lo''ts"ma''^
woman,

in the house

liedown

not

was

grammatical
analysis

(him)

(her)back

on

t'l'qwd'atL'' 'na''ts'a"ti''*
sat

now

in the

Now

look-

was

should

give a serviceable idea of Nootka

house
ing at
of a full
structure, pendingthe appearance
t'aci'''ak"i'5
'a'the'".'^
ya-'i"
of the language.
The phonetic
system
grammar
door
There
of
be night.
the
(them)
used in this paper is explained
in
Phonetic
of Indian Languages,Reportof
t'^'h't'sai'.'"
t'aci-"i'"^
ka'tlh^'cttt'*
Transcription
of American Anthropological
Committee
ciation
Assohead
the door
appeared
Miscellaneous Collections,
(Smithsonian
k'a'yu"min'.^'
qw:""tt'q'''^
qwa^'
vol. 66, no. 6, 19 16, particularly
pp. 7Was in quality
as is in
panther,
15); my u, however, is alwaysopen, as in
quality
with close 0.
Englishfull,and varies freely
The tale is Nitinat (Nootka dialects south of
yai hi'Lat'^4 si't'a'^^ tb'hn's'.tat"-.''*^
the head of (him),
of (him)
tail
There
Makah
of
Cape Beale,including
Cape Flattery,
at
was
form is Nootka
but its linguistic
Washington),
wik'^9
dialect),
'ah^'a-.^"
except for the
proper (T'sica'^ath
qwa* ^'
"

"

of the

names

rivals,which

unmodified

are

was

in

Was

this.

quality

not

Nitinat.
TEXT

AND

t'hi"ya-x.'"
move
quickly.

INTERLINEAR

ya"l
There

each end with

TRANSLATION
tb'h't'sit'.'.
ma""ak'

'o''si.m't'cat}
'

trained
in

cess

and

Took

hold of

(her)
lo-'ts-nu''.'."^ tci''tC'.ti'"

humpbacked

wz"'.tcu"ati"

""

the

K'walisits.

Now

went

to

sleep,

woman.

Pulled,

tlup'k'sa"'p'at}.
caused

now

wake

whale

hawt"atl

''

now

finished

of

so

k'waTs'.ts.
''."'h-'to"p'
'

tca'kopokw"t.''
the husband

California whale

for suesecretly
so

su'kwitL''

head
Now

h-.stsa'q't'so'
at
provided

was

tiu'p'k'citL'7 k'waTsas.
t'si't'k'pi'atl
K'walisits.
Woke
up
train secretlyNow
laydown in
su'kw".tl
in
for success
house
the
on
t'o'tbh'tsaq't'so''"
hold of
Took
Head-at-each-end.
back
so and so.
(l^is)
'o''stm'tc.

*^

to

up.

yai

'

There

was

tS'/kuinn'the iron

436

VI

'ak''-.''''

Indian Languages 2

'a'h''^'

t'ci'tcah"

k'wuTsits

K'walisits,

of(Him)

American

this,

cut

Was

kwaTsas
t'i'.'"wi.n''ap'at'''^
caused to be laughableK'walisits

'ani""
that

'ah*ko-^" 'a"ap'tsa'atcat"'.'.+'*
hi's'a'p'^^
qa"'ya*panatcqa'^
Wz"itcqa' wi'k'arattqa"*
bleed
caused to
this
the thighof (him).
beingdrifting
beingsleeping,
beingnow not
of
aware
aimlessly
t'c'.'tc.tiiia'*^
tuxtspa''-"5 k'waTst.ts.

Jumped

K'waHsits.

over

Cut also

'na^'s."**
kw'.'stsatcittqa''7
offelsebeing going
day.

hac'i"'tC'.ti'''
Heard about

"

""^
kw'.sa"'s'at''".

the other side of

*'^
tli'cth.n'.*^hz's'c-.ti.

"

whither

Bled.

foot.

(him)

k'wal'S'.ts 'an-.'"'

t"h.""win''ap'at'qa'.'
kwr'spanoici.'atl^"
lu's*i,m''yawi'atl"
caused to be laughable.
K'walisits that being
became bloodNow
now
begansuccessively
covered
wi'k'
ya'k'ci"zt''*' h/'maqst'.'*'^
(tojump) from side to side,
Of (him) became sore
not
heart,
was
t'o't':"h-"t'o't'-""h*tsaq't'so"'".'.5'
qah^c/'Eti^'
'

the Head-at-each-end.

died

Now

citlsti^'s**'

the Head-

inland,

move

tsaq't'so"'-,'.
?'u'y'.tci"lc'.'ztl."^
qw-.'sh^'atl^'
at-each-end. Now
beganto Now was acting
mal"e medicine.

in

on
stayed
right

moved

Now

Nitinat

inland

the

tta'o-"atltta'''"
another

thus,it is said,now

was

t'so"ach-'citl*"
winter take

also

was

place.

Now

was

remained

Now

k'wa'l'S'.ts

h'.'l

K'walisits, was

'anah*'i.s^'
little

at

'yh-^'atF''
now

the

one

was

so

off elsewhither

Cha'atssib'

was

named
and

have

as

name,

was

another

train

in

so

"

California whale.

so

so

'o"o"tah\''
hunt such and such
sea-mammals.

was

mo-

9'*

four

'"^
kaxi-'k'.s

Kahikis

mo"

bound

for

''*'
lv.''niso"'uk'

for four

'na-'s

to

wa-'lak'''i

move

up and down

whale-fashion

days
four
daylight

Beaan

Was

mo''tci'l'''
say"""i''^^
the far-

so

hr'ms'o"-

a
(like
blowingwhale).

distant ;

for
secretly

and

ma'"ak'.

'uk'c.ti'-*.

tca"ats--.-b'^~* 'ukta'^?

.'"'m'ti.na"k'"" tla"o"

began to

up and down

"

and

non-existent

'o-Sf.m'tc-i"atl9'
Now

t'ca'pats*"*
move

so

W'.k'r't'c.tl^'

success

canoe

to

so

K'walisits

Became

at.

was

qo-"as^^

K'walisits

'oyo"aratl^" kwi'stsatcith'ca'^^
night.Now perceived
the,as theysay, go
so

now

kNva'l's'.ts

'athe''.'*'
be

Tlo'owis

in (his)
sleeping
canoe

and

k'wa'l's-.ts
w-.-'napatl''"

of

stream

person.

W""it'cah's'atl'^'

wentoff

now

people,

."**
'napxta'"atlqo"W"''.n'5'
t'saxci";tiqo'
Now would die immewhenever
now
speared, (them).
is
hd'atl.
tto'"ow's
it
said,
diately,

Now

Tlo'owis.

the beach

t'sa"akokw'i'.'''

hunting

'ah'''a-"atKv"'uVi''

tlo""ow's.*^

citistr's'atl'"*^'
ni-ti-'na'ath-*^' 'utsatc' 'ii\^^

thus that

'a'yMii'k'c'.'atl^'' ma-"ak'.
California whale,
beganto obtain many

now

hi."'sasa^^

'a'thai'""'. haia's-af'"'
be

night. Arrived

'ukt"-"e '"'
the so-and-so-namcd

nt

nis-'ma'""^
land.

Eight: Wakashan

and

Salishan Languages

437

78
'"5
t'-.'q'satt

Now

down

sat

on

hi'tahnis'"^

the beach

t'c'.-n'.-"ath't'ca'
''^

the,as theysay. Now

t'ca-'pok'"
'"7

down-stream

came

k'wa'l'stts. yai
K'walisits. There

canoeman

h'.-'s'it'q'
approachedwhere (he)was on the

was

""

be seated

K'waUsits

the

now

hmii'ha

person.

su'kwal'^
Took

h'.'iyin''-.'
t'ca"'pokw'r.'.
'"

"^

of the

out

the

the

at

one

''."'nax'mak''r.'.'4'
^'"^.
tr.mi"'s'ap'

hold of

(They)had

the

"5.
mi'h'yi.'
si'ma'tsy.n'"^
sticking
spear.
up in the bow

'o'h^'at'

k'waTsits
t't'q'stC'.sa'at'
was

soed

by

Now

canoeman.

It is fine

"

was

'ah' 'na-'sT

Was

this

the

day,"was

mu'tsmDhaq'

k'wa'l'sas.

bearskin

K'walisits.

wolf.

said to

(him).

Of

'^+
h"'s*iH*tcr,'a'h*

was

now

(him) was

urinated

qwa""ak'
Of(him)wasin
quality
'ah'''a""atl
Now

was

ho"atsatC'.tl

finished,went

on
'5'

'"^
kats"o"'m'.n'
''5.
qwz""tt'q'
is in quality
hail.

haw'.""ati
k'wa'l'sas
'V
'moqwt'"yu*tl

""""
qwa'yst's'.'k'

also

approached K'walisits.
again
'5"

wa-"at' '".

'^'

the beach.

'*** k'wa'l's-.ts.
tiaw'.-tC'.";t'tla
tsusk'c'.""tuk'"'t^

as

isit not

of the woods

weather,

nudgedwith
(his)elbow.
takha'^'^

be for four

dayson

out

came

the beach.

'"*".
mo"'tci"y'.s

that

''^
h'.'tats--""hnatltla

Now

beach

"^
"*'. 'o"'quni'him'a
t'ca^'pokw''.'.
qatcct"zt'

the

the

on

rubbed about
on

""

of K'walisits
alongside

on

'""""
'ah-*'.-!"

'""5

there

of
regalia
(him),

beach

"^

sat

hr's

the bow

canoe

Was

Was

canoeman.

life

the Ch'ini-

canoeman

off
paddled

na\va*'yis"'
the beach looking
on

come
to

"5'^

when

around.

Went

now

t'c',*n'.-"ath^'e'
th'h'C'.'str-.t'q'
'"'".
t*ca-'pokw''.'

beach

k'wa'l'3its

at

was

and such
time

the river.

tbwi-tci""t''"'
Now

such
Ch'ini-person.

'"**
t'sa"ak'i'.

'^^
'oya-'tlti-'tcatc.'sii

thus

k'waTs-.ts

offback

K'walisits

Became
in

K'walisits,became unable
speechless
in any way
(his)throat

walc'.""tl''4
Now

'^^

maht'f"ak"'.' """

returned

the house

of

ha'wi-t}'"^
Was

finished

tS','q'c'.tl'^"
qalrkwatC'."at'
qa"yap't'at"t'.
home
(him).
of
the limbs of
(him)
speak,
t'cukwe"ati "'"
ma""ak'.
died
t'so"'.tcly\
completely
(him).
winter." Now
California
whale.
to
began run
tb'k-icitl
qo'"as''.' ya-'tscai
'^"

"**

"^

Stood up

the person,

ho'a'tsatcai'5"
go off back

walked

off

'"'. haa'qsal
t'ca'patsukw't'
the canoe
of (him).Went
into
(his)canoe
"^

th'h'c.t}'''
t'ca'patsukw'-.'.

ys-f-'"

the

yonder,

canoe

of

(him).

Paddled off

ta'kh'tatcat''^

became far out

at sea.

was

the

SpearedCha'atssib'.

to

die the California

k'waTs'.ts.
"'.t'q' t'i'.'"wtn''ap'at'
ya'.a"'n'.t
"'''

the

one

by whom

had been

"

caused

ed

Speared

to

be

K'walisits.

laughable
""'

one

Caused

whale

t'sa'.xc'.tl
'yo"qwa"

^^
'.^'h^'atl

Now

'"^
t'sa'xcaltca"ats"',"b'.qa'h-'ba'p'
ma""ak"i

likewise

t'sa'xcaitia'^'
k'wa'l's-.ts.
K'walisits. Speared
again

438

VI

American

Languages 2

Indian

79

'''^
ya!a-'na"'.t'q'
the one bywhom
had been

'^'. t's.i'xca^
tca"ats-'.-b'
'yo-qwa'
h-.tr-.-'p'tb'

Cha'atssib',
againobtained. Spearedlikewise

ed

"

'^'
k'wal's'.tsh'.n-'.-'p'
yo-'qvva-'mo-'y-.p'

obtained
K'walisits,

likewise.

"Of
California whale,

Cha'atssib'
kwa'l'S'.ts
K'walisits

only

medicine

Cha'atssib'.

tca"ats-'.-b'
'a-'q"n'qha'^" 'a'tlakwal-.-p'

ma'"ak'.

c-.iVV.-r^'ifii

sutC'.'p '"'
obtain five

was

'"
tca"ats''.-b'.
.'^'u'yi'

(him)is sharp
evidently

'an'a'^+

ma""ak'

tca"ats''.'b'

able,

sa'tckok't'cac''*

four

Obtained

t'}'.""w'.n''ap'a
to be laugh-

caused

For what

obtain

is

reason

California whale.

eight

Cha'atssib'.

he that
'o'o'i''h^C'.ti'^'
''.-'h'to'p'.
t'tu'p'i'tch*C'.tt"^^
'^'
'a'naqa
whale,
Became summer,
beganto be in
beingalone
of so and so
pursuit
tca"ats"'.'b'

t'sa'xc'.thla

''.''h^to'p'.
'^*
si"ya'
whale.

Cha'atssib'

Spearedagain

'*'
'p'u'yiwatl hayo-"y'.p'ath'.
"'-

have medicine fallNow

to

ten

'^"
yaqe''s

w-.'k'

I who

not

am

.'^'u'yiwatl
have medicine fall
"

'o"\v'.'a'i'ap' t'sa'xc.tl tv:a"ats''.'b'.

caused so and
Cha'atssib'. wa-"att "*^
Repeatedly
spear
''"'^

so

to

be first

t'saxc'.""thla'yo'qwa'k'waTsas
Now

spearedlikewise
again
four

k'wa'l's'.ts
K'walisits

K'walisits the whale.

K'walisits

became

unable

tca"ats''."b'.
h'.n''."'p'
obtain

Cha'atssib'.

the

near

k'waTs'.ts
sut'c'.'"y'.p'athla'
obtained five againK'walisits

nia""ak'.
su't'ci"'y'.p'tk

he

for

secret

door

at

went

success

to

but his wife did

fire,

her back but

''."'h^to'p'whale.

in
training

was

humpbacked
sleep,
havingcompleted
his ritual training.
He laydown on his back

Cha'atssib',

'7'

Now

revenge.

huntingCalifornia whales and

whales. And

now

take

TRANSLATION

in

again whale

"'''
W'.ki'm'.'tC',"atl

ha"okw'.'"th

now

"".'.
''.''h-^to'p

'^^
tca"ats''."b',
nio""yf.p'athla
'-."'h'to'p'

Nowobtained

(my) lot,

to

said

now

I obtained

lot?
(his)

liedown

not

There
head,lookingjustlike a panther's.

''^
hayo'"y'.p'c'.t}
his

Obtained fivealso California Had

obtained

ten

head with

what

it

There

he

was

tailattached

like. He

did

not

to

it,that

tca"ats"'.-b'

'"'
'a'tiakwah.'p'
K'walisits, obtained eight

Cha'atssib'

was

with

head

at

was
was

briskly.

move

whale.
k'wa'l'sits

on

lookingat their
up. She was
There
door
the
at
night.
appeareda
sat

each end.

The

and

took quickhold of her husband,

woman
at him, endeavouring
to wake him.
pulled

the supernawas
tural
up. There
kwi'stsatcitl. K'walisits woke
known
Head-at-each-end.
as
being
the one who 'had
be the one
oft
elsego
K'walisits seized his iron knife and cut here,
wither".
so and so
perceived
making bleed this thighof his own. K'walisits
'o'h*
'ana
k'waTs-.ts
'a'ttakwal'.-p'
jumped over him. He made a cut in his other
Obtained eightwas the one, was onlyK'walisits
leg. It bled. And so he continued,jumping
""""
"f.
'oyo"ai'.t

'o'h*"'"

"

''^.
hayu""y'.p'

obtain

ten.

ha"okw'.'ctt'7'
Now

took revenge

k'wa'l's-.tsfrom
K'walisits

one

each-end

side

to

became

the other, until the Head-atall covered

with

blood and

Eight: Wakashan

and

Salishan Languages

439

80

died

K'walisits

'.

to
proceeded

this is how

And

.of him.

he

he

Cahfornia whales when

many

would die
And

at

out

throughthe

bearingthe

of
the

saw

there

was

bow

one

Cha'ats^ib',another

thingthey call

that it

aware

was

the

sore

grew

he

was

and he did

Tlo'owis.
at
right
off to
they went
behind

remained

peoplehad
And
for

not

season

but

Nitinats moved

The

their river, but

there

at

to

of

He

came

stayed

All the

became

Tlic

bow.

Someone

unable

sat

spear
down

canoeman,

It is fine

"

"

he said

in his throat.

speak and

to

up and down,
his way to a far-

his limbs

stood up and walked

back to his canoe.
He went
into his canoe,
paddledoff way yonder,until he was far out
at

person

this one

Now

sea.

It was

he whom

was

when

the canoeman,

off that K'walisits

set

near

to

the
to

came

bearskin, and

believe

that twice

then K'walisits was

returned

duringtlie

in at
dates,a bigliikev^'arnitide conies
houses
everythingabout in the village,
and all. After a short time everythingis restored to its
If one
happens to be awake at such a time,
proper place.
he can
train (Jo-S'-iii'lc)
for anvthiug he pleases,
such as
wealth
of attaining
in whaling,
and be sure
or
success
unknown

nightand

shifts

his urine

as

iiim.
Indians

K'walisits and

of

luiman
is to sprinkle
toliillthis bciiig
onlvjW.u'
Nootka

the

at
a

theycall

Ch'ini-person,

life.He took his

on

the beach

to

urinated
was

'
.

And
beganto train secretlyFor four dayshe stayedat that place.
also a wolf came
of the woods. He
out
huntingCalifornia whales. He

imitate the movements,

over

The
at

the

lifeless.
The

When

year,

in

bearskin robe and rubbed itabout

began
of a blowingwhale, while on
distant place
motions
; four dayshe made
of
and
of a whale, four spans
daylight four

2.

lookingaround.

inland, Ch'ini-person.

gone.

in

success

blood

the beach and

on

of the canoe-party that was

of the canoe.
out
They had

then K'walisits

to

1.

came

him, but K'walisits'voice stuck

became

K'walisits

Tlo'owis.

one

sticking
up

he

inland with his

move

dryingof salmon

peoplefor the

seated

the beach. Yonder

upon

"

place". K'walisits heard

being laughedat. His heart

is called

stream.
canoe-party coming downwhere
K'walisits
to
near

of K'walisits
it was
the
going alongside
who nudged him with his elbow.
weather today,what do you think
he was

goingoff to another

about how

was

"

place ^
K'walisits was
laughedat because
and because
about aimlessly,
drifting
asleep,
not

w^as,

little The

"

off to another

"

the river

on

in

was

night.Now

name

whaler,who

was

K'walisits sat down

to

its
another winter. K'walis-

the land which

to

came

They

in his canoe,
sleeping

canoe

went

night. He
Kahikis.

once.

then there came

was

capture

the}^say, they
speared,

lie

Whenever

sea.

medicine

make

beganto

then
came

his

upon

like hail. And

done and started back

he

his home.
winter

was

over,

the

California

whales

began to run ^ Cha'atssib' threw his

harpoon and killed the California whale, he
who had laughedat K'walisits. K'walisits too
speareda whale. Again Cha'atssib' threw his
harpoonand again he got his quarry. K'walis-

his desire. Should

he step into the water, however, he

Wherever
the (Ch'ini-person
had been in direct con1.
tact
with tlie ground was
medicine.
In most
Nootka
paralyzedfor life. He must step into a canoe or
back to higher ground. Signs of the approach of
move
tales,
legendaryor modern, of the acquirementof power,
the mysterious shift
the birds starting
in to sing
the seeker carries away
with him
are
an
granted bv
object
and the mice
effluvium of his
runningthrough the house. The people the supernatural
being,some
part or
become very drowsy justbefore the
shift ", so that
evidence
of direct contact
with
body, or some
tangible
few are fortunate enough to be awake
during the spell his bod\
and make
medicine
of it. K'walisits too was
2.
They migrate nortii with the coming of warm
caught
His rival was
weather
and touch ar various pointson the west
ot
coast
napping,great wlialer though he was.
fortunate.
more
Island at fairly
Vancouver
regularly
recurringdates.

becomes

"

"

"

"

"

VI

440

Indian Languages 2

American

8i

a whale, he too
got his quarry.
speared
Cha'atssib'secured four California whales,but

its too

it

got five of them.

and theystarted to hunt

K'walisitsalone who

was

The

came

summer

Cha'atssib'
humpbacked whales. Once more
threw his harpoonat a humpbackedwhale.
whale. Each time he
K'walisits too speared
a
allowed Cha'atssib' to be the firstto throw
And
harpoon.

spearedhis

then,once

his

K'walisits too

more,

whale. This time

too

secured four whales,but then he

Cha'atssib

provedunable

once
K'walisits,
get another. And
obtained five humpbackedwhales. And

he had

K'walisits had
seen

had

eight.He

the

ten

one

one

who

who

ed
obtain-

K'walisitshad his revenge

had been

laughedat.
by
I have found out that his medicine is sharp.
obtained but eightwhales,
Why has Cha'atssib'
whom

he

"

his lot? And

have

had

I have

medicine

no

had

K'walisits.He

obtained ten, I who

to
me
", said

come

SUCH

''

did he.

What

?
.

"

in

contrast

SECRETLY

SUCCESS

FOR

WHALES

ONE

WHAT

as

California

ELSE.

FOR

IS

SOMETHING

THAN
not

whales,

train

training,

secret

anticipated
'o-; one can also say, more
place-filling
ma'^ah'san'tc and \'h"lo-p's".m't
synthetically,
verbs and nouns
There are practically
as many
and is
predicate
psychological

is the
a

there

are

derivative suffixesand

of

content

expressed
by

'o- word, that is, the idea

an

is the
the derivative suffix,

of interest,
'o- is

center

binations
com-

appendto it,
If the significant

hundreds.

words, many

in other

ANALYSIS

consists of radical element

'o'-sun't'c-ati

Thus,

SECRETLY

TRAINS
RATHER

WHALES,

CALIFORNIA

of derivative suffixesto

I.

tions
ques-

"

CALIEORNIA

HUNTING

IN

to

of the type " What did he do ?

'o'swi'tcma''a" means
to
not so much

in 'o- as

his revenge.

GRAMMATICAL

be

certain
thing),such
(pi-rson,
thing),SO AND SO. Verbs
(person,
in 'o- should be conceived of as answering
?
of the type
IFho is it that.
questions

translated

seeingthat he alone has had real medicine fall by

to

in this concept itself.

It may

connected,not

or

place",
got eight

K'walisitsalone who

of them. Now

him

on

strued
con-

as
here,subjectively,
objectively,
geniand in other ways. A form in
tively,
causally,
'o-alwaysimplies
that the psychological
rest
intein the person or objector idea
centers
with which the logically
significant
concept is

the
Cha'atssib',

the

was

whales, but it was

ten

be

the latter; thus, it may

in
implicit

"

goingoff to another

"

'o-and the suffixedelement is

relationbetween

''

obtained fiveCalifornia whales.

had

(herenta''ak'and

AND

more,

to

of specific
content
The nature
of the
'clfto'p').

word
a
here,anticipates

true

replaced
oy hin(a)-,

and word'o'-,derivative stem-suffix -son'tc-,

because of
suffix-ati,'o'-,
from
'olengthened

different word is used.

an
or
entirely
h'.l(ay,
and
of 'o-words,with parallel
A few examples

common
followingSimple-,is exceedingly

contrastive forms, will make

Nootkain

both

and verb

noun

in

forms;it appears

clearer : 'o-i's to

eat

so

these

and as reduplicated
'o'o-,
'o'o'-,to E.^T meat, contrast ha'w- to
'o-,
'o*-,
'o"'o-,
and 'o''o'-,
each of these forms beingdetermined
'o'o'-/"/
TO
dream
(reduplicated)

eat

as

element.
by the following
element
an
independent
be

followed

by

It cannot
but needs

stem-suffix

to

be used

as

alwaysto
specifyits

it indicates
meaning.Its function is relational;

the

required
person, object,or activity
limit the following
element and frequently,
as
to

WHAT

OF

DREAM

THING,
MARRY,
who

of

(assuch)j
so

and

so,

to
IS...,like fuiul'c-itul

OF

WOMAN,

like futc-ha'' to

TO
po'huds-

Contrast

(as such); 'j-ha-' to

DREAM

one

drea.ms

one

remarks

so, like t^sis'.-"is

and

buy

buy

certain

woman,

to

contrast
; 'o-so'tfthe
likeivik'-so'ti
nobody
dies,
dies
is...,

mahv-

to

buy

******

Eight: Wakashan

and Salishan Languages

441

82

to
die
^Z^/;-

thk
cause
of
'o-'ycha'
to
die
from
t'sax-'yrha'
TO GIVE
BEING
SPEARED
A CERTAIN
; 'o-yi'
THING,
Hkc nio'-yc'
TO
give
four
contrast
things,
hi.n-K'TO give (assuch);'o-iiwt' so and
so's
verb
the
one
of
whom
(he) is son...,
SON, as

contrast

one's

have become
.',a peculiar
q'and q'lv
tal
glotarticulation
and velar
strangulated
remain unaffected.
resonance)
; other consonants

nal

is...,like

dying

'

stop of

'o-sivi'i'cati
is absolute

undetermined

withor without
Absolutes,
used in narrative ; without
are
-'all,
freely

/'fl';/fl'
child.

contrast

(of

in form.
tense-mode)

-sun'tc,derivative

suffix following -all they are frequently

used as complemenverbifying
tary
infinitives (see note
secret
ing
trainritual
7). Absolutes with
IN ORDER
to
gain
have no
success
IN...; it lengthens 3d personalsubject
personalsuffix
vowel if short. (Derivative
suffixes leave
stem
3d person indicative forms : present
(contrast
the stem
vowel unaffected,
it ifshort, 'o-sun'fcati-nia'
'o'sun't'catf-U-a'
lengthen
; preterital
;
shorten it if long,or reduplicate
future 'o'sitn't'c-a'q'li-ma').
the stem
The personal
endings
of absolute(ornarrative)
forms differfrom
accordingto varyingquantitative
patterns).

form,

stem

Cf.
life
FOR

to

undergo

further 'titc-s\m'lc to
TO
{trie
WEALTH

for

long

those of indicativeforms

alive)
; ha'ivii-sun'tcto train
(halud CHIEF, ha\ud-mis wealth);
TRAIN

FOR

SUCCESS

IN

HUNTING

Absolute

Sing.I.

to
(tok-o'k'"
sea-lion)
; hi'tc-sr.m'fc

SEA-LIONS
FOR

SUCZESS

IN

FISHING

BY

differ from

primary

2.

TORCHLIGHT

(hitc-ina'
torch).There are probablyseveral
hundred such verbifying
suffixed elements in
of
them
in content,
Nootka, many
very specific
which

BE

tO'k'-SWl'tCTO

TRAIN

train

verb-stems

Plur.

Present

'o'smi'Uatf-S'.

Indicative

'o'swi'fcati-ah

'o'sun'l'cati-.uik''o'sun'l'calf-tits

3. 'o'suii'fcali
\rswi'fcat{-n\'

'o'S'.nVfcati-ma'
'o's"jn'l'cat{-.n'

I.
2.

\r Sim' t'
calf-so-'

3.

'o'sun'l'catf(''at)
'o's"jit'l'catf-)i

'o-suii't'catt-i'Uso''

not

A third set of personal

only in their positionbut in that they are
endings,used in
always construed,accordingto an implicitvarious modal and subordinate forms and in
with a preceding
tive
denominaof nouns,
is clearly
related to the
relation,
syntactic
possessives
absolute series :
term
noun
or
(which may be a
a
verb "stem).Composition
of primarystems
Interrogative
Possessive
is as good as unknown,
'o'-suii'tc
is durative in
v
erbs
have
durative
and
i.\ys'.m't'catf-ha-s
momentaaspect (all
t'a'tia'k'-qa-s
Sing.
have also at
or inceptive,
child
MY
neous,
aspects, most
least one
iterative aspect, and m.uiy have still
2. \rs\ui'Ccalf-}M-k Caiurk'-d'-qa-k'
other aspects).
Cana'lc^-'.')
3. 'o-S'.niifcalf-lm'
-all,word-sutlix (i.c., attached to complete Plur. \.\)SKin'lcatf-hi-n' t'ana1;'-q\.-n'
It may
2. \rs".)n'l\atf-f_mword, not stem) of colorless content.
be translated now,
it
so''
Ca'na'k'-^'.I'-q'-io'
so
and
then,
then,
;
"

"

"

'

seems
moment

to

indicate

state

of time

and

or

activitv

at

given

3. 'o'SKin't'i-alf-lui

impliesthat the verb

(-'rt/)

t\ina'k\-\-af).

form is finite.Its use is not

however.
obligatory,
The 'of -'"!//
combines with precedingsiop
2.
/,
(/",
k,hu, q, (}w,ts,tc,if)mto glottalized
stop (p",
',k\ k'lr,
', '.,fs,t'cyI'i respectively
; origi- dead;

Noun

of uncertain

-ak' is proanalysis,
bably
be
to
{d. qah-ak'
or, what at last
[intr.J)

durative intransitive
'nio-'ak to

burn

Eight: Wakashan

and Salishan

Languages

443

84
8. From

in

-C

form,

momentaneous
t'sit'k'-pdf,

-\--'ati
; -ti lost as

verb-stem
5. t'sit'k-,

note

(inbed)on one's BACK (aspirated

stops
are
purelysecondaryoriginin Nootka,
surds when
beingdevelopedfrom un aspirated
tely
of
stand
the
end
at
a syllable
or immediathey
TO

element. Syntactically,
equivalent
related
to the preceding
objectively
the difference between a direct object
indirect object
local phrase(at the
or

or

an

\u'k'''.'
is
verb ;

LIE

and

of

an

fire)does

exist for

not

Nootka, because

the

indirector local relation is generally

expressed

before another consonant

at the end of a
by a suffixed element in the verb or is otherwise
Kwakiutl series d [intersyllable
mediate] absorbed in the verb ; the fire here ampli; to the two
fies
the more
: /{aspirated
local idea of in the house
a single
surd]corresponds
general
Nootka series/,
form of
momentaneous
/').
conveyedby -pi-(ti),
-/)".//,
no
of
specific
rendering
house.
-//,locative suffix in the
Examplesof our AT or near beingthereforenecessary.
dur. -//

wt\tc-ii to

-pdiare

mom.

sleep

in

durative intransitive,
u'lk-,
to
be

10.

not

wik' not,

! is really
no
verbal in form, w.k'
t\qw-\.l
consists of archaic stem
SEATED
ON
THE
FLOOR
DOWN
: t''.q'-p\tf
TO
SIT
lui- and durative intransitive
'liatC-H
d.
ON
THE
FLOOR
TO
BE
LOOKING
-k',
-ak', -ak' (notes2, 9) ; most
(WHEN
;
Nootka derivativesof to be not
INSIDE
THE
TO
LOOK
DOWN
house): 'natC-p'.tl
based on
are
local
and
(when inside).
Every
body-part Will-(e.g. luiFnit' to be not-stocked, to have
BED

lUi:tc-pUl
TO

suffixhas

GO

TO

durative and

BED

TO

BE

form

momentaneous

NO

in -//,
further an iterativewith

stemlengthened
suffix vowel, and changeof
vowel, lengthened
-// to -/,e. g. t\'q'-pi'i
momentaneous
to
sit
DOWN

OM

note

the

SEVERAL

From

noun

or

durative intransitive,
fire,

*'an-aV
original

suffix,
see

note

; -a"
2.

The

durative intransitive
Nootka

common

groups in' and iui\ in which the ' represents a

murmured
i-vowel,
go back to fuller forms of
type a (or i, //)+ n or ;// + a (or "., u),in
which the second vowel
is unaccented (e.g.

TO

number

TO
HAVE
IVik'-faq'yu'

but
UNINITIATED),

BE

of

archaic formations

more

(e.g. wi-ma-h'ti to be
a
is angry), -all,
lui-.aq'timan
-uk' (afterconsonants),
i.
-ak'

;
note.

on

(aftervowels

not burning
fire,
(saidof
object).

BURNING

IT

also

are

UNABLE
see

BE

UP

VISITATION,

based

-'flf//,
Sec

TIMES,

RUNNING

NO

there

I.

9. \n'k'
TO

floor

FISH

HAD

vowel

wi-

often

with

contracts

ding
prece-

word-a'k',-ak'),possessive

to

suffix indicating
that the
is the

of the verb
subject
alienable noun
following
(wife)did not, he had (a

of the

owner

(herewoman) : his
wife)WHO DIDNOT, W/d''fl//M^'ti;df/"
nowmine
NOW

I HAVE

WHAT

See

IS NOT

; cf.

nOtCS

isnot,

5, 24, 26.

8.

Complementaryinfinitive
-all momentaneous
sound
: -\in' continuous
verb. Negativedstateon
dependent
ments
preceding
sound
" -.'"r."'
terms
" *-.ana,in Wakashan
are
b
y
the
alwaysexpressed treating
'ana'h'-is
: *-qa'-la
the
main
verb
and
small
:
*-qa-ti
the
a
s
verb
ed
reduplicat;
negative
having
W'n*h'^-\sSEVERALLY
SMALL
" *'a'a'nah-).
himn'
proper follow as an infinitive,
e.g.ivikila
-\ (-'is merelya breath-releaseafterall final HE-WAS-NOT
HE
DID
NOT
COME
COME,
; U'ik\
vovv'els; it is not heard ifthe word is pronounto-^speak! do not
DO
NOT
hiq'citl
ced
(imperative)
in close contact
with the following
word), speak!
suffixeddefinite article,
often used

nomina-

as

element. Properly
all nouns"
lizing
speaking,
are indeterminately
identical
such, beingformally
"

with durative intransitives(e.g.

PERSON,

TO

BE

person)Until

a
qo''as
by

noniinalized

11.

12.

Absolute form of noun,

io'lc-sma.
WOMAN

;
BE

want,
BEGIN

note

TO

assimilated from

io-tc-,
lengthenedfrom

examplesof derivativesare
after
HAVE

WOMAN,

WOMAN,

MARRY

stem

iutc-

iut'c-i'h"
to

iiitc'-na'k'
-citlto
A

WOMAN,

lltlc-

444

VI

American

Indian Languages 2

85
tci'TO
TO
AND

LIVE

CALL

FOR

SLEEP

AT
A

WITH

oxe's
WOMAN,
A

in -/-'jStemt'ac- (e. t'ac-kuin'

wife's HOME,
with
a trail
fo'tc-azu'/qc
g.
fufulc-atah (red.)
'ak'
often
TO
GO
vowels
IN the
tracts
concenter),
(after
;

WOMAN

IN

ANOTHER

HOUSE-

with

vowel
preceding

to

-uk'
-a'k\ -ak'),

word-suffix for
-sma\ -s'ma\ absolutive stem-suffix lengthening(after
consonants),
possessive
used as derivative element, alienable nouns
vowel ; not freely
stem
see
; for inalienable possession

ments note
note
see
i.
26; for possessive
compoundedof absolutive eleparadigm,
probably
is
suffixes
Their
from
absolutive
(c{.
not
-s'-s-yi',
ordinarily
distinguished
his,
-S-,
li'tc'- her.
and -ma' (cf.
its. -'i',
element,see note 9 ;
-s'-fnnni')
nominalizing
-s-yin',
"s-'yup'
faci''\ik'
a
lone
would
one's door.
ma'
to
mean
be
REDHEADED
WOODPECKER), presumably
t\ici'"ak'\
is
o
Vna'tsiVtt.
reduced from older *-sa- as indicated by irregular
object
16. 'alh"-,
verb-stem to be night,
'ntl/'-citi
Object of
pluralio'ts-sa-mch" women.
of iv.k'atf night
'ath-e-'is durative in aspect ; verb
comes,
tuik'atfuk\
though logically
subject
-e' as durative suffix
stems
endingin/'take -e'',
i's'.t'k'pdi.
be
used
instead
of
normal
n'
Like other absolute
verb
stem
cannot
to
sit
-a'',
;
13. t'".qw-,
durative
be
used adverbially
local suffix,
\ilhc''
without following
can
e. g. t'e'.-as
forms,
("i
;
is
it
tive
infinia
to
ON
the
TO
SIT
speaking,
properly
complementary
*t'\q\i'-as)
ground,
Ciqw-a's
'na'ts'a'li.
the
BE
seated
following
end,
on, i'e\-ih"ta to sit at
and advert,
thegroundatthe
siton
door.
t\q'-s'ato--'asTo
17. Demonstrative pronoun
that,
ed
It isbasthere
a verb to
there.
be
-t/,durative local suffix on the floor, in the
; properly
d
emonstrative
for
for
form
house
on
momentaneous
corresponding
simpler
that;
ya
;
3'^',
old local suffix no longer
-/,probably
an
note
see
i.
freely
note
12). employed,cf. /;//(note24).
14. Assimilated from 'na'lc-sa'ti{c{.
verb-stem to
verb-stem to appear, come
18. katih"-,
from 'natc-,
into
'invic-,
lengthened
suffix.
'natc-fso'to look
momentaneous
look
view,
-ff.//,
(orinceptive)
; other derivatives are
Most verbs form their momentaneous
into
to
look
into
the
(a barrel),'natc-i'itf
aspecup
to
be looking
in the
air,
by adding-c".-lito the stem if it ends in a cont
house, 'natc-a'yii
'nat'c- sonant, -ta-ti if it ends in a vowel,often -kw\.to
look
all
'natc-mai-apC
around,
ti (seenote 32) ifit ends in w, o'
to
be
looking
into
the
aq'ff-a'a'
tary
Complemenfire,
'na'tc-uk'to look
'natc-n'af
'tminfinitivedependingon ya'i: there-was
to
for,
see,
'na't'c-a'i
'na'ts-sa'to look
i appeared,
there
to-appear
katilfcdi
{red.)to watch,
; ya'isi
is durative ; as momentaneous
see
not
at, watch,
ya-ikatiJfatisC.
is used 'natc-ii'af(-n'at,
get
sight
to
ofyfl"/^a////Vi//,/W
-yiiai
19. Seenote 1 5. Object
-sa' durative suffix lengtheningamplifying
the local idea in ya'i; cf. note 9.
of, perceive),
t'oh"-head
Absolutive. Noun-stem
stem-vowel, not
20.
used,cf. durative -a' ;
(e.g.
freely
t'o''widentical
-sa'
with
t'j}f-n".'
to
drifts
that
cod-head
perhaps
shore,
stem-lengthening
fix,
absolutive suf-sa-ilis contracted from
a
-fsitC,
eat
very, just, -most, too.
rs to
fish-head).
-sa-'alf(^-'atf
of
with certain preceding
otherwise found.
contracts
not
Subject ya'i
vowels to -a'tf,
cumstances
cirkatih"ati.
to rhytiimic
-ati,
according
and durative
verb stem
-'ati "
21.
+
; e. g. -apestanding
Properlyqwa'',
-'alo'into the
water
-f -ati " -'alaii,absolute to be in quality, to be like.
-apati,
durative -a' -f -aii "
and a'
Umlauted
from *qzva'-\t'q'
22.
-a'ti,
-'ati,see
; a
-ati).
umlauted
note
followed
i
I
or
are
r
by
immediately
vowels are feltas disand z' (these
noun
to open
13. t'aci-',
trail, doorway
; absolutive
,

Eight: Wakashan

445

and Salishan Languages

86

identical with verbthat are

note
20)-\--at'-V. -'at',
preceding suffix-'a/'(seenote 24),inalienable possessive
suffix appendedto nouns,
velar consonant),
bodv-part
chiefly
or following
qwa'-, see note
for
and
verbal
nominal
third
relative
nouns
subordinate,
or
corresponding
;
21. -\t'q'
person
alienable
such
notes
various
s
ee
suffix,
relations,
10, 15.
possessive
subordinating
indicating
relativeclause (cf. With
pronominalelements -'at' combines
time, place,
as comparison,
of
as does -uk' -ak' (seenote
nature
i) :
exactly
notes
no,
139, 159) ; the precise
the subordination dependson the verb. -'1/q'
Plur. i. t'ojft'sdat'
head
my
Sing.i.t'ok't's\tat'
may be considered as a nominalizedform,paral-qi-n'
-qa-5
rel to -'i'(seenote
9),of the subordinate -qa2. t'jh"t's'.tat'
2. I'oh^i'sdat'
series(seenotes
i, 7^1).
-d'-qa-k'
-'".t'-q'-s
tinct from

e,
secondary

merelylowered from

i, c

and

e'

''

because of

23. Absolutive form of

noun.

(intervocalic
k'ayiip'-m-,
-t' at the end of
to -/)',

-n-

noun

bttC-".n'
SMALL

CLAM,

mxl-m'

are
examples
TROUT,
ho'p-m'SALMON

Miv-in'

SALMON-EGG,

in a dance.

suffix ; other

GRISTLE,

tca'skw-

3. t'oJfl'sKtai'

3. t'oh^t'sdat'

stopped
e.
syllable),
g.

A panther
k'ayup'-q-inakTOimT.\TE

absolutive
-in',

k'ayntn-,

Stem

become

is local object
of
t'jJft's'Jat"r.'

/?"./
(syntaxas in

of -Vr/'
while s\t'a'is direct object
9, 19),
in hifat' to have.
being
at.

notes

27. See note 21.

28. Demonstrative

adverb
(this),
pronoun
(to be thus),used as general
is more
demonstrative ('al/'ko'
specifically
this,
24. Jhf,verb-stem and durative absolute to
nitive
infia complementary
that);
syntactically
TO
BE
AT
BE HERE,
to
BE
ya-'
probably
;
THERE,
which
the
verb,
consists of old demonstrative stem
/;',gives
preceding
defining
{d. bin-,
of the relation,such as time, place,
the nature
such
such
and
to
at
be
h'.t-,
notes
1,101 \h.shere. 'ah"'a' is compounded of
as
element
or
local
A
manner,
(see
place)-f -/-,petrified
demonstrative
stem
'aJfthis, that, which may
note
17).-'at'(oftencontracts with preceding
trative
demonsand
-a'
-al' ; affectspreceding
alone,
occur
vowel to-rt*/',
probably
consonants
petrified
local element.
word-suffix
like -'fl//,
or
d. note
i),possessive
10.
of inalienable noun,
to
29. See note
referring
possession
responding
30. Durative form of verb. No etymological
(cf.note 10 for cornearly
alwaysbody-part
hfat'
alienable possessive
suggests itself.
analysis
suffix),
Assimilated
from hc-tsaq't'so'
is complementary
infinitivedepending
; cf. notes
on
:
31.
ya'i
verb-stem
both
to
be
to
bf.
h\c-,
he
;
all,
his
there
12, 14.
(tail)at, there
(he)was with
hic-im'f
to
derivatives
other
be
are
assembled,
his
at.
(was)having
local
everywhere,
TO
BE
-tsaq'fso'
tail
(or mammal). h'X-sa'tso'
25. Absolutive noun,
also
suffix
note
END
THE
38).Many
Stem probably
5i/'-; -a' absolutive noun
AT
(see
suffix,
suffixesare to be
identical with durative intransitive-a' (other verbs with local or body-part
"bahuvrihi"
as
in -a' are faha' ghost,
compounds,i. e.
nouns
interpreted
qama' trap,
nat'ca' the radical element expresses a concept which
face
substance
for
paint,
pa-liprftfa'
tail [offish],
pointed
by the subject; e. g. fwk'^-t'so'to
Object is possessed
stick).
kap't'a'
NOGRAPH,
MUSIC
HAVE
/;-./
TO
dof Ihfat',
o
f
th :)ugh
BE
INSIDE, PHOSOUND-INSIDED,
subject
;
logically
to
have
much
(game)in the
note
12.
'ayaqs
of the verb is head.
The object
t'oh^l'sdr.
26. Contracted from
head
(see CANOE.
i"' BACKBONE,

clause

hd-f

sn'

t-'.n'SEA.

qivi'\t'q'
.

of subordinate
Subjcct

or
(thus),

verb

'

446

V/

American Indian Languages2

87
32. SU-, verb-stem

to

get

hold,

hold

of

'

-p' -in-

-tl

momentaneous

alwaysdropsin

syllabic
mono(other
(e. g. -pdi in the house,
stem-vowel
: caus.
mom.
: caus.
lengthened
-pitap'
; -as\ti
on, mom.
t'fo''
/":/"'
to
TO pull, drag,
-ati,see note i. him is understood as
remember,
qiun''-asip').
and objective
su-kwjf to
momentaneous
be
in Q.UAL1TY),
object
; third personal
subjective
scr-huUJ to begin
to
HOLD
pronominalideas are not specifically
OF, graduative
expressed

itsaspectsare Jurative so'

to

causative forms

hold

duratives with

are

to
GET

HOLD

GET

OF,

TO

HOLD

GbTTING

BE

iterativeso'tiso'ya'
to
hold
SUtisok'

TO

GET

HOLD

OF

and

TIME

sufhx

-kwitf,momentaneous

OF,

time

identical with
etymologically

AND

dumtive-

in Nootka.
37. Momentaneous

again,
AGAIN.

(cf.note 18),
-tcuf
postvocalic

or

see
intransitive,

notes

36,

recorded of tlup'k: dur. tfnp'k-a''

Aspects

18

tiim'k-a''to

-atito
be awake,
mom.
tlup'k'
thm'k'-c"ji
or
graduative
llo'p'k'-all
UP,
waking
UP, durative-iterative
//t"-/)7v''-n

WAKE

-tci'AT : 'o-hvi to be at such and such

a
to
be
(cf.
back
Nootka
hw
tc:
TO
to
be
waking
up
time
and
momentaagain,
u) goes
(after
place)
;
K
wakiutl
of
Wakashan
thm'k'lhm'k-c
neous-iterative
to
or
^':/"c;
change Oi;;(^d.
tlup'k'
tliip'k-c
to
keep
up
by
fits
and
starts.
waking
ogw-).
from f^h"- head,
absolu38. Cot'olf-,
reduplicated
MALE, HUSBAND, irregular
33. tcakop'
tion,
tiveto which corresponds
as stem
Irapxw- (e.g..see note 20 ; reduplication
expresses distribu-o^w- (final
to
marry
a man),
HEAD
THERE.
HERE
AND
SeC
tcapx-nak'-f'.tf
-tSUq't'so',
^sounds are labialized
note
form-o^'',
-ok'";
aftero),
31. This word is a "bahuvrihi" : having
suffixafter consonants
alienable possessive
(cf. A HKAD AT EACH END, d. note 3 I.
from
of
notes
iron
notes
see
noun
; borrowed
10, 15); -'i,
9, 15. Object
39. tsikwun',
suhviti.Note that -okvj-'irefersto

by the

subject
; ifHER

another

woman

husband

TO CUT
,thanthe subject,
siikivitftcp'

took-hold-of-another's
tcakop'^i

would have had

34. Umlauted

See

notes

12, 9.

see note
possessionChinook Jargon,-'ak -'".',
15.
v
erb-stem
cut
10
/V/-,
(e.g. t'ci-maht'
40.

had referredto

to

the-husband

be used.

cf.note
from *lo'ts'ma-\\

BODY, tC\~h"tiVk TO

BE

CUT

APART,

fci'-

to
be
knife)
; dur. t'c'rya
cf.
note
Cci-tcitl,
cutting, mom.
35.
of /V/Zr-.//
object
;
41. General demonstrative,

mcf.'mussel-shell

22.

sukwiti.
Subject^of

see

note

28.

his-,verb-stem to bleed and

his-sa'p
his-m\sblood, hihcs-sitl
blood
(e.g.
drink
to
TO
be
bloody-eyed,
[red.]
hey-i's
one's blood),
note
see
36 ; his-c.tlto
-sa'p',

verb-stem to pull
; durative tci'',
35. tci'-,
42.
tci'-tc.ti.
momentaneous
noun-stem
-Icdi, post-vocalic
=

form
note

of

-citi,momentaneous

suffix,see

18.

verb-stem to
or ti'.m'k-,
36.tlup'k-

be

awake;

BLEED,

mom.

of /i^^v/'/)'.
for rhythmical 43. Demonstrative pronoun, object
-sa'p'
(alternates
and -ko',
with -sap'),
\ih"
of
causative of momentaneous
notes
reasons
28)
Compounded
(see
41
found.
otherwise
-tcUi
to
not
-all,while causative -'yap'
corresponds
d.
of 'Sa'p\-sap'
are
(otherexamples
qah"--sa'p'-14. Contracted from 'a'ap'-ts\.fata-al'-\'
from
26.
'am-,
TO
KILL
to
die
to
: qah"~Cili
note
cause
reduplicated 'ap'-,
-sa'p'
; 'utcq'
'aap'-,
of general
TO
BE
A
FOG
TO
MAKE
HOLE
A
noun-stem
; hh''-sa'p'
locality
;
part, body-part
tl-ilon
to
cause
a mat
to
be
to
find
hamat'-sap'
known,
(e.'g.'ap'-qe'
^ap-p'.q'
summit,
'ailL-ashaul
alternates
with
THE
THE
FIRE
TOWARDS
NEAR
DOOR,
out);
(e.g. tiup'k'-sa'm-, -samsitive
sa'in-ah i cause
wake.
to
end);
up). EveryintranWAIST, 'am-ak'th.'butt
chest, \ip"-'win'
in pairs
causative in
suffixesindicating
occurring
body-parts
aspect has its corresponding
see

note

37.

Eight: Wakashan

and

447

Salishan Languages

88

stem
preceding
reduplicate
generally

of

one

referred to
is actually

two

(c.g. \{ap''aam- as
arm-pit,
'a'''ap-s"'iuin'i

p\qa' KNEE,

'aa'ni-anid

CHEEK,

ifonly

even

; from

shin

other stems,

-'at-W
to

see

s'al
26, 44; -'i'relateskiuisa'

notes

tiictii.n'.

48. Absolutive

form

of noun,
probablyan
oiCcitc.tl.
irregular
reduplication.
Object

to
be sore-handed,
yaya'k'tv- 49. Momentaneous
g. yaya'k'-'nuk'"
to
be
wi'i TO
be
lotop'k'-atsoh'^
sore-eared,
50. kwcs-,see note

e.

ON

BLACK

ON

BOIL

THE

TO
HAVE
A
'nilts'}lO'q'"-Sui

SOLES,

suffix
body-part
eye).-ts-fatcC,

THE

'

stem

tive

intransitive. See

note

42.

form ot
lengthened
because of iterativeaspect, -pano'i,
ueraform of -pa''side end
be
to
{kwis-pa'47;

often
the
other
-tS'.t- side, apparentlyon
other
end,
side, at the
with -s- ON. : kwis-pa'-s-');
durative -pa'"
to
uncompounded(otherexamplesare
from *-paimif,
momentaneous
THE
SIDE
TO
HAVE
ON
A BOIL
[OF corresponds
-/"'."'//
'fPq'"-tSlf".m'
whence
iterative
to
moon-si
debe
THE
by
-pano'i changeof-// to -/
head],hopai-tsu'ak'lii
and
of u to o' (momentaneous
ON
THE
CRESCENT
PAINTED
TO
HAVE
A
lengthening
REARED,
in
forms
-in'ti
and
-atCi
VATE
PRITHIGH
AND
UPPER
-a'tci,
correspondto iteratives in
RUMP),
-ano'i
-m'i
another
t'h'.a'tc'
or
SHOOT
AT
TO
exampleis dur. -misa'
;
(c.g.
PARTS, VULVA
MOVING
mom.
-tmsmHi, iter, -nnsano'f).
PARTS
UP,
THE
PRIVATE
; compounded,e. g., in
from -ati -\ 'ati,
notes
"-Csa'.alcC
see
18, i ; for
-ci-'atf,
to
have
below
the
a boil
navel,
'tiJq'
loss of-// in inceptive
note
see
suffixes,
to
sore
on
the
inner
be
5.
yaya'k'-si'o'w-atcr
is iterative-inceptive
in aspect :
on
the
PART
OF
THE
kivi'spano'icitf
thigh),lieuce properly
TO
SIDE
TO
TO
BEGIN
-at'-C see notc 26.
PRIVATE
PARTS.
(move) FROM
SIDE
OF THE
SIDE; Other
of
this
isu'tstsu'tsati
to
verb-stem
are
to
examples
f
urther,
aspect
jump (cf.,
45. tuxw-,

THIGH

compoundedof

found

not

"

tUXW-rtCltl to JUMP ON one

UlXW-ii FALLS, tlllU-ik'
TO

OUTSIDE
BE

FOND

THE
OF

HOUSE,

JUMPING)
;

iterative lo'x"to-xw-a' to
tux"-citi,

mom.

jump

START

SCRATCHING,

SUtlsO'Vall

TO

BEGIN

TO

32).
longer
-an^'yaiui-,
form of -\.tn''yo'-tf,
momentaneous
-uni'yu-li,
used
form of dur. -",;//'/
vowels,-q-wi'f),
(after'
suffix (round object ;
partlyas classifying
ing
coveras local suffix all
over,
moon),partly
SURFACE
OR
BULKY
A ROUNDED
(e.g. f hsiw'/to be WHITE
TO
THE
ON
OUTSIDE; ya'k-iini'f

TAKE

TIME

51.

AND

his-,see

AGAIN

notes

(sCC

HOte

42, 49.

localsuffixover,
-tspa'-tspa'\
are fsax(otherexamples
TO
GO
GOES
A SPEAR
OVER,
tSpn''
OVER, h\ta-tspa'
ponding
corresto
run
TO
past)
;
PASS, kannt'q'-tspa'
momentaneous
aspect, -tspm'ii.
See note 40. -tia,word-suffix (orenclitic
/\G.
\tn*'
SNAILS
TO
HAVE
SORE-HEADED
BE
m\.-qonH
also, too, again.
particle)
b"-Wl'i
TO
BE
mom.
OVER
IT
ALL
ASSEMBLED,
DIFFtRENT
stem
;
the
(c.g.
other,
47. klUlS-,
W
COME
together).hen
ASSEMBLE,
/;'.f-iw''j'()'//TO
end
of the
far
to
be atthe
kw\s-i-'y-as
village,
-//
drops,as before -'"//(see
[ahouse]stands
opposite, kwis-t- momentaneous
kwi.s-aq't'so'
often appear in the premodifications
note
to
be
5),
ceding
another
at
to
be
time, Inw.s-to'p'
i'ya'
derivative suffix (e.g. -tmsin'li up,
-s
of a different
abnormal),
-as,
-a's,
class,
but -tmsano'alf; -o'ti on
the
face,
(after
vowels),local suffix of durative aspect mom.,
-so'li
but
causative
-aw.ati,
to
-azvtip'
hin-a's
be
to
be
;.
at
mom.,
on,
fiqw-a's
on,
(e.g.
tive
causaso
AND
so
k'wa'i-as
on
-sawi-'ati,
butsa'wCati,
are
branches
DIES,
sitting
on
[a box],
: -au'i-,-au'u-sawup'
; such cascsof -(r-(-()-)
-a'siti,
mom.
[thelogs]),
-{a)siti
; kims-a's to

UP

be

DOWN,

AND

PAST,

durative aspect

different,

the

leg

on,

atfached

of

him

the

other

which
to

is

On, kw.sa's'al'i'iiiclh.n' suggcst that Nootka o' is sometimes contracted

from older rfzi^,
slave
: qaqo'i
an
slaves,
elsewhere
(cf.
(/o/
otherwise,

i. e.
[him],

his

other

leg.

-ati
from *qaqaiii).
reduplicated,

see

note

1.

VI

448

American

Indian Languages 2

89

absolute '(iya)
(durative
(e.g.
much
'aya-qs
[game]in one's canoe,
TO
secure
to
be
many
'ayir-p'd'
much,
tion. 'a-y-ip
frequentlyheard shortened in final posi-mi'k\ derivative verb suffix
times),-niik',
succeed
verb-stem to be dead,
to
die
to
stem-vowel,
lengthening
preceding
;
53. qaJf-,
to
IN hunting...
dur. qah-ak'
mom.
(e.g. 'o'-ini'k'to get so and
to
be
qalf-cdt
dead,
variant of
so
IN
to
be
successful
a
hunting,
hunter).
DIE.
-a-\ti,see note 50 ; t phonetic
of
because
note
see
-a-"xtl,
50.
preceding
a, X,
durative intransitive to
often broken
die
57. 'napxta'',
; o' and i' are
(.f'ji'
54. \:"uyi'
IMMEDIATELY
to Jii, ail, and ti,ai after h and
(aFTERBEING
STRUCK).-'olf,SeC
.),noun
derivative in -y\ (cf.
mihnote
note
I. -qo'-, conditional suffix,
see
58,
medicine;
probably
used in main clause as past usitaderivatives frequently
absolutive mds-'yi; further,
SPEAR,
tive (e.g. mala'- ati-qo'-k'
in -s'yC e. g. 'mukw- stones
: 'nuik-s'yi'
if you
lie
whenever,
''."'/r'
FLY
ABOUT
YOU
USED
TO
FLY
or
burn
: '^n'k-s'y.'
ABOUT);
wood,
would,
fire, to
STONE,
-wt\n' shows that-(/o'be here understood
and -.),
-kwi'i (after
cannot
0a
stick).-Ici'i (after
derivative suffix
in
-r/ (after
as
-tc- is quotative
as subordinating,
consonants),
vowels),
attached to noun
make
(other subordinate clauses (e. g. 'napxta'-ati-qo'-l
stems, to
so and
he
dies
to
make
-lVt\.n\
IMMEDIATELY).
so, iihai- IF, AS IS said,
examplesare'o-fef/"/,
in
main
word-suffix
ses
claui'f TO
it
is
said
CEDAR-BARK
see
MAKE
A
-C\.-\tl^
MAT).
quotative
third
i
ndicative
is
here
-ati
note
-ma\ e.
personal
inceptive.
; replaces
53 ;
verb
durative
-wiai' he is dead, they
say
: qaipak'to
do
thus,
to
act
g. qaipak'
55. qwis,
IS dead
as
described
(istpers. sing.-wi\-S'.' 2nd
; perhapsrelated to qwa''(see ma' HE
used in relative per. sing,-u'z'oi-tsuk')
note
probably
21) and to qwK-, stem
; "" *-wa-\n',
nominal derivative (omwa'verb forms to make indirect questions
{wa-)to
(e.g. petrified

38, 9. -t'so--with longvowel,

52. See notes
-t'so'with short ; prope.ly
long vowels are

MUCH,

MANY

to

have

i.

as
WHAT,
qu'iyifftaqak-i'tc

they

say,

qwe-sa'h'^i-vjos-C
at
what
time
i come);
y.-n'-yi's
OY

why

he

would

it

is

made

SAY.

be..., qwe-

58. t'saxw-,t'sax- (labializations

regularly

verbin syllabically
final position),
possibly disappear
identicalwith local -s on, see note 47. -//'(after stem
spear
to
(e.g. fsaxw-i''nak' to imitate
but h),-qff(after
vowels and h), A SPEARER
allconsonants
SPEAR
GOES
IN A DANCE,
fsax-tSpa''
speak);
word-suffixattachedtoabsoluteverbform(comes
spearing-ikstrument,
OVER, t'sax-yak'
iter, t'sa'xt'sa'xzv-a'-c.-eti,
before all other word-suffixes)
and indicatingmom.
t'sax-C'.ti,
its
is
conditional suffix;its
that the activity
verb
state
see
note
or
by
predicated
50, 53. -qo'',
in
conditions
is
the
some
accompanied
paradigm :
by or
way
state
or
activity
predicated
by the following
verb or an understood verb (e.g. h.t-ii-h-ah Sing. I. -qo'-s
Plur. I -qu-ti'
i-am-in-the-house-while
2.
2.
ho'ya'l
-qo'-k'
-qo'-so''
dancing, uutnow
say
we
it while
pied!)
[thus occuqh-atl-ni
3. -qo-'
3. qo(-a{)
that the following
verb
; here it implies
results
from
obtain
With quotative
many
in
-tc (cf.
note
(to
hunting)
57)it forms :
i.e.
the activity
do
to
make
cine)
medi(to
thus,
of its own
verb, -ati,see note
Plur. i. -qo'-t'a-n'
i.
Sing. I. -qo'-ts-i
from *\rya-mik'
note
2.
56. 'a'y.m'k'y
see
2.
-qo'-ts-so''
-qo'-tc-k'
9.
-s-,

verb-stem
'a'ya-,lengthened from 'a\a-,

to

be

3. -qo'-tc

}.-qo--tc(-'ai

Eight: Wakashan

and

449

Salishan Languages

90

from 'anah-,e. g.
little, -\s may be separated
Here used
to BE LITTLE-HEADED.
'rt"jm/"(r;)//i''-'u
durative verb and
60. ttao'' ANOTHER,
as
as adjective
canoe.
qualifying
verb-stem tla'o'to
be another
canoe
(e.g. tia'o'-fsiq 64. Absolutive noun
lar
(irregut'capats
local object
of hd. t'capANOTHER
LONG
tlaQ-'yiy-a' plur.tcn'ya'pats),
CANOE,
OBJECT,
tiaO'-tClti (sometimest'catn-),
canoe
TO
BE
ANOTHER
noun-stem
(e, g.
TIME, NEXT
TIME,
note
see
i. ~iia\ t'ca'p-ok'i
TO BECOME
note
see
another).-'"//,
canoeman,
107, t'cam-e.'ali
28. -'ati,see
note
see
59. 'ah'^'a',
note
see
-wz\n\ quotative,
57.

note

i.

'

46.

note

see

TO

return

t'so\tch"citi.
OTHER

in

in

going

after

canoe

some

is
t'capais
have
a
as washedstem
(e. g. fcapats-nak'
when
washed
is
the
on
canoe-place
everything
CANOE,
t\apals-diua'
SEASON, i. e. season
cf. t'so-,
clean by rain and snow,
verb-stem
rocks),-ats, derivative noun-torming suffix
suffix season
stem
TO
WASH,
-itch",
-'i'tclf,
(e. receptacle
urine-receptacle,
(e.g. \oqw-ats
'mil'i-i'lflf
cf.
also
rotting
-sats
receptacle
rainy
(e. g.
la'y-i'lcJf
season,
bladder)
g;
cf.
^\sO
k'o'f-sats
out
relish
a
Q.
eating
vessel
for
-(]'-\tch"
SEASON,
YEAR,
FALL;
g
four
nio'-q'\tch"
years),-cilf,momentaneous
of).
18.
noun.
note
see
suffix,
65.V, see note i ; refersto following
dur. local suffix -yoaf (after
-o'ai (after
62.iuz\tc,
note
see
consojiants),
vowels),
5. -'ah"s,
6

f so- itch"to

winter

be

mom.

is explained
t'so-\lch"
by theNootka

IN

RECEPTACLE,

THE

IN

ah"S

COLD

IN

IN

VULVA,

lo
hayu.-ah"s
HOME

IN

that

"

RECEPTACLE,
200

have

CANOE,

"

COLD

WATER,

(salmon)

-alfs is one

canoe);
harden

\. e.

finalconsonants
preceding

GO

of,

sight

perceive

nominalized

elsewhither,

kwis-,see

notes

TO

GO

off

to,

GO

TO

so

by

i.
to

-t'ca\

suffix
mom.
47, 50, -tsa-tcitf,
to
35 (e.g. 'u-tsa-tcilf

cf.note

to
so, ho a-tsa-tcili

and

says,
note

verb form

momentaneous
kw.stsatcili,

off

caus.
'y corresponding
SO
so
AND
';/, TO take

i),s, c, / to

get

what
one
to
hear
(e.g. wawa'-yn'af
-atf,
see
to
SEE
A
person),
qo'ats-u\if

66.

fixes
of those suf-

to

derivative suffix to

brought

of stems, i. e. preceding
p, t, k, hv, q, qiu, ts,
to
', !,
ic, // become
glottalizedp\ /',k\ k'u',
note
t's,fc, /'/ respectively
(cf.

derivatives

treatedas

further W/caus.
-'al/'sitf,
(cf.
-ah"-s\p'

mom.

way)

in most

turn

is -tsa-'ap'
e. g.
,

back);
'n-isa-ap'

To) ; as corresponding
to
in
'w, h to }/ (sometimes'zu)
-^.tch",dur. intr. is used -lsuuk\ -tsc'nk' (e. g.
; see
going
sutfix.-ati, lua-S'lsu'nk'-ha-k'
are
you
where
?).
note
61, for another
hardening"
-tea' suffixedarticleor nominalizing
particle
note
i.
see
say
identicalwith \inah to
with quotntive
(for
color,the..., as they
63.'annh-,probably
forms
suffix.
in
related
-icnote
diminutive
see
SIZE
58);
cally
syntactiBE (soAND
so)IN
; -\s,
-\' (see
is doubtless based on \via- (dur.absolute
'annhto
non-quotative
equivalent
'ana')
164 ;cf.furtherV/z/^t- note 9).
only, see note
? \rna-ha) how many
67. 'jh",durative verb to be the one, thh
(with interrogative
above
(-/-'-

is irregular),
.v, xiu

to

\v,n

to

UP

"

'

TO

last,

to

be

'ana'-...-\s

la'nz~

be

near.

both

'.scuiLD,

and

noun

hold

Diminutive

verb

ha'hua'ti-\slittle

TO
BE
q'tl-'nnkw-'is
to

'ani-ts-as

long

as,

-'a is

word -suffix,
less frequently
stem-

used as
freely

suffix,in

EXTENT,

IN

to

child

in

forms,

e.

g.

girl, tand-

child-in-handed-little,
the

hand.

In 'anah-'is

one

who...

is

so

AND

SO,

indicatesthat the

red
understood isthe one referor
following
verb ; here : the one who
to in a preceding
This
the
shift)was (cha'atssib').
(perceived
verb probably
consists of '()-,
note
see
i, and
suffix //',
to
be {d. perhaps
possibly
petrilied
in 'aJf,
note
-/.'"
note
63).
28, and 'aiia-h",
noun

Wakashan

Eight:

and

451

Salishan Languages

92

"

unknown
-'atf,
see
hardening nomi-'d/).
meaning,and
suffix
what
is inside
follows
note
note
(one's
I. -qa, see
nalizing
-aqstC
74. u'ik"afalfqa
dur.
'aw. (note73) and is parallel
mom.
to qa'ya'panatcqa
inside,
body)(d.
-aqstiili).
-'aqii
;
verb-stem to move
is not necessary (ci.note
from
one
place
83. citi-,
AND
3).
TO
ANOTHER
(e. g. ci'tf-uk'"TO BE MOVING,
GG, 74. Here -qa marks a
77. See notes
ci't'lrelated to
subordinate clause that is objectively
move
several
in
a
ci'ya't'f-aqa'
canoe,
ik' TO BE ALWAYS
wJi"ai'ati.
ON
THE
MOVe).StCS, local

*-'a/-,softened

older

"

"

form of

"

78. Absolutive and stem-form

also PERIOD,

DAY,

verb,TO

be

WEATHER

SEASON,

day,

daylight,

'na's-atl day

mom.

dur.

as

comes.

suffix

a-

INTO

THE

and

/-vowels

'na's is composed of simple'na'- (cf. (e.g. 'o-kstcsso

Possibly
Kwakiutl'wrt'-/^ day) and petrified
-s
(on ?), is correlative to
cf. qwis,

55 ; this seems

note

be confirmed

to

time
by '^oolkd.^na' p'".naq-the proper
'na's is subjecto{ kwistsatcitiqa
: that
GOING

OFF
OF

OFF

TO

HEAR

dur.

ABOUT;
to

-r-

before

RAINING

BE

short

(butnot

-a'

momentaneous

begin
to
{c{.'tiiitii'-tcitf

'ni'.tia''
TO

SON
SEA-

THE

haca'-tcili.haca'-,dur.

from

is umlauted
-fl)

-tati

WAS

IT

day

to

from

rain

but 'i'wa-tcdito

get

am.

Here,

72, 74.
an

as

country);-st".'s

UP

(e.g.

hd-ivi'':s
to

AND

SO

hcs, dur. verb

beach,

from hd

(seenote

be

DOWN

IS

to

be

at

the

*hiy-is,softened
"

24)-|-15, dur.

localsuffixat

STRETCH
OPEN
AND
ON
A LEVEL
(e.
BEACH,
stetch
of
level
long
country,
'yaq-'.s
g.
on
scatiered
trees
are
spruce
to'h"--maq-\s
of
people
show
heads
the
yayak-is
BEACH,
-saii ; h's like
on
the
seated
beach),mom.
THE

'

with

-qa'mark

IS

'o-Wi'\sSO

contracted from

inceptives.
notes

so

-zcr'ti

S"a).

THE

note

most

AND

SHORE,

hi'i TO
in
be
taneous;
35. had' tati is momenforms in -r-/":i//
are
(seenote
*hy-ii
definitely

see
big),-tciti,

80. See

THE

SALMON

after
INTERIOR),

THE

-tsstvs,after //-vowels -ksti's

84. =hcs-sasa.

was

ELSEWHITHER..

79. Umlauted
stem

THAT

elsewhither,

GOING

AT

comes.

ALONG

IN

BE

WHERE

UP

INTERIOR,

(cf.hii-StCS TO

RUN

"

the

house,

contracted

from

"

ed
I3)C' softening,as contrasthardening", is no longera live

frequently,process in Nootka, but survivals occur of /,s,

ot h and xu"
and c softening
to y or u" [after
7/],
and
of
ts
.v to
to lu,
"C original
d^; d. k'wa'y-i.^

clause of indirect
objective

discourse.

frOtU k'wat
ON
THE
SHORE,
ya'k'-to be sore, used either TO HAVE BRANCHES
ya'kiu-,
stem
with body-partsuffixes (e.g. ya'k-o'i
-sasa',word suffix lengthening
to
be
bra-nch).
verbal
right
idea,
vowel,
along,
to
be
emphasizes
sore-necked,
sore-faced,
ya'liiv-in'i
lienable
with inaTRUTH
or
(e.g. 'o'lfsasa' TO BE
to
be sore-handed)
yaya'k'-niik'"
JUST so, IN VERY
WHO...
ONE
THE
TO
and
lowing
folBE
-at' (seenote 24)
ONE
very
the
WHO...,
possessive
s
o
(uniquely for a
noun
(e.g. ya'k'-at-ah
body-part
qasc' RIGHT along); reduplicated
fix
from -sa\ emphaticword sufsuffixed element)
a
the
mine-is-sore
sore
on
eye;
eye, I have
stem
d. yaya'k-sui
vowel, very, too, just,
to
be sore-eyed)
; dur. ya'k'-at', lengthening
very
'o'-ak'th-sa'
to
be the
last,
notes
MOST
see
-ci-tt',
(e.
18,
ya'k'-ci-'at\
inceptive
5,
g.
'a-n-uaf-sa'
-'ati
see
to
-at'
is
treated
merely...,
'a-ya-kwaito
(see
analogously
24, 53 ;
to
much-missing,
too
become
C'.ti-sa'TO
note
i),and theycombine into -'atlat'
82. Absolutive noun
too
seat
of
spend
much).
heart,
81.

"

"

intelligence

and
sense

feeling

is tiUc-nia'

consists
ai.iVe).
iCiiiaqslC

; heart

(from

in

its

ti'tc

to

tomical
anabe

of radical iini-,
of

objectot h'ssasa'.
meaning.
Radical element ihr-, of unknown
85. Place

-ow\s

name,

local

vowels),-m'\s
(after

consonants)
(after

i
452

VI

American

Indian

Languages2

93

sufhx
nominalizing

WOLF

beach

the

on

vowel,

ing
hold-

for

\aS-OlUKS PLACE

RITUAL,

(d. vowels),dur.

beach

the

on

place

liukwat'q-(yw\splace

ON

erect,

hii-api'

THE

local

TO

stem
suffix,lengthens
placed

standing,

BE

IN

THE

RAISED

SKY,

(e. g.

up

'o'-p'.'

UP,

DONE); SO AND SO STANDS

OUT, IS AHEAD,
'nO'p'-t\siq
softened
-\--\s]
(cf.note 84) from -ul place (cf. apis[= -apf.
one-long-object-standingCORMORANTS
GATE,
CONGREBEACH
WITH
LONE
PLACE
WHERE
A
ON-THE-BEACH,
})0-'a'-q-ul
TREe),
WtilC-ui PLACE
mom.
-'atl,
notes
TO
see
-{a)pntl.
sleep)+ -l? ON THE
i, 14.
form in -c.tf(seenotes 18, 54)
forms in -w- and
BEACH
91. Inceptive
(seenote 84)(parallel
IS

WORK

CARPENTER

WHERE

BEACH

"

"

-'w- from -/
-uw-a'
the

PLACE

ON

ground;

-anid

-uw-d

are

the

place

ROCKS,

along

-ij).

86. See

notes

84, 1.

87. Contracted
ni'lvna'a'
,

form,

"

place

ni'trna'a

"

-\ia'

on

the

suffixused

only with wik-,meaning probably

THERE

E.\.iSTENCE

IS IN

-lUh".

stem

"stem-''."/',
hardening
"

10.

-''."/'
trom
WAS

cf. pre-*".""-,
terit

NONE.

Absolutive form ; distributive qoqiua's

tively,
istaken collecperson
PERSONS, but here qo''as
92.

hence

termined,THERE
unde-

meaningare
suffix people
-ath'',nominalizing

exact

NOT.

see
zv\.k-,

rocks;

and its

IS

"

in contracted
containing,

village
hardening

THERE

NON-EXISTENT,

on

beach

the

BE

note

lUlk'-l'n-lta'
THERE

from
name

form of

ofWi-'l"/' TO

house,

the

-uw-as
on

along

-anow-".s

in

CEASED

people
TO

BE

became
ANYONE

non

existent,

Stem fomi

THERE.

personal
soul,
xsqoats-(e.g. qdats-ina'
double,
ts'isha, qo''at's-iti
TOGO
of
for
a
(e. g. fsica'-atfj" people
person, qoq-wa'ts-h"la'
to
be PERSONA
boston
TO
HAVE
PERSON
monly
comON
Americans),
pj'sh.n'-ath"people,
FOOTED,
used as endingin tribalnames
THE
foot).
(whence
for allNootka tribes); 93.
Aht as general
0' s\m' Ic-ci- 3.li inceptive
term
our
aspect. See
also used as verb suffix, hardening, to
notes
I, 50.
forni of /;".;/-,
to
peopled
live
to
be
by
lengthened
dwell,
together,
94. /?'.""-,
emptv
from
hic- stem to
ment),
dwell
to
(e.g. hiy-atJf
[probably
be, do ( as described by suffixed eledemonstrative in origin(see
31],tuk'w-atff sea-lions
possibly
all, see note
stay,
TO
note
to
up
be
inhabited
by
be
i; d. hi'n-a'^uiti
river, hm-usa'
sea-lions, yaq'-tct-ath"h.n-ustas to
TO
his
come
up
out
with
he
of
the
whom
'"J'g'
neighbors).
water,
lives,
OF...

'

"

"

"

"

88. '"-, V,

note

see

-tsa-!citi
(seenote

current

from
-tsa-tci-zti,

-'ali(seenotes

66) +

verb-stem
89. t'sa-,
ts'ivi' A

i.

to

goes

flow

through,

GO

1,5}^.AWAY

(e. g.

fsa-

AWAY

prom

THE

EXPECTING

bm-i''asTO

t'sa-htw'a' also in

go

TO

hoi-U'k'wai TO

BEACH,

hlfl-iu'
TO

RETURN,

outside,

body-partnouns,

Inn-a'sdi to
e.

go

GO

COME,
up

on

g. hm-o'f face,

bed),-'ak', b.n-aksui lips, hui-i'fiaksiiichin ; varies, for

verbal
sutiix phonetic
with hit-).
reasons,
-".s-, -i's,
Csaak'
suffix
hoi-CS
note
TO
to
flowing
bf
CARRY
TO TAKE
ns
(see
ALONG,
2) ;
(e.g.
-okiub.n-i'
because
S-v'itl
INSIDE
THE
verb,CREEK
TO
TAKE
as noun,
TAKE
(labialized
ALONG,
ofo preceding
ol' to
of
round
see
a point
k\ -ok',see note 33. -''.',
q-.s-aqo'''
HOUSE, hop'
A

creek

runs

durative

notes

down

suffix and

kocky

absolutive

noun

9, 15, 33.

Contracted

LAND

from

CARRYING

ROUND

OBJECT,

ROCK

; hcil-lS-

is lengthened
from hin-".'s-,
-csshorteningto
*iucnapi-all.
wi'napi
durative to stay, remain
with lengning)
thened-IS- as rhythmiccounterpart of stem lengthe; w.'n-,
vowel because of following
d.
related-/7^^
also
stem
suffix,
consonants),
(after
;
found without folverb-stem not
lowing-Iss (withlengthening
of immediately
ing
precedapparently
carry
to
-np:'
consonants),
-/?-.'
(after
(after
vowel)TO CARRY (e.g. ':ixiu-i'tss
; -ap'.'
90.

Eight: Wakashan

and

Salishan Languages

453

94

CARRY
TO
TEN
OF DAY
hayU'-tSS
AND
NIGHT.
'tz^-j
OBJECTS IN
nw
Syntactically,
(and
H-.ti
TO
TAKE
SO
SO
is
AND
UP
nw
best
considered
'o'-tSS-'aq'
absolute
HAND,
an
-|'athai')
-rsiili (e.g. .'^dlc-i'sut}
TO THE
infinitive: it was four
woods),mom
in being
complementary
'."-'.ftC-i
tSS TO
TAKE
TO
DOG
A
HAVE
DAYLIGHT
A
ALONG,
(andIT WAS FOUR FN BEING NIGHT).
dur.
DOG
suffix,
along),-o-'uk'
lengthening 100. Phonetic variant of '"r//"e*',
see note
16;
'ath"'.-'.
(seenote 66);hcn\. both are properly
stem, TO BE ON one's way
so''uk'means
to
take
along
while
10 1. hoi-, see
local
note
literally
mom.
94. -as".t{,
one's way
and refers possibly
suffix (arriving)
on
to the canoe
be
confused
with
at
to
not
;
form of -{a)s,
draggedalongby the lungingwhale, though -(a)5'.ti,
-a'sitf,
mom.
-a's
on
the verb is used simplytor the movements
of
to SIT
10
down
(e.g. t'".(]iv-a'S'.t{
on, h'.ii-a'S'.lf
and diving
whale and for ceremonial
a blowing
get
up
on
[aplatform
I).
imitations of these movements,
-c.li,
known
inceptive, 102. Place name, probablvNiiinat,of unsee note
THE
50.
-a is doubtlcs ON
etymology.
beach,
form oduaia'k',
dur.
cf. note
95. wa'iak'ylengthened
84.
verb TO go to, be bound
for
Umlauted
d. note
a place, probably
{rom*'iikfa'-\,
96.
103.
contracted {rom*tvaia-'ak' (cf.
forms
is
note
note
see
see
'tikfa'-,
analogous
59. -'-.,
9. 'iikii'^c
A

PADDLK,

THE

liket'sawa'k'TO

be

"C *t'sawa-'ak'and

one

note

in

related to loaf-,
verb-stem
14);waia- probably
TO

(mom. wai-ati to
to
be
going
graduativeti^d'/r-A//

return

home,

home

notes
see
-ak',dur. intransitive,
\Jm\zu\.e(i
{xom
96.
saya'-\' ;

2,

be

home) ;
89.

10,

dur. verb
34. saya-',

gone

notes

see

22,

to kaxi'h.s.
apposition

104. Absolutive

noun;

there is no

evident

ms'^nin' amplifies
'/"-of
analysis.
Syntactically,
nominalized verb.
preceding
final form of 'tuju'-,
syllabically
105. '/'.(/'-,
see

note

13.

form

-sali,mom.

of

-'.s on

the

(e.g. hda-satijo land on

beach, /rt'Satt TO DRIFT
ON
TO
THE
sayzi''to get
(otheraspects are inceptive
BEACh).
106. /;-./-,
tant,
disto
begetting
h'.ta-,
see
phoneticvariant of /."".;;-,
distant, graduative
sa'yzi''
but by no means
note
98, found particularly,
durativeiterativcyfl^a'i'a'/jmomcntaneous
before
iterativesast'i'y,
exclusivelv,
hardening"suffixes(e.g.
saya'- is also used as verb
h'Ja-t'.w'
high
to
be
to
be
stem
TO
the
be
in
up,
(e.g. saya'-Cca'
inside,
bay, /;"./-;"/
sa'yatch"saa' to be a long
TO
rocky
-\\
see
be
at
the
end
shore).
h'.l-J/'ta'
h.t-aq'ti-nuk'
tip,
TO
INTO
GO
A
far-distant
note 9 ; the
(place)is localobject TO HOLD IN THE HANDS, h".ta-t]SO}
to

be

away,

far

distant

the

beach

"

of iva'iak'

CANOE,

99. Durative
mo'

'ua-s is
while

to

four,

be

form of numeral;

specifically
I'OUr

nwtci'i

means

also verb-

h.ta-ts^o}fia'to

appear

coming

out

of

e. g. h\tnouns,
body-p.irt
localsufiixdownstream;
(fk'lf'.'
TO
four
have
stem
nio'-{e.
rump).-(rt)/'"/'..v,
objects
g. nnr-p'ai
and -j on the
one's back, mo'-tc'.n'k'four
are
the
on
on
compoundedof (n)h"lprobablv
is
-ici'i
spot.
a
level
on
mo'-sivtso'
four
-{(i)h"l'.s
TO
be
Evidently
in
beach,
places),
WAY,
the
-hf-ir'a'
on
correlative
downstream
to
classifierfor
numeral
-tcii,
day(s)(e.g. ^luip'down
runs
a
tci-lone
rocks
two-twenty-da
Ys,
(c.g. fsa-hC-a-\i a creek
day, 'ati-cq'-tcii
and
-nht'-as
-kiui'f
of
the
woods
out
ROCKY
forty
bed)
days); -tci'idoes not become
come
to
to
cause
after u- vowels (ci.note 32).
(c.g. cans. h\ta-hCas-ap'
the
OF
OUT
probably
woods) ; hence -{a)lfhj
98. Durative form ; see note 94.

97. mo'' , dur. verb

seee

periods

four

note

of

days,

97.
light,
dayspans

more

means,
TO
out

also in

woods;

THE

A BEACii-i.iKE
into

1 iik

into
the
moving
open
accurately,
to mean
-(";)/'"/PLACE, leaving

open,

seaward.

Not

to

be confus-

VI

454

American

Indian

Languages 2

95

ed

is
-{a)h"hs

with

hd-ahs

TO

BE

t'ias-at".s
TO

RIVER,

THE

grass
laq'
maq-at".s

DOWNSTREAM,

SLIDE

(e. g.

-at'.s downstream

DOWN

"

yats- TO

FOURS,
MOVE

step

FROM

thus

scv'-ok''^
to

'na-lc-uk'" to
PLACE

ONE

means
literally

IN

canoe;

of h.tah"tis.
object

kon-\*liawa'-to/at' cf. note

109. Umlauted
verb
dur.
to be near
(other
aspects,
79. tfaiva'',

s"jn-

14.

verb

suffix in

9, 103
stem

bow,

the

be understood

to

the

bow,

pole-like

note

see

object

has

local
(cf.SKp'-to'p'
stick),-tt'lsym*,

POSITION

pole-bowed,

to

note

see
as

have

sona'tsym*is

113.

"

bahuvrihi

"

pole-like

to

be

in the

object

Bcnv.

115. Absolutive

form of noun, object

of preceding
verb. hkJs-,noun
stem

baiiuvrihi

'"

"

(e.g. inds'-na'k' to

spear

\ti

canoeman.

89. Local

note

all

notes

ci'ti-iik'"
to

ALONG

MOVE

nominalized,canoe-party,
108. See

14).-'i' see

ANOTHER).CciVpok'''

TO
TO

on

crawl

for,

look

moves

downstream).
lengthened
komt'cap-,see note
107. t'ca-pstemintransitivesuffix,
lengthening
64. ~ok'"',
walk
to
along
vowel, TO MOVE
(e.g. ya'ts-uk'"

i/dA'/V-^/vy..^'
tostandin

BOW,

to

go

for

have

to

make

see
suffix,

noun

spear, tni'is-I

mrls-i't

spear,

absolutive
spear).
-'yC,

a
note

54-

from
note
see
I'^q'-,
105. -stc".sa-'af'
cf.
-stcisati
note
-sto.sali,
mom.
-at\
-\109.
of ^vhich are parallel
those oisaya'',
to
some
form (cf.
of dur. -j/"".^,next to on
note
105)
thiv^n'ti or llaivii''
note
see
96, are : mom.
the
beach, contracted from -stci- (whichdoes
tia-wz-tatfto begin
to
TO
GET
NEAR,
Inceptive
occur
not
uncompounded) and -is on the
tia'ivr.nHi
or
be
to
near,
graduative
approach,
vowel -k'tci's,
BEACH
ue.
(after
g. n-k'tci's
iterative//a*tfa'tui''i''
getting
TO
be
near,
so and
to
on
THE
so
is next
one
BEACH),cf.
wano-f or tio'iuui'iy
-to.-, for -tc.tl,
inceptive
116.

'

suffixafter vowels, see

loss of -tl before -at'

notes
note

see

35, 50, 54; for

zed
palatalito
33),
(cf.note

one

h's, see

72.

clause of

dinate
marks subor84. -'it'q',

note

cf. note
locality,

ONE

TO

sit

BE

THE

cf.

BEACH;

THE

UPON
FURTHER

ONE

OF

OUTSIDE

UP

"

"

particular

without

further

is

'o'-iica'S
to

naiua'y-,

around

the

on

that

-stci'sfurther
stem-lengthening
beach
be the
to
(e.g. 'o'-stci's

22.

probably softened from

THE
stem
some
no
longerascertainable {*nazva'i-,
to sit looking
*naiua's-,
oY*nawa-c-),
auound,
see
111.

to

be confused with
up

no.

boring
neigh-

NEXT-PEOPLED,

to
be neighbors
(e.g. 'o-k'tci"'ath"'-st'at
is not
-k'tci's
this
another);
-stci's,

5. -tt\

of -at'

phoneticvariant
suffix,
note
see
passive

-A'7n-'fl///'
TO BE
-tci-'ath",

purpose

suffix,
house),-at',passive

see

note

72.

suffix,
67. -at', passive
117. 'jh",see note
it
as
note
72. 'jh'"at'may be interpreted

(k'walisits)
(the canoeman) by whom
'jf/^at'
+ noun
corresponds
(neighbor)ed.
to our
English agentivephrase(by...)alter
passiveverbs. It should be understood that
was

to
{d. nawa-'y-as
looking

around,

on
sitting

the
KS,

the

outside

sit

of

the

house

was

used

of old
particularly

men

in front of the house in

platform

look around).
as they
morning and gossiping
local suffixON

112.

Iku-,see

the
note

beach,

94.

cf. note

84.

-nita' (after
nants),
conso-

-'iv'.ita'
(after
vowels),localsulfixout
OF

THE

CANOE.

g.

bow

OF

verb, transitive
in
passive

WITH

NUDGE

THE

intransitive,

qatc-,verb

form,

118. Momentaneous
TO

or

form.

see
-C.-zt',

ELBOW.

stem

UOtCS

18, 109.

see
113. /;i/-,
THE

every Nootka
be made
can

note

CANOE,

HA\E
TO
hop~a'tsy".n'

2^. -yin',local suffixat

also -a'tsyiu'
(e.
-alsyin'

119.
at\S FINE

good
'oqto-,s\.em
WEATHER

COMES

(e.g. 'oqw-

weather

DOWN

ON

THE

round

object

in

the

imitate
to
'oqzu-i''nak'

fair

weather

BEACH,
in

Eight: Wakashan

and

455

Salishan Languages

96
zed
dur. '.aq'maq-eyid
-an'h- ; labialito
dance),-um'h (perhaps
properly
^-sound

have

grass

in

the

often
-iw', -',"',

distr. fht'hh-atyolf
to k-throat
:
red
and
here
develops
verbal there
sound H
the
at
urn',-un'),
marten
stem-lengthening
'atf-taqthroat,
; mom.
TO
suffixof unknown
BE DOUBLE
IN THE
BIRD
SINGS
meaning(1 have found it e'yuti
THROAT,
for
d
urative
with
DOUBLE
"
(^''i
'oqw-).
ht),
-z-,
notes)
only
16 ; -r', sometimes
suffix after h (seenote
stein
to
be
unable
in
124. hi- (from /'"i"),
but before
followed by irrealis-a'lf (e.g. hishortened to -e' is absolute durative,
ANY
WAY
thiselement isalways
indicative-mI COULD
NOT
take
ITTO
ANY
shortened)./jfl-'fl/)"-fl-/7-n'
place).
i. e. -ssdi'-,
third
umlauted from -ss"Ja'-(see
-s'lii-,
digm
-ma,
person present indicative (seeparain other peralso occurs
in
in note
notes
i ; -m^
as generally
sons
79, 109)and lengthened,
if preceded
forms,from
by a vowel, e. g. haokw-ah i short-vowelcd durative-inceptive
-sda' (after
-ss'Jabut so'-m-ah i a.m holding).
EAT
sonants),
convowels),
; -ssda' (after
adverb of modality,
dur. verbal suffixto act in such
is it
120.
and
Interrogative
identical SUCH
? tak-, possibly
a
? DO YOU
way
THINK
to
do
something
NOT
(e.g. p'".c-s"Ja'
of /a^^x*'nevertheless,
with stem
bad);-ssiia'assimilated from *-cs\la'{c\. perstill, yet.
haps
third personal
Kwakiutl
to take
care
of
word-suffix,
-ysi'Ja
-ha,interrogative
; this
'ani'-sda' to only
-c"" --/- explains
tive
original
(seenote i for paradigmof interrogasubject
*'anaisiia'
cf.qawi'':
so
DO
"C
"C
*'ana-ysda'
forms).
salmonberry
See
note
ihisthenote
"C *qaii'a'i).
121.
-ta-, from
78 -\',see
9;
qawacis
'na's'i
'ah"
notes
is equivalent
to
today,
see
-tC'.ii,
suffix,
inceptive
DAY
35, 109, 5.
of 'o'gtim'htvra
better taken as subject
-a'h",modal word-suffix indicatinguncertaiiuy
probably
in negative
than as indepenor
clauses,
unreality,
particularly
dent
(thisday is fine-weathered)
like -'atf,
note
i
adverb (itis fine weather
act
see
(e.g.
today).
phonetically
!
steal-at-any-time
verb to
say
122.
lua'',
(alsoused as verb- wik\ni' fw'wiFa'h do-not
hisi'k'a'hrs now-i-do-not-know
be used as
ww' does not seem
to
stem
hayim*hath\
iva'-y,
durative (like
certain other monosyllabic
long- which-way-i-should-go).
verb stem
but
to
speak
voweled
as
note
(e. g. dur.see
32),
duratives,
125. ts".q-,
ts".'.-"ik'
its
iterative
t
o
be
:
single
talking,
say
to
tscq'
tscq-a'
thing);
momentnneous
(a
TO
talk
waiuw'
durative
is
saying
of
to
fond
to
be
be
is'.'q'-f'.lch"
talking,
corresponding
its
-cUf,
momcnsomething
doing
s
everal
while
else).
times, despite
(notnecessarily
18.
note
ivawi'-lcui to begin
suffix,
see
taneous
iterativeform),inceptive
for -ktmnote
126. qalf-,
see
see
note
TO
BH SAYING,
53. -kca-li^-,
suffix,
-'at',
72 ;
passive
note
of zua'- refer to the person addressed, tcitl,sec
5 ; -kwa-lali,momentancous
passives
suffix-Ic'.li
the thingspoken of (e.g. wa'-at-ah i am
preceded
not
by element -kca- denoting
totality
(e.g. qai/'-lru'a-tc"
completeness,
told)
become
all
01 f, xwak'-kwa-tC'.tfto
whose
PEOPLE
DIE
verb
ing
meanstem
precise
123. 'tnogw-,
causative
-Vi/.vswollen
dumb
(e.
is not yet clear;
to
-hva-'ap'
bh
up),
g.
or,
presumably
to
pieces,
less specifically,
rigid
fsax-hva-'ap'
to
be
kwa-ap to crush
barred,
hemmed,
xt'
for -at'
SEVERAL
AT
SPEAR
mom.
TO
o
f
that
PEOPLE).
sort,
or something
-c'yiili,
-c'yu'lf,
118.
notes
suffix
local
suffix,
see
form of dur. -c^yuf,
in
the
72, 109,
passive
-Cyui,
see
distributive form -i"V//',
(/of
-Cy:Jh"
127. Contracted from *qa'yap't'a-at'-\\
throat,
t\i'
absolutive
26.
noun
leg
distributive
/'"in
;
notes
suffixesfrequently
qa'yap'
14,
changesto
26.
itself.
-'al'-\'
note
see
analysis
distr. -o'h")
suggests
forms,ci. further -o'i faced:
(cl. no
+

"

-i-

VI

456

American

Indian Languages 2

97

momentaneous
tiakic-c\tl,
aspect, see
ilakic- to
stand.
18, from verb stem

128.
note

Rhetorical

134.

THAT

stem^w

of demonstrative
lengthening
note
(cf.
17).

YONDER

to
takzc- to
do
simpledurative corresponding
135. tdk-,from verb stem
to
dur. Ink-ok' TO DO
NOTHING
as
//a/.'/'-)
but, EXCLUSIVELY,
followed by some
local so at
durative is regularly
ONCE.
local suffix
-h"la-to.ii,
inceptive
used
suffix (e. g. tiaki'-s to
-h"taidentical
as
stand
TO
BECOME
OUT
AT
SEA
on,
;
probably
for
with
-/.'"/of
in
nearest
to
stand
to
which
case-fftanote
; tiaki'-qs
106,
equivalent
-h"t- + dur. "a-,tak-}ft-abox
stand
in a
; lia'kic-s'alo' is best analyzed
as
canoe,
wagon,
to.tibeingproperly
TO
stand
at
the
to
begin
to
be altogether
door), liakic- is based on
(e.g. OUT on the sea
simplertia- stick-like
object stands
tia-a'^a a stick
of a gnome-like
for
a
name
thi-yw'stake
136. fc'.'iiK'-''ath"
weir,
being
of the woods ; t'cvtw-, stem
of unknown
stands
up
on
the
rocks).

There

is

no

"

liakic-("softened
as
tlakic-C'.li,

Graduative

129.

stem-vowel,from

in

-cdi, with lengthened meaning;

verb-stem yats-to

to

step,

-Cca'
,

-ath"

people,

person,

article,
quotative
see

note

.see

note

87.

66.

i ; anticipates
137. \)-,see note
following
to
take
a
{yats-all
step),see note 6 ;
clause ttih"o/iti'itq't'ca'pokw\'
looked
temporal
be
as
practically,
ya'ts-ati
may
upon
t'ci'm'atlf'e'.
-ya'ti,contracted from -yi-'atf,
to va/j-H^'"TO
note
see
inceptive
WALK,
107.
cf. notes
derivative verbal suffix at
Other derivatives o{yats14, 26 ; -y.'
a.re yats-haid
to
walk
the
time
of
at
such
such
and
a
(e.
'o-yi\
ll\ti
ON
g.
THE
side
(ofA WILL),yafs-a'q' TO walk
what
at
if,
TIME, when,
qiue-yi-n'-m-Kt-i'-s.
INTO
the
to
yats-i'tis
yats-tspa''
bush,
track,
time
I CAME,
WHEN
I came),also -yiya'
-yi'ya'
TO
GET
to
try
to
reach
by
PAST, ya't's-J/'
after
vowels
to
be at this
(e.g. 'ah"ko'-yi'ya'
following
in one's footsteps.
to
be next
time, tiao'-yi'ya
time, 'ah"'a'-yi'yati
(e.g.ho'ii}0. ho'a-, stem
back, returning
-'ati now
"C -yi'ya
at
that
\time, passive
n' TO come
to
repeat
a wolf
back, ho'^a-l'safo'
to
to
so
done
be
-" *-yiya-at'
qoxwa-yiyat'
RITUAL
L.\TER
A YEAR
IN
ABBREVIATED
FORm).
after consonants
WHEN
freezing),
-iya'
-i'ya
66 ; as momentaneous-itenote
-tsa-tciti,
see
to
come
when
to the
beach
rative of mom.
is found hotlha'lsalc (e.g. 'alh"-iya-sati
hc'atsatcdi,
different
IT IS NIGHT,
to
be
at
a
ku'ist-i'ya'
TO
TURN
SEVERAL
BACK
TIMES.
time:).
64, 33. Local objectof pre131. See notes
ceding
138.f/'/.-^-Zo.//,
inceptive
aspect (to become
-tsa-.
verb,completing
of
dur.
ti'tc to be alive
well)
alive, to get
106. -qsiti,
form
note
see
mom.
132. h\ta-,
is
used
durative
base for other
as
{li'tc-aof -qs IN A CANOE
to
kneel
in
(e.g. dur. tco-qs
durative;cf.,
aspects, but not as independent

WALK

'

CANOE

WITH

BENT

BACK, mO'-qS

TO

BE

FOUR-IN-

[saLMOn] IN ONe's
CANOE
to
go
into
a canoe
; iterativehi'la'qsi'i
is
uscd
SEVERAL
after
vowels,
times)
; -^/i('.//) only
after
62.
see
note
-alfs^yti) consonants,
CANOED,

133.
stem

FOUR

HAVE

Momentaneous

to

tkh-ak'
In

TO

paddle,
TO

canoe,

paddle,

form

travel
mom.

in

of //i/'"-,
verb
a

tiJf-cUf to

to
be
ti'/l/'-o.ti
graduative

see
off).-C'.ti,

note

18.

(dur.

canoe
set

paddling

off

further,iterative ti'Ica'-tci'lto
SEVERAL

times,

SEVERAL

BECOME

well),also

ti'lc- (e.g.ti'tc-ma'heart,

used

as

verb

tdit'c-oi'

to

stem
pray

for -tci-'ati,
notes
see
health).-tCK-\ti,

FOR

5"

well

become

distributivemcepuvetdti'
Ica-tati

I-

139.

See

temporalnot
but because

133, 5, i, 22. -d'q'is here

because of any inherent value
time subordination is demanded

notes

by preceding
'oya'ti.

Wakashan

Eight:

and Salishan

457

Languages

98
140. See note

-'i',
see

nominaHcontained
quotative
(note136)changesto non-quotativeON THAT

-'i' because,once
is conceived

introduced,the

derived from

BE

DRESSED

GETTING

READY,

BE

GETTING

^i'liyixi'-tall
to
get

neous

momenta-

ready,

see
-ak'-\',

note

rub
rub

UP

several
go

self
oneoneself

t\ti-n^kiim'hand-rubbing-object,

times

about

the

on

'o-'na'h-m\sto

look

borrow);
*-m\yij,
*-mayis,

beach

to

"

MOviNG

and

ABOUT

ABOUT

IN

ON

GROUND,

THE

THE

MOVING

ON

alone,e.

g.

MOVING

MOVING

about

in

OBJECT

THE
true

STANDS

such.

c(.

MOVING

seem

about

water), and

served
pre-

not

THE

BEACH,

84.

lutive
absogwayafsi'k',

stem

e.g.,
as

of

FOND

BE
OF

ING

are

cates
redupli-

syllable,
reduplicating
t'cO'fcilC-i'k'
TO

(e.g.

to
bk
\'\'qhaiik'zv-i'k'

THINGs).
(used

on

-uk",

118.

10.
stem
luiiiswJjp-,
reduplicated
irregularly

vowel ; other examafter reduplicating

ples
forms
of this inserted -ts- in reduplicated
-Is-

matsmay.xwvn's^ikytswhosvekk

iterative

to
nilsfii'ya'

and forms

ON

OF

TALKING,
,

in

be

FOND

drunkard),-i'k'

longvowel

to

ing,

"

tuii'-lk'TO
BE

SUSPICIOUS,

note

with

fond

be

148. See notes 109, 46.

verb-Stem to urinate
149. fsiisk-,
of
note
see
-ci-'et-,
animals),
only
130.

-mai-m'

WOODS).

THE

46.

"

(e.g.

TELLING

of

see

occur

be

ALWAYS

FOND

is

from

ALWAYS

BE

BE

ABOUT

iterative of tit-\s
ON

with

standing,

body,

OF

note

variant of

tS'.\-"ik'
TO

na\-"ik' to

TO

to
ING

JUMPING,

-Uli'^a'

to

OUT

see
-tia,

WOLF

"

the

note

; with

ROCKS

iterativesa'-tssJh'^tm'i

WOODS,
COMING

i.

-ik'

the

moving

HOUSE,

not

the

''

ALWAYS

the
note

for

"

-mai-

used
tia'-si's),
though often practically
143. See

be

qwayats- (e.g.
to
imitate
wolf
a
in a dance,
qivayiis-inak'
-'i'k' absolutive
wolf
(]zvayzts-ox"sim'
head-.mask).
suffix
noun
hardening preceding
consonants
(cf.hivCi-vk lightning
serpent,
ALWAYS
coiling
down
to the
literally
ground?);
identical with
ning
hardeperhapsultimately

from

from

BEACH,

-UldS

wovmc
-mai-ap\
on

on

about

"

TO

does

about

so

-mi'i,-mil

.THE

ON

iterative (the

STICK-LIKK

THE

are

HOUSE

ABOUT

-mai-it

to

106. -Issjfft-a'

note

"

UNMANLY,

is contracted

-ma'S,

FROM

which
-nial-,

is

and

softened

-IS

HOUSE,

be

look

-ni'/s

84 (analogousforms

true

so

for

'ak'ivai-'nah-misto

BEACH,

-niCa'

and

note

noun

wik'-maif-mi's

beach,

beach

the

THE

Phonetic

147.

to

OF

-''ati,
see

towel),-tnvs-ap, causative in ~ap'(seenote

on
the
72) of -m\s, -mis, local suffix moving
BEACH
(e.g. tla-mi'sa stick-like
object is put
TO

OUT

[wolves]KEEP

(oneself)
(e.

iterativetititry-a
to

over,-

14, 137. b.ta-,see

notes

15.

verb-stem to rub
t'r-,
1^2. /-.-,
tr-tcw'
once,
g. tr-tati TO rub
down,

from nw-tci'i

note

see

COMES

neous
to
get
something
'i'nxxi'-yoLp'
cf. note
absolutive noun
suffix,
ready); -f)ia\

all

"

Softened

'i'fiax-

stem

causative

12.

was

-sohVa' (after
local
(after
vowels),
consonants),
suffix OUT
READY
OF
the
(dur.'Vfly.xa''TO BE
probably
woods,
containing
'in'xa''to
element -/?"/-discussed in note
be
106 (e.g. yatsUP, graduative
soh'^taTO WALK
OUT
OF
THE
CAUsa.t[ve'in'xa'-ap'
gi'aduative
BUSH^ mat'-sohHa'
momenta"TO
Sa'-tSSOh'^ta'
SOMETHING
FLY
OUT
OF
THE
READY,
[a WOLf]
BUSH,

PREPARED,

READY,

verb

idea

the
beach.
DAYS,
97, and -i^ on
Contracted
from
*lKtatssoh'Haati-tia, stt
146.

*'i'ny..\iiia-'ak'-\\
see

from

the

BEACH.

"

145.

the local
Specifies
precedingverb : he

28.

note

in

FOUR

ing,
cloth1^,26.'r;zxv-;;/a',absolutivenoun

REGALIA,

TO

t'ci'nc'ath"-

known.

as

141. Contracted
notes

144. See

that

9. Note

note

zing-^'m'

TO

of

136. -e',phoneticvariant

EYE
THE

\n-sui

in

passers-by,
several

shoot

the

-s\m'

eye,

(e.g. ^nutino'q'-sni
to

EYE,

k'-sui
yolsya'

to

be

have

sore

times,
is at

what
a
inside

boil
the

Eight: Wakashan

and

459

Salishan Languages

100

163.

note

})io'-,see

form o{

see
-I'p',
176).

97.
162

note

-yip'posivocalicgo

(seealso

notes

171,

for

sea-eggs

-\'h" also

"

he-x,stem

heww-

after both

occurs

noun

sea-egg)
;
and

verb

to mean
to
try
unreduplicated,
to
get,
with lengthened
164. Durative absolute in -a' (cf.inceptiveTO BE AFTER, generally
siem'ani'-tciti
to
to
be
the
only
get
to
try
to
get
one, to
vowel(e.g.'mz--"/fp"
the
one
used as verb
ALONE
HELD
IN
the
i.
mouth
THE
become); 'ana- is freely
[bY
WOLf], e. TO
stem
TO
be only,
to
formally
analogousto 'aya- attempt
CAPTURE
A NOVICE
IN THE
WOLF
be much
to
TO
(e.g. 'ana-tsstno\sto be the only
TO
GET
BY
RITUAL, ya't's-i'lf
TRACK, TO TRY
along
the
one
IN one's STEPS, he-'y-'.'h"
FOLLOWING
beach, 'a'na-lciito do so and
TO
BE AFTER
nothing
eat
only
BLOOD
so
" hes-nus blood),also with unlengtheto, 'a'n-i'S'Cai'Sa'to
ned
BUT
Stem-vowel, in which case it means
)
to
iiit'c165. 5M/V-,verb-stem to be five (form of want
(e.g. k'nt's-"/h"to want
mussels,
used before vowels, e. g. sut'c-cq'
fivech" TO WANT
stem
-\h" forms
A
woman) ; finally,

172,

stems,

"

"

twenties,

ONE

snt'c-i'tss
to

hundred,

derivativesfrom certain verb-stems with both

carry

Sufc-Q-Irwaf

and lengthening
of stem-vowel
reduplication
to
watch
for
"; 'natc(e. g. 'na'na't'c-i'h"'
beforcconsonantal
suffixes
FINGER-WIDTHS
18 {c(.
To
note
-citf,
see
suffix,
look),
LONG;
inceptive
it appears as siifca-,e. g. stit'ca-qmi'i
also h.n'-'clf-ati
five
to
go
after).
DRICAL
CYLIN168. 'o'-,
from V, see note
FIVE
LONG
ROUND
lengtheijed
OBJECTS, Sllfca-t'siq'
i,
because
of
FIVE
LONG
FLAT
iterativeaspect (cf.
note
Sufca-p'ii
OBJECTS,
50).-wCa'i
bags
to
the
be
first
full, sufca-to.i iterativeform of -zi'i''
(e.g.
OBJECTS, siifca-h"tak'five
'o-u'c'so and
FIVE
five
to
have
so
cook
[salmonJin
is first, 'o'-wi-tsaqa'
to
days, sut'ca-qs
THE
five
to
carry
so
let
and
so
to
canoe, sulca'-p'ai
objects
first, causative 'o-wi'-'ap'
ON^ the
so
be
the
back),as durative absolute snt'ca' -cp' so and
first),
-ap', causative
162 (butalso note
iteratives in final-/ form
note
see
note
171).
suffix,
see
72 (all
consists of
166. tlnp'ctdf
their causative in -'ap\
summer
be
cause
TO
to
e. g. -o'i-'ap'
verb-stem tlnp-and
to
on
the
be
hardening -'etch" ; repeatedly
rocks,
-ap'uU.n'lverb-stem to be hot
to
tocause
repeatedly
be under,
(e.g. dur. t'iop-'ap'
t'iup-,
-a'l-ap'
a'
is
weather
TO
is hot,
TO
repeatedly
TO
BE OFF, -i'tf-'ap'
CAUSE
t'hp-a'i
object
hot,
i.
to
e.
into
the
repeatedly
cause
house).
iHop'-yvhato die of heat,
sweat,
quently 169. nio''y\p'ati,
top
notes
TO
be
hot
on
the
see
see
16^, i. -//"/,
t'iop'-qi
end; less frein

FIVE

objects

ARE

MISSING,

THE

HAND,

SUSUt'c-m'k'

[r^^-]TO

BE

FIVE

FIVE

"

"

g. t'io'm-ahsto

tlom-,e.
receptacle,

i.e.

hot

be

hot

in

water),-cidf, see

note

61.

I.

-atl,see note 6r.

form of V, see note
167.'do-yreduplicated
-'(.-//',
-\'h", hardening verb
properly
"

suffix which
be

in

causes

pursuit

of,

to

"

of stem, to
reduplication
tohunt
to
(such
get,

try

note

46.

from
-fnv.'-tC'.-'xli,
note
10.
see
170. zvik-,
umlauted *-/';/w-/ri//-|- -'all,
notes
see
79, 5.

-njur', derivative suffix denoting ability

inceptive
(e.g. u'd'-fnia'' 10 be unable),-tc.tl,
suffix,see
note

be obtained in number)
as may
objects
herring-fishing
to
go
(e.g. tiutiu'y-ch"

notes

J09,

see
i2.).-V///,

I.

and apparently
to
snl\\'^yip
parallel
with
(seenote
entirely
sut\-".'p'
synonymous
^/"^-Wl/'
based
is
tutuck'-i'h"
w
hich
to
GO
COD"C
on
sul'ca-,
lengthened
165);
HbRRING,
and umlauted to sut'cc-before -'\".p'
fishing
to
" tuck-Q-h" cod, t'ioli'ontip"."\.'h'^
(as before
animals

HUNT

or

elk

"

I'fo-nun' elk,

bihe.'\i'-\'h"
to

171.

mom.

ox

inceptive-tc.ti and

its causative

460

Vf

American

Indian Languages 2

lOI

cf.notes
-'yap',

-ali,see
172.

see
109).-'y.p',

79,

note

note

see

i.

verb-stem
177. ha'o-,

'63.

-tin',
46.
of finalvowel
with lengthening
hayiY-,
note

ON

to

the

next,

(e.g.

revenge

TO

do

in

to

turn,

metaphorically
to

pass
take

iterativeha'tlho'-qsa-tc
genera-

verb- tion passes

for I
after
-kw"-'ill,
171)from Ipayn-,
generation).
-kwi-ali,see
notes
BE TEN, durative absolute hayu'
TO
ples
(examstem
157, 32, 5.
of stem
hayu- are hayu'-if
ten-tvv":nties,
178. satck-,verb-stem to be sharp
(e.g.
red. sasalck"-wi to
salckround
T?M
be
TWO
HUN'DRED,
objects,
hayu-cjiuon'i
sharp-clawed,
sa'.ck'-ahs
cylindrical
t
o
be
long
ten
objectsj
comb,
aq'sni
sharp-toothed,
hayu-fs".q'
here metaphoricto
flat
long
being
sharp
tem
literally
objkcts, hciyif-p'ai
inside),
ally
hayi{'-p\{
for strong,
TEN
HAVE
TEN
10.
-ok', see note
BACK, hayu'-tcd
-fcac,
OBJECTS ON THE
modal verb suffixdenoting
hayif-tss to carry
ten
it seems,
DAYS,
objects in the
INFERENCE,
here ironically
ly
hand),-cdlysee note 18 ; form in -ciliapparent; consists of -fca- and -c, of
form
without
it
which
-fcais
with
inferential (^d.nominalizing
simpler
synonymous
is
unless
here
-citi
note
:
n
ote
-fca',
GG^ and -c emphasizing(e g.
176),
perfective
(cf.
satckok'
si-c
mine
HAD
obtained
TEN.
is indeed
sharp).The pronominal
numeral eight, literally
two
paradigmfor -fca-c (ci.interrogative
173. 'atiakivaf,
verb stem
to
absent
be two
(fromten),'ati-,
paradigmin note i) is :
round
two
objects, 'ati-i'f
(e. g. ^aff-qmi'f
-fca-si-c
Plur.
-fci-n'-c
before -'_}'-./)'
(cf.note

to

two

be

in

the

Sing. I.

'ati-h"tak'
two

house,

2.

'ati-tc'ri
two

full,
TWO

ON

the

end,

places),before

to
'a'a'ti-alptn'
be

days,

'ati-sa'tso'
to

certain

be

in

-tca-k-c

2.

3. -fca-c

3.

-fca-so'-c

-fca-c{-ai)

two

suffixes 'atia- (e. g.

distributive'a'atta-kwaithere

I.

bags

179. See

note

54.

(or\r qui'
a' q- lengthened
iSo.'a'qvi'qha,
-qh-ha/
from 'aq-(before
to
of
be two
out
each
in a
[pile],
'athi-qs-d
'aq\'vowels),'aq\-,
durative
absolute
verb-stem
receptacle
in the
house),
interrogative
(beforeconsonants),
'atia' -kwai,
it,
-ba? always followed by interrogative
-kwa'i,verb suffix to be absent,
what
missing
to
stay
away
for
what
is it ?
a
(e.g. qe'-kwa'i
g. dur. absolute 'aq-nk'-ha'
ino-hva'f four
whAT is it made
? 'au'qilong
are
of
time,
gone,
yaq'- 'aqi-yJftaqak'-ha'
sus-ha-k"
Ihta-hcai-c.tt
?
WHO
is absent,
to get
why
a'
you
cry
do
hua'l-\t'q'
q\.-f
yuk'-ha-k'
? 'uqi-sk'-ha
TO
be
to
go
YOU
LAUGHING
ABOUT
WHAT
ARE
'a'ya-kwai-atf-sa'
away,
away,
S-kl-k'
TO
get
to
?
ARE
be too
to
spend
too
WHAT
AWAY
HE
GO
WHY
DID
much-missing,
'aq-i'
is
t'sawa'?
you
'atia-kivat
o"
i'
s-ha-k'
to
eight
what
are
YOU
EATING
much); analogous
aq-0''
/cZffl/ONEabsent
?
? 'aqi-yuai-fpa-k'
see
you
what
do
seC
SAYING
(fromTEn),NINE. -'."/)',
162.
? 'aqi-qsnote
you
find
what
did
'aqe'-yun-'J-ha-k'
ha-k' what
see note
i. -yoaf,
note
see
174. '()-,
[game]have you in your canoe ?
65. -"./',
what
see note
is on
it ? 'aqe'-tciclnti-ha'
what
perfective
suffix,
159. -'-.,
nominalizing'aqe'-s-ha'
In
note
with
Ica'ats'iF.
WATER
suffix,
see
OF
THE
SURFACE
TO
BE
ON
THE
CAME
?).
9.
apposition
stem-vowel,
67.Formally,'oh" is comple175. See note
mentary -in'-, verb suffix lengthening
infinitive to 'oyo'
a ht"r.; it serves
TO
be because
to
of, cf.causative 'a'qm'probably
tca'ats'^'Fin contrast
? (thisstem
to k'lval'S'Js
you
doing
what
are
:
emphasize
'ap-ha-k'
for
to occur
he
his part.
-m'-,which does not seem
lengthening
related
be
-fio'ti,
to
176. See note 172. /vrv/r- merelyphoneticfreely,
postvocalic
may
variant of hayo'-.
movable
with
momen-w'ti,
postconsonantal
are

two

missing

'

'

Eight:

Wakashan

and

Salishan

Languages

461

102

taneous-//,TO
'a'ia'DO

so

BECAUSE

BE

to

me

or,

e.

customarily

'o'-"iLr-'".smomentaneous

g.
for

the

son
rea-

of

note

see

-/)".'
stem-lengthening
suffix,
to
sfya' si- are so-'wa'

90).Parallel

that
for
so'^wa'-s-tUs it is
reason
\cjiL'a'-no'li-il-ah
it is Yon,
You{so'^iva'-q-e\ts
ll-\t'q' for
which
reason
I
WAS,
yours),sot- (e.g. so't-'J to do to you, siit'yaqiu-\yi'
HE.
.). -qh (aftervowels and h), -h- (after nak' TO HAVE
you
[as chief]); ni-'zva' we
-ha, interrogative (niica'-q-in'
iii'wa'-s-m' it is ouks),
n
is we,
consonants),see note
55.
third person, see note
suffix,
120.
ni^h)-(e.g. rtch-zi to do to us, nOp-a-'atup'
'a'qui^qh{fp)a
would seem
to
for
to mean
what
reason
-make
for
literally
us) ; si'^wa' ye {si^iua--q-z\lso
?
si'u'a--s-t'".tSLr'
i.
while
IT is ye,
does
IS he
e. why
it
is yours),s:h- (e.g.
(loing so)
he,
? -qh-dnncipaung'atlakwaf'/
si/h zf to do
did
why
he.
to
to
for
p'
do
you,
S'.'h-a''atup'
which follows complementary infinitive.
you).
THAT.

See

181.

notes
164, 74.
]ju\i-,broken from

182.

i. e.
^^.-woiti,

179,

185. yaq-,
"."o'^yi-,
see

notes

-zy^//(after
vowels),-awalf

verbal suffix which lengthens

(after
consonants),
stem-vowel
one's lot,
to
(so and
so) falls
TO
have
something
come
to
one
(e. g.
'o'-wati

it

one's lot,

elements

(seenote

183. See
-s:,

so

and

notes

5),e.

-'ati and

here used because

as

of

yaqw-,
word-suffix

absolute

because

it

(relative
-"'-),

-e'-s, relative

suffix with

singular subjectiveelement,

d.

note

Plur.

yaq-e'-s

yaq-e'-k'
yaq-e-'

2.

analogous

3.
i.

Quotative
unites

forms, e.

AS

WE,
SAY

THEY

I, AS

3.

yaq-e'-so''
yaq-f{-'af)

with

-ha-tc he,
interrogative
t'ci-ii'
THAT

yaq-i-ti'

I.
2.

quently
66, 178, 58) fre{d. notes
suffixes
subordinating
(e.g.

-tc-

absolute

singular
emphasis.si\averbal

is used

Paradigm

73.

Sing. I.

person

in certain

base

first person

g. ivi-k-awa-atl.

first

by

that

note

159;

stem-suffix,

note

note

to
come

see
176. -'atly

172,

i.
paradigm,see note
184. Independent

is also used

falls
nothing

singularsubjectof

first person

pronoun,

that

have

los"is-// before

one);

to

so

is

lui'k-aivali to

yaq-,
is followed
not

see

stem-form

not

IS

they

as

SAID,.

IF YOU,
-qO'-tC-k'

For relative forms

o( yaq-we

? \jn'.-

say.
"

-qa-ts-s that

AS

have,

IS
as

SAID,...).
quotative

to
be
to
be
mine
si'ya'-qrally
(genei, si'va'-sparadigm :
with repeatedfirstperson singular
minal
pronoit
is i, literally']
Plur. 1. \tiq-f-t'r:-n'
suffi.x,
e. g. sfya'-q-ah
Sing. I. yaq-e'-ls-s
am
iAM
I ; sCya'-s-ah it
is
i
literally
2.
2.
mine,
yaq-e'-ts-sc'
yaq-c-tc-k'
HAViN'G
it heme!
let
si'ya\'~ap'-is
; causative
3. yaq-f-!c(''al)
3. yaq-c'-lc
dently
is evicause
me
literally
[-5Jto be 1).si-'ya'
Other
latives
based on
reduced
absolute -sk, sometimes
examplesof first person singularre-

g.

to

183, i); si- is freelyused as

of which
si-'\a' is really
derivatives,

in -r.f, -yis, -v/'.fare

(seenotes

-s

in

stem
one

(d.

si'-tcd

FOR

me,

that
si'-putf-qa-s

erect,

that

to

I HAVE

do

to

TAKEN

me,
iget
FIRST

sv-altip'

do

hamnCamah

i who

am

DiE

to

to

be

RANK;

-pUtfis

\^\ nial'-iifl-i's
rmiWHEN

THAl-I-FLE\V-OFF,

TIME

qiui-ycha-yisi-know
when
i was
'oy\.
iiinla'-yi's

1 86.

u'rt"-,see

note

122.

1 1 K\V

OFF

of-what-i-

flying.

-a//,

see

note

i.

462

VI

Indian

American

Editorial

Originallypublished in
76-102

Languages 2

Note

International

Journal

of American

Linguistics3,

(1924).

Sapirs

corrigendaon

ms.

his copy

are

as

follows:

Read:

Original

For:

p. 77, col 1, I. 14
78, col. 1, 1. 3

Du'yLtci-tcL'ett

'6u'yLtci-lcL'ett

t'sa'ak't'

t'sa'ak'\'

78, col. 1, I. 28
79, col. 2,1.4

qa'yap't'at'i'

qa'yap't'af'i'

sa'tckok't'cac

sa'tckok't'cac

79, col. 2,1.8

81, col. 2,1. 2

Cha'atssib'.

Cha'atssib',

'i-h^to-p'

'fh^o-p'

82, col. 1 last

',k',

t',k',

83, col. 1, I. 27

surernatural

supernatural

83,col. 1,1.39

'o-sim'tcatt

'o-sim't'catl

83, col. 2,1. 15

(seenote

see

84, col. 1, I. 34

'anah^-'is

'anah'*-'LS

84, col. 2, 1. 17

wik'ntt'

wik'-ntt'

84, col. 2, I. 23

note.

note

85, col. 1,1. 9

ma'

1).

redheaded

ma'

1,

note

headed
heart, t'leh'^ma'red-

woodpecker
*tLq'w-as

woodpecker
*tiq-'w-as

'nat'c-

'nat'c-

p. 85, col.
p. 86, col.

cont

con-

'ayaqa

'aya-qs

p. 87, col.
p. 88, col.

to

to

t'lt'.a-tCL'

t'k'.-a-tct'

p. 88, col.
p. 88, col.

'noq'"-t'sa\atci

atci
'nDq'"-t'sa'.-

side end

side, end

sa-WL^att

sawt'-atl

'Du'yt'
.o-'yt'

lou'yt'
lo'yi'

and

and

p. 85, col.
p. 85, col.

p. 88, col.
p. 89, col.
p. 89, col.
p. 89, col.

p. 89, col.
p. 90, col.

qwi'yi...

qwL-'yi...

tla'o-

tla'o--

p. 90, col.
p. 90, col.

tta'o--yiy-a'
hayu.-ah''s

tla'o-yiy-a'
hayu!-ah^s

p. 90, col.
p. 90, col.

'anah-'

'anah-

q'tl-'nukw-'ts

q'tl-'nukw-'is

p. 91, col.
p. 91, col.
p. 91, col.
p. 91, col.

at one

at once

who

who

suspected

is

suspected

-L-

-L--

2. 'ant-so-

2. 'ant-so-'

Eight:

Wakashan

and

Salishan

Languages

463

Nootka

The

Nootka

Indians
infants

speaking
vocabulary, others
to

known.

far

as

an

Indian

number

Some

quite unrelated
followingexamples
ts'ica-'ath

tribe

Words

of words

Httle children.

to

are

The

of the

have

and

Baby

which

are

of these

are

other

words

any

of these

of Nootkas,

used

only by or in
based
the regular
on
in the language, so

obtained
from
baby words were
to
originallybelonging
Barkley

Sound.
'o.'ec 'dirty!
don't

do

it!' (a

warning

scare

off

to

child

that handles

dirt);normal

word

is tci-c.
for 'dirty'

hox, exclamation
h-h-

'white
is said

word
Nootka

to

man'
to

(often used

imitate

the

white

child
to

that

scare

man's

is in the

way.

child, like

talk, and

though often used in songs for n)\ normal

is mamal'ni
the water'.
on
'dwellingwhile in motion
ho-c 'to sleep';normal
word
we'itc.
ka-x- 'sore, hurt' (used by children
as
a conjugatable
word
am
ya-'kat\ stem ya-kw-.
hurt');normal
ma-h

"boogie

our

note

sound,

'to drink'; normal

ta-'ta' 'father'

(saidto

'nu'wL''q'so\vocative
ma-'ma'

stem

/ is not

that
word

stem,

man";
a

this

normal

for 'white

man'

e.g. ka-xatah

naq-.

be the first word

pronounced by

child); normal

word

'/7D-"wt'.

'mother'; normal

word

'um'\-'q'so\vocative

'3"mt'.

begin to suck', based on ma-'ma\

ha'ok'" 'to cat' (stem lui'w-),
begin to eat'; normal
pa-'pa' 'toeat',/7fl-'/?ac'to
ha'ok'"-citt 'to begin to eat'.
nan-Cc
luuiL-'q'so''grandparent',
'grandpa, grandma'; based on normal
vocative
/ie-/i',
irregularpossessivenan-V 'your grandparent'.
normal
'ma-"mic
'older brother, sister'; based
on
^nia-'mL-'q\s()\
irregular
sister'.
older
brother,
possessive 'ma-"nn'
'your
\'uk\\'LUfs()\
irregular
'yukwic 'younger brother, sister'; based on normal
sister'.
brother,
possessive'yukwC 'your younger
'.^.'er"dirty!'
interest. The
Icmhi
be of some
remarks
A few linguistic
may
/c/c
w
hile
the
normal
d
irt,
excrement"
reconstructs
to Wakashan
'dirty,
*'oijex,
kcx. Now
it seems
goes back to *ki-x. perhaps palatalizedand lengthened from
'AaBoas'
Kwakiutl
that
the
k!ix-),
(in
palatalized
orthography
very likely
from
'A:9x (k-fEx--),'to defecate
halibut)', is related to Notuka
or
(dog salmon
of k : 'k is parallelto that of r/ q in Nootka
alternation
consonantal
tci-c. The
'."".'ec
(qfop-) 'to copulate'.The old -r/rv of Nootka
may
^/o/;-;Kwakiutl
qo-pkcx (Kwak. 'Aa-)- If this is
of Wakashan
be a sort of emphasizing velarization
ma-'mac

'to

'

'

so,

Nootka

'o.'ec and

tci-c would

be

related

words.

Salish-Wakashan

Edited

These

by

Comparisons
Morris

Swadesh

twenty-six Salish-Wakashan
small
on
Sapir'smaterials

found
in the late
comparisons were
Edward
cards, preceded by a guide-card, simply
labeled
"Salish and Wakashan."
Eighteen of the items involve only one Salish
Nootka
of the Wakashan
or
language, namely, Comox,
along with KwakiutI
the
other
items
involve
Salish
two
or
more
eight
group;
languages. It is likely
that the Comox
a
comparisons were
by-product of Sapir s personal study of
Noun
in
that
63 of the
Reduplication
language, published in 1915 as Memoir
These
Geological Survey of Canada.
comparisons include a few which could
easilybe due to recent borrowing, and others which hardly could have arisen in
that manner.
The
words
cited in Sapir'sComox
include
at least a few
paper
additional
obvious
similarities with Nootka, indicatingthat Sapir did not make
It is important to note
this fact in order to [172]realize that
a systematicsearch.
the present comparisons are
a casually collected
sample rather than the full
of the Mosan
measure
theory. I have simplifiedthe spellingalong phonemic
lines, following recent
practice. Salish forms are listed first and Wakashan
forms
after the Salish. The
but Sapir's
spellingof languages is modernized,
abbreviations
retained.
"T.R."
is evidentlyThompson
are
River; "Hail." is the
Hailtsk
dialect of KwakiutI.
B. evidently indicates
Boas, as a source.
Morris

"

Salish

'his'. Kw.

3d.

Swadesh.

per. vis. pron.

suffix, postnominal 3d. per. vis. pos.

'it is mine'.
sij'd-s-an
Bella C. ia 'good' (B.) (= ya'?),Satl. ai (B.), Pent, aim
(B.), Sis. ai (B.),
Snan.
a/(B.), Lkun. aii(B.),TR. ia (B.) (= ya?, cf. Shusw. la);Kw. 'aA,- 'good'
(B.), Hail. aikH (B.).
-s

suffix, poss.

Bella

and

Coola

-s

instr. suf. ; N.

Hmltl

'we'; Satl. -Pent. -Sis.

ni

mi'itl;Snan.

ti thiimitl; Skk.

//

nimatl; Lkun.

N. nlwa
'excl.' (B.).
'we'; Kw. nu T (B.), -^nux^^
tlningitl.
Coola
Bella
'to
"
nu
jigin 'song', *ydwdn;
sing'(B.); Pcntlatch
yam
lulum 'to sing'(B.).N. nu'to sing',nuk
'to sing',nunuk
'song',nuydwa 'to be
Hail,
'to
singing';
sing'(B.).
ninuya
Shuswap -kin 'head' (B.) (= -qin)\Okan.
-dyaksn (B.) (= -qsn): Comox
'hair'
Pent,
md-qin 'hair';
(B.) ( sxiqin);Snan. smdqin (B.); Lil. mdqin
sqikin
'head', causative
(B.). N. -(^ri"
-qia).
-qinup; Hail, -kia (B.) (
Comox

Comox

susln

'mouth';

Pent. -Sis. susin

(B.);

Snan.

'mouth'
ssms
(B.); Lil. cucin (B.). Kw.-Hail.
hiwus
Pent.
-Sis.
(B.). Hail,
higus 'chief;
Comox
waxdti
'pipe';Pent, waq'ac^n (B.). Cf.
receptacle'(B.).

cuc^n

Comox

-Lkun.

sosin

(B.); Skk.

(B.).
himas
Kw.

'chief" (B.).
wax'aci

'pipe, smoke

Vf

468

tipatil'bag'.

Comox

storing

mafdy

Comox

mus

q'lgas 'deer'.

si-su-sii'ad-id).

N.

Kw.

tdq^a

Comox

tictids

sacup

'owl'.

tu-tx^lal

basket

for

Comox

xasam

pui.

'a/7 'cohoe

^a

[173]

'sea-otter'.

qds-

(dim.

salmon'
'small

5flcm

si-sad-ul,
Kw.

salmon';

dim.

plur.
'spring

sac^m

borrowed

(perhaps

'owl'

from

Comox

-Id).
(dim.
in

'beaver'.

'box'.

Kw.
plur. titax'''tutx'''lat).

'to

t^x^-

fasten';

cradle-board'.
'afax^'-

N.

'beaver'.

x^'dp

Kw.

basket'.

'baby

t^q''' 'octopus'.

d^xd^xdlit

Kw.

'necklace'

fakum'

xdp

N.

'deer'.

Kw.

'fastening strings

'cradle'.

'box';

Kw.

xac^m

Comox

/c wJMr"porpoise'.

Kw.

Comox

A:/r"little

Comox

k'ikdyu

'bailer',

napim

N.

"

*xas-'im

'little

(?).

k'ik'^w^lx'^'^n
Comox

finger'.

/:'w/wr"porpoise'.
k'dd-

Kw.

'third

'mt.

from
in

York:

Columbia

with

s^lt'-

'little

instrumental

finger').

-ayu).

Kw.

'bar'.

laqas

Excerpt

finger' (Kw.

loan-word

(Kw.

'oar'

goat

blanket'.

Kw.

Editorial

New

cedarbark

clam'.

po'i 'halibut';

Kw.

'tyee salmon',

folk-etymological

Comox

box'

'bow'.

t'iapdt'big

mu.

cAwas
Kw.

'devil-fish'.

Comox

tux'^'i

N.

sas-).

(stem

Comox

Kw.

'tyee salmon',

Comoxsdcam

Comox

hk'^isi

'large

ma/-

*piwdy.

"

'sea-otter'.

qdsa

Kw.

mu,

'halibut',

Comox

N.

clam',
N.

'four'.

pigdy

with

pull',

'basket';

ftabat

Kw.

'horse

Comox

salmon'

'to

tish'.

dried

Comox

Comox

hk""-

Kw.

'bow\

iaq"^

Comox

Languages

Indian

American

Morris,

Swadesh,

Smith,

Marian

Columbia

University

W.

(ed.),

University
Press.

"The

hq-

put

down

soft

things'.

Note

Linguistic

Indians

Press

'to

of

(1949).

the

Approach
Urban

Reprinted

to

Northwest,

Salish

history,"
Pre-

171-173.

by permission

of

Section

Other

American

Nine:

Languages

WHILE
I

had

of

thus
As

if

add,

As

for what

to

of

from

will here

be

they

are

worth

of

use

to

If in

nothing else, perhaps

have

been

attained

with

recorded
in

to

in the

the

student
the

what

greater

they

listed

phonetic

at

Siouan

of value

are

only
material

difficulty.

They

may

than

accuracy

and

record.

on

some

data.

of comparative

words

obtained

of

amount

it

thought

put

with

the

that

hope

be

hear
siderable
con-

remembered

small

discuss

been

Andrew

extorted

was

made

prove

that

to

remember

to

still to

already

191 1,

Sprague

childhood

language,

was

had

and

him

time

what

out

Tutelo,

his

supposed

extinct

an

what

fact, it turned

of

attempt

is

August,

Andrew

named

during

was

oblivion

mite,

obtained

be

who

Tutelo

little indeed

could

and

in

Ontario,

Indian

opportunity

from

only

Reserve,

Cayuga

had

rescue

matter

very

No

to

of

fluently

it.

VOCABULARY^

Nations

told

was

spoken

imperative

Six

on

who
Tutelo

TUTELO

are

given
future

some

linguistics.
because
is

they

generally

vocabularies.

mere

Persons

mihqii) stjk''man

niska'

wdrewd^

kukdk^

woman

marjgidd^

grandfather

cousin

my

urjgidd'^his

child, children-

cousin

Animals

map^ayerjk^

ox,

cow,

cattle

ts^u-qgide^
dog")

ts^urjk^dog

ts^mjgnve'^wolf

mqsgolp"^ pig
hemp

(literally, "big

horse

(literally, "like

dog")

frog

dalusgik'' cat
babosgp'"

deer

buck

Objects
maksdpd'"'
*

Published

mdO^'" knife

bread
by

permission of

the

Geological
295

Survey

of

Canada.

VI

472

American

Languages

Indian

296
stick

yqhe'"-lacrosse

salt

matsiggyg

false

face

bebahe'". pepper

wahgk^mf^

wddeztn

meni'lgdCe'q''^kettle

sugar

wohe'"

meni-

soup

wdsakse'^

gdk^saginagg''

grinding

in

shorts

silver

corn

(evidently

tains
con-

"water")

jug, jar, glass, bottle

meni'lgodg
(dit.)

armlet

kdembdi'^

pipe
ngni' tobacco

kcembdi

Adjectives

Adverbs,

river

udaphdi''' up
btwd

mg.^gang,^ga'"'white

river

down

ddbada''^

mg^'ganq'ga''^white

mihg

man

mg'gang'kasit'' negro

good

nyAgutsgA.htli' dizzy
nihetsgah^li'dizzy

woman

man

Pronoun
I

hentgu
Verbs

u'dluC

maksapd'"^

wdgetfi'^ to

eat

bread

hadit^gileda he's

weCgil'ldalet's

givA^giltdaI

must

gone

home

home

go

bllahuk^

thank

h^h" giddya

home

go

I'm

wdk^niendabewd

dance

going

to

you!

k^ek^iik^arewaya surely,

everything

is all

right

Numerals
1,

bigs

6, agds

2,

ngs

7,

3,

nd

8, pelqk'

4,

til

9,

5,

^^

10,

Phonetic

Short

sakii

s^k'
bitskd^

Note

vowels

German

as

in

English

hat

i,

as

in French

fini

as

in

English

met

q,

as

in French

beau

ete

u,

as

in

as

in German

Sohn

as

in German

gut

as

a,
e,
e,

Long

i, as

in

a,

as

in French

Mann

in

English

bit

English put

Vowels

o,

as

in German

Kahn

6,

e,

as

in German

See

u,

i,

as

in German

Sie

bed

Nine:

Other

473

Languages

American

297

vowels

Nasalized
as

in French

quand

4,

as

in French

vin

",

nasalized

open

(not

g,

nasalized

close

(0), not

open

g.,

ji, nasalized
q,

long

g,

g,

long

as

open

vin)

in French

as

open

as

in French

bon

Diphthong
ai,

in

as

mein

German

Consonants

Stopped
b, d,

g, sonant

stops

in

as

English

p, t, k, tj, "intermediate"
p,

stops
surds

k, ts, unaspirated

-,

p\ t\ k\ ts\ aspirated surds

ts\ aspirated

between

(midway

ts

and

ts

tc

of English church)

Continuants
as

in English

y,

as

in

English

h,

as

in

English

s,

as

in

English

c,

as

in

English

w,

she

spirant,

6, interdental

I, (approximately)
r, trilled

(alveolar?).

in

English

n,

as

in

English

t],

as

in

English sing

in English thick

in English

as

as

m,

as

k^ek^^ik^arewaya r sounded

In

much

like /

second

part

Miscellaneous

', glottal stop

-a'"

(and similarly for

*, final breath

release

*, occurs

as

', main

once

Ottawa,

glide

vowel

stress

^, secondary
Geological

("echoed")

is murmured

which

stress

Survey

Ontario

of

vowels), broken

other

Canada

from

to

vowel,

of

Review

of

Benigno Bibolotti,Moseteno
and

Moseteno

Vocabulary and

Vocabulary

Treatises

Treatises.

ciscan
Benigno Bibolotti, Priest of the Frande
Covendo
in
Bolivia. From
Concepcion
an
unpublished manuscript in possession of Northwestern
UniversityLibrary.
With
Introduction
an
by Rudolph Schuller. Northwestern
University:Evansand Chicago, 1917. pp. cxiii,141, facsimile,
ton
of Bolivia.
map

The

Mission

of Immaculada

external

facts

publicationof this sumptuously printed

volume
in his preface: "Northwestern
are
given by Dr. Schuller
University
Library possesses a fairlylarge collection of unpublished Spanish manuscripts
which
States... Professor
Lichtenstein,
are
probably unique in the United
Librarian
of Northwestern
University, acquired this material, consisting of
Donato
Lanza
books, pamphlets, early periodicalsand the like, from Sehor
y
Lanza
during a sojourn in Bolivia. In September, 1916, Professor Lichtenstein
and
asked
collate the manuscripts and
them
for the
to arrange
me
prepare
binder. While
examining the different packages in order to make a preliminary
selection
of the papers
according to the subjects treated in them, I found
Bibolotti's
manuscript dealing with the Moseteno
language. The unexpected
since
it
is
all
the
extensive
materials
more
concerns
important
discovery
author
of a relatively
little studied
Bolivian
gathered together by a yet unknown
Indians
who
have
almost
vanished.
idiom
If
there
still
are
aboriginal
spoken by
of them
be
to
a few
remaining without
foreign admixture, they are destined
of
in
the
future
the
absorbed
near
by
completely
tion...
amalgamaprocess
Within

long
work

of

written
The

an

habitat
east

time

province
of the

American

Yungas.

as

and

more

or

tribes."

Indian
whom

less between

the alarmingly

manuscript

little is known:

very

or

Chomanes,

Bolivia; their territorywas

More

The

to

is the
it

was

1868.

Chumanos

Moseteno-Chumano

of the Beni,

will be added

Moseteno

concerning

1857

known

of western
of

the

of the

name

South

between
also

tribes

to

Franciscan,

Italian

some

the

years

list of extinct

Moseteno,

the Andean

present

few

leading up

exactly,to
embraced
15" and

quote
the

are

were

embraced

from

mountainous

16" south

or

Dr.

one

within
Schuller.

regions to

latitude, and

of
the
"the
the

69" to 71"

in the
the Yurucare;
neighbors were
longitude west of Paris. Their eastern
territories
Mobima
and
Moxo,
far
the
north they reached
or
as
as
occupied by
and
lacana
Leco
speaking
they touched
Mojo, tribes, and in the northwest
peoples. The natural border to the south and the west is the range of the higher
Andes."

476

VI

Indian

American

editorial work

has been

Languages 2

and the volume

is a
painstaking,
to our
knowledge
exceedingly tangled and
highlywelcome
Bolivian
his
of
In
Dr.
obscure
linguistics.
lengthy introduction
problems
Indians and
Schuller discusses firstthe manuscript;the author; the Moseteno
of
Missions
intercourse
for
the Franciscan
turies
cen("inspite uninterrupted
many
culture
of
Peru
and
with the more
the
Bolivia,
developed
highly
primitive
Dr. Schuller

most

of the

addition

tribes,like the Moseteno,

and

Tacana,

critical

Leco,

Araona,

etc.,

analysisof

were

not

much

enced'');
influ-

previouswritingson
Pages
in
of
edge
knowlour
give digest English
present
based on Bibolotti and other writers (Wendell, Heath,
of Moseteno,
as
Armentia). This section includes notes on phonetics;vocabularies; grammatical
formation
of
number,
(nouns:
gender,
nouns,
grammatical
processes
relative and demonstrative,
personal,possessive,
cases; adjectives;
pronouns:
indefinite,interrogative;
numerals; adverbs; prepositions;
conjunctions;[184]
classification of verbs, tenses, the imperativemood, the
verbs: verbal stems,
other
on
suffixes,
moods); and general observations
participialmood,
and
affiliated
and
Of
the
three
reduplication,
languages
peoples.
appendices,
is devoted
The
to a full bibliographyof manuscript and printedsources.
one
of Bibolotti s Spanish text (Spanish-Moseteno
body of the work is a transcript
and
supplementary papers).
vocabulary
cated
A few of the more
interesting
pointsmay be noted here. Sex gender is indiand adjectives
in nouns
by distinctive suffixes (e.g.,
"babyboy':
izanqui-t
moci-t
'new'
'new'
T
here
is
suffix
moci-s
m.:
a genitive
f.).
izanqui-s'babygirl';
of local case
in -s or -si,also a number
suffixes. The curiously
ican
widespread Amersecond
here once
nouns
us
more
{mi 'thou').Prosingularin m- meets
person
with
the
verb
welded
but occur
not
are
stem,
independently(e.g.,ye
number
of verbal suffixes have been isolated by
A considerable
queti'I plant').
intensive study of Moseteno,
is
Dr. Schuller,but more
at firsthand, if possible,
needed
clear their functions. Phonetically,
Moseteno
would seem
to make
to be
"far from agreeableto the ear"; it has many
"clusters of totally
heterogeneous
xxviii to

xcv

givesa

of the introduction

Moseteno.

and other lanIn this respect it differs from Tacana, Cavineno

guages
of the Bolivian highlands,
approaching the "Chaco-Guaycuru linguistic

consonants."

family,although it does
Dr. Schuller

not

have

finds that "the

the

impressionthat the
to the Cavineno."
particularly

convey

the

with the latter." Nevertheless,

affinity
slightest
structure
morphologicaland syntactical

Moseteno

is related

to

the Tacana

group,

and

thoroughnessof his task, and students of

American
him a very real debt of gratitude.
owe
linguistics
Perhaps one maybe
for
the
wish
that
pardoned, however,
penetrating first-hand
expressing
phoneticand morphologicalstudies of a number of South American
languages,
of a standard
North
accessible
for
certain
corresponding to some
already
American
minable
interof time. These
to us in the course
languages,be vouchsafed
vocabularies, grammatical notes, and classificatory
are,
speculations
let us hope, but the harbingersof more
substantial meals.
Dr. Schuller

leaves

no

doubt

of the

Other

Nine:

Editorial

Originally

in

published

All

Languages

American

Note

International

Journal

of

American

1,

Linguistics

183-184(1918).
is

Moseteno
with

Panoan,

Sapir

phylum.

singular

person

linguistic

unity

unpublished
letter
cited

to

m-

linguistic

of

notes

Frank
'second

m-"
all

on

is

(p.

184)
nearly

cited

group,

of
"the

on

(or

person',
genetic

"proto

Speck

although

number

remark

passing
in

isolate,

and

Tacanan,

his

all)

American"
in

"Amerind"

only

with/?-

in

(1984:

Sherzer

(1987:

49-57).

452),

as

it

second
the

to

possible

languages;

(1971:

person',

includes

"Macro-Panoan"
American

Indian

Golla

13-13)

allusion

published

'first

his

widespread

American

and

(1987:

groups

curiously

in

Darnell

together

Greenberg
smaller

and

27).
evidence

see

Greenberg
for

his
in

remark

has

sphere-wide
hemi-

Appendix

Review

Edward

Sapir:Notes

Chasta

on

and

of
Costa

Piumology

Morphology
G.

A.

Morice

Sapir achieved latelywhat the French could not help callinga veritable
de force. Enlarging upon
material
tour
linguistic
incidentallyderived from an
bits
of
an
Indian, mere
aboriginallanguage which would not fillone commonsized page, he managed to write in explanation of the same
fewer than sixtyno
of first-class philological
literature. His Notes
the Chasta
Costa
on
seven
pages
and
and
are
not
Phonology
Morphology,
perfectlyilluminating,
betray
only a
but a quite creditable
After
ear
analyticacumen.
thirty-two-years'
very keen
of
the
of
which
his
"Chasta
Costa"
Dene
to
languages,
study
belongs, I
group
of the most
Dr. Sapir'sessay one
monographs
am
tempted to pronounce
satisfactory
issued on
of
the
southern
of its kind ever
Dene
languages.
any
work
does
than mere
and so far as comThe
not
pleteness
notes,
pretend to be more
with
elaborate
is concerned
it could
not
more
productions
compare
might also object to
already published on the Hupa and Navajo dialects. Some
and disaphas resorted
the graphic signs the author
to in transcribinghis texts
prove
Dr. E.

of the

which

strange appearance

sometimes

results
and

His

therefrom.

own

in
have
been
or
simpler
language might furthermore
that, with few unimportant exceptions, he has
complexion. But I maintain
rendered
not
only the phonetics but the morphology of
grasped and faithfully
idiom

an

I note

intricacies

whose

be

must

specialsatisfaction

with

the

A: s,

and

well

above

as

taken

to

These

Dene.

not

exist in the southern

to

perceive thcni

presumption

for which

Dene

guages,
lan-

oi their

or

was

e\en

task.
are

indeed,

must

students
a

it be

particularsounds, such as
glottalexplosions,which I had

lingualand

"

unless

average,

Latin

those

in his paper
the

as
aspirated
asserted,
always thought, and sometimes
of former
in spiteof the inability
their texts
in noting down
carelessness

r s

the

less Hellenic

as

that

essential

many

I felt

they

could

points of the Dene phonetics, so very essential.

not
possibly be missing in any dialect clainnng

the
In Dene
the vowels
are
languages of the North.
relationship
Hesh
the
dialect
in
the
same
flesh of the body: they vary according to the
way as
The consonants
is different
in quantity or texture
according to the individuals.
much
therefore
more
of its makeup,
the bones
important, ht)mogeneous,
are
be
the grammar
and persistent,while
compared to the arteries, without
may
the

to

which

blood,

affect

letters

Dene

body

to

that
or

Dene

is life, could

groups
stand.

of letters

not
are

circulate
the

very

therein.
nerves

Hut
w

the

"clicks"

liich alone

enable

which
the

483

Appendix

not

feet,

in

the

same

his

as

way

la

should

be

translated

hands,

hand.

not

Sapir

Dr.

and
loss
have
ti

but

foot,

mean

is

to

betrays

offer

not

verbal

the

through
Babine

of

equivalents
of
This

the

verb

is

about
and

rendering

the

tla,

ceti

'he

The

last

(30).

It

Do

be

-At,

is

the

in

has

same

seen,

at

do-

or

at-

rather

negation

the

an,

particles
They

cases.

'wife';

means

or

the

are

-//

is

the

has'.

sum

total

of
of

interpreting

the

the

criticisms

southern

have

dialect

to

he

make

on

that

introduces

to

author
the

lological
phi-

world.

Editorial

Originally
Reprinted

by

disappeared

These

many

is

criticism

one

verb,

regular

cptii.

ble,
admira-

one

compound

Carrier

the

have

we

than

of

simply
which

more

the

omitted

as

is

essay
material

Nahanais

usse,

ne...pas.

is
of

formation.
Sekanais

his

syllable

element

conveniently

French

the

Scarcely

believes

word

North,

the

acquired.

paper.

he

his

of

was

his

closes

morphology

pronominal

of

Chilcotin
in

can,

as

the

process

so-,

words

root

since

stem,

the
it

which

text

into

of

part

suffix,"

"noun

short

how,

or

this

on

the

insight

an

where,

know

I to

of

analysis

published

in

permission

of

American
the

American

Note

Anthropologist
Anthropological

17,

347-350
Association.

(1913).

CHASTA

COSTA

AND

DENE

THE

LANGUAGES

OF

THE

NORTHi

By

ALL

material
but

the

by

their

time
to

different

quite

it.

No

"villain

the

of
of

"servant

in

its

component

parts,

those

unaltered
had

modern

feel

which

in

in

their

Chaucer's
attributes

usage

flattered

the

occasionally

parts

remain

expression

such

alterations

called

being

by

originally

for

in

of

the

the

meant

time,

but

words
said

though

rather

due

linguistic borrowing

instance,

of

meaning

philology,

aboriginal
result

other

to

changed

or

were

introduced

with

the

So

domestic

northern

interior

to

phonetic
with

that

which

of

Rockies.

the

cattle,

had

by

Later

so

to

the

the

much

the
of

natives

half-

ful
wonder-

million

about

"

the
of

requirements

the

o\'er

cattle

by

mcestus

of

wake

domestic

on,

dubbed

and

heard

conformably

ce

the

told

in

region,

that

roamed

country

same

natives

the

game

mustus,
the

of

was

never

Cree-speaking

When

they

traders,

east

in

altered

of

Columbia.

called

they
plains

being

British

There

clearer.

meaning

my

Company

animal
immense

make

the

Northwest

Edward

would

the

as,

within

reached

be

will

example

breeds

days

American

not

such

buffalo

law

alterations

of

which

growth

environment.

An

the

that

the

that

the

"villain"

word

from

an

of

in

may

circumstances

by

fact

Lord."

instances

alterations

cultural

our

Lord,"

wanting

not

any

the

the

Likewise,
are

of

Christian

only

they

the

value

the

which

while

instance,

with

morphology,

evolution

meaning

For

structure.

not

the

make-up,

O.M.I.

familiar

are

remarkable

in

undergo

MORICE,

is evidenced

language

G.

scholars

English
of

a.

analogy
of

ii

the

mus

Dene

sequence.
time

mcestus

of

instead

further

discussion

of

Sapir.

See

above.

p.

347

Noles

to

came

the

on

buffalo

Chasla

559

be
to

Cosla

understood

universally
which

Phonology

alone

and

the

name

Morphology,

of
is

by

486

VI

Indian

American

Languages

560
and

strictlyspeaking applicable,

it tlokcst moestus,

called

they

latter

the

buffalo

cattle). Meantime,
turn,

the

gave

the

when

of

name

had

mustiis

aivokhdni-mustus,

slave

to

(lit.grass-on

the

to

refer

to

prairie cattle

or

remained

Carrier

Cree

who,
domestic

to

ox,

in

cattle.
Here
the

of

importation

Costa
the

of

meaning

transformation,

populations

word.

the

the

shifting
it to

Dr

have

action
of

several

are

time,

environment,

analogous
with

unless, of

alien

course,

the

on

roots

or

an

contact

information

imperfect

Chasta

on

terms

undergone

of

from

resulting

"Notes

Sapir's

there

to

seems

through

or

In

Morphology,"

which

ascribe

to

loan

and

Philology

choose

therefore, significatory evolution

have,

we

we

of

part

the

essayist.
characteristic

Sapir gives
is

us

evidently

"bird"

instance
whole

Dr

Sapir's
Color

fact

well

is too

house

the

entirely

of

ground,

as

we

still

both

the

"dog,"
'

me

that

of

time

double

shelter

in

the

all

taken

language
in this
the

represent

likely

more

been

ever

more

or

sh.
the

see

of

Dr

that

as

for

one

another

by

French

However,

it

would

denotes

je,

that

Dene

along

variants

mark

in

see

sense

Chasta

is my

te, le.

probability by

Carrier,

in the

the

Sapir's

this

to

lines

Costa
are

the
ce,

unknown

"click"

almost

squatting

on

in
the

Dr
sound

which

latter
of the

texts,
in

"

and

but,"

result

regions,
for

term

In

unimportant.

of

the

affects
the

perhaps

form

Sapir's

North.

in the

possessive

everywhere

almost

is

and

great

no

consisted

mutation,

word

whole

something

of the

recesses

the

like

roof

require

word

of

shape

of

denotes

habitation

terminological

growth

in the

lent

in the

some

and

be

when

curious

exclamation
c

be

to

come

This

that

possible

in

to

of the

li, whose

The

with

"bird."
in that

"roof"

means

Costa.

still

found

be

have

to

seem

which

structure

of accident
is to

Is it

tdac,^ which

term

iscpz,which

should

have

to

imagination

reminiscence

known

Chasta

flight of

Carrier

to

seems

also

pcen,

in

English

word

informant.

would

that

thing

one

This

thing?

thing

of

the

in the

"feather-down."

but

part

than

I find

of the

equivalent

other

none

not

means

the

as

of this

instance

with
more

him

the

as

exactly

487

Appendix

561
South

in the

as

into

sibilant

/; but

the

analogy

Sapir,

to

of

litse

this

again

of

change

Carrier

I find

t'enl'lat

as

on

the

adds, by

is

if

rather

to

an

act

which

would

have
"1

of the

of the

of

bottom,

tion
accre-

of my

tse.

Is

she-dog!

development

of

or

"Notes."

There

drown,"

is

of

we

former

the

not

us

this

to

he

sents
repre-

stance
circumof

float.

to

meet

with

term

in

float," but

"you

or

and

is conscious

evidently

North

of the

to

gives

This

there."

author

our

drown

he

tcnniiUat, which

floated

"it

time,

this

coupled,

perfectly recognizable

verb

that

it

how

but

what
some-

theniltlat,
sink,"

"you

in

does

that

he

which

"

but

the

as

former,

expressive of

the

act

of

staying

on

at

Sapir

as

the

to

"bottom

the

at

while

theR, "water-bottom"),

Carrier

refers

"referring

it hints

two

floating?

water,"

the

"in

of

that

For

said.

gives

the

word

principal one

the

mean

signification

the

drowning, namely

merely

302,

p.

(from
is

not

by

the

that

explain

to

we

Costa

Chasta

of

Sapir's verb, though

Dr

are

self-exclusive, I have

are

really

seen,

of

synonym

opposite

tha-

"

water"

exact

the

-laty

surface

same.

the

on

Carrier

"I

nacya,

walk

tha-Rcel, "deep"
the-,

near

the

surface,

hand,

other

quite logical construction.

Compare:

word

self-exclusive, while

is the

Theniltlat,

'

is

the

meaning;

seem

North,

has

have

we

but

dog,

English "you

the

is rendered

-lat

and

in the

as

it in

to

least

of

drown,"

the

be

not

which

water,

the

sinkest."

"thou

of

The-

Costa

equivalent

vocable,

Sapir's

Carrier

the

"you

of drowning

roots

Dr

counterpart

not

may

in

voucher

to

turn

we

it is nearest
act

of

which

significations:to

means

This

result

synonym

homonymous

or

the

comparison,

of

Kato

of

of

equivalent

virtually

diversity

which

tc!e,the

cording
Ac-

further.

any

go

in Chasta

somebody's

meaning

311

p.

way

the

But

not

entails

writes

formation,

anomalous

as

does

possessive

the

by

cause?

Another
an

I is converted

not

accident,

mere

he

in Carrier,

means

other

some

possessive

this

of suffix which

sort

Now

he

the

common

with

North,

The

along;"
(water);
-Ka).

of

is easy

-tlat refers

desinence

nce-lha-dxcya,
the-husKa,

explanation

"I

"shallow"

walk

in

(may

the

to

water,

be

of

and
any

pre-

I wade."

analyzed:

the

yf

488

Indian

American

Languages

.S62

thou

precipitatelybrought

art

of

Apropos

be

must

{-el)certainly

"we

are

has

the
As

he

or

from

results

desinential

of

walk

it is but

the

first
from

Dene

-al

as

while

to

There

desinential

those

for his nadayllel,

(');

which
ncetsoel'il,

Carrier

The

roots.

Such

birds).

feet
is

as

idea

the

the

form

of

between

of

action

the

is another

Carrier

in

meaning

going
adverbs,

dissimilarity of

merely

(there

man

-ya,

coming,"

of locative

apposition
not

of

"going,

difference

the

come,"

"to

mean

of

denotes

to

corresponding

prefixes,

sufifix -ya

both

on

believes

place,
the

of

diversity

about

moving

in

he

expressing

as

In

-yal.

flows

coming

and

that

suspect

be

-al, which

stem

represents

should

and

verbal

the
than

more

the

than

-el and

coming.

or

initial hiatus

other

none

kills me."

first of

The

sinkest.

respectively,

going

to

value.

same

to

which

is

bathing,"

of

amounts

is, thou

stems

coming,

here.
the

verbal

the

and

bathing

wants

verb

that

bottom,

is synonymous

-ya

whole

scezcelreh,"water

thu

slight inaccuracy

radicals

of

acts

desinence

the

the

to

Sapir gives

water,

the

representing
him

in Carrier

is said

I drown"

"

the

closely analyzed,

and,

cipitate action,

the

for

of

word

the

noecya.

But

form,

this

changes
"

which

means

is also
the

tnyal,

go

tiz

of

the

act

is rendered

of

of

act

with

their

"come

(which

recalls

P.

323

here";

actualizing

desinence

into

Sapir's

legs).

adverbs,

locative

hwaz

cecyal,

This

form

there";

inyal, "go

yi'al, the equivalent,

An

in

as

he

on").

liy the

changed

of his essay.

-xe

moving

value,

to

{-Ke). Now,

new

to

paddling,
about

evidence

in

(-to)as

-t!o

stem

'

{-to)refers
or

verb

while, according

radical

navigating,

the

quotes

swimming,

of words?

"

with

I call the

both

(with

connection

tnyal,

dialects, the former

the

in

furthermore

Sapir

its characteristic

and

used

claims, of "come
Dr

verb, which

same

actually walking"

am

on

of the

term

commonly

phrases:

'cen

form

another

him,

that

in most
while

the

canoe.

of evolution

of

denotive

paddling

northern
latter
Are

Dene

indicates

those

in the

roots,

meaning

489

Appendix

563
The

verbal

attributes
dream
have

of

sense

(with

closely related
If Dr

else

plural

is in

stem

Likewise,
of

the

"to
for

misled

otherwise

roots

or

him?

that

the

desinence

element,^

is

nothing

nanisthi, whose

lie down,

to

go

bed."

That

for the

past,

-thez

present,

tive
deriva-

future.

verbal

desinence

-ta, "to

stem

"to

Sapir's informant

observe

the

of

reflection.

verb

same

-thes

proximate

verbal

words

distinct verbal

as

of

Carrier

Sapir's

the

gives

value

unwittingly

moment's

I will also

me,

stem

of

author

our

the

Dr

not

thus

and

meaning

worth

which

to

in Carrier

Might

effectively means

-thoes for the

form

he

plural

the

nthcesthih

and

well

will allow

Sapir

than

the

-//a//

has

sleep,"

questioner

in

are

which
(-thcec),

-tc'ac

"to

his

changes

such

rather

or

complement).

misunderstood

If not,
so

the

of"

-lal,

stem

td!i

(tsi)is simply

sit," which

he

the

plural

elsewhere

gives

as

-da.
Our

essayist
the

denoting
substantive

former

idea

-Kwe

he

I, and,
form

passive

he

seen,

is

(French:

As

form

as

plural

person
should

be
of

are

be

-tsi

cannot

be

understood

their

own
2

P.

'P.

the

(Carrier

language,

325-

the

up:

-Isi,

Were
would

click)

/ which

he

For

remark

same

its t,
he
have

as

been

am

am

seen,

of

the

instance,

as

to

with

spared

the

are

you

me"

see

first

-se,

this

by
Denes'

little

"to
is in

person

even

the
Hence

etc.

verb

the

the

to

in

occurrence

in

penultimate
several

cry,"

of

should

-so); -si, "to

examples

syllabic

inaccuracy.

//

consonants

sing.); -lo, "to

the

form

passive

double

frequent

attributes

of

much

very

"people

The

315.

are

is shown

familiar

the

explain

syllables of all Sapir's verbs

singular

person

of

in Carrier

-tlal,-tsoel,-tlal, -these,

first

that

etc.

t'illal,
p.

The

incomplete.

without

he

thee,"

by

groups.

as

Carrier

elements

to

"

simply:

that

verbal

Unless

means

state

affected

one:

are

explanation.

326.

be

cut

last

the

323-26

to

the

equivalent

see

(-Kwi)

the

learn

to

in order

verbs.

Sapir's rendering:

may

wrongly

should

in

really

of

trouble

the

as

etc.,

indivisible

(Carrier -tso, though

adduces

by

seen

which

many

pp.

on

adduces

pleased

value

Costa

of interest

commence

stems

Chasta

it with

dialect.

some

voit),"people

be

(both

ts

and

he

me

may

and

the

to

goes

-xwi

root

compares

the

on

the

will be

Carrier

Lower

he

seen,"

on

It may

'

of

what

mistaken,

He

speculates

332,

p.

and

vomiting,

in the

Elsewhere
and

of

"vomiting."

ku,

is

properly represents

very

way

the
of

Dene

the

first

syllable
his
be

verb
-tse

cause,"

laugh,"
Doctor

writing

Appendix

491

565
tion

him

to

him

towards
As

that

to the

which

can

be

by

idtntsi'

share

form

personal

unipersonal

decomposed:

"one

that

him

is, I feel

with

verb.

For

"me;"

s-,

incHned

reality a regular phrase

(5-,"-,

pronouns

much

so

others.

of this verb, it is in

the

is added
thus

avaricious,

or

I cannot

passive

commencing
to

bad,"

am

u-,

nuh-, pcB-),

ne-,

instance, the first

ke-,

person

to,"

attraction

"by

is avaricious."^

The

analysis applies

same

want-of

something
verbs

with

"

the

cedcesni

Such

cekwotni

fail to

not

passives, however,

the

usual

as

not

are

verbal

tense:

past,

-idtntsi', -hwotni,

part

eventual,

of

which

initial

in

alone

Carrier.

according

But

future, skeidoethi-

SKa'hwodoni.

The

tive
nega-

niceties

Lastly,
the

first.

this.

of the
other

many

second

in such

but

forms,

then

it is

the

cases

as

that

verbs

obtain
into

the

even

skoeleidttsi'

becomes

the

It is

active, both

our

naincelneh, he

Ex.:

only right
is

passive

our

far.

too

us

passive merely by changing

first.

extinguished.
of

lead

cacies
intri-

of the

question

would

their

the

equivalent
of

into

Entering

conjugation

form

primary

Skeidintsi'

Carrier

verbs

it; nanisno,
that

verbal

those

of

enough

and

only

not

-ke of the

postposition
etc.

affects

the

to

furthermore

of

a'-

hiatus.

proximate

skeidutsi'

one-says
of

both

numerous

varies

skeidantsi', sKa'hwodani;

tsi',
SKa'hwodcethatnil;

the

very

Their

in

elision

by

for-the-

(me-for

meaning),

remark

represented

(lit.,him

SKa'hwotni

to

impersonal

very

will

reader

and

and

something)

I-say

UKwa'dcssni

to

just

to

tinguishes
dis-

remark

much

as

being independent

of

of each

other.
If

we

expresses

to

the

ideas

is rendered

represents
"I

"he

or

'

affects

The
most

well

is said
boasts

it lies
d of

Dr

both

According
drinking
the

infinity of

refers

to

the

when

on," which

Carrier

and

self-interest,

verbs.

Costa

that

by

the

-tuk

lying

corresponding

and

belongs

to

to

former

(which

is

the

an

-na

In Carrier

on.

is transiti\e, while

according

-to

authority,

same

of

radical
The

sucking.

latter
to

as

verb

roots

change

Chasta
and

swimming

of

act

cesnai
an

dinlsi'

of the

the

the

Sapir,

in Carrier

onomatopeia).

as

drink"

language

of

by -pe, -pi
of

instance

believe

are

to

the

the

English
of

nature

characteristic

same

form

the
which

VI

492

Languages 2

Indian

American

566
We

subject.
does

for

duty

also

are

"to

equivalent

second,

it all

the

the

the

means

Indians

then

is

with

To

the

root

the

It refers, he

shame.

three

or

the

the

to

of

the
With

is -yan
"to

be

indicate

plural

either

commencing

we

be

may

In
verbs

of interest
the

first

and

qe-

the

desinential

is

question
'

"Notes,"

to

by

coalescing with,

Sapir
those

meat,

if the

cestleh,literally

the
qce.

radical
of

p. 306.

verb

is

him, and

Dr

he
or

Dene

the

particle

for each
of human

E.

of

the

general

Sapir

writes:

ros-

r-,

as

"

this

is the

the

three

locomotion

of

rI-

or

the

subject,

both

such

as

Columbia

all the

prefixed

equivalents

plural

of

well.

particular

on

that

examples

of British

others

to

"Among

prefixes

few

this

dialects

pounds
com-

specificallythird

us

on

two

synonym.
some

is ya.

more

two

of the

in

certain

or

element

to

the

one

and

personal plural

pronominal

On

-yt.

verb)

gives

possibly

third

Added

not

such

the

tribe, while

English

say,

reckoned

word

other

the

root

the

they

plurality as

and

of

legs is,

is rendered

eating

tsiyan, and

tallies with

of verbs

of

it is in Carrier

be

both

on

the

by

and

manducation,

half

it

of

number

idiom.

is what

to

in ya-.

place,

is rendered

Chilcotin

have

If Dr

larger

even

act

northern

Whereupon

find it in the Carrier

the

(substantive,

further

are

but

in that

I am,"

the

to

an

for eatable

exactly

personal plurality." ^
verbs

Carriers

be, soot;"

loet pe

locomotion

ashamed,"

for shame

root

elements
to

serve

into

the

to

as

If this refers

the

to

cause

human

replace

word

structure

regard

deictic

the

instance,

locomotion,

the

same

Chilcotin

verb

whose

the

a'stli,"ashamed

Yuya

or

this

in Carrier;

-ya

for manducation
As

first case,

therefor.

to

says,

-'al among

part

hand,

root

make,

Normal

by

desinence

southern

other

the

pipe,

for

essayist attributes

our

-ya

feeling of

the

-lee

by smoking.
of the

skin, they change

in fact, expressed

by

desinence

I make.

significations.
the

the

is intransitive, and,

smoke,

tscel a;ssi,"I

In

onomatopeia)

with

treating

say:

complement
smoke

of

verb

votaries

of

case

Costa

smoke."

is meant

of the

(another

act

"to

and

what

on

pastime

-ta:t

root

in Chasta

is -le, if the

depends

favorite

that

wager"

Carrier

to

told

Carrier
to,
of

inflexion

persons

when

legs {-ya

or

the
of
it
-til

493

Appendix

567

in

the

{-kraih
of

{-pi
of

plural),

singular

of

-ras),

natation

the

with

{-ke

the

human

for the

of

verbs

{-thi

cubation

for

the

singular, second
The

to

for

for
both

-zit

swoon:

throw:

(to

-this),

third

singular,

-'il, first conjugation

complement

-Kcek).

-neh

-til,

for the

plural),of bursting

of

make

verbs

flotation

their

navigation.

well, furthermore

indeed

and

plural desinences,

All of these
as

-tse),of

-'as),of running

plural), of physical feeling (to suffer,

and

as

{-kret

-'il,first conjugation

laughter {-tsit

plural

(-/a

navigation

conjugation

into

all fours

on

station

-teh),oiejection
first

locomotion

plural), of

material

undergo

singular desinences

the

according

changes

the

to

tense.

Then
their
"I

there

tenses

certain

of

plural

desinential

(in

put

objective verbs,

the

are

place)

nenoestle, "I

of which

some

their

with

single object

put

such

"several
We

objects

the

by
with

contact

are

cut

in various

up

I bind
pe'-dcestcoez,

be

may

lengths

with

an

and

particle.

the

thxnnoena-skroez

pane'-dcestccez

it

UsetKB-soe'a

in the

seen

two

of Plurality

thanoe-dcessel

axe

(linen, skinb)

affect

sometimes

pronominal

the

Verbs

it is straight
Itse-soe'a,

As

direct

in

negative

Verbs

I wash

thcennaskrcBS,

the

again

acterized
char-

are

when

no-,

before

introduced

vowels)

adtlya,

instances:

Common

tha-dassel, I

sometimes

(ne- and

ncB-

hole;"

plurality. They

of

verbs

way)."

same

place."^

same

reduplicative prefix, or

few

element

stronger

syllable, the
Here

real

the

to

come

now

in the

put

are

the
in

Aditai, "it (a single unspecialized object) is put

acteristics;"
char-

special

no

(in

such

many

nences'aih,

Ex.:

own.

for all

have

verbal

the

futures

It

desinence.
into

the

of thcennaskrces,

case

that

of the

pluralizing form

changes

past,

of the

that

which

then

sent,
pre-

remains

unchangeable.
1

It will

in this

verb.

noticed

be

It is used

whenever
"all

the

girls went

the

away"

that

the

plural-forming particle

only in connection
subject

is

itself

with
in

the

(instead of hweRanlil).

human

plural.

of

the

third

subjects, and
Ex.:

tedasKul

person
even

is

wanting

then

tsiyauh

appears
it dis-

h-wcnii,

494

VI

Languages 2

Indian

American

568
the

Should
such

to

object

or

several

Dr

Sapir

do

indeed

of

given

the

few

other

that

resorted
he

imply

or

unless

to,

refers

penned

the

prefix
of

refer

They

to

one

multiple

substantive

verb

above

rather

yaRinli, "they

are

much

mean

which

of

merely

not

they

have

just

several, but

to

ones

remark,

quoted

but

ya-;

all.

to

simple plurality.

than

I am)
((sstli,

be

to

the

the

perhaps

are

plurality

totality

they imply

are;"

which

he

verbs

common

instances.

Rinli, "they

fact

the

to

with

words,

very

is not

when

commence

than

plurality

pluralizing verbs,

in mind

had

evidently plural

be

persons.

kind

more

The

of

attention

draw

Another

complement

or

verb

the

number,

wants

In

subject

affected.

thus

be

can

least

in

all, or

at

also

repeated

large

very

numbers."^
Sometimes

the

if followed

prefix
the

by

denotes

ya-

-das-) rather

crement

than

action

cially
(espe-

ment.
plural comple-

Examples:
Common

cestah, I

with

cut

Verbs

Verbs
knife

in

slashing;

of Totality

yastah,

I cut

yasqul,

I tear

pieces with

to

knife

way

cesqul,I

tear

thoesKat, I throw

with

away

shovel

yaidasKat,
with

doesnat,

Oftentimes

these

verbs

combine

the

which

denotes

prefix ya-

plurality with

the

totality, and

may

furthermore

third

person

the

to

proper

Itcan, she is with

plural, as

blow

split in

repeatedly

on

(as

be

may

are

yancepucyul,

places
of

indicative

n"r-

large number,

in the

seen

even

or

following:

child

all with
I blow

ro;-

yanwRceltcan),

oi

yanoltcan (contraction

child

etc.

many

very

sides

all

on

pluralizing particle

they
ucyul,

crement

the

take

away

shovel, I scatter,

yaidasnat,

split

pieces

to

throw

repeatedly

all

on

shaman)
The

desinence

phonetics always

of the first verb

contract

of totality noticeable
"

Strictly speaking,

practice

of

exaggerating

that

imply
such

into

a^Roe-

in that

they

"

means

verb.

0-;

In

totality, but
verbs

"

womb

the

hence

Indians

practically refer

to

peculiar

real

ucyiil,the
the

Den6

in Carrier.

are

large

so

form

signification
addicted

numbers

only.

to

the

495

Appendix

569
of which
of

blow."

cecyul, "I

of the shamans
which

When

frequentative
In

will

form

to

express

we

have

yanoepucyul

disappearing

vowel

ucytd).

of

the

the

the

their
of

instance

exorcism

of

operations.
vowel

weak

of

influence

stronger

for yanoepceuc-

stands

compound

is

same

appropriateness
of

the

the

part of the body

the

nature

under

That

of

category

pretended

on

realize

further

{ceof pee, "them")

(initialu

that

blowing

in incessant
he

form

original

is told

by disease,

still another

have

we

The

one

consists

is affected

the

English,

frequentative.

the

verbs,

in

exorcize"

is "I

yuL^

totalizing form,

all drunk;

are

"many
with

verbs

have

case

in the

is the

as

thanonisnai,

drunk;"

are

the

also

often

Very

nonistcet,

tobacco;"

with

yaRinatcet, "they

tobacco,"

with

yathaRtnatnai, they

drunk;"

drunk

are

but

pluralizing

following: thaRcenisnai, "they

are

ceRcenistcet,
"they

drunk

are

"many

only

not

all drunk

are

tobacco."
The

of

dissection
-nai

The

desinence

the

prefix tha-

these

of

"fire-water,"

has

third

plural,

person

have

potations
The

reader
into

the

something

absorbed.

been

the

and

fail to

will

not

-7ia-

under

the

results.^

fatal

is

-nis-

verted
con-

of totality {yatha-

of initial ya-

influence

mentioned

above

accretion

this

how

remark

the

particle of

with

excessive, being attended

been

milk, namely

than

the

that

while

drinking,

usual

is the

shows

-ms-

of

act

stronger

Rce-

quite interesting.

is

of verbs

first denotes

that

indicates

series

two

Rinatnai).
the

In

smoking,
lips

the

and

the

phonetic
Before
'

would

not

be

against

These
an

clothed

other

forms,

pulling
that
rule

verbs
action
with

at

it is

the

alluded

the

this

constitutes

to

form

still

unforeseen,

new

of

scries

the

in

verbs

the

class,

which,
of

by

reader

will

by

sequence

referred

ya-

of

in

vowels

two

to

phonetics.
that

fatal, results.

significant form,

made

of nceRoenista't,prompted

intended,

another
or

the

of

act

to.

question

Carrier

peculiar noise
nonistcet

to

contraction

principles of

belong
with

As

pipe.

already

the

the

It denotes

onomatopeic.

reproduce

to

frequentative

the

is

-tcet

dismissing

Were

denotes

verb

is intended

when

guessed

have

be

second

verbs.

in

common

of

Almost

the
all
with

verbs

of

the

Carrier

the

error,

which

verbs

frequentative

can

and

496

Indian

American

VI

Languages

570

it may

Sapir,

Dr

by

from
it is also

take)

the

value

the

of

root

ashore."
land

yasoecyaih,I

yaseeskuh, I

land

while

while

yascezkret,I land

on

I land

yascestah,I

about

like

while

limping

throwing

I land

under

yasoestcth,I

land

with

yascezUas, I

land

on

land

head

bird.

about.
the

out

influence

the

stick

throwing

(game).

of anger.

erect.^

crutches.^

with
while

stick.^

walking

chasing

large

game,

etc.

etc.,

ya-Ke-ncez'ih,I

land

ya-cosn-dijyaih,I

land

I land
ya-tse-soeztles,

-tcih

desinence

hints

fellow, land

fooi

on

on

foot

and

while

while

foot.*

on

on

my

of

the

the

at

singing.^

crying.''

nodding right

ya-kw(B-disleh,I land

tree," and

worthless

by stealth.^

land

ya-tso-dtjyaih,I

and

left.*

knees.^

becomes

present

subject

of the

verb

in

the

landing

-Icoen,

past

up"

"stuck

while

which

means

trunk

the

as

tree.

From

Indian

to

"'

From

the
be

root

-tla,"posterior,"

walking

his

with

IhcBz, "walking

stick,"

in

because

posterior

instead

which

such

of his

is the

the

case

person

to

seems

an

legs.

desinence

by

assumed

the

verb

for

the

tense.
^

F"rom

Literally:

Ccen

'

From

the

From

Ise-,

the

which,

-Isi'

root

"to

water.

balloon, flying.

I, being
ya-isi'-does'aih,

past

the

on

while

"stick,

role:

new

leg.

one

I land

The

(or

go

ice).

the

on

I land

to

skating.

hopping

I land
yascsstzit,

of

(as

yadcezquh,

yadoezthis,I

illustratingthat

examples

ya'nas'oes,

yaswzqeh,

land,

swimming.
in

land

I land

yasoEstzas,

"to

meaning

running.

floating

I land

yasaspih,

multiplicative element,

all fours.

on

I land
yasoestlat,

pendently
that, inde-

sleigh.

yasceslzut, I land

yascezKuh,

observe

to

prefix as
verbs

some

foot

in

while

boat.

on

yascezkraih,I land

of that

are

in

land

the

numerous

Here

yascesKeh, I

worth

be

means

I land

hiding

From

we

already

have
feet

seen,

is

the

Carrier

for

"bad."

(Ke).

"song."
root

Iso,

"crying."

equivalent

throw."
'

as

(noez'ih) my

-kwcEl, "knee."

in

compounds

of

-Isi, "head,"

and

-lies,stem

of

the

verb

497

Appendix

571

ya-Kct-uzoezKeh, I land

in

ya-tse-noestaih,I land

on

ya-na-tse-ncestaih, I land

The

the

forms

of

then

three
made

Columbia.

has"

the

of the

by

-ti altered

mind
the

when

has,"
tains
con-

second, It-,

inflected

the

by

he

Ittih,which

-tih

wife

"not;"

crement

into

no

'at

an

first,an,

pronominal

stem

oeti,

classical

to

Columbia,
"

'at

elements:

I and

side

adopted by

British

Awontuh

guages,
lan-

Dene

"Not-wife-he

in construction

of the

negative

and, third, the verbal

northern

Indeed, this phrase recalls

Carrier.

negative

the

ority
inferi-

the evident

on

of expressing themselves

instead

say

with

(Fort Connolly),

lake

distinct
of

up

British

mode

speak

to

would

they

of fear.'

influence

foot/

on

remark

to

me

there.

prevailing

Bear

they attempt

of

those

similarlyinelegant

Sekanais

buying.^

of fear.'

the

land

compared

childishly simple

almost

negative

under
to

of

intention

influence

foot

on

again

Costa

especially
appears

again

the

the

leads
do-at-ti,^

Chasta

the

under

etc.

etc.,

compound,
of

with

canoe

I commenced

ya-na-hwe-ncesqa.
etc.,

foot

into

i\

negative

same

prefix.^

is to
to

from

Sapir,

Chasta

Costa

dialect

than

their

form

indicates

-cyaih
The

To

the

See

Strange

past
verbs

has

into

that

the

analytic,

more

of

latter, they

the

particular inflections,

the

The

of

tizoes-

verb

the

even

or

furthermore

place.

be

by

seen

the

Isc-, which

particle

inflects

(noestaih).

-slaih

is here

na-

the

particle
instead

introduced.
initiative

prefi.x

of -taih, which

is itself

in

used

never

can

prove

because

grammar

buying.
at

as

the

the

present

is

hwe-

altered

The

here

added.

from

-yaih by na-),

tense.

82, p. 337.

to

say,
has

married"

"arrived"

{-qa

are

of

act

to

presented
to

is,

that

North.

the

of

of error,

prefix

tense

"he

given

the

verbs

reduplicative

footnote

mean

got

naecyaih

of

material

primitive,

languages

elements,

be, sufifices

Canadian

means

has

person

reduplicative

should

by
denotes

of the

one

the

such

because

"he

of

is in the

verb

usage

is

less

point

one

futures

that

This

'

but

Ket, which

From

is much
of the

the

of

tendency

constitutive

it may

as

meagre

idioms

mention

To

the

Dene

the

their

analysis,

to

natural

the

known,

time

synthesis

Dr

public by

with

disintegrate

pass

'

is well

if,as

Moreover,

it the

considered

while,
no

of

sense

is said

he

wife,

a-ti

in

its

is unmarried"

"he

(with

did
a

not

constitutive
in

get

contraction

married"
similar

this

elements,

Carrier

to

as

well

in

the

that

as

in

former
of

the

compound

Chasta

Costa,

dialect,
Chasta

since

Costa).

Misconceptions
Remarks

Dr.

on

fourth

The

number

series of remarks

well

could

be

such

title is

it would

criticize

which

is

take

eight

pages

was

right.
I

my

his

mastery

akin

hint

of
forced

am

an

to

that

vol.

North,"
'

"I

before

suspect;"

than

more

Dr.

signs.
a;

Sapir

"unless
is very

Nowhere
the

with

can

a)

in

knew

"Chasta

"might
am

he

to

used

and

the

Dene

thing
some-

off

related
to

call

to

see

exposition,

ward

the

cusation
ac-

dialects,

preach

of Carrier

word

one

to

to

that

pleased

its

To

regard

admits

not

an

certainly

not

is

the
ce,

my

with

is

one

print.

Costa

I find

Carrier,"

regard

an

to

he

Sapir's

Dr.

not

mistaken,"

much

very
with

obscure

approach

nearest
our

he

the

are

for

critic

what

who

suggestions.

not

should

myself

man

to

seems

suggestions

mere

in treating of other
a

D6n6

without

Babine,

or

Languages

of

the

765-

p.

questioner?"
"

his

17,

appeared

Morice's

Father

in

field of

corrigeyida than

my

language,"

for all,that

once

to

confine

presumption

interpreter in Chilcotin
to

Carrier

I should

already

has

remark,

^Corrigenda

the

that

reference

kind

of the

unbecoming
to

his

in

even

11),

case

circumstances,

Moreover,

6 and

duction
pro-

present

affirmations

printer, and

the

thus

the

Sapir

Sapir's

Dr.

"correct".'

to

as

more

any

taking

corrigenda (Nos.

"admirable

suggestion

would-be

text

to

the

assertions,

not

my

perhaps imputable

that,

trust

to

the

Dr.

way,

exception

for

in the

unequivocal

were

therefore

refers

of small

tentative

"corrects"

that

In

which

Chasta

corrigenda

or

old hand

an

the

which

to

by

contained

on

responsible

if warranted

found.

be

statements

One

few

exception

error

of

the

see

for 1915

Notes

errata

party

to

from

eleven

real facts, and

of

One

two

of

all

Practically

others.

the

to

the

even

grace

of his

caption

usual

not

and,

explanations.^

for

expression

under

simply proflfered in

were

bids

or

of

review

my

than

better

Most

on

Corrigenda

Anthropologist

supposed

are

misnomer,
with

linguistics.

is

another

they

come

Sapir

It

by

which

American

Morphology

taken.

glaringly paraded
in

Dr.

and

Morphology

Dene

Sapir's Would-be

of the

by

Phonology

Costa

Concerning

to

the

explicit

statement

it is

incidental

an

says.

132

informant

misunderstood

etc.

definition

of

concerning
remark

have

the
the

(p. 278):

value

of

phonetic
"a

his

graphic

identity

(probably

of

tical
iden-

VI

500

Indian

American

Languages

133

and

widely

that

Babine),

whole

D6n6

studying

those

and

then

must

be

with

end

of

This
with

likewise

such

errors,

the

Hupa

might

tagnais

not

well

as

"click"

a?

Dr.

Goddard

"

himself

subject.

points

have

^k^Iac," and
Dr.

It
casionally,
oc-

out

nothing
he

Goddard,

at

own

the
time

same

he

do

to

props

Tiis

up

kiyauw

his

as

the

at

to

the

dot

happens
tc'AC.

He

suffix

-tc!e
this

that

similarly bases

under

the

on

aware

k
the

he

first word

(Sapir's k!)

and

affected

he

by

tc!e),
an

clamation
ex-

thereby.

Dr.

obligingly supplies

that

the

when

Mon-

{tse or

renders

Sapir

letter

and

(do.), Loucheux

tsos

of "woman"

Dr.

that

accompanied

was

tclAC, Carrier

Navajo

the

this

sound

C.C.-

equivalents

of

ki- of the

rendered

in

click, which

or

by

guttural

orthography),
various

really meant
he

case,

-ke of the

k,

wrote

second!
I ask

may

If

how,

k sound?^

common

Athapascan.

Chasta

"

Years

his Hupa
all the

Costa.
ago

the

Dene

dialects.

the

sound,

which

it from

t.

The

I criticized

Texts

rendered

A.

G.

aspirated

in

scholar

for

aspirated

As

exist

of

matter

by

d.

Dene,

But

(my

th, the

fact, his

I still fail

though

failed,

having

the

Franciscan
the

t was
to

as

see

thought,

equivalent

how

he

themselves

natives

tq)
of

not

in

common

my

the

expressed
do

render

to

Fathers'

th, and
real

differentiate

M.

k, sound

written
calls

that

particular

ordinary

does

continuant
Morice

1882,

them,

speak

the

on

"can

assertion

find

we

my

well

so

(p. 766)

in that

he

to

in the

and

point
is himself

Sapir

tclAc

to

if the

astray

all-important explosion,

an

to

far

(according

tscez

(do.),

tsaw

be

k^!e, which

glottal explosion which

the

by

Ath.

who

lin-kc.

Hupa

He

to

through

run

been, since

transcriber, distractions

Sapir

li-tse, declaring

my

hensions
misappre-

or

practically assimilating

my

and

infallible, because,

signification, "birds,"
to

differing

Carrier

11.

Ath.*

that, according

same

of

that

bearing

Dr.

Costa

has

those

of the

Chasta

errors

he

part

3 and

of

points which

when

always

which

Sekanais,

dialects

exception

not

to

Dene

among

Nos.

back

go

exception

takes

the

those

that

must

is

understood

detect

to

literature

on

ear

a?

claims

really corresponds
of

able

years

help

under

remarks

of li-tc!e with

-ke

the

morphological

all the

imperfect

td'ad, but

in

be

and

this

by remarking

have

to

of

that

an

scholar

this

(with

should

he

five

Nah'ane,

twenty-four

help

the

his

contention

in

before

linguisticfamily, especially

admitted

printer's

the

idioms

grammar

phonetic

idioms,

of
or

and

I say,

man,

concerning
the

unaided

lexicon

in their

last

two

catechize

could

who

or

these

acquired

had

"click,"

x.

The
and

Father

Morice

character
writes

k.

k
What

writes
was

K,

becomes

therefore
Father

used

Morice

in

everywhere
for

the

sound

calls

the

common

Hupa

Father
k

is

501

Appendix

134

As

the

to

connection

Hupa

Montagnais

and

With

will, change

He

refuse

that

did

not

that

prefix

has

water

that

very

words

against

him

least

"at

case

of the

some

in

adduces

Dr.

Sapir quotes
of

extent

of

unaware,

tqe-h (my

Indian

characteristics

native

thinking

mind

of

it is

when

with

be

may

locomotion

four

be

given

name

used

fins

as

"

must

mean

is mistaken
of

in

horse

for

that
nominated
de-

object

the

the

but

the

this.

without

exact

water,"

namely

substance,

forgetful,

predicates

in the

himself.

linguisticallythe

though
it

among

critic

my

the

was

value

radically

to

I meant.

which,

concept

Even

same

assertion

this

same

he

It is too

of my

imagines

that

the

ideas.

hard

some

form

feet.

fish, the

cannot

"over"

I claim

But

especially

than

by

he

water,

I had

that

rendering

elements,

concrete

real

feet, which

of legs and

of

question

in

accuracy

natural

possibly

not

the

shown

each

the

the

more

the-lin), "water-horse,"

horse."

could
animal

an

of

convince

of water.

I said

prefix has

unwittingly

exquisite

literally"in-the-water
The

is

even

and

under

dispose

when

that

of

body

to

study

understand

must

bottom

ground

proving

statement

since

tribes, as

Navajo

individual

of

near

which

best

therein.

to

ultimately

of the

-tsos,
-tsoe^.

the

will

thereto)

reference

bottom

the

refers

me;

we

the

with

not,

further

the

at

the

north,"

southern

But

exclusively

frequently

to

the

dialects

"hinted"

unnecessarily qualified my

even

agree

Dene

point

with

Babine

affinitywith

he

this

in

adduces

-tsus,
no

4, I could
the

connection.
the-

is

No.

to

few

it denoted

that

the

redound

or

this

I said

the

Now

He

in

right

that

(though

of

am

under

can

Nah'ane

-tsu), it has

concerning
he

as

knowledge

mean

in mind

I wrote

critic

my

and

-tsun, Hare

stoutly

as

When

other.

-tsos, which

or

his strictures

to

what

little speaking
him

Loucheux

regard

of

may

-tsots

root

(Carrier, Chilcotin, Sekanais

notion
means

as

of

bottom

the

water.

This

is

I used

complement,
Christ
this.

language

was

really

prepalatal,
have

been
"

The

and
called

the

or

in

to

as

the

expressing

in

passage

from

bread

of
a

Father
letter

than

and

as

Lord

to

written
in
in

Luk

plement
com-

thing

person.*
q

kai,

from

their

but

to

in

me

personal

referred

when

velar,

"wliite.

print previously.

lately received

Jesus-

follow

to

connoting

not

was

Morice

material,

not

Our

Indians

complement
"

ments,
ele-

Eucharistic

transsubstantiation;

verb

that

postpalatal

when
attention

Hupa

use

in

the

personal,

the

upon

I did

Eucharistic

sonancy

sometimes^

following

firmly

as

to

other

none

were

prevail

never

-ivord

the

intermediate

these

implying

strictlylogical to

too

Sacrament,

desinence

that

I could

believed

when
"

show

to

himself,

They

verbal

the

referring in Dene

when,

that

true

so

Rev.

These

when

facts

Ed.

Father

Leopold,

VI

502

American

Indian

Languages

135

Dr.
the

Sapir

gives

as

not

to

and

water,

the idea

point, since
here

of

the

action

primitive

of the

shore

tread

bare

witnessed

this

in

British

of

Columbia,

Did
have

my

but

word

to

Yet,

of

correlated

is

called

the

is

in
same

which,

in the

in

the

D6n6

one

have

the

Eastern

its

plainly hints
this

their

or

I would

face.

practised formerly,
inseparably

so

they

in

wotloss
the

nate
desig-

to

use

The

"clay."

of

Dene

aboriginal

latter

Sekanais,

north.

The

for

la-tles,la-tloes and

"soap"

and

"hands-mud,"

in

the

is

and
root,

striking similarity), is -ties,-tlces.

mean

cases,

Carrier,

years'

altogether different

an

or

I have

formerly.

which

term

do

they

Europe!

remained

"mud"

what

which

confirmation,

little

have

have

"bottom"

on

to

hands

very

the

in

respectively

first two

have

were

with

of

their

bottom

hwotloss

(hence

need

either

that

identical

among

dialects

same

discarded

practised

stand

water

Chilcotin,

primary

have

less

it

Then

twenty-eight

my

it may

that

estimation

radically

the

practically
which

Dene

during

referred

washing

and

washing

kwoetles

fact
of

of

the

How

clayey

blanket,

or

wine-makers

particular operations

in the

soap

the

case

the

pressing
ex-

to

but

mind?

word

the

none

wash";

"I

over

skin

Kato

use

the

idea

the

these

as

notions

the

of

produce

to

render

the

who

they

diagnosis

the

of times

and

natives

the

washing,

as

number

to

not

Chilcotins

native

to

verb

Kato

linguistics.

for

laying

soiled

do

the

The

the

refers

simply

place, this is

him.

thosnnaskroes

the

water

that

first

against

By

the-

southern

represent

legs

operation

that, though
method

of

the

In

turns

wash?

and

feet

not

terms

fact

embrace

Carriers

the

Dene

that

it, the

is in f'e'-.

proof

these

sheet

of

did

aborigines
of

with

stay

and

do

proof(?)

bottom

washing

pretended

thenasqoss

kind

the

statement

my

his

again

indeed

of

another

Now

ta-tlces,

last

"eyes-

mud."
The
been

mode

of

Thalthan),

simply

implies

the

contributor

chief

concerning
"There

the

are,"

the
'

he

dot

t, k,

I, etc.

writes
are

Henceforth

upper

to

(")

action

the

Navaho

(April

shall

before,

is

is done

of

27), "such

represent
and

shall

of

in

the
retain

the

live

in, and

by

an

The

so-

cerathas'ots,^ which
or

been

with

told

walk

water,

of my

italics

for

or

are

contention

Iqe-hoUsodi,
on

the

bottom

mine.

('), instead
the

while

illuminating:

and

in,

apostrophe

exclusively

have

(the

tqe-lt,is especially

prefix tqe."

dot

to

seems

tqe-lt,water-horse,

as

hiatus

word,

not

to

Northwest

Far

water,

had

who

that

the

the

southern

words

animals,

by

the

connection

Dictionary,

expressed

referred

above

Nah'ane

this

meaning

mythological
last

I
as

use

the

stuffs

or

the

in

etymological

This

water.

of

who

that

true

Both

water-ox.

of

unknown

originally

called

skins

washing

exploded

of
sounds

an

Appendix

503

136
Chilcotin

thenasqces is analyzed:

the

over

bottom

[on the

real

his

to

recourse

of the

usual

last

This

lake)

As

Ex.:

tc.

my

and

"water,"
tiver,

verbs

Chilcotin

Water"

little

go

in

compounds

"wave"

(for

ncezat, "far

ntuk,

of water"

the

Sekanais,

LoutceRe.

th is

of

Columbia

British

vertible
con-

are

word

formation

of

few

the-

the

simply

the

"

the

to

is

It
of

it from

induced
in

equivalent

thu, Iho, tcu, etc.,

substantives,

adjec-

examples:
(for tho-ba, "water-edge");
Carrier

//za-i5/,

"water-head").
tha-dinsat}

off"; Babine
Carrier

"short";

personally

tM^;

{ior tho-nezcel, "water-warm"):

thu-tsi, lit.

Adjectives: Chilcotin
and

only

thd-ba, "shore"

tha-zcel,"soup"

rect
cor-

have

in Sekanais

differentiate

far.

too

Here

Navajo

name

then

body

the

theR;

if

Tcii-tci.

clearly

to

what
a

remark

even

us

Hares,

because

(the

Let

of

the

Babine

Big

adverbs.

Substantives:

and

Sekanais,

(-na-)^

Morice's

add

"bottom

"the

contribute

and

For

foregoing,

to

may

I shall

the

eagerness

and

"

which

to

spelling) iheRe;

my

Father

qualification,

Sapir's (p. 767).

with

Thu-thi,

inadvertently

me

compound?

Dr.

find

not

without

dialects.

(with

say

tha-,

to

is from

Chilcotin, Carrier

Carrier,

the-] to apply

Dene

is consistent
into

I do

authorities,

Western

the; the

cheux,

of

(sqcKs) repeatedly

(the-)."

water

This

Montagnais

the

drag, rub

Athabaskan

meaning

Carrier."

for

know

of the

in northern

"Even

"I

(water),"

"deep

from

from

tha-ltuk, "shallow,"

tho, "water,"
(for

water"

tha-scekcez, "spring

tho, "water,"
and

thil-soskcez,

"water-cold").
Chilcotin

Verbs:
in

put

the

tha-stnan, "I

water,"

etc.

too

"

(water)";

drink

of

verbs

many

Carrier
kind

that

in

tha-s'aih, "I
all dialects

for

enumeration.

Adverbs:
"of

water,"

This

element

meant

to

cases,

it

In

English

done

Chilcotin

sing.

simply

used

the
"I

more

iH

to

occasionally
equivalent

has

the

that

show

of "I

the

action
the

beseech";
I

pray."

lake),"

that

Petitot's

implies

meaning

because

etc.

By
"in

this

for

to

of

the

noun

dictionary,

the

but

first time.

word.

thena-dcestli, it

praying

is

an

several

reduplication;

done

is not

changed

-niz,

uncompounded

as

"twice")

nal,

middle,"

said.

effect

on

course,

somewhat

alters

prayers,

my

say
than

occurs

even

the
the

T have

the

to

relies, of
of

(of

end

only,"

statement

^i'a

(lit."in

water"
further

compounds

Ath.
he

the

contraction

(a

na-

even

signification of

this

For

ihe-tcestliis

is normally

the

on

Sapir's

Valley dialects

frequently

in Carrier
the

Dr.

Etymologically,

those

"in

appears

(p. 768).

it is also

large

th-)\ tha-tlat, "at

controvert

Mackenzie
stem"

In

tha-niz, "at

the

action

Thus
assumes

which

once.

phonetic

value

of

in

in

French

singe,

not

of

the

same

in

Languages

Indian

American

VI

504

137

sub

and

Valley Indian,
heard,

or

stake

reputation

my

willing

revealed

might

give

and

or

But

I have

his No.

ends
should

be

is

is

"there

that
-Wi

"I

-yal.

frequently

expressed

refers
the

by

instances

The
them

paddle
'

Sapir's

(generally

upper

end

of

the

water"

-/) which

the

lake,"

canoe,"

is not

quite

is locative

etc.),

in

in

the

for

exact,

intent

same

final

as

way

kI) by

e.,

have

"to

refers

this

but

dialects

to

desinential

Iha-llat, "at

water";
denotes

recess

from

of

"water,"

which

it has

he

produces

-z

of

some

him.

(t.

right;

is

swimming.

Nay,

to

-ki

the

head

declared

of

me.

several

admits.

that

I had

even

(thul, "in

he

under

idea

the

is quite

-al

-/fe'en,
-*;feV,-yfe'ew,

which

of

almost

his desinence

that

convince

to

he

Kwon,

Sapir

Dr.

Ath.

that

Chipewayan

by

to

-tzi, "heart,"

to

objects

little weight

very

renders

travel

to

"in

letter

of

appeared

canoe,

he

-to, Sapir's equivalent

fail

other

some

is

-yal is correct,"

that

show

to

of

tse-

-tze

particles.

7, since

No.

without

Fathers;

support
what

implies, paddling,"

or

Goddard

when

the

suggestion

my

written

element

"ground."

two

think

to

in his

gives absolutely

have

must

Thus

he

have

possible, I

as

Franciscan

"mouth,"

-ze,

evidence

to,

root

against

independently

"water,"

these

on

incline

of

as

speaking

my

brief

as

the

needs

"earth,"

by adopting

plenty

of

work

to

za-

long

yielding

so

be

to

as

be

years* duration

preceding

or

the

yxn,

too

now

such

seems

well

as

would

terminological

thil, etc.,

to

noen,

criticism

quite

not

nen,

tarried

this

by itself,and

is

It

to

na-

see

in

as

tsi, "head",^

to

not

anxious

will

Sapir
"^

water

This

of many

study

dictionary,

stand

exist.

to

tse-

may

words,

cannot

"

dialects,

addressed,

ever

if necessary
which

one

meaning

Mackenzie

this.

you

Petitot's

it

"fire";
ne-

for

other

insist that
element

me.

(the only

book

mere

one

than

anywhere.

book
I

but

saw

positive, and

am

Dene

the

when

capes

more

any

scholar

and

the

never

prefix tha-

Were

words,

some

yet

the

of

reasons

my

in

as

hyphen

He

to

other

alone,

Carrier

of five of them
them

In

laws

morphological

knowledge

her,

uncompounded

used

never

Hupa;

that

to

as

concede)

to

."flot",2 is
the

or

of

one

purpose.

spoke

never

Navajo

have

we

its

of

short

falls

knowledge

here

But

"flot."

voce

the

{thiiz,

Iha-tlaz,etc.).
*

Petitot
in

gives

French

to

this

poetry,

French
as

the

word
be

may

signification

by

seen

the

words

as

times
some-

of

synonymous

"vague."
"A

somewhat

tha-na-tle-le
"I

am

renewed

part."

not

extreme

dees' "ZR.

"

{-le-)doing
(-wo-)

action

1 do

case

not

(-ce/j)with
connected

of

drink

intp

compounding
again

my
with

flat

bent
water

on

body

the

which

ground."

this

(as replaced

(jlha-)wherein

particle

which

by
my

is thus
the

head

hiatus

enters

is

analyzed:
'dees-)a

(-Cse-)takes

505

Appendix

138
locomotion,

the

or

instead

paddle,

So

is it with

en

the

en

on

the

value

has

which

of

Carrier

case.

not

any

be

his

four

the

on

the

-si, "to
letter

remark

that

I know,

than

j'at'anc^
refer

terms

the

to

of oars,

use

is made

be

"thou
(t^a-yi-tna,
of

Speaking
-tlal,but
the

the

by

stems,

his words

in such

up

preceding pronominal

category

same

of

action

for the

laugh,"
should

which
(^'a-7^7-nd),

-t-na

same

instead

crement

his -lal);-t-lo,"to

as

here

cry,"

this

that

-t-lat,for -tlat,root

wrote

issue

at

-se, "to

as

way

process,

same

point

I do

that

sure

the

such

divided
sub-

"abundantly"

he

main

The

he

drinkest").
in

sleeping

for

root

considered

be

-lal must

dental

that

I feel I could, by

in his last paper,

now,

not
was

answered.

now

9, which

Were

critic's root

he

is in the

this

statement

is

his No.

with

contrary.

the

Thus

desinence.

of -tlo,and

-tnd

to

cutting

of

which

dialects.

other

the

to

might
that

examples

by

question

informant

the

corrigendum.

of t- in my

belong

to

of

stated

consisted

point

patience,

prove

instead

happens

to

and t'o-lal)
plural {t'i-lal

the

as

be

absent

He

adds

in
"

claims

dialects, he

some

second

the

Were

stem,"

root

-/-

that

because,

singular

persons

part of the

sooth,
for-

there

stem,

be

(p. 769).
found

these

his

me

This

and

references

his

floating (which

would

raft,"

8, I merely

usual, Sapir believes

As

reader's

or

whether

shows

for

No.

brief in connection

as

absence

cause,"

radical

and

more

any

All

by paddling, or

under

asked
He

room

"super-abundantly"
is either

and

parts.

by

case

impose

"not

is effected

satisfied.

am

I could

see

proves

the

dialects

paddle,"

criticism

him.

here

into

of

on

whose

LegofT,

D4n^

signification.

perfectly correct,

was

I wish

not

Father

all the

"to

same

Sapir's

to

-lal in

which

I do

from

to

meant

accidentally

regard

the

me

applies

the

misunderstood

not

-pih, "floating

water.

With

have

and
never

which

locomotion

of

action

the

through

water

swimming,

quoted

example

ramant

ramant,

the

on

-thcez,etc.

quite appropriate,

Naviguer

moving

of, for instance, by

-Hat, "poling up,"

is

of

act

absolutely
May

in the

I ask

first person

and, secondly, why

verbs, and

not

Carrier
I float
r nwstlat

Sing, j

ninlat

I noellat

we

in any

reason

no

the

its disappearance

for

doctor,

learned

singular, or
find
of the

at

it in these

second

in

firstly,whether

least
persons

dual

and

of the

/ is not

this

plural,of

his verb,

following analogous

ones?

Navajo

Chilcotin
I

forms"

these

am

give

him

nestli

bdnislds'

ninli

banlos

henli

yei'los

horse

507

Appendix

140

The

desinential

negative past

tense

in

with

conformity

verbal

-tlcel of both

roots
are

proximate

Carrier
dual

nothing

else

than

known,

and

invariably observed,

well

same

and

the

way,

cestli,and

desinence

the

general

dressed,"

Thus

root.

it back

words,

"I

am

e-tcene-tnli,etc., and

the

So

is it with

which

the

fain

would

Sapir

verbal

element

genuine

of the

independent

it has

compound

Montagnais,
Here

'

An

I think

few

idiotism,
it worth

of

familiar

with
Dene

the

you

nesh'l, "I
concerning

generally

used

the

The

vowel:

shana'a,
"Your

of

remark

has,

me,"

the

as

"lam

or

killing me;"

the
be

also

double

or

shila

Carrier,

In

drowning."

hke
is

tlok;

receipt

those

of

who

minor

even

'

me,"

connection,

on

for

how,

are

points

dinesh'tl,
to

will

"I

Navaho

the

other

the

of

root

'i, '1, 'tl for the

is:

na'ad,
verbal

roots

the

three

at."

look

Your

'ad, which

word

ba'ad,

"my,

is
his

your,
with

beginning

me."
.

the

holds

body

{'kus being
singular

obsolete

now

plural

or

they

manner

killing me,'

to

partly

good

personifying expressions

such

this

preceding

root

sha'ad,

in the

is used

shinilqi,'thirst

dabd'

of

nominal
pro-

dialects:

killed

(written

show

hiatus

at;"

bina'kis

as

In

letter

this

before

parts

described

it

north.

applies

"give

be

tlog, dlog.

Navajo.

to

the

pronoun:

for

in

the

tloh; Nah'ane,

really preserved

the

where

Navaho

in

forms

have

looked

"I

art

will

role of

in all the

"

only

regarding

possessive
occurs

shikhe

However,

Navaho
.

"wife"

the

on

would

one-eyed-man

nel't,

it

it in

Navaho,

word

the

one

in

at;"

hiatus

same

find

writes

to

soezilre, laughter

again

south

the

we

348-49

pages

exactly

with

wife."

of

as

laughing,

he

fills the

noun,

Leopold's

were

of

refers

quite often

regular

tlo

Fr.

or

clothing

idea

unduly

tldr; Sekanais,

find

we

Sapir's paper),

as

for

really -lo, since

he

use:

from

again

such

look

it is

singular,

"thou
e-toene-oestli;

tlo,kid, Loucheux,

which

dialects

on

say

remark

for

Na^"aho:

"foot"

meaning
or

"hand."

tqoshinilqi, ""water

as:

dichi

say:

express

in
word

shinilqi, "hunger

high

of hunger

degree

thirst."
Had

my

have

saved

There

is

nesh'l, i.
be

the

of

be

to

radical

of their

quote

Dr.

obtains

tenses:

or

like
to

of

them,

of vision

'half.'

the

morphology,

"What
verbs

dlor; Hare,

instances

while

review

my

in fact

is in

one-is."

i which

This

which

play independently

to

word

man

dlo; Chilcotin,

tlo and

are

the

verb.

noun,

Carrier, tlo; Navajo,

kills

of Carrier

substantively

is said:

believe

us

-t-lo,disassociating therefrom

is

laws

first persons

-tlo,representing the

stem

have

the
used

whenever

dressed"

literally that-wherewith
pe-toene-oetli,

the

-tlat,inflected

stem

nestli, I am."

when

"

-tlal of

"

of Chilcotin

its t- in all but

takes

in other

element;

compound

loses

similarly

plural, always

its role of

of

and

morphology.
the

In

copy

futures

scarcely
e.,

understood

been

correspondent
himself

nec'in:
in

the
more

than

Chilcotin
the

familiar

trouble

north.

one

of
or

nis'in,
Thus

giving
two

Dine

dialects
of

translations

me

(,dichifor

words

Nah'ane

"my,

the

with

nes'ih.

thy,

his

his

"hunger"

Carrier

wife"

of the

naes'en)

is said

he

north,

and
which

would

material.

Navajo

future

the

would

see' at, na'at,

pa'

of
not

at, in

508

Languages

Indian

American

VI

141

that

is, "I

sit

"I

(ne'dcesni);tlo dizta,

while

"

dizthi, I laugh

kcenne'doesni, "I

Ho

laughing";

in-conformity-with

literally "laughter

buffoon,"

tlo

of

dying

am

lying down,"

I-say-many-things"

dtjyin, "I

tlo

laughing";

could

Lo

etc.

the

acting

am

stand

laughing";

be

not

of in

thought

this connection.^
With

regard

which

to

for such

root

writes

Sapir again

dialects, which
verb

the

to

of

that

in most

weeping, tso, tscer

as

its t, here

with

belongs, together

it

idea

an

without

is

Carrier

of the

tense

one

which

verb

is

morphologically identical:
Carrier

Chilcotin

hcessd, I cry

cessi',I

hientsd

tntsV

hcetsd

ntsi'

hetsd

tsintsi'

hatsd

eehtsi'

Rintsi'

qelsd

in

as

for hcessd

Carrier

Chilcotin, becomes

Sapir's Chasta
its other

is

Now

the

tso, tscer
in

employed

si', which

form,

isse, yielding the

has

exactly

signification.

no

of badness,

sense

in

depreciatively

(not
the

which

so,

same

It

way

is

compounds,

as

making

root

as

/ at

all

its

while

not

is it with

So

under

-dees' aih
ya-tsi'

of

"sleet,"

means

given,

reiser

that
a

assume

tlo.

as

malice, wretchedness,
in

of

fail to

not

bad

are

same

very

it does

course,

us

its past, instead

and
cesscer,^

but, of

Costa;

persons.

"weeping")
not

is

of

liii',both

Dual:

The

bad

am

tsi',

independent

it is also

(see p.

used

of my

570

last

paper).
Chilcotin;
en);

is

I repeat
had

As

to

(Chilcotin

the

in this

use

would

in

boena'koez,

case

concerning

outlines

whenever

to

of

shikhe

(or ci-Ke:

Northern

Dene.

Dr.
and

tcivu
*

This

younger

of

Fr.

who

Leopold,

which,

grammar
to

then

must

numeral

-qces, in

as

is done

that

t when

in

our

of my

may

etc.) must

Chilcotin,
half

"

only

hand

one

Carrier

suffix

developed,

specify that

sla-kcez, "the

say:

"one,"

duly

sceKe) and

Chilcotin
Thus

hands."

European

shila

will

point
later

say:
I ha*d
be

on

is intended,
be

nated
aggluti-

Were

languages,

you

nobody

you.

Goddard
Icwe

etc.

part

singularizing

using the

without

it is necessary

You
the

the

on

French

as

Sapir's criticism.
remark

the

pcenakaez,

or

(last syllable

sani'an

spontaneous

was

is swollen,"

noun.

understand
'

the

Dr.

Chilcotin

than

particle (-kmz in Carrier, -kis in Navajo,

to

to

hand

But

published.
this

Carrier

sce-lla),it applies likewise

long ago

noted

of

other

none

information

former's

the

ilket, "my

sla

this

told

is

Lower

Simply

that

been

not

shana'a

Navajo

bina'kis

for

duly

transcribes

he

the

gives

us

many

Indians,

Hupa

correlatives

tso.

desinential

-r

generation,

is
say

scarcely audible
tso

instead

at

of tsoer.

all, and

especially among

Appendix

509

142

The

of

part

connection

Dr.

with

Sapir's criticism

syllabification.

disagree with"
what

I wrote
of

instead

their

the

I must

of sheer

paper

of

rejects

with

manner

wrong

it is the

the

and

digraphs
in

initiallyor

otherwise.

the

We

it is

let

teachers

and

in

which
of

the

the

that

I wrote
he

of

from

published

or

when

my

ally"
"emphatic-

less than

no

when

book.

the

nothing

Fathers, and

noted

in

to

of southern

treating

Franciscan

of the
On

have

to

quarters

find,

prominent

as

by

cannot

we

of

dream

of

its sense-giving
scholars

Navajo

question of verbs,

always coupled

are

stand

sessive
pos-

without

the

t'd-yi- existing without

The

-tnd.

stem

is, therefore, just

as

occur

bit-qo; bi-t'd",

verb, since the

more

any

distinct

they

ear.

which

nouns,

three

or

whenever

Navaho

elements

could

two

bi-tqo,not

pronounce

and

not

are

single sound

is noticed

various

of

critic that
of

accuracy

inaccuracy.

His

in connection

time
the

lessons

will

Carrier

or

not

fail

he
his

above
much

as

with

to

his

betrays
reveal.

years

consultations,

that

informant

to

pronomi-

prepare

worked

generally

of

as

on

several

as

phatic
em-

with

am

"was

larly
particuwith

D6n6

monumental

my

destroyed

was

half

be

inexperience

an

To

language, which

sixteen

possibly

cannot

syllabic divisions

plea that

syllabifying" merely

had, during the

5,000

to

years' study

book

to

caution

and

pronouns

as

tell my

me

their

Dictionary
have

ing
grant-

compound.

concerning

careful

to

of the

caution

to

which

adjunction

nalo-substantival

regard

and

dividing syllables,which,

alphabet

represent

{tqo) than

noun

when

Hence

words

me

recourse

of the

this

ibi-), for instance,

immediate

point

but

hyphenize

applies

of its

mentioned
the

t'd-yi-tnd;yit-lo

34

crements

North,

following

trigraphs used in

inseparably

as

pronoun

support

part,

distinction

remark

together

the

of

in certain
of the

Dictionary

juxtaposition;

bit'-o",etc.,
This

have

fashion

to

of

disregard

utter

reality pertains

my

Now

way

phatically
em-

of writing thereon

occur

personal

must

notions

Navaho

as

"must

possible:

consonants

not

stems,

that

task

Costa.

peculiar

of the

he

is in

confession:

of consulting

Chasta
his

on

in

make

to

the

much

as

idea

verbal

open

as

The

his

which

imagining
for

thought

on

essay

of its second

ID

page

the

morphological

the

dialects, I

since

hand,

other

that

show

that

part

me

not

criticism

my

of the

nature

declares
to

positive

most

t'-d-yit-nd, for

us

allowed

and

fitted

did

able

Sapir's

claim, entails

do

had

subject

the

on

be

presumption,

personal knowledge,

review

inflective

therefore

language

Dene

mere

he
and

subject, he gives

pronominal

stem.

Out

Here

(p. 771),

me

is the

he

yi-tlo, etc., thereby absolutely disfiguring the

their

to

this

on

where

by

fire, I

it, between
hours'

must

4,500

duration.

VI

510

Languages 2

Indian

American

143

task

in

be

the

which

the

to

"eyes

same

who

conjugation

one

C.

C.

person

one

of my

truth

the

as

way

eventual,

{Cd-yi-lnd) will

tha-Hn-tnai

tha-ro-tnan

tha-u-tnai'

tha-ro-tnan

tha-tsu-tnai'

tha-roh-tnan

tha-uh-tnai'

tha-qu-tnan

tha-Ru-tnaV

pronominal

and

for thu, tho, "water,

contains

already

the

indicates

and

in its make-up

than

Dr.

to

Sapir's No.

10,

of refers

really used
and

well

for it, merely

-h

evidence

of

complement.

would

that

suggesting
is

while

he

it I cannot

dream

admits

that

stands

it

with

Who,
of

having, for

my

assures

this

it is in

that

me

This

conceive

in intent, but

C. G.
of

Until

-c.

stem

dialects
Chasta

is very

any

plural

form

under

No.

not

of

-t^AC
that
Costa

surprising

this, I accept

is possibly

root

to

his verbal
in all the

singular subjects.

here

in

are,

drinkest," etc.,

-thoss,which

strictlyplural

corresponding

from

el-on?

deep investigation. Pending

-thces,which

desinential

with

tha-int-nan, "thou

to

latter

of

is intransitive, because

verb
of

morphology,

plural, he

in connection
deserves

northern

the

to

the

sort

some

(or -thcec)is genetically related

I know

that

drink";

etc., which

qualifying prefix tha-, which

esd-an, Hare

Montagnais

equivalent

-dan, fully distinct

-roil-, -un-

-us-;

from

tha-6-tnai'

-tnan, -tnai\ the

-ton, Montagnais

-ros-,

tha-st-nan, "I

instance,

As

full root

slight a tincture of Dene

so

more

"

the

Hare

crements

clearly differentiated

turn,

ever

glance

C. -tnd, Sekanais

the

his

Carrier
iha-us-nai'

at

verb

very

help opening

tha-ron-tnan

have

process.

contention.

Dual:

C.

of the

tha-ros-tnan, I shall drink

we

This

language sufficiently

Chilcotin

Here

who

one!

careful deductive

the

tense,

instructor

preceding

the

Sekanais

Babine,

native

mastered

has

of

Sapir gives

found

for himself, after

position to judge

Perhaps
of

in the

or

Chilcotin,

the

once

never

by thescholar

be done

must

Now

syllabifycorrectly,

could

to

dialects.

Nah'ane

and

of

vocabularies

down

took

I likewise

his

word

the equivalent of

singular -thih,the

I get incontrovertible

coming

to

express

singular concept.
With

regard

"Father

Morice

in this, his
N.

by
on

Dr.
the

B.

"

I take

Sapir, the
Chasta

to

Dr.

Sapir's criticism

is,in my
own

this

opinion, quite right."

statement

opportunity

remark

following misprints

Costa

language:

What,

(p. 722):

he writes

then, is corrigendum

mine?

or

to

11,

that, in addition

occurred

in my

to those

appreciation

pointed
of

his

out

paper

511

Appendix

144

Just

his

This,

fe".'

at

show

to

is

author

not

does

least,

Dr.

always

Sapir

that,

responsible

for

correspond

not

is

real

to

my

especially
the

q,

corrigendum

"

he

as

but,

Editorial

Originally
Reprinted

by

published

in

permission

of

American
the

in

printed

American

is

material

mistakes,
made

am

to

sure,

such
I

say

will

in

as

point

note

imputable

16

to

his

and

of

the

mine,

his

an

fact

the

out

first

printer

that

essay.
alone.

Note

Anthropologist
Anthropological

19,

132-144
Association.

(1917).

and

Corrigenda

[Afterthe publicationof
set of corrigendaand addenda
on

Chasta

Costa

made
Collected

Works

the texts.

The

items

Takelma
based

latter do

not

given
manuscript notes,
of the

corrections

and

in the

should

therefore

before

the

present volume.

native

text

plus gloss,so

be

line of text; page

Morphology

(1914c: 265

with

his Notes

267). The

"

1914

publication,but were
inadvertentlyomitted from Volume

listed in 1914

appear

editorial

as

incorporatedin

the texts
that

(Note
that

"1. 4

are

those

numbers

bound

were

tions
correc-

as

in the

itself,or

text

(Sapir 1909c), Sapir published a

in Volume
VIII of The
they appear
in
his
Sapir'smanuscript notes
of
own
copy
fullycoincide with the published Corrigenda. The

were

changes

Texts

on

noted

are

Takelma

that work; these

to

and

to

Texts

Texts

were

below

remainder

Takelma

Phonology

in the

Addenda

in Volume

endnotes.
in volume

Sapir'sline

The

of the

VIII.

following

gloss

lines of

of the

fourth

original.)
-

p. 13, 1. 10

(interlinear):
change "mourning"

to

as

items

appeared

refers to

count

The

VIII, either

VIII, which

is the
(interlinear)"

in the

not

"bereft

Eds.]

of child"

p. 14, 1. 11 (text):change ahailhvili'" to ahailiwila"'

change "Di'^lo^mi'" to "Di'^lo"mi'"
p. 22, 1. 8 (interlinear):
p.

22, 1. 10 (text):change xa'iyasgip.'Tlhf

to xa'iyasgipTlhi

p.

omit
22, 1. 10 (interlinear):

", it is said"

insert quotes
p. 23, 1.2 (interlinear):
p. 25, 1.3

(text):change da-idamak'

"Strings"

deHdamcfk'

fnu'"x-danhi'to mii"'xdcmhi

p. 31, 1. 14 (text):change
p. 46, 1. 1

before
to

to t.'i'lap'igit'gna
(text):change t.'i'ldp'agit'gwa

change he'Tleme'k'wana'
p. 50, 1.2 (text):
p. 60, 11.6, 7

(text):change nagaik'wd

change "with
p. 76, 1. 8 (interlinear):
p. 78, 1.4 (text): change he'dcdd
p. 105, 1. 14

(text): change

'

to

to

122, 1. 21 (text):change dchu""k'i

p.

127,

6, add:

nagaik'wa

it" to

"thereby"

he'dadd

to

'i't'e'is very
-t'git'

provided with ...". See

p. 142, 1. 7

to

he'Tleme'''k'nana'

p.

note

to

dehu"k'i

likelytransformed

T. L., p. 261, footnote,

to k'ai'ldp'ik.'i
(text):change k'ai'ldp'ak.'i

p. 144, 1. 17

(text):change sgalduk, to sgalduk'

p. 188, 1. 9 (text):change wi'wdkdi'

p. 194, 1. 10:

change tlomomdn

p. 229, 1. 34: change iter,

to

to

usit.
iter.

p. 229, 1.35:

change

usit. to

p. 230, 1. 21:

change

lia'wi- to

to

u-i'ndk'dl

t.'onionidn

liawi-

Ironi

-I'gnai' cJi'c' "1

am

Phonetic

Key
of

Publication^^

to

Edward

Compiled by

Sapir
William

Bright

of The Collected
following list of symbols is based on the planned contents
V and
Works
VI, plus selected
of Edward
Sapir,volumes
monographic
works.
It does not attempt to include
of
value
(such as a
symbols
unambiguous
or
k); or symbols used only in material quoted from other authors; or symbols
used
in standard
transliterations
of familiar
Old
orthographies or Roman
World
languages. Phonetic
symbols proposed in the Report of the Committee
Phonetic
on
Transcription(1916),but not found in Sapir s publications,are also
The

omitted
Part

here.
1 consists

consonants

letters
with

or

consists

Part

or

of diacritic modifications
of vowels

(indicatedby C) or
digraphs of the Roman

without

diacritics.

of miscellaneous

Part

which

with

used

are

the entire

(indicatedby v). Part

alphabet
3 consists

which

are

of Greek

used

class of

2 consists

of

with

specialvalues,
alphabeticsymbols. Part 4

segmental symbols.

1.

C^

Glottalized

ejective stop
printed as C

or

Also

sonorant.

notation

indicated

weaker

or

affricate; glottalizedspirant or

and

'C.

degree

In

of

earlier

some

work,

in stops
glottalization

this
than

C!
C!

Glottalized
ts! tc!

are

ejectivestop or affricate (in earlier work).

glottalizedaffricates.
or

Stop

Syllabicconsonant.

"C

Nasalized

C",C^

Labialized

consonant.

Cy

Palatalized

consonant.

C-

Long

C.C

Non-affricate

or

or

affricate

with

that

strong aspiration.

consonant.

geminated

sequence
^

Note

of

consonant.

consonantal
two

sequence,

independent

e.g.

I.s when

consonants.

(Superscript)Weakly articulated consonant,

glide.In early work, whispered
(laterwritten with a small capital).

consonantal

it represents

echoed
or

consonant,

voiceless

sonorant

or

y^I American

516

in Athabaskan,

Primary stress;
Sapir" Swadesh

Indian Languages 2

1946, stress

Fallingpitchin

Risingpitchin

Intermediate

of

Athabaskan.
Athabaskan.

pitchin Sarcee. (For intermediate

Sapir 1925f, Volume
VI).

pitches,see
V

Risingpitchin

Vowel

Takelma

Nasalization

if

Glottalization

v'

Primary stress.

Secondary

Length

of vowel.

stress.

of vowel.

Unusual

(v)

Glide

V. V

Non-diphthongalsequence
syllables.

or

v'^

v-^

Glottal

shortness

contrasted

v'

or

Pawnee.

of vowel.

Length of vowel; when

ordinarylength.

v:

and

and rising
falling

not necessarily
length;in some
earlywork, close vowel quality,
with length.(See specific
symbols in Part 2, below.)

yv

forms

low pitch.In Takelma

forms of
Secondary stress; in Athabaskan,
with
Swadesh
the
traditional
"stress
"
In
1946,
falling
pitch".
Sapir
orthography of Nahuatl, vowel with followingglottal
stop.

v'v

high pitch.In Takelma

with high or rising
tone.

value

with

v,

indicates

more

than

between

two

of vowel.

of vowel.
of vowels, e.g. a.i divided

mended
interruptionof vowel; the latter alternative is recomwhen
the post-glottal
portionis weakly articulated.

"Over-long"vowel

with

rearticulation,as
glide-like

in Takelma

and

Sarcee.
X^

vowel) Reduced
prominence of vowel; e.g. murmured
(Superscript
vocalic
of a precedingconsonant.
echoed
o
r
resonance
quality,
Also indicates whispered or voiceless vowels, later written with
small capitals.

or

Xv

(Subscriptvowel)

In

Indo-European, a

reduced

vowel.

Part 2.
a

vowel, as
Open mid-back unrounded
by small capitala or Greek alpha.

in

Eng. but; usuallyreplaced

Phonetic Key

low

back

517

Long

Low

Open

In Sarcee, "a velarized, dark-timbred

vowel,

front unrounded
low

back

vowel,

rounded

mid

back

unrounded

back

unrounded
for

symbol
In

one

vowel,

which

heard

sounds

voiceless

law.

hat.

Eng.

in Southern
in

Eng.

lenis in most

in

for

Paiutc; in Wishram,

but.
and

Eng. but:
iaryngeaP.

symbol

sometimes

"".

in

a-timbre

"intermediate"

or

in

Eng.

in Takelma

reconstructed

induces

as

a;
as

Indo-European, cover

Voiced

as

as

a,

vowel,

(largecapital)Voiceless

in

as

vowel.

Voiceless
(smallcapital)

in

Chasta

Costa,

Indo-European,

mid

cover

i.e.
a-coloringlaryngeal,
vowel.
adjacent

an

an

labial stop; "intermediate"

voiceless
voiced, sometimes

refers
"

to

probably

(esp.in Hittite.)

cases

(barredb) In Hebrew, spirantb.

B,

rounded

"Intermediate"
capital)

or
(Capital

small

In Nahuatl

traditional

labial stop; see

b above.

orthography,used as in Spanish:s before /

In Sapirs earlier works, a voiceless alveoor e, but k elsewhere.
like
sibilant
subsequentlyreplacedby s; in later
palatal
Eng. sh
works, a voiceless alveolar affricate,equivalentto earlier ts.

"

In Nahuatl

z, i.e.

Eng.

to

earlier tc

In

ch

In Nahuatl

Voiced

or

Voiced

"cerebral"

In Hebrew,

Voiced

D,

Spanish

as

in church,

alent
equiv-

ts.

or

Esperanto,equivalentto

"intermediate"
or

c.

orthography,equivalentto

traditional

b above.

apicalstop; see

retroflex

c.

apicalstop.

spirantd.

interdental

or
(capital

Mexican

s.

affricate,English ch
alveo-palatal

Voiceless

orthography,equivalentto

traditional

small

as
spirant,

Voiced
capital)

in

Englishthis.
or

"intermediate"

apicalslop;

see

b above.

dj,dz

Voiced

or

"intermediate"

replacedin later work

e

Long

open

mid

affricate
alveo-palalal

(see b, above):

by %.

front unrounded

vowel,

as

in French

fete.

518

VI

American

In earlier work,

met;

an

in French

as
quality,

Languages 2

mid

open

Chasta

in Yana,

Indian

front unrounded

Costa, and

Nootka,

Close

mid

front vowel,

as

in French

ete.

Close

mid

front vowel,

as

in French

ete.

In Athabaskan

reconstructions,

'pepet'vowel",

formula

or

"intermediate"

velar stop;

see

g,g,g,g-,gy Voiced

or

"intermediate"

front-velar

stop.

voiced

In Semitic,

(barredg) in Haida,

Voiced
G

velar

reduced

or

"Intermediate"

back-velar

velar stop;

is indicated,

(and stated

stop.

as
"strong aspiration"
opposed

apostrophe;later,h is

In Sanskrit

velar stop.

b, above.

see

In earlier work, represents

consonant

b above.

spirant( 7).

"intermediate"

an

"intermediate"

or

backward

for "the

3.

Voiced

Eng.

of this

(Smallcapital)In earlywork, "short obscure vowel of undefined

in unaccented
as
quality",
Englishthe (replacedin later works by
also indicates voiceless e.
3);occasionally

G,

long

in

as

vowel

fete.

i.e.

vowel,

the

as

preferredwhenever

opposed

to

to

the

dent
indepen-

an

of
aspiration

stop.

to be in

a voiceless
Semitic),
laryngealspirant;
in Nootka
(and perhaps properly in Semitic), a pharto use
seem
yngealizedh. [Some of Sapirs publications
"laryngeal"
improperly for "pharyngeal"; Lg. 10.276 (1934), fn. 4, is

bewildering.]
h

(with semicircle

hu

In traditional

In Nootka, pharyngealizedh;
(small capital)

In

earlywork,
quality.

High

In

below)

Nahuatl

some

back

unrounded

Tutelo,

"as

In Hittite,a velar

spirant.

orthography,equivalentto

as

in

English it;also

later
a

w.

replacedby

long vowel

h.

of that

vowel.

in French

fini"(in this language,plain/

is "as

in

English /?//").
I

In Nootka,
(Small capital)
in earlywork
quality";
Southern

on

"short

Southern

Paiute, voiceless i.

open

i-vowel

Paiute, an

of rather

"obscure"

unclear

i;later,in

Phonetic Key

In earlywork
(capital)

In earlier work

replacedby

Southern

on

Voiced

R,k,k,k-

Voiceless

front-velar stop.

Voiceless

back-velar

(withunderbar)

ky,ky

Voiceless

(Italic
1)In Yana,

Voiceless
ram,

"obscure"

French

i.

j in jour\later

z.

or

Paiute, an

sibilant,like
alveo-palatal

an

519

"intermediate"

stop,

velar stop.

stop.

spirantof

lateral.

American

"voiceless

as

"intermediate"

an

voiceless

lateral

lateral

=q.

In Tutelo,

front-velar

described

affricate.
alveo-palatal

Indian

languages;in

Wish-

palatallateral".

1, i

Voiceless

In earlywork,
(Smallcapital)
later by 1.

lateral spirant(1),
a voiceless
(Capital)In earlywork, sometimes
sometimes
the correspondingaffricate (equivalent
to tL, tl,or K).

in Welsh

spirantas

unvoiced

//.

voiceless

In Yana,
(italic)

(smallcapital)Unvoiced

In Yana,
(italic)

an

In earlier work,

velar nasal; later

In earlier work,

back

V"

Nasalization
(superscript)

Velar

Voiceless
(small capital)

apicalnasal.

Voiceless
(smallcapital)

velar nasal.

In earlier work,

an

lateral

bilabial nasal.

labial nasal.

unvoiced

apicalnasal.
replacedby

voll\in
vowel,

Southern

as

in

Eng.

front rounded

Mid

In Nootka,

In

open
Paiute

of

precedingvowel.

vowel,

close mid

Indo-European,
'laryngeal'
7 next to

back

and

Nootka.

as

back
low

rounded

mid

Later

saw.

r).

velar nasal.

with Greek
nasal; varies typographically

an

spirant,
replaced

eta

vowel,

rounded

back

the e-type

low

long

replacedin both
in German

(t|).

as

in German

back

values

by

rouiulcd
o.

schon.
vowel,

roundcci

as

in French

chaud.

|;i].
produced by

vowel.
full-grade

the

Indian Languages 2

American

^f

520

(Subscripto) In Indo-European, cover

resonance.
vowel) or syllabic

"like

ou

In Takelma,

Open

Low

(with underbar)

Voiceless

qu

In traditional

mid
mid

back

rounded

back

low

or

rounded

uvular

vowel,

In Tutelo,

for shwa

(murmur

final u-vanish''.

but with

symbol

vowel.
as

in German

Gotter.

"intermediate"

an

labial stop.

(back-velar)stop.

Nahuatl

orthography, a

voiceless

labiovelar

stop

(kw,k^).
r

In Yana,
(italic)

Voiced

voiced

uvular

r.

""tindicates

combination

"peculiar

vibrant.

Voiceless

Voiceless
(smallcapital)

Voiceless

In

In Chasta

uvular

r.

sibilant, replacingearlier
alveo-palatal

Esperanto,equivalentto

midway

Tsimshian,

r.

In Yana, the
(superscript)
voiceless-r quality"oft.

""

R,

uvular

r; in

voiceless

between

and

c (i.e.
s),"acoustically
"palatalized"

between
"midway acoustically"

sibilant

In Yana,

Voiceless

(withunderbar) in Tutelo,

tc

In earlier work,

"cerebral"

c".

s-

s.

and Nootka,

Costa

or

c.

and

(i.e.s).

retroflex stop.

voiceless

an

"intermediate"

apicalstop.

affricate;later replaced
alveo-palatal

by ts, c.
tl

In traditional

equivalentto

Nahuatl
tt or

tL, tl

In earlier work,

tl, tj

Equivalentto

ts

In earlier work,

ts-

In Yana.

ts

In earlier work,
in church;

an

orthography,a

voiceless

lateral affricate,

K.

voiceless

lateral affricate, equivalentto X..

voiceless

alveolar

X.

affricate

later

affricate;later replacedby

correspondingto

c.

s-.

affricate, like Englishch

alveo-palatal
replacedby c.
a

voiceless

Phonetic Key

In Chasta

te

Costa

and

other

521

Athabaskan,

voiceless

interdental

affricate.
In traditional

Nahuatl

In

on

voiceless

orthography,a
equivalentto phoneticts.

tz

earlywork

Southern

Paiute,

high back

long open

affricate,

alveolar

rounded

vowel.

High

front

Southern

rounded

Paiute, used for

In traditional

Nahuatl

equivalentto
In
(capital)

in German

high back

kiihl;in earlywork

unrounded

orthography,a
phoneticW.

Southern

In
(smallcapital)

as

vowel

on

ten
(laterwrit-

i).

as

uh

vowel,

Paiute, "a duller

Southern

Paiute,same

voiceless

labiovelar

varietyof

T.

vowel,
semi-

U; elsewhere, voiceless

as

u.

In

earlywork

written

with

on

Southern

Greek

voiced

bilabial

Southern

on

with

later written

Greek

earlywork on Southern
inner rounding".

Paiute,

voiced

Paiute,a

In

In earlywork on Southern
Paiute, a
(capital)
Greek
later replacedby
phi.
^y

In

voiceless

bilabial

Voiceless
(capital)

In Nahuatl

rant;
spi-

spirant"with

voiceless bilabial

Indo-European, systematicequivalentfor

bilabial

phi.

vw

w,

spirant;later

beta.

In earlywork
(italic)

Paiute,

rant;
spi-

u.

bilabial semivowel.
ilant,
siborthography,a voiceless alveo-palatal
velar
in phonetictranscription,
a voiceless

traditional

equivalentto
like German
spirant,

s;

further

ch in cich; but in Wishram,

back

than

sound.

the German

front-velar

X, X, x'

Voiceless

Voiceless

uvular

"between

ch

ich.

fricative, like ch in German

(back-velar)fricative;

of German

ach

and

in Wishram,

Iricative

ich": in llitiite,

ch of (icrnian

velar.
"as in German

ich^.

x'

In Yana,

xy

Voiceless

"C

(superscriptx) In earlier work on

before
developed from [aspiration]

front-velar fricative, as

in German

ich.

Scuithcrn
.

velar q ".

Paintc.

"weak

Phonetic

Voiceless

(omega)

(o

Part
^

back

4. Other

Low

back

523

fricative, equivalent
rounded

vowel,

in

as

to

x.

law.

Eng.

symbols
(inverted superscript "3^ varies typographically with superscript
Greek
epsilon). In earliest work,
indicates
glottal stop. Later
the

replaced by
^

velar

Key

In Nootka,

then

apostrophe,

^.

by

peculiarly harsh and choky glottalstop," i.e.

yngealized glottalstop, in later work written as !
"a

phar-

("smooth breathing")
as

1938

weak

for

Indo-European),

articulation,

placed

is used.

opposed
only to mark

before

three

In

"true"

(and

sometimes

late

as

indicates

'^.In later work,

the apostrophe
where,
else-

consonants;

the
glottalization,

'n 'w

(t'st's).

apostrophe is
t' k'), and
(p'
stops

'y),after
In Wishram,

"

Ugaritic, '1

work

glottalizationof
for

('m

affricates

Indian

glottalstop;

to

used

resonants

internallyfor
final vowel.

When

American

the

as

is retained
^

In earlier

'2 '3 indicate

denotes

glottalstop

elision
with

of
of

one

vowels.

(prime)

feature

of

"hardening"

which

imparts glottalizationin

Nootka.
^

Glottal

'

("rough breathing")

stop.

sometimes
later work,

the

inexactly stated
"Palatalized

to

be

In Nootka,

("shwa")

"voiced

the

work,

weak

h is used.

voiceless

articulation,
is retained

laryngeal spirant;
h.
In
to
opposed

as

only

to

In Semitic, indicates

mark

aspiration

the Arabic

"uin,

laryngeal spirant".
to

the

voiceless

front-palatal

ich.

pharyngealized

glottal(stop) phoneme
9

aspiration",equivalent

spirant of German
!

earlier

rough breathing

of stops; elsewhere,

'y

In

indicates

weak

mid

glottal stop;

inducing
central

velar

unrounded

or

in

Indo-European,

a-timbrc.
vowel,

like the

in

Eng.

be

nounced
pro-

idea.
+

Extra

Between

length

of

vowels

preceding symbol.
in Wishram,

separately".

denotes

that

they

"are

to

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Subtiaba

491-527.

27, 402-435,
Indian

from

in

Vancouver

in Sarcee,an
de Paris

Americanistes

The

Chinookan

of

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guistics
Lin-

gist
Anthropolo-

Island. Transactions. Women's

9, 142-143.

17, 185
and

nadian
Ca-

IV.

Language. Journal, Societe

des

205. VI.

"

Indian

VI.

of Berard

Review

Journal

Translation

Languages. Science 62 (1607),

VI.
16 October, xii. [Report of an interview.]
Law.
guistics
LinPhonetic
International Journal of American

A^ 105-110.
1926f

with

Text

Nicaragua.American

Athabaskan

of Chinese
Similarity

supplement of
1926a

Anthropologist

V.

Historical Society of Ottawa

1925o

American

\02. VI.

Affinityof

1925c

of

IV.

3, 161925b

Relative. International Journal

142. VI.

Haile, A

Journal

Mcmual

of

Navaho

Grammar.

American

511. VI.

of Sociology32,
Expeditionto Ancient

The

1927b

An

1928i

of 1927.
the Hupa, Summer
Summary Report of Field Work among
361. VI.
American
30, 359
Anthropologist
The Unconscious
Patterningof Behavior in Society.In Child, C. M.,
York:
142. New
The Unconscious, A Symposium, 114
et al. (eds.),
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American
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Central and North
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20, 10-12.

America.

azine
Universityof Chicago Mag-

IV.

"

1928J

"

1929a

1929c

1929d

1929e

York.

V.

VI.

Study

The

in Phonetic

Two

Psvchoiogy
Symbolism.Journal oJ L.\pcrimciii(d

I.

Concept of Phonetic

Leonard

1932d

New

the Navaho
GallupIndependent
Linguistic
Trip among
IV.
1-2.
Edifion,
23,
N.M.),
Gallup,
(Ceremonial
August
St. W. J.
In Teeuwen,
Forms
of Speech in Yana.
Male and Female
N. v. Dckkcr
Natalicium
Nijmegen-Utrcchl:
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Vegt,79-85. V
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A

12, 225-239.
1931b

and

Indians. The

118-119.

1929m

London

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Fourteenth

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Puns.

Law

as

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In Rice, Stuart
"

306.

A.

in Primitive

(cd.).Methods

Languages by
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in Social Sci-

Chicago: Univcrsily of CliicagoPress.

Language 8, 217-219.

VI.

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Swadesh, Morris
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Voegelin,

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Mode,

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F.

Internal

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The

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Haas,

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1935-55

Linguistics,University

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Harrington,

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Victor

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to

See

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See

University

Seaburg

1982.

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1905

Society Library,497.3
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Pn4a.l().

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1915

1954; 380, item

3836.

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Paul

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1950-51

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3837-3838.

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Smith

American
1966:

PhilosophicalSociety
257, item

2410.

Index

Abenaki,

V.452, 458-482,

493-528,

American

of Science. V23

535-537
V.449

Aberle, David,
Achomawi

American

(= Achumawi),

passim;

VI.

153;

see

Anglo-Saxon,

also Pit River

Aht

dialect),VI.466

Anvik,
129, 166, 199,

Alberni

Canal, VI.321, 359, 373

Alberta

VI.
(province),

Ingalik

VI. 379

VI.41,

135, 169, 172, 199, 205.

209-220
VI.189

Apachean,

Islands, V.95

84-85,

75-76,

79-81,

93-94,

95, 97, 451-482,

(Athabaskan).

VI. 38,

93-94

47-48,

Arabic, V.112, 126, 242; VI. 207, 353,

VI.

13,

passim.

451, 457-482

-449,

V.447

Arapaho,

484-529,

553-557;

Applegate Creek

377

90-91,

493-528

passim. 535-538,

542

133, 313

Algonkin (Ojibwa dialect),V.447. 477,

V.95, 103. 269

Arawak,

Arctic, V.104

535

90,

93, 97. 101, 181, 332, 490; VI. 23

VI. 199, 224

V.96

Armenian,

V. 143

Arragon, Francisct^. V.264

see

also Yakonan

AnthropologicalAssociation.
177; VI.22

Arizona, V.96, 135. 223. 354-355;

Arkansas.

Algonkin-Wiyot-Yurok, V.93
Algonquian, see Algonkian
V.95
Allegheny Mountains.
Alsea, V.67, 81, 105; VI. 225, 227;

V.96

Ankara,

Algonkin-Ritwan, V.90-91, 97
Algonkin-Wakashan, V.81, 84-86,

V.149,

also

see

101-102,

169

Algic,V.490
Algonkian {" Algonkin, Algonquian)
70, 73,
V.13, 15, 58, 62-63,
(family),

American

96-102

Apache, V.102, 104, 242;

V.93, 95; V.IOO

15, 23-24,

Antonio

passim,
passim. 142, 149, 196. 199.

Aoki, Haruo,

Albanian, V.133

531, 535, 542-543,

also San

see

VI.24-25,

106-129

201;

201

Aleutian

V.213, 248, 251,

Salinan

VI. 353

VI.

Sahnan,

272, 306, 321;

VI.221

Alaska, V.63, 95-99;

Aleut,

Anthony Seqaqkind.

Antilles, V.105
Antoniano

(Nootka). V.llO;

Ahtena,

Societies,

V.493, 503

Cupeiio), V.352

(Nootka

of Learned

V.128

Rev.

Anthony,

Aguacatec, V.102
Ahousaht

24, 345

V.102

Amusgo,

languages,V.5
(=

Council

"

VI.206

248, 259, 261, 264-333

Caliente

Agua

V.86, 98,

189-229,

105, 177, 185-187,

232-242,

African

for the Advancement

Association

Arroyo de la Cucsla.

Felipe.

Vl.271-272

Aryan. V.549
pcan;

"

550;

Indo-Germanic

see

also Indo-Hurii-

544

VI

Indian

American

Berkeley (CaUfornia), V.177,

Asia, V.545; VI. 191

Assiniboine,

see

Athabaskan

can.
Athapas25,

Alhapaskan), V.13, 15-17,

71, 90, 93, 95-98,

52, 59, 62-63.

100, 102, 144, 179, 185, 223, 242,

261, 298; VI. 13, 15-17,

21-149,

158, 160, 163. 169-222,

314,

481

51 1 ;

258, 266
Hat

333

passim; see

sim,
pas-

also

Aztek-Tanoan). V.84.

Boas, Franz, V.5, 15-17,

49, 52-54,

21-22,

56-58,

61

-63,
118,

26, 105, 114, 130, 141,

165, 202, 203, 225, 231,

156-157,

Nahuatl), V.102

17,

402, 535, 550. 558; VI. 1522-23,

91, 99. 101. 103-104

Aztek(=

V.26, 146, 447,

141, 143, 151, 178, 356, 388-389,

V. 131, 452

Aztec-Tanoan

493-528

VI. 169

68,82, 94, 105, 110, 114-115,

Atakapa), V.223

447,

449, 535, 537; VI.24, 199

25-26,

Attacapan (

passim, 487,

Bloomfield, Leonard,

Creek

Avestan,

Birket-Smith. Kaj, VI. 130

Bleek, D. F., VI. 367

177. 185-186,

"

Biloxi, VI.474

passim, 535-536;

passim. 226, 232-242

190-221

VI. 382

Bill,Tommy,

451, 457-482

Atlantic Coast. V.95

Atsugewi.V.105.

Bibolotti, Benigno, VI.475-476

Blackfoot, V.22, 70, 75, 79-80,

also Dene

see

335

VI. 225

Howard,

Berman,

Stoney
Athabascan.

Languages

234, 241, 243, 275, 280, 301, 302,

319, 321, 323, 351-352,

Babine. VI.213. 483, 499-511

Baja CaUfornia,

Lower

see

California

356, 358,

386, 465,467

366, 382-383,
Bolivia, VI.475-477

Baltic, V.144

(Massachusetts),V.345

Boston

Bankalachi, V.352
V.352

Bannock,

"

"

443 passim

Bright.Jane. VI.94
Bright.William. V.13.

443 passim

Bantu, VI.173

512, 521-522,

Barbeau, Charles

Barkley Sound

559

(Nootka), VI. 321.

A.. V.190, 232; VI.267,

301

Basque, V.69, 72, 134, 545

(Athabaskan),

Lake

British Columbia,

VI.221

213, 217-219,

(Salishan),V.96;

426. 467

of American

103

61

Ethnology,

-68,

Johann

447, 477; VI.225

Carl Eduard,

V.346, 351-353
Bushman,

Bella Bella, V.llO

Bella Coola

Brown,
Bureau

-22,

V.102-

VI. 195

Sam,

Buschmann,

221

V.96, 136; VI. 129,

199

V.21

Beaver, VI. 172, 173, 199, 201, 205, 211.

VI. 367

Byington,Cyrus, V.63
VI.

382,

Cacaopera, V.102

Bengali.V.487
Berendt.

503, 545

British Honduras.

Barrett. Samuel

Beothuk,

G., V.264, 302. 346.

Brinton, Daniel
351, 380,493,

Marius, VI. 141, 171

373-374

Bear

94. 178. 335;

VI. 13

Baraga, Bishop Frederic, V.458, 466,

493,496,

Loren, VI.94

Bommelyn,

V.177

Bahimore,

V.90. 94. 96-100

C. H.. V.264

Cacouna

(Micmac

V.494
dialect),

Caddo(an), V.63, 82, 91, 93, 95,

99-100,

332

545

Index

Cahita, \.?"S2-A^7"

Chemehuevi,

passim

Cahuilla, V.305, 352-443

Cakchiquel,V.102
Calgary (Alberta),VI.
California, V.15-16,

Cherokee,

passim

V.38, 347, 354

V.62, 95

Chetco-Tolowa,
169

VI. 94

Cheyenne, V.63, 447, 451 -452,

44, 63, 96-97,

103, 133, 135, 144, 177-178,

185,

486-487,

187, 223, 245, 261, 264, 331, 335,

Chiapanec, V.102,
Chiapas, V.102

354, 448-449,

453-482,

Chibchan,

514, 524-525,

528, 553-561;

VI.

485-492,

263-265,

267-272,

Campbell, Lyle,V.16, 94;

273

VI. 16,

V.447, 477

(THngit),VI.

114

492,

Cape Cook,

96-97,

VI.353

231

Carib, V.103
School, V.345

373, 375, 377, 384, 387, 392-393,

417, 420, 434,

passim. 95-103,

141, 169, 171-172,

211-220

207-208,

V.72

Cayuga,

VI.471

Cayuse, V.90, 96,

Cegiha, V.62

95-104,

Chapman,

John

231-261,

263-265,

267, 275-280,

283-288,

293-296,

299-315,

365,

368, 376

487

299

Wight, VI.96-103,

Chipewyan,

V.144;

96-103,

106-129

119, 143, 145, 154,

V.29, 81, 90; VI.381;

VI.35-94

182-183,

193, 199-201.

21 1

220 passim. 22 1 504

/j^/.v.v//?/.
135, 141,
.

172-173.

169-170.

205-206,
-

505;

see

Montagnais

Chiricahua

Apache.

VI. 205. 225-220

Chiriqui,V.102
Chitimacha.

V.82. 90. 96-97.

332, 448. 553, 556

see

passim

143-149,

also

205, 217, 481-511

also Chimakuan

96, 98. 101.

81, 85, 90-91,

VI. 15, 37, 225. 227.

dichalis, VI. 233

Chcmakum,

Jargon,
Chinook(an), V.15, 28, 59. 62, 71-73,

491, 557-558;

Costa, V.16, 106; VI. 16, 21, 24,

182-183,

VI. 246

141, 186, 284, 486,

V.24, 64, 84, 91 -92,

95-103,

173, 191

153-154,

133-138,

105, 134-135,

135, 196, 219

27-94,

V.102

passim. 221,

98

180-181,

249,

77-79,

Celtic, V.447, 452, 477,

America,

199, 201, 205,

481-511

Catawba,

passim,

Chinese, V.23, 52, 83, 485; VI.23-24,

Chinook

444

Carrier, VI.22, 29-92

\^9 -229

VI. 25
/Jfl.v.v//;/;

Chinantec,

Horacio, V.354, 366,

78, 82, 86, 90,

242 passim, 245

264-333

Carochi, Father

also Chemakum

see

99, 105, 177, 179-180,

185-187,

Flattery,VI.353, 439

Carlisle Indian

105, 533;

Chimariko, V.75-76,

435

Island. V.95

Breton

V.96-98,

VI. 264, 321;

Cape Beale, VI.353,

Chasta

V.96, 102, 104

Chimakuan,

V.269

Canixana,

Central

Chilcat

499-511

Canada,

Cape

Chihuahua,

Chilcotin, VI.205, 221, 482-483,

288-289

Cape

V.103

195

Penutian, V.81, 90, 93, 98;

VI. 225,

559

264, 293, 299

Chicago, V.15, 17, 23; VI. 15. 17, 24.

195

15-16,

California

458,

500, 512, 535-536,

Chocho,
Choctaw.

V.102

V.63. 332

99, 105.

547

Index

245-247,

223, 231-232,
264-265,

160; VI.28

O., V.62-63,

Freeland, Lucy S., VI.228, 283-289,

Dyen, Isidore, V.449

299

VI. 262

E., VI. 319

John

Freeman,

VI. 351

Dynes, Wayne,

Franciscans, VI. 193

Fredson, John, VI. 25

John, VI.228, 300

Dyk, Walter,

267, 291, 301, 303,

VI.227, 263-265,
309, 311, 321, 474

416, 436, 438

Dunn,

555, 557, 559

Frachtenberg,Leo J.,V64, 553;

221

Dolores, Juan, V.399, 402, 409, 413,

Dorsey, James

531-533,

486-487,493-528,
535-536,

228, 263, 268, 273, 283, 301

Dogrib, VI.205, 213, 215,

63, 70, 264, 449, 451 -452,

Fox, V58,

261,

447, 477; VI. 16, 225-226,

French, V.25, 125, 134-136,

V.95
Cape (Siberia),
Eastern Algonki(a)n,V.482, 497-498,

East

351-352,

159-160,

138-140,
487,

354-355,

489

528

GabrieHno,

V.5

Edgerton, Franklin,

Galice

V.352

Creek

Eliot,John, V.451
33, 57-58,

English,V.30-31,

138-140,

111, 134-136,

85, 100,

151-169

48, 93, 94, 205

Manuel, VI.283

Gamio,

72, 190.

S.. V.61 -63.

351-352,
231, 233

401, 404, 489, 542-544,

356-357,

/"a.s.s7""

(Athabaskan),VI.27-28,

Gatschet, Albert

passim, 171, 297-298,

443

GeologicalSurvey

of Canada,

pological
Anthro-

564

Division, 319
VI. 166

Enrico, John,

V.31, 59, 62, 64, 72, 82, 93, 95,

Eskimo,

100, 135, 143, 162, 172, 542, 550;

VI.23, 108, 133, 163, 358, 370-372,
377;

also Greenlandic; Innuit

see

Eskimoan, V.95

Europe,

V.133

VI.

passim

VI. 173

V.352

442 passim

"

Gifford, Edward
232-233,

"

63

W., V. 190 -221

sim,
pas-

492, 494-495,

497,

513, 519, 521-522

507-509,

130, 141, 202

550

Gibbs. George, V.62

(Athabaskan), VI.28, 94

Creek

Euchre

Eyak,

252, 258, 264-333

357,

passim, 300, 351-352,

152-165

388-390,486,

Giamina,

passim. 223, 226-229,

233-242,

V.31, 39, 110, 133, 136,

German,

Germanic,
99, 177,

Esselen, V.90, 96-97,

195-221

Georgia, V.96
Georgian, V.105

Kitanemuk), 352

Gitanemuk(=

"

442

passim

Ferguson, Charles
Fernandeiio, V.352
Finck, Franz

A., VI. 466

443 passim

"

Nikolaus, V.351

Finnish, V.134,

486

Gitkshan,

VI. 171

Goddard,

Ives, V.580

Goddard,

PUny

E., V.21 -22,

149, 151, 178; VI.21, 29-92

Finno-Ugrian, V.172

96-103,

105, 107, 130, 134-

V.64

141, 143-149,

Florida, V95-96,

103

201, 202, 359, 500, 505-507,

Cree, V561

Golla, Victor, V.13, 16, 22-25,

Foucaux,

V.83;

VI.23

1 77

passim.
LVS,

154, 172, 195-196,

Fletcher, Alice C,

Fort Totten

62, 82.

1 79, 181. 345

346. 448

508
149,
-

449;

VI

548

25, 94, 141, 189,

22-23,

VI. 13, 16,

Indian

American

Han,

Canyon, V.135

Great

Basin, V.96, 261, 491, 524

Great

Bear

Great

Central

Great

Lakes, V.95

Great

Plains, VL169,

Harrington.John

218, 220

133,

372;

"

see

Hewitt. John

(Mexico), V.102

"

103,

Gulf

of Mexico,

Haas, Mary, V.17, 94, 173, 490; VI. 17,

see

also Swadesh,

Herman

Hagwelgate (Carrier dialect),VI. 141,

V.14, 16-17,

62-63,

71-72,

105-106,
VI.

125, 242, 254, 297-298;

14, 16-17,21,

130-131,

105-129.

Haile. Father

VI.24-26.
Haisla

305. 313

90-91,93,97-98,
251-255

133-138,

151-167,

170,

Berard.

(Kwakiutlan).

Xaisla

VI. 353;

see

V.16. 81. 84. 90-91,

Greek, V.128, 263

Homeric

H'laam

193

passim, 259, 265;

VI. 16

V.102-

Hopi. V.96.

141;

101-104,

93, 98, 101, 151, 179. 181, 293,

Honduras,
V.109.

V.16, 24, 82, 86,

VI. 16

331-333;

189, 191, 314

177-341;

226, 228. 263, 273,

VI.15-16,

Hokan-Siouan.

76. 78, 81, 85,90, 93, 96-98,

82, 86. 90-91,

101-104.

93,97-98,

231-242,

171

Haida.

V. 13, 15-16,

Hokan-Coahuiltecan,

K.. VI. 433

VI. 17.

94, 210

286-287.

Haas

Haeberlin.

James, V.63

Walter

24-26,
Hokan,

Mary

F.. V.449. 535

Hoijer,Harry, V.17, 24. 141;

V.95, 223, 261

25, 262, 321;

127. 131

Hockett. Charles
Hoffman,

264

languages,V.94

V.103

passim
Hittite.V.126-

V.102; VI.228

Gulf

(Mexico),

state

Highland (Serrano dialect),V.352-441

Guatajiguala,V.264
state

Hidalgo

Hidatsa, V.72

Ventre. V.460. 462-463,

"

Brinton. V.62.

Napoleon

64, 190, 232, 259, 550, 553

535-536
493-528/;a.v.v/m,

24

M., VI. 433

Hess, Thomas
VI. 370

Grinnell, George Bird, V.460, 462-463

Guerrero

V.355

Herzog, George, V.173

also Eskimo

Guatemala.

Atsugewi

V.172

Fortunato.

Hernandez.

V.95

(Eskimo),

also

see

(Kwakiutlan). VI.353. 467

Heiltsuk

477

139, 225, 288-289,

Creek, V.232;

Heepe, Martin,

H., V.94; VI.130,

P., VI. 94

V.447
University,

Harvard
Hat

sim,
pas-

149 passim. 199, 201,

210-221

205-206,

Bay (Wisconsin), V.96

Gros

passim, 96-103

136, \43-

447, 452, 477, 488, 550

Greenlandic

VI. 292, 301

(Coos dialect),

Hanis

Antilles, V.103

Greenland,

205, 221

VI.

Lake, VI.375

Greenberg.Joseph

KwantlEn

see

Hare, VI.27-92

Lake, V.96

Greek, V.25, 33, 100, 126-131,

Green

V.138

Hamitic-Semitic, V.143, 145; VI. 173

Gothic, V.126, 162

Greater

Haka,

Halkomelem,

197, 227, 299, 321

Grand

Languages

354-441

103; VI.228

passim

(Yuman), V.226, 232-241

also

Huastec, V.102

sim
pas-

Index

V.82, 98, 102-103;

Huave,

VI.228,

288-289
Hudson's

Ishi (Yahi

Iskoman,

Bay, V.96; VI.

speaker),V.177,
V.177-

183, 190

178

Italian,VI 29, 165

199

Huichol, V.104, 366-441

Humboldt

Italic,V.131

passim

Bay, V.453
Jabo

Hungarian, V.133
VI. 319, 323-352,

George,

Hunt,

549

366

Hupa, V.13, 15, 17, 62, 106, 109, 144,

297, 524, 557-558;
24-25,

27-94,

2\\ -220

106-129

96-103,

passim, 133-138,
169, 172-173,

VI. 13, 15, 17,

141 -149,

154,

191, 195-201,

205,

Jacobsen, William, V.335; VI.356

Jalisco state, Mexico,

Janambre,

V.96, 355

V.102

Jaschke, Heinrich

A., V.83; VI.23

Jenness, Diamond,

V.172

Jette,Jules, VI. 100

passim, 481, 506, 508

Hymes, Dell, VI. 130, 273,

(Liberia), VI.207

Jacobs, Melville, VI. 94

Jicaque, V.102; VI.228

379

Jicarilla Apache, VI.101-102,

Idaho,

V.96

Iluano, V.91

Jiquilapa(Nicaragua), V.264

Indie. V.131

Joel,Janet,

Indo-Chinese,
133

"

138;

135,

205, 219-220

Jones, William, V.63, 458-469,

V.23, 83; VI.23,

see

474,

493, 531

also Sino-Tibetan

Indo-European, V.5, 16, 24-26,

101, 105-131

VI. 25

85,

passim, 134, 143-145,

Joshuas, VI.28
Juaneiio, V.352

"

441

passim; see

also

Netela

298, 345, 447-448,

477-478,

544, 550, 558; VI. 16, 227;

542,
also

see

Kaibab

Indo-Germanic, V.31, 33, 36, 56, 72,

487;

see

also Aryan; Indo-European

Indo-Iranian, V.131, 487; VI. 173

142, 196, 202,

205, 213, 217, 219, 221;

see

also An-

vik

Kalapuya, V.81, 90,

see

Phonetic

Kamia,

V.174

Kansas,

V.96

Karankawa,

V.82, 90, 96-97,

267, 286.

99, 223,

passim. 258, 265-328

Karesau-Papua
Association,

V.149

dialect),

passim

Iranian, V.131

sim
pas-

V.35-36,
Iroquoian(Iroquois),

78, 82, 86,91, 93, 95, 99,

264, 448, 550, 553, 556-557;

Iroquois-Caddoan,V.91 -93

VI. 153

99, 105, 144,

177-178,

189-221

passim. 223.

225-229,

231-242

passim. 258.

Kaska.
52,

Guinea). VI. 368

136

V.24, 90, 96-97,

264-333

Irish,V.133, 297, 388-389

(New

Karlgren. Bcrnhard,
Karok,

Inyo County (Mono

V.352-441

105, 553,

also Eskimo

Interior Salish, VI.432

International

96-98.

557; VI.225, 227, 263-265,

231-242

Innuit, V.64;

55-58,

V.38
(Southern Paiute dialect),

293

Indonesian, VI. 358

Ingalik,V.17; VI.24-25,

Philip,VI. 262

Kahclamat,

Aryan; Indo-Germanic

558
/w.v.v//?/,

VI. 213. 221

Kathlamet,
Kalo.

261

V.62; VI. 231. 241

VI.27-94.

96

103, 106-129

passim, 136, 145. 172. 205. 211, 213,

218

VI

550

Indian

American

Kroeber, Paul, VI. 433

Kawaiisu, V.354, 416

Kuipers,Aert H.,

V.102

Kekchi,

Kendall,

V.232;

Kutchan,

R., VI. 151 -157

Kelly.Peter

Languages

also Yuma

see

Kutchin, V.13, 15, 17, 100;

197

Daythal, VI. 139,

VI.433

VI.

13, 15,
199,

181, 193, 195-196,

Kentucky, V.96

17, 24-25,

Keres, V.82, 90, 93, 96, 99, 332

201, 202, 205, 206, 207, 211-220

River

(California),V.354

Kess, Anita

VI. 466

Kern

Kess,

Copeland,

passim, 221;
Kutenai,

Kiliwa

280

99,

Kiowa, V.63, 81, 91, 93, 96-97,

Apache,

Kitamat,

VI. 169,

see

also Gabrielino

River

(Oregon),

Shasta, V.203, 208

Kootenay

Kutenai), V.67, 81, 90,

(=

Koso,

V.120,
(Kwakiutl dialect),
see

124

Koyukukhotana,
Krauss, Michael
139, 141-142,
Kroeber, Alfred
27-59,

E., VI. 21 -22,

26, 130,

533

Greek, V.128

Lake

Erie, V.95

Lake

Ontario, V.95

Langdon,

Margaret, V.335

Latin, V.33, 68, 100, 128-129,

131,

551

181,

264-265,

311, 318. 347, 351-441

451, 453-482

166

170-171,

193, 505

Walter, V.37, 180-181,

passim. 355, 369, 383, 441,

VI. 228

Lenca, V.103, 264; VI.228

/7a.v-

Leon

(Nicaragua),V.263

Leon, Nicolas, V.264

499-501,

504-505,

508-510,

513, 520,

541-557,

559-562;

VI.

16, 21-23,

273, 299. 301, 359

Lehmann,

444, 548-562;

249, 251, 257,261,

220, 225-229,

Leer, Jeff,VL130,

263-331

231-233,

sim, 488, 491 -497,

VI. 166

Erma,

141, 143-149,

L., V.16, 21-24,

190, 199, 201, 203, 207, 223,

269-270,

Lacombe,

Legoff,Laurent, VI.69, 74, 78, 99, 128,

166, 189, 202

passim. 447-449,

V.95

Albert, V.80, 458, 466, 474,

Lawrence,

VI. 205

81, 149, 151, 177-179,

25, 133-138,

Halkomelem?),

Laufer, Berthold, VI.23, 138

Ten'a

see

Labrador,

452, 486-487,

Shikavayam

Koyukon,

(Salishan,

Lassik, VL205

93, 96, 98, 105, 543

Koskimo

VI.205, 213

Ladusaw, William, V.150

V.453

R, V.162

Samuel

Kleinschmidt,
Konomihu

442-443,

Laconian

VI.225

Klamath-Modoc,
Klamath

377, 381, 388,

493, 521-524,

96, 98, 105; VI.226, 240

90-91,

372-373,

455, 465, 467-468

Gitanemuk

(language),V.62-63, 69,

Klamath

366-368,

VI.388, 396

see

Kizh, V.354;

353-356,

KwantlEn

205, 219-220

V.llO

Kitanemuk,

323-351,

319-321,

Kwalhiokwa,

105; VI. 169

Kiowa

143, 316, 332;

157, 280, 312,

VI.107-108,
276,

passim, 268, 271 -272,

59, 63, 77,

29-30,

90, 96, 98, 105-131,

559

Kiliwi),V.190, 226,

(=

232-242

Loucheux

Kootenay

see

Kwakiutl, V.24-25,

Joseph Francis, VI. 466

Kickapoo, V.459, 477,

also

see

263,

Levine. Robert,

VI.

Levy-Bruhl, Lucien,

130, 166
V.78

Li, Fang-Kuei, V.17; VI.24-25,

196-197

551

Index

Marie- Louise, V.14

Liebe-Harkort,

VI.427-432,
(Salishan),

Lillooet

VI.

Lipan Apache,

199, 205, 219

M \ 35 -9A

Loucheux,
106-129

467

passim, 135, 169-189

sim,
pas-

also

see

Kutchin

Baja California),

V.96, 102-103
Chinook,

VL225,

231-242,

247,

V.64; VL225,

Umpqua,

311; see

Luiserio, V.305, 352-441

Lumholtz,

passim. 492

94,

V.63, 69, 85, 90, 96-98,

101,

144, 177, 186, 557; VI.225, 263-265,

283-288,

528

passim,

Mexican

Penutian, V.98
101-104,

231, 264-265,

V.63

451, 460, 462-463,

465-466,

477, 485-489,

531-532,
Michoacan

553,
state

V.457

(Mexico), V.102"

Middle

232-242

passim

Alden, V.180, 190-221

257-261,

America

247

"

249,

306, 310,

VI. 291 -296,

(Coos dialect),

(state),V.96
Mississippi
V.95-96

River,
Mississippi
Missouri

River, V.95
V.37, 44

Marianne,

Miwok,

V.78, 90-91,

VI.22-28,
(Haida dialect),

passim. 1 52,

213-214,

1 63

1 64, 166

103

196, 205, 211,

Maya(n), V.82, 91, 102-103,

333, 542, 545; VI.288

448, 556-558;

105, 299,

V.16, 94; VI. 1 6, 474

177, 332,

96-98,

VI.153, 225,

263-265,

270, 279, 283-288,

293-296,

301

Miwok-Costanoan,

218

301

Miskito, V.102 -103

Mithun,

Mattolc, VL25,

538, 559

Meso-America),

428, 430, 434-443

Matagalpa, V.102-

103

483 passim, 487,

"

529 passim, 535

493, 513,

558-561

422-426,

1 29

64, 70,

"

447-449,

324, 355, 410, 416-417,

223,

287, 299, 331, 333,

316-317,

106

102

178-181,

Misteli, Franz,

Masset

America
"

VI. 136

Miluk

passim, I'i'i-lAl passim.

251-255,

see

languages,V.lOl

Mills, Elaine, VI.94

V.236, 271

Maricopa, V.190,
Mason,

205, 210-220

MigueleiioSalinan, V.213, 248, 251,

271, 321; see also San Miguel Salinan

Maribio, V.263
John

VI.

Middle

V.24, 101, 103; VI. 228

David, V.181

V.102, 264, 287, 293

Maratino,

Apache,

Mexican

493

passim

Mandelbaum,

Mangue,

V.63, 535, 556

Meso-America,

Micmac,

293-296

V.llO; VI.435

Malecite, V.160, 458-482

493

VI.372-373

Michelson, Truman,

96-98

River, V.96, 166; V1.220

268-269,

Menomini,

Miao,

VI.433

V.90-91,

Mackenzie

H., V.397

355, 545

Carl, V.353

Lushootseed,

Makah,

Melanesia,

V.78

95-97,

Lowie, Robert, VI.21, 299

Maidu,

WilHam

Mexico, V.24, 64, 66, 81, 84, 93,

also Siuslaw

Lutuami,

Pete,

John, V.232
VI. 352

Mechhng,

Mescalero

249, 275-280
Lower

William

McGuff,

Mengarini,Gregory, V.63

California

Lower

Jane, V.14, VL 15

Melanesians,

Louisiana, V.96
Lower

V.102, 264, 287, 293, 299

McGary,
McGee,

passim, 96"103,

199, 201, 211-220;

Mazatec,

Mixe,

V.90, 97

V 1.228, 283-288,

Mixe-Zoquc. V.91, 98.

98

299
102

103; V1.228

552

VI

American

Indian

Languages

Mixtec, V.102, 264, 287, 293

Nabesna,

VI.221

Mixtec-Zapotec, V.82, 91, 102-103

Na-Dene,

V.

Mixtec-Zapotec-Otomi,V.91, 102-103
Modoc,

V.82, 90, 96, 98, 105

Mohave

(=

228, 232

"

VI.13, 15-17,
130-131,

242 passim,

"

passim. 492; VI.367

266-333
Mohawk,

Mohican,

Mojave,

441 passim

"

553, 556, 558

V.352

Mono,

"

V.354

Mono-Paviotso,

V.354

143-149,

170;

River

(Tsimshian dialect),V.14,

284; VI. 14, 151-152,

VI. 35

94

"

also

Chipewyan

passim;

VI. 170

372

V.558

Navajo), V.13, 15, 17,

(=

95, 100, 105-131,

135-141

James, V.63, 431, 462, 464

17, 24-26,41,

Morgan,

Lewis

1 06

VI.21

V.504

Adrian

Gabriel, V.16;

23, 29

92 passim, 95

128, 141, 143-149,

(=

Chumano,

Chomane),

Mukne

(Athabaskan group),

VI. 221

(Costanoan), VI.288
Delaware,

(=

see

V.96, 135

Guinea,

VI. 368

New

Mexico,

V.96, 135; VI. 199

StanleyS., V.17,

Nicaragua, V.16, 102-103,

VI. 351

Muskhogean,

263-332,
Musko-

173; VI. 17,

355;

Nichols, Johanna,
Nicola, VI.221

VI.286

VI. 271

180,

VI. 16

Nicarao, V.102, 264, 355

93, 95,99, 332-333;

V.75-78;

also Juaneiio

New

gian),V.62, 72, 75, 78, 82, 91-92,

Mutsun.

207, 209-220,

292

V.493, 496

Murray, Stephen O.,

Muskogean

199-201,

V.96

Newman,

Miiller, Friedrich, V.353

Munsi

205-206,

Netela, V.354;
Nevada,

(Melanesian), VI.372-373

Mountain

passim.

154, 158, 169, 172-173,

182, 189, 193, 195-196,

Nebraska,

VI.475-477
Mota

133"138

221,481, 500, 507-509

V.98, 101; VI. 321, 467

Moseteno

89, 96-103,

passim,

203-204,

207-208,481-511
Mosan,

1 29

143-149,

103,

171,205,

"

133,

passim. 144, 242; VI.13, 15,

Mooney,

Henry,

passim.

487, 559-560

24-25,

Morice, Father

95, 99, 332

Natick, V.63, 451, 457 -4S2

Navaho

V.96

Monterey Costanoan,

157, 228, 302,

Natchez, V.82, 91 -92,

Montagnais (Algonkian),V.458-482
passim. 493-528

(Salishan),VI.426-431

515
Nass

108-129,
see

371, 377

Narragansett,V.498, 506, 512-513,

Montagnais (Athabaskan),
passim, 96-103,

542-543,

VI. 15, 358, 364-365,

441 passim

Mono-Bannock,

Montana,

264, 267, 346,

545, 548-562;

Nanaima

Molale-Cayuse, VI.225

44, 46, 59,

351-444,

Molale), V.82, 90, 96, 98,

(=

V.263

VI.483

91, 96, 99, 103-104,

Mohave

sec

141, 146, 154,

189, 191, 312

Nahuatl, V.15, 21, 37-38,

V.352

Mohineyam,
Molala

Nahani,

V.536

105-129,

VI. 136

Nagrando,

Mohegan, V.502, 504

22-28,

133-138,

163, 169-170,

Naga,

V.52; VI.151-152

17, 81. 84, 90, 93,

98, 101, 104, 181, 242, 298, 332;

190-221

Mojave), V.86,

passim, 225

13, 15-

Niskwalli, V.62

VI.227, 262, 379

553

Index

Osgood, Cornelius, VI.24-25,

Nisqa, VI.228
(Southern Nootka), V.llO;

Nitinat
VI.

353, 374-375.

319-321,

442, 450,

435,

Otomi,

134-141,

171, 316, 532; VI.13,

143, 162-163,

287, 293

V.82, 91, 102-103,

V.102 -103

Otomian,

76-79,

96, 98, 105-131,

90-91.

VI. 289

Otomanguean,

453

V.13, 15, 24-25,

Nootka,

221-222

Ottawa

V.17;
(city),

Ottawa

(language),V.496,

319

VI.24-25,
513

15, 107, 157, 164, 262, 280, 313,

353-378,

381-382,435-461,

465-466,

467-468;

also Nitinat

see

America,

North

Carolina, V.95

North

Dakota,

North

Fork

VI.13, \5A\
V.352

Mono,

441

"

passim
145

VI. 475
University,

Northwestern

V.172;

V.102, 104, 179, 231, 402, 412;

VI.228

Panini, V.345
VI.477

Papago, V.355, 399-443

Passamaquoddy,

Ojibwa, V.58, 70, 447, 449, 451-452,

Paviotso

482 passim, 489, 493

354

528 passim,

559-561;

555-556,

535-536,

Okanagan (Salishan),VI.426-431
Chinese, VI. 134 -138

Old

Church

Old

Irish,V.126, 388, 452, 488

Omaha,

Oneida, V.52-

96-103,

Oregon, V.14, 16, 62-63,

103, 135,

261, 491, 524; VI.13. 16, 27. 226

Penutian,

V.90

-91,

93, 98;

101

299-315

503

555

passim.

108, 135, 143-149.

170,

504

Petter. Rudolf, V.451, 458, 512

Picrrcvillc (Abenaki dialect). V.494

Pima(n), V.62, 91, 99. 352-441

Piman-Sonoran.

V.263

Orton, Wolverton,

279, 283-288,

V.345
Philadelphia.

VI. 94

VI. 225, 263-267

Orotina,

263-272,

Petitot,Emile, y\.25-9A

54

Opata, V.355

Oregon

261, 284, 292, 332; VI.13,

(Algonkian),V.477,

Peoria

Oregon Athabaskan,

81, 84, 90-91,

101, 103. 144, 177,

93, 97-98,

291-296,

de, VI. 365

passim, 538

(Salishan),VI. 375. 388, 467

15-16,

VI.288

V.62

100, 543

V.477, 493-528

Penobscot,

180-181,

(Tamaulipas),V.102
Andres

Paiute),V.38,

57-58,

V.35-36,

Pawnee,

V.353

V.538

Penutian, V.13, 15-16,

Slavic, V.128

Olmos,

Edward,

Northern

(=

Pentlatch

Old

Olmecs,

passim

Paya, V.103; VI.228

VI. 154, 361

Olive

Paiute
also Coahuiltecan

see

Parry, Sir William

Valley Siouan, VI. 474

457

also Kaibab;

Paris,V.346

Ofo, V.62; VI. 474

Ohio

199,

V.103

Panama,

Panoan,
Oaxaca,

see

Paviotso; Southern
Pakawan,

V.90, 98, 331

(North America), V.62,

Northwest

VI.94.

Athabaskan.

Paiute, V.14, 25, 63, 67, 73, 141. 549:

V.96

Hokan,

Pacific Coast
205

V.81, 95-104

North

Northern

Pacific Coast, V.26, 95. 479. 492

VI.27, 37, 89, 94,

V.102, 352-355;

also Sonoran

Pimentel, Francisco.

V.353

passim
see

555

Index

Juan

Capistrano, see

San

Luis

Obispo Chumash,

passim, 225

228

"

V.190-221

265, 321

passim,

San

Luis Potosi

(Mexico), V.102

San

Miguel Salinan, V.213;

state

see

also

Albert, V.13; VI.13, 26, 216,

131, 345, 452;

Chumash,

Barbara

242 passim,

"

Catalina

232-242
Cruz

233-242

264

231;

V.90, 100, 189, 223,

also Shastan

see

see

passim, 251, 258, 260-261;

also Shasta-Achomawi

(Island)Chumash,

Shikaviyam (= Koso?),

passim. 226-228,
V.190-221

Chumash,

225

228, 233

"

sim,
pas-

242 passim

"

Sapir,Florence, VI. 24, 138-139

Sarcee (= Sarsi),
V.13, 15, 17, 133, 142;
141, 169-189,

191, 193, 195-196,

199-201,

206,

V.29, 34, 36, 38, 44, 59,

72, 78, 91 -92,

VI.319-320,

435

Wilhelm,

V.158;

533, 545, 549

V.154

(Salishan),VI.

151

Sechelt

Sicatl,see

R., V.353

Mountains,

Scouler, John, V.367

Siletz Reservation, VI. 226

Sicatl;Salishan), VI. 388

VI. 94

(= Sekanais), VI. 221, 483, 497,

Sekani
500

"

51 1 passim

Selish, V.543;

see

also Salish

Semitic, V.5, 26, 85, 145, 545; VI. 173,

Seri, V.64, 82, 90, 92, 97, 99, 102, 106,

177, 187-188,

Silverstein, Michael,

Simeon,

Remi,

Sino-Dene,

VI.23-24,

Sino-Tibetan,

223, 226-228,

VI.225,

273. 281

VI. 364

133-138

V.17; VI.22-24;

see

also

Indo-Chinese
Siouan,

V.29, 59, 62, 72, 75

82, 86, 91 -92,

377

V. 180

Sigua, V.102
Siletz,VI. 27, 98

Seaburg, William,

152,

Siamese, VI. 191

Schuller, Rudolf, VI 72; Vl.475-476

Sechell (=

467

Sierra Nevada

VI. 173, 368

Schoolcraft, Henry

passim, 449,

312, 345, 347, 353-441

Siberia, V.95

Schlichter, Alice, VI. 301

Father

96, 99, 101, 105, 135,

144, 159, 186, 223, 242, 261, 305,

426-431,

Saxon, V.487

Sayach'apis,Tom,

Shoshoni), V.353, 372,

(=

405, 407, 409, 433, 533, 558

Shuswap

River, V.95

Saskatchewan

F., VI.225

Shoshoni-Comanche,

passim, 221

2\\ -220

Shoshone

Shoshonean,

Sioux, V.63

VI. 15, 17, 23-25,

V.352 -441

passim

Shipley,William

passim, 270

Ynez

V.535

Sheep Indian, VI.211

V.226,

Yuman,

189,

Sherzer, Joel, V.25, 94; VI. 477

233-242

Schmidt,

passim.

333 passim

"

passim, 279

V.190-221

Santee

passim

VI. 139, 292-293

Shasta, V.82, 105, 144, 177, 185-187,

Shawnee,

321

Santa

441

"

Shafer, Robert,

232-242

V.190-221

passim, 225, 227, 233

Santa

Serrano, V.352

Shastan, V.97, 99, 185-187,

VI. 360

Santa

333 passim

"

Shasta-Achomawi,

352

Sanskrit, V.35, 128-129,

Santa

264

225-228,

Migueleiio
Sandoval,

passim, 254, 258-259,

233-242

Juaneno

San

76, 78,

93, 95, 99, 101. 105,

186, 254, 259, 332, 542; VI. 471, 474

Siouan-Yuchi.

V.82

VI

556

Indian

American

Stevenson, Matilda

Siouan-Yuchi-Muskogian, V.93
Sioux, V.63, 78, 86, 95, 293;

see

also

105;

Siuslaw, V.64, 67, 81, 90, 97-98,

301, 311;

see

(Ontario), V.471,

Reserve

Six Nations
474, 493

(Tsimshian dialect),

River

180

103

V.102-

Survey of California

Umpqua

also Lower

VI. 16

263-333;

Subtiaba-Tlappanec,V.91-92,
Sumo,

272, 291-296,

263-267,

VI.227,

Indian

Languages,

V.490

Swabian.

V.487

Swadesh,

Mary

Haas, V.173;

see

also

Haas, Mary

VI. 372

Skidegate(Haida dialect),V.62;

VI.

152,

Morris, V.17, 25, 105,

Swadesh,

223, 231, 234, 236, 271, 355, 553;

W., VI.468

V.14, 21,
Institution,

VI.22, 105, 107, 112, 130, 133,

231

151-166,

61-68

Swedish, V.160, 487

VI. 433

Snohomish,

Sweet, Henry, V. 159 -160

Catherine, VI.466

Somass

River, VI. 375

Sonora

state

Tabasco

(Mexico), V.102, 231

104, 240, 351, 376,

Sonoran,.V.102,

379. 383. 399-441

passim;

see

also

America,

Paiute, V.15, 21, 29-31,

46, 72, 76-77,

37-38,

13, 15, 108, 313,

349. 351-443;

VI.

320, 364-365,

367-368,

Southern

79, 105,

passim, 164, 172, 264, 345,

135-141

371, 383

United

States. V.97. 491,

Spanish,V.138, 265, 286, 313, 352, 389,

Speck, Frank
503-504,

423. 443

G., V.493, 497, 499,

510, 514, 521, 523; VI.477

Spier.Leslie. V.13, 183. 494.

Sprague. Andrew,
Sproat Lake,

Tahltan, VI.205, 221

16, 21-22,

V.14-

28, 31, 34,

57, 64, 71, 73, 75-79,

81, 85, 90, 97-98,

105, 135-141
192, 261,

passim, 144, 158, 185-186,

16, 21, 27, 141,

284, 491, 558; VI. 13-

178, 225-229,

153-154,

272, 279, 284-288,

263-265,

291-296,

379, 383, 513-514

TamauHpas

(Mexico). V.102

state

Tanaina, VI.205

524; VI.209-220

401-402.

Tacanan,

299-315,

Ute, V.407

Southwest

VI.477

36, 49-51,

V.95, 102-103

(Mexico), V.102

state

Takelma,

Piman-Sonoran

Southern

179,

R., V.29, 62-64,

John

Swanton,

VI. 173

299-301,

356,467-468

319-321,

Slavic, V.144, 161, 163, 172, 487;

Smithsonian

291-296,

206, 227-229,

Slave, VI.205, 213, 215, 221

Marian

143, 173, 183, 535; VI. 17,

133-141,

166

163-164,

South

Stoney (= Assiniboine),VI. 169

180-181,

251,258

199-200,

Snow,

V.64

Subtiaba, V.16, 24, 91, 99, 102-103,

V.197,

Buenaventura,

Father
Sitjar.

Smith,

C,

Straits Salish, VI. 321

Dakota

Skeena

Languages

504

VI.205, 221

Tanoan,

V.59, 91, 93, 97. 99, 105

Taos.

V.105

Tapachuhec.
352

VI. 375
301

V.86, 91, 93, 97, 99

Tanoan-Kiowa,

Tarahumare

VI. 471

Squier.Ephraim. V.264. 290,

Tanana,

"

(=

441

Tarascan.

V.102

Tarahumara), V.104,

passim

V.82. 103. 543

557

Index

VI.428-431
Tcil'Qeuk(Salishan),
Ten'a (= Koyukon), VI. 100, 136-137,

V.82, 97, 99, 105, 223,

Tonkawa,

passim. 252, 254, 257-261

231-242

passim. 265

196, 219

Tonto

Tepecano, V.355, 411, 416, 418,

436-443

430, 433-435,

422-428,

Tepehuane,

V.104, 352-441

passim

V.102, 303, 308; see

Tequisisteco,
Chontal; Tequistlateco
V.90, 99, 179,
Tequistlatec(an),
V.264;
Tequistlateco,

see

also

231

also Chontal;

(Yuman),

226, 232-242

passim.

passim, 273-274

V.103; VI. 288

Totonac,

VI. 17

Trager, George L., V.17, 105;

V.181;
TrinityRiver (California),
VI. 195

Trique,V.102,

287

Sioux, V.63

Tewa,

V.59, 64, 81

Texas, V. 178 -179,

Tsetsaut),VI.

Ts'ets'aut (=

202, 217,

221

also Siamese

Thai, VI. 136; see

511

508-509,

491, 500-501,

231, 265, 329

V.63, 458,

Hammond,

James

Trumbull,

Teton

Thalbitzer, William, V.64, 135; VI. 370

Ts'otsMl,V.172
V.14, 36, 58, 63, 71-72,

Tsimshian,

(Oregon),V.135

Dalles

V. 190 -221

Trombetti, Alfredo, V.269

Tequisisteco

The

333 passim

"

75,

78, 81, 85, 90, 93, 98, 101, 105-106,

Alex, VI. 319, 321, 352, 359,

Thomas,

VI. 14,

125, 134, 143, 284, 556-557;

374

369-370,

225, 227-229,

107, 151-167,

Cyrus, V.64,

Thomas,

River

Thompson

355

(Salishan),

267, 279, 286-288,

300-303,

312, 372, 381, 383

V.119;
(Nootka dialect),

Tsisha'ath

133-138,

Tibetan, V.83; VI.23-24,

191

VI.435, 465-466

Tiibatulabal,V.172, 352-441
VI. 136, 138

Tibeto-Burman,

Tillamook, V.96; VI. 233,

241

V.232

V.91, 99, 332

242 passim

Tunica, V.82, 90, 92-93,

97, 99, 261,

332, 553, 557

Tiwa, V.59

Turkish, V.IOO, 133, 172

Tlappanec (= Tlapanec),V.91, 99,

331

180, 263-264,

102-103,

Tlatskanai, VI.205

THngit,V.16, 62-64,
557; VI. 16, 21-28,

242, 254, 298,

105-129,

141, 148, 154-

133-138,

V.354

Tusayan,

Tutchone, VI.22

Tutelo, V.72; VI.47 1-474

78, 81, 90, 93,

100, 105-106,

97-98,

passim

Tulkepaya (Yavapai,Yuman),

Tillohash, Tony, V.345; VI. 352

Timucua,

293,

467

426-432,

VI.151-152,

264-265,

158 ;?a.v.s7m.

Tututni, VI.94

Tuxtepec Nahuatl, V.402

Twain,

Mark,

Tyee, Bob,

V.485

VI. 375

169, 189, 191

V.93;
Tlingit-Athabaskan,
Tocharian,

VI.22

V.126, 129

Toelken, Barre, VI. 379

Tolmie, William
Tolowa,
Tom

Frascr, V.63

Ucluelcl

VI. 373

(Nootka

speaker), VI.319, 435

dialect). V.l 19;

VI. 369

Uhlenbeck,

Christianus

22, 58. 69-80.

VI. 94

(Nootka

Uchucklcsil.

492; V1.15

Cornelius,

447. 457-460.

V. 15.

472.

558

VI

Indian

American

252-255,

(Ute dialect),V.347

Uintah

Languages

264-333

257-261,

sim
pas-

Ulua, V.102
Waterman,

Upernavik, VI.370-371
VI.231

Upper Chinook,

Upper Coquille,VI.27-28,
VI.27-28,

Upper Umpqua,

Thomas

Watts, Dan,

94

94,

Ute, V.30, 38. 43, 264, 345, 347-349,

Westermann.

362, 400,

Dietrich, VI. 173

Whistler, Kenneth

W., VI.225

Whorf, Benjamin L., V.17; VI.288-289

407

Ute-Chemehuevi,

V.347,

353-354,

394,

Wikchamni

VI.292
(Yokuts dialect),

Williams, Frank, VI. 319

416
Uto-Aztecan

(= Uto-Aztekan), V.13,

15,24,44,

49, 81, 93, 99, 102, 104,

223. 242, 345-346,

351-441

passim,

Williams, Roger, V.498, 504, 510-511,

515

Winnebago, V.63, 72, 105;

Wintun

VI. 13, 15, 21, 288,

545. 549-550;

105, 134, 177, 185-186,

VI.225, 263-265,
Island, V.14, 135; VI. 13, 353

Vancouver

Vedic

Cruz

(Mexico), V.102-

state

285-288,
Wishosk

Sanskrit. V.129
103

Voegeiin.Charles

F, V.17, 94. 143. 173;

291-296,

313

301-302,

Wishram,

V.15, 77, 135-142

passim,

15, 225-226,

231-261,

VI.

267,275-280,

320, 376

Wissler, Clark, V.494, 496, 502, 511

VI. 17, 474

Voegeiin,Erminie

Wiyot, V.13,

Wheeler, V.94

97-98,

V.102-

15, 81. 90-91,

93,

453-482,

447-449,

477-498,
Waicuri,

332;

267-269,

(Wiyot),V.453

184,486;

V.95
Virginia,

VI.363

(= Wintu), V.82, 85, 90,

97-98,

314, 364-365

Vera

369

Indies, V.95, 103

West

356-357,

VI.359-360,

V.453
Weitspekan (Yurok dialect),

205

Utah, V.345, 347, 353

351. 353-354,

Talbot, V.407, 453,

498, 506

-242

VI. 13,

553-561;

15;

see

103
also Wishosk

Waiilatpuan,V.90-91, 94
V.94,
Waiilatpuan-Lutuami-Sahaptin,

Wobonuch.

V.352

"

441

passim

V.160

Wyandot,

97-98

Wailaki, VI.25, 196,

Wakashan,

205

93. 97-98.
118-119,

101. 110-113,

90,

116,

Wakashan-Salish,
1 90

passim, 261,
Wasco.

Washo,

Yahi.

V.90, 93

266

"

242

333 passim; VI. 209

267;

see

VI.263-265,

V.90. 97-98;
also Alsea

V.17,
University,

149; VI. 17. 24,

222, 321

97, 99, 105,

223, 225-228,

184. 190. 232. 267. 292,

VI.231, 250-252

Yakonan.

Yale

(state),V.63; VI.435

V.79, 90-91,

V.177.

Yakima,

22 1 passim. 232

V.27; VI. 226, 231

178-181,

also

295, 328, 335

V.293, 557

Washington

see

Xinca, V.91, 103; VI.228

353, 368, 442, 465, 467-468

Wappo,

353;

Haisla

123, 125, 532, 543; VI. 13,

23, 133, 163, 264. 280, 319-321,

Walapai, V.

(Kwakiutlan),VI.

Xaisla

V.13, 25, 62, 81, 84-85,

249,

Yana,

V.15, 21, 31, 34, 36, 44-49,

71, 73, 77-78,

97-98,

83, 86, 90-91,

105, 135-141,

177-183,

55,

559

Index

186,

189-222,

249,

251,

15,

532;

306,

320,

365

Yawelmani

279;

Tulkepaya

also

see

VI.292

dialect),

(Yokuts

177,

105-107,

134,

137,

228,

263-265,

291-296,

283-288,

269-270,
301,

125,

311

V.82,

560-561

V.13,

82,
223,

90,

293,

93,
332,

266;

209

VI.

81,90-91,93,

15,

105,

477-478.

447-449,
VI.

553-561;

453-528,

V.91,

Zapotec,

V.102-

Zoque-Mixe,
332

91,93,99,

V.75-78,

178-179,

Yungas,

Zoque,
V.102

Zuni,
99,
557,

105,

104,

102,
231-233.

226,

260-261,

Zeisberger,

V.263

Yuchi,

97-99,

223,

13,

15,

225-227,

VI.207,

561;

see

90-92,

189,

passim.
Kutchan

also

VI.475

97-98,

97-98,

V.59,

Yucatan,

179,

Yurok,

VI.221

Yellowknife,
Yokuts,

passim;

V.64,

Yuman,

253-254,

V.226,

Yavapai,

333

177,

V.355

Yaqui,

I'il-lAl

V.190-221,

266
"

153-154,

108,

358-359,

Yuki,

449,

129

VI.

Yukon,
Yuma,

335-341,

passim,

VI.14,

231-242,

257-261,

254-255,

264-333

Yopi,

225-229,

V.82,

102,

David,

287,

293,
513

V.493,
103;

VI.228,

V.82

91-92,

94,

299

99

283

25