Professional Documents
Culture Documents
to
test
scientific
the
result
of
an
SCIENTIFIC ATTITUDE
Analytical Thinking
Creativity
Intellectual Honesty
Curiosity
Objectivity
Open-mindedness
Patience
Perseverance
Humility
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
SCIENTIFIC PROCESSES
Inferring
Collecting/gathering
Observing
Analyzing
Concluding
Hypothesizing
Predicting
Experimenting
Classifying
BRANCHES OF SCIENCE
Handouts in SCIENCE
Conversion Factor - a ratio written in fraction
form that can express the same value or
quantity in two different units.
Accuracy the closeness of a measurement to
the accepted value for a specific physical
quantity.
Precision - the agreement among several
measurements that have been made in the
same way.
meter
m
kg
Time
Electric Current
A
Temperatre
Amt. of Substance
mol
Luminous Intensity
cd
kilogram
second
ampere
Kelvin
mole
s
K
candela
English/British System
1. FPS foot, pound, second
SCIENTIFIC NOTATION the use of power of
ten in writing a very large or very small
numbers.
A x 10n
A number having a single non-zero digit to
the left of the decimal point
n positive or negative numbers
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES digit that express
value of measurement that are known with
certainty plus the first uncertain digit.
RULES:
1. ALL non-zero numbers
(1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9) are ALWAYS
significant.
ex. 89463869 8 sf
2. ALL zeroes between non-zero numbers
are ALWAYS significant.
ex. 405 3 sf
45.001 5 sf
4.0507 5 sf
3. ALL zeroes which are SIMULTANEOUSLY
to the right of the decimal point AND
at the end of the number are ALWAYS
significant.
4. ALL zeroes which are to the left of a
written decimal point and are in a
number >= 10 are ALWAYS significant.
ex. 0.001000 4 sf
10.00 4 sf
Handouts in SCIENCE
Reagent bottle - used to hold liquid
chemicals.
Filter paper - use to separate the solid
particles from the solution
Microscope - used for magnifying small
objects.
PARTS OF THE MICROSCOPE
H
RCCOOH
NH2
H
RCC
NH2
O
OH
Importance of Proteins
Proteins are essential in building and
repairing body cells and tissues.
Most enzymes are proteins, and they
aid in speeding up the building and
repairing of almost all tissues.
Proteins bring about individual
differences.
Proteins serves as transport molecules,
it reserves food, and provides
protection as antibodies.
b. Enzymes - special proteins
that are catalytic in action.
they hasten or speed up
chemical reactions
without being directly
used up in the reaction
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c. Nucleic Acids (DNA and
RNA) large complex organic
molecules composed of carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and
phosphorus.
o DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
Describe as a double
helix by James D.
Watson (American
Biochemist) and Francis
Crick (British
Biophysicist /Geneticist)
Consist of two strands
wound around each
other and held together
by weak hydrogen
bonds.
Complementary base
pairing (A-T) adenine
thymine, (G-C) guanine
cytosine.
Sugar content
deoxyribose
o
Phosphoglycerides (phospholipids)
- important component of plasma
membrane and other biological
membranes.
o Example: Lecithins (egg yolk,
brain, yeast, liver) and Cephalin
(brain tissue)
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Plant Cells
- Cell wall (cellulose) outside the plasma
membrane
- Chloroplast
- One large vacuoles
Animal Cell
- No Cell Wall
- No Chloroplast
- Many small vacuole
- Centrioles (paired)
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o
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c. Glucose is formed from two
PGAL molecules.
d. Most of the PGAL is used to
regenerate more RuDP, using
the energy supplied by ATP. The
RuDP produced is reused in
another cycle of CO2 fixation.
Also PGAL is converted to other
products such as fructose,
sucrose, maltose, and starch.
IMPORTANCE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
1. Oxygen is released.
2. Other organism depends on plants for
their food requirements.
3. Atmospheric concentration is
maintained.
RESPIRATION
A complex process by which energy in
the form of ATP is released from food
molecules that organism ingest.
- Starts through the process of
GLYCOLYSIS (a process by which one
glucose molecule is broken down into
two pyruvic acid molecules.
Two Main Types of Respiration
1. Anaerobic Respiration does not
involve the use of oxygen
2. Aerobic Respiration involves the
utilization of oxygen.
GLYCOLYSIS
- Occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell
(cytosol the fluid portion of the
cytoplasm where the organelles are
embedded.
1. Glucose is phophorylated to glucose-6
phophate. The addition of the
phosphate group is termed
phosphorylation. Initially, two TAP
molecules are used in this degradation
process.
2. Glucose-6-phosphate (6-C) breaks into
three-carbon (3-C) molecules to PGAL
(phophoglyceraldehyde). Two PGAL
molecules are produced.
3. Phophorylation again transpire. This
time, ATP provides a phosphate group
to each PGAL molecule and removes
hydrogen atoms. An NAD+
(nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide)
molecule picks up the hydrogen
removed and becomes to NADH. Two
molecules of NADH are formed.
Handouts in SCIENCE
+
++ H
+ yields AcetylCoA+ CO2 + NADH
10
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-
11
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3. Centrioles, chromosomes, and DNA
duplicate.
EARLY PROPHASE
1. Centrioles move to each pole of the
cell.
2. Chromosomes appear as long, thin
threads
3. Nucleolus became less distinct and
nuclear membrane is still visible.
4. Asters are formed.
MIDDLE PROPHASE
1. Centrioles begin to organize spindle
fibers.
2. Sister chromatids are formed with a
centromere as their point of
attachment.
LATE PROPHASE
1. Centrioles are nearly at the opposite
sides of the nucleus.
2. Nuclear membrane slowly
disintegrates and nucleolus is no
longer visible.
3. Spindle fibers attach to the centromere
of each chromosome.
4. Chromosomes move toward the
equator.
METAPHASE
1. Nuclear membrane has completely
disappeared.
2. Centromere of each double-stranded
chromosome is attached to a spindle
fibril at the equator
3. Centrioles are already at opposite ends
of the poles.
4. Chromosomes line up at the center of
the cell forming the metaphase
plate.
EARLY ANAPHASE
1. Sister chromatids separate and begin
moving toward opposite poles of the
cell.
2. Sister chromatids start to move toward
the poles, seemingly, being pulled by
the thread or fibers.
LATE ANAPHASE
1. The two sets of new, single-stranded
chromosomes start to migrate near
their respective poles.
2. Cytokinesis begins.
3. A slight cleavage furrow in the cell
membrane begins to form in the region
of the equator.
TELOPHASE
1. New nuclear membranes start to form
in each new cell.
2. Chromosomes become longer, thinner,
and less distinct.
3. Nucleolus reappears.
4. Centrioles are replicated.
5. Cytokinesis is nearly complete.
6. Spindle fibers and asters disappears.
7. The cleavage furrow becomes deepens
and the cells finally divide into two
parts.
Stages of Meiosis
Prophase I
1. Chromosomal condensation
2. Homologous chromosomes (also called
bivalent chromosomes, or bivalents)
pair laterally, or side-by-side, said to
be in synapsis.
3. During synapsis, crossovers crossconnections that form from breakage
and rejoining between
sister chromatids can occur between
the paired bivalents, leading to genetic
recombination (exchange of genetic
material) between the strands
involved. The point where a crossover
occurs is called a chiasma.
Metaphase I
1. Each pair of bivalents (two
chromosomes, four chromatids total)
align on the metaphase plate.
Anaphase I
1. Homologous chromosomes separate.
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Handouts in SCIENCE
2. Homologous chromosomes, each
containing two chromatids, move to
separate poles.
3.
REPRODUCTION
Fission
Binary fission - the parent organism is
MEIOSIS II - resembles mitosis more than
meiosis I.
Prophase II
1. Spindle fibers reform and attach to
centromeres in prophase II.
Metaphase II
1. The chromosomes align on the
metaphase plate during metaphase II
in preparation for centromeres to
divide in the next phase.
Anaphase II
1. Chromosomes divide at the
centromeres (like in mitosis) and the
resulting chromosomes, each with one
chromatid, move toward opposite
poles of the cell.
13
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(called gametophytes in the case of plants)
without a fertilization event.
14
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Incomplete flower may lack of sepals or
petals
Human Development
1. Fertilization
2. Zygote the fertilized egg
3. Embryo developing zygote
4. Two-cell stage
5. Blastocyst (second day through
second week)
6.
7.
8.
Kingdom of Life
15
Kingdom MONERA
-
Handouts in SCIENCE
Division Cyanophyta blue green algae
-
Diatoms
Types of Bacteria
Mostly multicellular
Coralline algae
Mostly multicellular
Mostly marine
Feed by phagocytosis
Amoeba
Paramecium
Nutrition by photosynthesis,
absorption, or ingestion
Phylum Sporozoa
16
Plasmodium
Kingdom Plantae
Handouts in SCIENCE
-
Class Deuteromycetes
Class Ascomycetes - hyphae with septa or
unicellular septa
-
Sporophyte generation
Phylum Lycopsida
Terrestrial
Terrestrial
Phylum Sphenopsida
Phylum Pteropsida
Sub-phylum Spermopsida
Kingdom Animalia
Class Gymnospermae naked seed
which develop in exposed positions on the
upper surfaces of the scales of cones
Class Angiospermae have seeds
enclosed within the protective wall of the
female sex organ
Subclass Dicotyledoneae seed leaves
present in the embryo of plants, that serves
as food reservoir
Subclass Monocotyledoneae single
cotyledon
Kingdom Fungi
-
Class Scyphozoa
Class Anthozoa
Phylum Ctenophora
Phylum Platyhelminthes flatworms
Class Turbellaria planarians
Phylum Myxomycophyta
Phylum Euycophyta
17
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Phylum Aschelminthes unsegmented
roundworms
Phylum Rotifera
Phylum Bryozoa
Class Amphineura
Class Aves birds
Class Gastropoda
Class Mammalia mammals
Class Scaphopoda
Class Pelecypoda
Class Cephalopoda
Order Logomorha
Order Cetacea
Order carnivora
Order Proboscidea
Order Sirenia
Order Perrisodactyla
Order Artiocdactyla
Order Primates
ECOLOGY
-
Phylum Hemichordata
Phylum Chordata
Subphylum Urochordata
Subphylum Cephalochordata
Subphylum Vertebrata
18
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Level 3 Secondary Consumers
(Carnivores/Omnivores)
BIOTIC FACTORS life in an ecosystem (living
things)
Ecological Interactions
19
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2. Water Pollution
3. Destruction of Coral Reefs
8. Radioactive Fallout
9. Soil Erosion
Phases of Matter
1. SOLID rigid, definite size, shape and
has volume that is independents of
changes in temperature and pressure.
-
Molecules vibrates
20
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-
Percentage by mass=
mass of solute
x 100
mass of solution
Properties of Matter
Percentage by volume=
volume of solute
x 100
volume of solution
Changes in Matter
1. Physical Change changes that do
not result in the formation of new
substance.
2. Chemical Change changes the
result in the disappearance of
substances and the formation of new
ones.
Phase Change
1. Solidification liquid to solid
2. Evaporation liquid to gas
3. Condensation gas to liquid
4. Sublimation solid to gas
m
V
Cooling Process evaporation, melting,
sublimation
Percentage by Mass
21
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produce H gas. Sour in
taste.
CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER
Metalloids elements
possessing both the
characteristics of metals and
non-metals. (B, Si, Ge, As, Sb,
Te, At)
Salts compounds
formed when acids and
bases react with one
another.
Oxides compound of
oxygen and another
element.
Solution homogeneous
mixture of two or more
substance.
Organic Compounds
compound of carbon.
Inorganic Compounds
compounds normally found
outside the bodies of living
things or their remains
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Colloid mixture containing
particles larger than normal
solutes but small enough to
remain suspended in the
dispersing medium.
8. CONDENSATION solvent is
evaporated then collected back by
condensing it on a cold surface
SEPARATING MIXTURES
1. EVAPORATION effective in separating
dissolved solid substance in a liquid.
Heating up solution to set the liquid
vaporize and leave the solidified
dissolved material on the heating
vessel.
2. FILTRATION solids actually dissolved
but simply suspended in a liquid or a
gas. Mixture is separated by allowing
the liquid o gaseous matter to pass
through a filter.
a. Filtrate material that passes
through the filter
b. Residue one that remains in
the filter
4. CENTRIFUGATION settling of
suspended particles in a mixture could
be made faster by subjecting the
system to a force that tends to impel
the particles outward from a center of
rotation.
5. CHROMATOGRAPHY process of
separating mixtures of solutions or
gases by selective adsorption on
materials.
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Handouts in SCIENCE
small their size cannot be diminished atomos
9. Plato (427-347 BC) proposed a
mathematical construction of the
elements earth, air, fire, water.
10. Aristotle of Stageira (384-322 BC)
added the fifth element (ther) to
account for the material of heavenly
objects.
11. Epicurus (341 BC) the universe as
infinite and eternal and as consisting
only of bodies and space.
Considered 33 elements as
CALORIC (unweighable
substance of heat, and possibly
light)
24
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o
Discovered nucleus
25
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2. Gluons carrying the strong
nuclear force between quarks
3. Leptons
d-orbital (2) 10
f-orbital (3) 14
A = p+ + n0
ELECTRON CONFIGURATION
-
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s 4d 5p 6s 4f 5d 6p
7s 5f 6d 7p 8s
QUANTUM NUMBERS
-
26
s-orbital (0) 2
p-orbital (1) - 6
Handouts in SCIENCE
Origin of the Periodic Table
1. Antoine Lavoisier
o
Periodic Table
Simple Substance
Salifiable simple
earthsubstances
Dobereiners Triad
3. A. E. Beguyer de Chancourtois
o
4. John Newlands
o
Newlands Octaves
Lanthanides
Actinides
27
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1- Two elements corresponding to the
number of electrons in the s-sublevel
Types of Bonds
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Classical Physics Mechanics,
Thermodynamics, Electromagnetism, Light,
Waves, Sound, Optics
ADDITION OF VECTORS
1. Same direction: Add the magnitude of
the vectors. Direction is the same.
MOTION
-
Sign Convention
Positive Sign (+) North or East
average speed=
c. Analytical Method
soh cah toa
displacement
velocity=
elapsed time
sin = o/h
tan = o/a
cos = a/h
R= (R x )2+( R y )2
Parts of a Vector
1. Arrowhead indicates the direction
2. Length of the Arrow magnitude of the
vector
3. Tail origin of the vector
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WN
EN
NE
NW
v f 2=v i2 +2 ad
Opposite side
Where:
Adjacent side
SW
ES
WS
SE
vf final velocity
vi initial velocity
a acceleration
d distance/displacement
t time
g 9.8 m/ss
time
V V i
a= f
t 2t 1
Final Velocity
Initial Velocity
max. he
0 m/s spee
v f =v i+ at
Initial Velocity
Final Velocity
1
d= ( v f + v i ) t
2
1
d=v i t + a t 2
2
30
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F g=G
m1 m2
r
t=
v o sin
g
Frictional Force force that is
parallel to the surface when the
objects moves along the surface.
R x=
v o2 sin 2
g
fs
Maximum Height
H y=
v o2 sin
2g
FN normal force
f MAX
=k F N
k
LAW OF INERTIA
-
G = 6.673 x 10
31
=s F N
-11
Nm /kg
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ac =
v2
r
a=
F
m
Fc =
m v2
r
T=
1
f
F =F
Action and reaction force dont cancel
each other because they act
differently.
1
T
f=
v=
2 r
T
Impulse-momentum Theorem
32
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-
I = p
Ft = mvf - mvi
m1 b v 1b + m2 b v 2 b=m1 a v 1 a +m2 a v 2 a
P . E ./G . P . E .=mgh
3. Kinetic Energy energy possessed
by moving objects.
1
K . E .= mv 2
2
WAVES
A disturbance that transfers energy
through a medium or space.
W = Fd cos
Power=
work
time
Types of Waves
o Longitudinal Wave propagated when
the energy exerted on the medium is
in the same direction as that of the
direction of the wave.
Compression section where the
molecules of the coil are
compressed.
Rarefactions section where the
molecules of the coil are apart.
Handouts in SCIENCE
2.
Characteristics
Reflection rebounding of wave from
the surface of a medium.
o When a wave passes
through a medium and hits a
barrier it bounces back.
angle of reflection = angle of
incidence
2. Refraction when there is a change
in the speed and the wavelength of
the wave as it passes from one
medium to another.
- Bending of light wave as it enters
obliquely to another medium of
different density.
f=
1
T
T=
1
f
Speed of a Wave
- wavelength
T period
v speed or velocity
v=
34
SOUND
Longitudinal waves wherein the
particles vibrate back and forth
parallel to the direction of the
waves.
Sound waves with high amplitude
have larger compressions of air
particles while those with low
amplitude have small compressions
of air particles.
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LIGHT
Light is wave when it travels on a
medium.
Light is a particle when it interact
with another matter.
V = speed or velocity
T temperature in 0C
Characteristics of Sound
1. Reflection bouncing back of
sound
a. Echo reflected sound
b. Reverberation continuous
reflection of sound that can
be heard a certain length of
time after the production of
sound.
2. Refraction bending of sound due
to uneven temperature
a. Sound travels faster on
warmer near the earths
surface then will move
slower as it moves through
the cooler air above. The
waves move upward. (hot
summer day)
b. The waves move downward.
(cool night)
c. The sound travelling against
the wind is bent upward
whereas when with the wind
is bent upward, the sound is
bent downward.
3. Interference of Sound Waves
a. When two sound waves, one
compression and the other is
rarefactions, meet, the net
effect is zero displacement.
(No sound is heard.)
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c. Object at C
- Image is same size as the object,
inverted, real, at C
Handouts in SCIENCE
e. Object at F
- No image formed.
f.
-
Convex Mirrors
- Object is placed anywhere in front
of the mirror, the resulting image is
always behind the mirror,
virtual, upright, and smaller
than the object.
n=
Handouts in SCIENCE
f.
o
e. Object is at F1
o Image is at infinity, infinitely
large, real and inverted
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Handouts in SCIENCE
1.
Farsightedness
A farsighted person can only create clear
images of objects that are far away. Close
objects are brought to a focus behind the
retina, which is why they look fuzzy.
Correction:This defect can be corrected by using
a convex (converging) lens of appropriate
focal length. When the object is at N, the
eye exerts its maximum power of
accommodation. Eyeglasses with
converging lenses supply the additional
focussing power required for forming the
image on the retina.
Astigmatism,
A defect in the outer curvature on the
surface of the eye that causes distorted
vision. In astigmatism, a person cannot
simultaneously focus on both horizontal
and vertical lines.
Correction:This defect can be corrected by using
eyeglasses with cylindrical lenses oriented
to compensate for the irregularities in the
cornea.
ELECTROMAGNTIC WAVES
- It is produced by accelerating
electric charges like electron in a
simple harmonic motion.
V = f
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Nearsightedness
A person who is nearsighted can only
create sharp images of close objects.
Objects that are further away look fuzzy
because the eye brings them in to focus
at a point in front of the retina.
39
350-400 nm
400-450 nm
450-500 nm
500-550 nm
Handouts in SCIENCE
Yellow
Orange
Red
550-600 nm
600-650 nm
650-700 nm
Thermometer an instrument
measures temperature.
that
5
C = (0F 32)
9
F=
90
C + 32
5
K = 0C + 273
Thermal Expansion of Solids
- Applying heat on solids resulting to
agitates the molecules to move
faster through greater distance
which then expands the
dimensions of the solids.
- Change in length of an object for
every degree change in its
temperature. (Coefficient of linear
expansion)
L
L0 t
V=V0t
V = change in volume
= coefficient for volume expansion
t = change in temperature
V0 = original volume
Thermal Expansion of Gases
a. Charles Law at constant
pressure, the rise in temperature
due to the application of heat
makes the gas molecules move
faster and at greater distances
causing it to expand or increase in
volume.
V1 V2
=
T 1 T2
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P1 V 1=P 2 V 2
c. Combined Gas Laws
P1 V 1 P2 V 2
=
T1
T2
P1 P2
=
T1 T 2
PV =nRT
P pressure
V volume
n number of moles
T temperature
R ideal gas constant (8.31 kPa
L/mol K)
Heat Exchange
Heat Capacity the amount of heat
required to raise its temperature by 10C.
Heat Capacity=
Q
t
Q heat
t change in temperature
Specific Heat Capacity the amount of
heat needed to raise the temperature of 1
gram of a substance by one degree
Celsius.
C=
Q
m t
a
external device such as a
pump or a fan mixes the
warmer and cooler portions
of the fluid.
those
materials that conduct heat.
Thermal
Insulators
those
materials conduct heat poorly
Q heat
m mass
t change in temperature
Heat
Q = mct
Q heat
k thermal conductivity
A cross-sectional area
T change in temperature
t time
L length of the material
Thermal
Equilibrium
when
two
substance of different temperatures are in
contact, heat flows from the hotter
substance to colder substance until they
obtained a common temperature.
Heat gained = Heat loss
Change Phase
Latent Heat of Fusion the amount of
heat absorbed to change 1 g of solid to 1
g of liquid without changing its
temperature.
- Melting and freezing
Q = mHf
Q - heat
m - mass
41
Q=
( kA T ) t
L
Q=e T At
Q heat
t time
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A surface area
T Kelvin temperature
e emissivity
5.67 x 10 -8 J/s m2 K4 (Stefan-Boltzmann
constant)
THERMODYNAMICS conversion of
thermal energy to mechanical energy and
vice versa.
System objects on which attention is
focused.
Surroundings everything else in the
environment.
Diathermal Walls wall that permit heat
to flow.
Adiabatic Walls perfectly insulating walls
that do not permit heat flow between the
system and the surroundings.
LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
Zeroth Law Thermal Equilibrium
- No heat flow between the system
and the surroundings.
- Temperature is the indicator of
thermal equilibrium in the
sense that there is no net flow
of heat between two systems
in thermal contact that have
the same temperature.
First Law
- The internal energy of a system
changes from an initial value to a
final value due to heat and work.
- Heat is positive when the
system
gains
heat
and
negative when the system
loses heat.
- Work is positive when it is
done by the system and
negative when it is done on the
system.
U = Uf Ui = Q W
U internal energy
Q heat
W work
Thermal Processes
Isobaric Process occurs at constant
pressure
W = PV = P (Vf Vi)
U = Q - P (Vf Vi)
Isochoric Process occurs at constant
volume
- No work is done
U = Q W = Q
42
|Q H|input heat
|QC|rejected heat
|W |work done
e=
|W |
|QH|
x 100
|Q H|=|W |+|QC|
e=1
|QC|
|Q H|
Carnot Principle
- A reversible process is one in which
both
the
system
and
its
environment can be returned to
exactly the states they were in
before the process occurred.
- No irreversible engine operating
between two reservoirs at constant
temperatures can have a greater
efficiency than a reversible engine
operating
between
the
same
temperatures.
Furthermore,
all
reversible
engines
operating
between the same temperatures
have the same efficiency.
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|QC| T C
=
|Q H| T H
TC Kelvin temperature of cold reservoir
TH Kelvin temperature of hot reservoir
e Carnot =1
TC
TH
N=
q
e
N number of electron
q charge
e - charge of an electron
Air
Conditioners
same
as
the
refrigerators except that the room itself is
the cold reservoir and the outdoors is the
hot reservoir.
Coefficient of Performance of
Refrigerators and Air Conditioner
Coefficient of Performance=
|QC|
|W |
ENTROPY disorderliness
- Irreversible processes cause us
to lose some, but not all, of the
ability to perform work.
( QT )
S=
S change in entropy
Q heat
T Kelvin temperature
Fe =k
|q1||q 2|
r
Fe - electrostatic force
q1 - charge 1
q2 - charge 2
r distance between them from the
center of the object
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E=
F
q0
Electric field
charges.
of
opposite
V=
lines
EPE
q0
I=
q
t
Conventional
Current
The
negative
electrons
emerging from the negative
terminal and moving around
the
circuit
toward
the
positive terminal.
OHMS LAW
44
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R=
V
I
R resistance ()
V voltage (V)
I current (A)
Resistance resist current
Resistor a device offers resistance to the
flow of charges.
R=
L
A
R resistance
L- length of the wire
A cross-sectional area of the wire
resistivity of the material
= 0 [ 1+ ( T T 0 ) ]
temperature coefficient of resistivity
resistivity
0 initial resistivity
T final temperature
T0 initial temperature
R=R 0 [ 1+ ( T T 0 ) ]
RT =R1 + R2 + R3
I T =I 1=I 2=I 3
V T =V 1+V 2+V 3
Parallel Circuit - the devices in a circuit
form branches, each of which is a
separate path for electron flow.
R change in resistance
R0 initial resistance
COLOR CODES ON RESISTORS
Black
0
100
Brown
1
101
Red
2
102
Orange
3
103
4
Yellow
4
10
Green
5
105
Blue
6
106
Violet
7
107
Gray
8
108
White
9
109
Gold
10-1 +/- 5%
Silver
10-2 +/- 10%
Electric Power electric charge flows from
point A to point B in a circuit, leading to a
current, and the voltage between the
points is V, the electric power associated
with this current and voltage is
P=IV
-
Watt (W or AV)
1
1 1 1
= + +
R T R 1 R 2 R3
I T =I 1+ I 2 + I 3
V T =V 1=V 2=V 3
MAGNETISM
MAGNETIC MATERIALS
The origin of magnetism lies in the orbital
and spin motions of electrons and how
the electrons interact with one another.
The best way to introduce the different
types of magnetism is to describe how
materials respond to magnetic fields. This
may be surprising to some, but all matter
is magnetic. It's just that some materials
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a. a current-carrying wire
b. a current-carrying loop
c. coil of loops
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ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
-
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FARADAYS LAW
- Faradays law states that the
induced voltage in a coil is
proportional to the product of the
number of loops, the crosssectional area of each loop, and the
rate at which the magnetic field
changes within those loops.
- The current produced by
electromagnetic induction depends
upon
o the induced voltage,
o the resistance of the coil,
and the circuit to which it is
connected.
GENERATORS
- A machine that produces electric
current by rotating a coil within a
stationary magnetic field is called a
generator.
- A generator is essentially the
opposite of a motor, converting
mechanical energy into electrical
energy.
A current can be generated by plunging a
magnet into and out of a coil of wire.
- As the magnet enters, the
magnetic field strength inside the
coil increases and induced voltage
in the coil is directed one way.
- As the magnet leaves, the
magnetic field strength diminishes
and voltage is induced in the
opposite direction.
- Greater frequency of field change
induces
greater voltage.
- The frequency of the alternating
voltage is the frequency of the
changing magnetic field within the
loop.
49
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o
o
A4
X Z2Y + 2 He
Ex.
238
92
4
U 234
90Th + 2 He
- DECAY
- Involves the emission of particle
from the nucleus, a fast moving
electron.
A
Z
X Z+1AY + 10e
234
90
0
Th 234
91 Pa + 1e
+ DECAY
- Involves the emission of a positron,
a fast moving positive charge
electron from the nucleus.
A
Z
X Z1A Y + +10e
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DECAY
Emission of gamma rays in an
atom which is in an excited state. It
does not change the mass number
(A) or the atomic number (Z) of the
nucleus, and no new element is
formed.
A
Z
X Z X + rays
Adds on:
Digestive system
Carbon -dioxide cyle
Nutrient cycle
Nitrogen cycle
Water cycle
Respiratory
Circulatory
Genetics
Photosynthesis
51
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