Metals

They'reEverywhere!

AMASTModule

MaterialsScienceandTechnology
1995

II

Acknowledgements
Theauthorswouldliketothankthefollowingpeoplefortheiradviceandsupportinthe
developmentofthismodule:
Dr.JenniferLewis
DirectoroftheMaterialsScienceWorkshop
Dr.JamesAdams
AssistantDirector
Dr.BobBohl
UniversityofIllinoisAdvisor
Authors:
DavidDuncklee
WaukonHighSchool,Waukon,IA
JamesGibson
PinckneyvilleCommunityHighSchool,Pinckneyville,IL
BernardHermanson
SumnerCommunityHighSchool,Sumner,IA
CarolynLucas
YorktownHighSchool,Yorktown,IN
RonMorrison
PaxtonBuckleyLodaHighSchool,Paxton,IL
PatriciaB.Strawbridge
PortageHighSchool,Portage,IN
RayZumstein
TremontHighSchool,Tremont,IL
PhilJaros
UniversityofIllinois,Urbana,IL

III

IV

Foreword

Thismoduleisintendedasacurriculumsupplementforhighschoolscienceteacherswhowould
liketointroducetheirstudentstoconceptsinMaterialsScienceandTechnology.Teachersare
urgedtouseone,some,oralloftheMASTmodules.Someteachersmaywishtoimplementthis
moduleinitsentiretyasasubjectunitinacourse.Othersmaywishtoutilizeonlypartofthe
module,perhapsalaboratoryexperiment. Weencourageteacherstousethesematerialsin
their classrooms and to contact the workshop with any assessments, comments, or
suggestionstheymayhave.
ThisisoneinaseriesofMASTmodulesdevelopedandrevisedduringtheMaterialsTechnology
WorkshopheldattheUniversityofIllinoisatUrbanaChampaignduring199395.
A combination of university professors, high school science teachers, and undergraduates
workedtogethertocreateandrevisethismoduleoverathreeyearperiod.
Financial support for the Materials Technology Workshop was provided primarily by the
NationalScienceFoundation(NSF)EducationandHumanResourceDirectorate(Grant#ESI92
53386).OthercontributorsincludetheNSFCenterforAdvancedCementBasedMaterials,the
DowChemicalFoundation,theMaterialsResearchSociety,theIronandSteelSociety,andthe
Peoria Chapter of the American Society for Metals. The University of Illinois at Urbana
ChampaignDepartmentofMaterialsScienceandEngineeringandtheCollegeofEngineering
OfficeofExtramuralEducationprovidedorganizationalsupport.

TableOfContents
Acknowledgements..........................................................................

ii

Foreword.....................................................................................

iii

Introduction...................................................................................

WhatareMetals?.............................................................................

HistoricalTimeline...........................................................................

FutureTrends.................................................................................

ScientificPrinciples..........................................................................
StructureofMetals..................................................................
MechanicalProperties..............................................................
Processing...........................................................................
Alloys................................................................................
Corrosion............................................................................
MetalOres...........................................................................
Summary............................................................................
DiscussionQuestions..............................................................
Problem..............................................................................

6
6
10
11
12
14
15
16
18
19

References...................................................................................

21

Resources.....................................................................................

22

MasterMaterialsandEquipmentGrid.....................................................

23

LaboratoryActivites.........................................................................
CrystalStructure....................................................................
AParticleModelofMetals........................................................
ProcessingMetals..................................................................
Demo#1PhaseTransitionofHighCarbonSteel..............................
TensileStrength....................................................................
Demo#2RemovalofZincfromPennies........................................
FormingBrassfromZincandCopper...........................................
ActivitySeries......................................................................
Demo#3CorrosionofIron......................................................
CorrosionofIron...................................................................
OxidationofaMetal................................................................

25
25
28
31
35
39
43
45
49
52
55
59

ReviewQuestions...........................................................................

62

Glossary......................................................................................

65

Introduction
ModuleObjective:
Studentswilldevelopanunderstandingoftherelationshipbetweenthestructureandcomposition
ofmetalsandtheirobservablemacroscopicproperties.Theywilldiscoverhowtheseproperties
determineapplications,andgainanappreciationofthehistoricalimpactofmetalsandtherole
theywillplayinthefuture.
KeyConcepts:
Metallicbonding
Theeffectofcoldworkingmetals
Annealingandquenchingandtheeffectofheattreating
Alloys
Corrosionanditsimpact
Thevalueofrecyclingmetals
Prerequisites:
Itisassumedthatstudentshavesomefamiliaritywiththefollowingconcepts:
Measurementofmassandlength
Presentingdataingraphicform
Considerationsofmatterasatoms
Differencesbetweenchemicalandphysicalchanges
Theimportanceofelectronsinatomicbonding
PlacementinCurriculum:
Thismodulecouldbeusedinthefollowinghighschool(912)courses: chemistry,physics,
earthScience,techprep,andgeneralscience.
TheinformationintheScientificPrinciplessectionmaybereproducedinitsentiretyorinpart
anddistributedtostudents.SometeachersmayprefertogivestudentsonlytheSummary.

WhatareMetals?
Metalsareopaque,lustrouselementsthataregoodconductorsofheatandelectricity. Most
metalsaremalleableandductileandare,ingeneral,denserthantheotherelementalsubstances.
Whataresomeapplicationsofmetals?
Metalsareusedin:

TransportationCars,buses,trucks,trains,ships,andairplanes.
AerospaceUnmannedandmannedrocketsandthespaceshuttle.
Computersandotherelectronicdevicesthatrequireconductors(TV,radio,
calculators,securitydevices,etc.)

stereo,

Communicationsincludingsatellitesthatdependonatoughbutlightmetalshell.
Food processing and preservation Microwave and conventional ovens and
refrigeratorsandfreezers.
ConstructionNailsinconventionallumberconstructionandstructuralsteelin other
buildings.
BiomedicalapplicationsAsartificialreplacementforjointsandother

prostheses.

Electrical power production and distribution Boilers, turbines, generators,

transformers,powerlines,nuclearreactors,oilwells,andpipelines.
FarmingTractors,combines,planters,etc.
Household conveniences Ovens, dish and clothes washers, vacuum cleaners,
blenders, pumps, lawn mowers and trimmers, plumbing, water heaters,
heating/cooling,etc.

90003500B.C.
Useofnative(pure)copper
leadstocoppersmeltingandthe
CopperAge.

METALS
HISTORICAL
TIMELINE

5001600A.D.
Highqualityironandstee
processingdevelopedduring
Feudalera.

17501850
Commercialproduction
ofhighqualitysteelmakesit
abundantandinexpensive.

18501900
Hallsorereducing
processproducescheapaluminum
inlargequantities.

19001935
Aircraftmovesfromfabric
tohighstrengthaluminumalloys.
19351955
Specialtyalloysproduce
turbinesformoreefficientpower
production.Internalcombustion
enginemakesmanyimprovements.

19551970
Humanbodypartscanbe
replacedwithhighqualityalloys
ofiron,cobalt,andtitanium.

19701995
Superalloysdevelopedforjet
enginesmakespacetravelpossible.

hip

prosthesis

Future Trends
Inthefuture,wewillcontinuetodependheavilyonmetals.Lightweightaluminumalloyswill
beutilizedmoreinautomobilestoincreasefuelefficiency.New,heatresistantsuperalloyswill
bedeveloped sothat engines canoperate at higher, moreefficient temperatures. Similarly,
ceramiccoatingswillbeusedmoretoprotectmetalsfromhightemperatures,andtoincreasethe
lifetime oftools. New,radiationresistantalloys will allow nuclearpowerplants tooperate
longer,andthuslowerthecostofnuclearenergy.
Steelwillcontinuetobethemostcommonlyusedmetalformanyyearstocome,duetoitsvery
lowcost(approximately20cents/pound)andtheabilitytocustomizeitspropertiesbyadding
differentalloyingelements.
Finally,aseasilymined,highgrade ores aredepleted,recyclingwillbecomemoreimportant.
Already,halfofallaluminum,copper,andsteelsarebeingrecycled.

ScientificPrinciples
StructureofMetals:
Metalsaccountforabouttwothirdsofalltheelementsandabout24%ofthemassoftheplanet.
Theyareallaroundusinsuchformsassteelstructures,copperwires,aluminumfoil,andgold
jewelry.Metalsarewidelyusedbecauseoftheirproperties: strength,ductility,highmelting
point,thermalandelectricalconductivity,andtoughness.
Thesepropertiesalsooffercluesastothestructureofmetals.Aswithallelements,metalsare
composedofatoms.Thestrengthofmetalssuggeststhattheseatomsareheldtogetherbystrong
bonds.Thesebondsmustalsoallowatomstomove;otherwisehowcouldmetalsbehammered
intosheetsordrawnintowires? Areasonablemodelwouldbeoneinwhichatomsareheld
togetherbystrong,butdelocalized,bonds.
Bonding
Suchbondscouldbeformedbetweenmetalatomsthathavelowelectronegativitiesanddonot
attracttheirvalenceelectronsstrongly.Thiswouldallowtheoutermostelectronstobesharedby
allthesurroundingatoms,resultinginpositiveions(cations)surroundedbyaseaofelectrons
(sometimesreferredtoasanelectroncloud).
eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee
eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee
eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee
eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee
eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee
eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee
e
eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee
e
Metal"kernel"Electroncloud

Figure1:

MetallicBonding.

Because these valence electrons are shared by all the atoms, they are not considered to be
associated with any one atom. This is very different from ionic or covalent bonds, where
electronsareheldbyoneortwoatoms. Themetallicbondisthereforestronganduniform.
Sinceelectronsareattractedtomanyatoms,theyhaveconsiderablemobilitythatallowsforthe
goodheatandelectricalconductivityseeninmetals.
Above their melting point, metals are liquids, and their atoms are randomly arranged and
relativelyfreetomove.However,whencooledbelowtheirmeltingpoint,metalsrearrangeto
formordered,crystallinestructures.

liquidsolid

Figure2:

Arrangementofatomsinaliquidandasolid.

Crystals
Toformthestrongestmetallicbonds,metalsarepackedtogetherascloselyaspossible.Several
packingarrangementsarepossible.Insteadofatoms,imaginemarblesthatneedtobepackedin
abox.Themarbleswouldbeplacedonthebottomoftheboxinneatorderlyrowsandthena
secondlayerbegun.Thesecondlayerofmarblescannotbeplaceddirectlyontopoftheother
marblesandsotherowsofmarblesinthislayermoveintothespacesbetweenmarblesinthe
firstlayer.ThefirstlayerofmarblescanbedesignatedasAandthesecondlayerasBgivingthe
twolayersadesignationofAB.

Layer"A"
Figure3:

Layer"B"ABpacking

ABpackingofspheres.NoticethatlayerBspheresfitintheholesintheA
layer.

Packingmarblesinthethirdlayerrequiresadecision. Againrowsofatomswillnestinthe
hollowsbetweenatomsinthesecondlayerbuttwopossibilitiesexist.Iftherowsofmarblesare
packedsotheyaredirectlyoverthefirstlayer(A)thenthearrangementcouldbedescribedas
ABA. SuchapackingarrangementwithalternatinglayerswouldbedesignatedasABABAB.
ThisABABarrangementiscalledhexagonalclosepacking(HCP).
Iftherowsofatomsarepackedinthisthirdlayersothattheydonotlieoveratomsineitherthe
AorBlayer,thenthethirdlayeriscalled C. Thispackingsequencewouldbedesignated
ABCABC,andisalsoknownas facecentered cubic (FCC). Botharrangements givethe
closestpossiblepackingofspheresleavingonlyaboutafourthoftheavailablespaceempty.
Thesmallestrepeatingarrayofatomsinacrystaliscalledaunitcell.Athirdcommonpacking
arrangementinmetals,thebodycenteredcubic(BCC)unitcellhasatomsateachoftheeight
cornersofacubeplusoneatominthecenterofthecube.Becauseeachofthecorneratomsis
thecornerofanothercube,thecorneratomsineachunitcellwillbesharedamongeightunit

cells. TheBCCunitcellconsistsofanettotaloftwoatoms,theoneinthecenterandeight
eighthsfromthecorners.
IntheFCCarrangement,againthereareeightatomsatcornersoftheunitcellandoneatom
centeredineachofthefaces.Theatominthefaceissharedwiththeadjacentcell.FCCunit
cellsconsistoffouratoms,eighteighthsatthecornersandsixhalvesinthefaces. Table1
showsthestableroomtemperaturecrystalstructuresforseveralelementalmetals.
Table1:CrystalStructureforsomeMetals(atroomtemperature)
Aluminum............
Cadmium.............
Chromium............
Cobalt.................
Copper................
Gold...................
Iron....................
Lead...................
Magnesium...........

FCC
HCP
BCC
HCP
FCC
FCC
BCC
FCC
HCP

Nickel..................
Niobium...............
Platinum...............
Silver..................
Titanium...............
Vanadium.............
Zinc....................
Zirconium.............

FCC
BCC
FCC
FCC
HCP
BCC
HCP
HCP

Unitcellstructuresdeterminesomeofthepropertiesofmetals.Forexample,FCCstructuresare
morelikelytobeductilethanBCC,(bodycenteredcubic)orHCP(hexagonalclosepacked).
Figure4showstheFCCandBCCunitcells.(SeeCrystalStructureActivity)

BodyCenteredCubic
Figure4:

FaceCenteredCubic

UnitcellsforBCCandFCC.

Asatomsofmeltedmetalbegintopacktogethertoformacrystallatticeatthefreezingpoint,
groupsoftheseatomsformtinycrystals.Thesetinycrystalsincreaseinsizebytheprogressive
additionofatoms. Theresultingsolidisnotonecrystalbutactuallymanysmallercrystals,
called grains. Thesegrainsgrowuntiltheyimpingeuponadjacent growingcrystals. The
interfaceformedbetweenthemiscalledagrainboundary.Grainsaresometimeslargeenough
tobevisibleunderanordinarylightmicroscopeoreventotheunaidedeye.Thespanglesthat
areseenonnewlygalvanizedmetalsaregrains. (SeeAParticleModelofMetalsActivity)
Figure5showsatypicalviewofametalsurfacewithmanygrains,orcrystals.

Figure5:

GrainsandGrainBoundariesforaMetal.

CrystalDefects:
Metalliccrystalsarenotperfect.Sometimesthereareemptyspacescalledvacancies,wherean
atomismissing.Anothercommondefectinmetalsaredislocations,whicharelinesofdefective
bonding.Figure6showsonetypeofdislocation.

Figure6:
CrossSectionofanEdgeDislocation,whichextendsintothepage.Note
howtheplaneinthecenterendswithinthecrystal.
These and other imperfections, as well as the existence of grains and grain boundaries,
determinemanyofthemechanicalpropertiesofmetals. Whena stress isappliedtoametal,
dislocationsaregeneratedandmove,allowingthemetaltodeform.

10

MechanicalProperties:
Whensmallloads(stresses)areappliedtometalstheydeform,andtheyreturntotheiroriginal
shapewhentheloadisreleased.Bendingasheetofsteelisanexamplewherethebondsarebent
orstretchedonlyasmallpercentage.Thisiscalledelasticdeformationandinvolvestemporary
stretchingorbendingofbondsbetweenatoms.
P

Asimplifiedviewofa
metalbar'sstructure

Figure7:

Thesamemetalbar,this
timewithanappliedload.

Aftertheloadisreleased,
thebarreturnstoits
originalshape.Thisis
calledelasticdeformation.

Elasticdeformationinabarofmetal.

Whenhigherstressesareapplied,permanent(plastic)deformationoccurs.Forexample,whena
paperclipisbentalargeamountandthenreleased,itwillremainpartiallybent.This plastic
deformationinvolvesthebreakingofbonds,oftenbythemotionofdislocations.SeeFigure8.
Dislocationsmoveeasilyinmetals,duetothedelocalizedbonding,butdonotmoveeasilyin
ceramics.Thislargelyexplainswhymetalsareductile,whileceramicsarebrittle.

Figure8:

Dislocationmovementinacrystal.

Ifplacedundertoolargeofastress,metalswillmechanicallyfail,orfracture. Thiscanalso
resultovertimefrommanysmallstresses. Themostcommonreason(about80%)formetal
failureisfatigue.Throughtheapplicationandreleaseofsmallstresses(asmanyasmillionsof
times)asthemetalisused,smallcracksinthemetalareformedandgrowslowly.Eventually
themetalispermanentlydeformedoritbreaks(fractures).(SeeProcessingMetalsActivity)

11

Processing:
Inindustry,moltenmetaliscooledtoformthesolid. Thesolidmetalisthenmechanically
shapedtoformaparticularproduct.Howthesestepsarecarriedoutisveryimportantbecause
heatandplasticdeformationcanstronglyaffectthemechanicalpropertiesofametal.
GrainSizeEffect:
Ithaslongbeenknownthatthepropertiesofsomemetalscouldbechangedbyheattreating.
Grainsinmetalstendtogrowlargerasthemetalisheated.Agraincangrowlargerbyatoms
migratingfromanothergrainthatmayeventuallydisappear. Dislocationscannotcrossgrain
boundarieseasily,sothesizeofgrainsdetermineshoweasilythedislocationscanmove. As
expected,metalswithsmallgrainsarestrongerbuttheyarelessductile. Figure5showsan
exampleofthegrainstructureofmetals.
QuenchingandHardening:
Therearemanywaysinwhichmetalscanbeheattreated.Annealingisasofteningprocessin
whichmetalsareheatedandthenallowedtocoolslowly. Moststeelsmaybehardenedby
heatingand quenching (coolingrapidly). Thisprocesswasusedquiteearlyinthehistoryof
processingsteel.Infact,itwasbelievedthatbiologicalfluidsmadethebestquenchingliquids
andurinewassometimesused. Insomeancientcivilizations,theredhotswordbladeswere
sometimesplungedintothebodiesofhaplessprisoners!Todaymetalsarequenchedinwateror
oil.Actually,quenchinginsaltwatersolutionsisfaster,sotheancientswerenotentirelywrong.
Quenchingresultsinametalthatisveryhardbutalsobrittle.Gentlyheatingahardenedmetal
andallowingittocoolslowlywillproduceametalthatisstillhardbutalsolessbrittle.This
processisknownastempering.(SeeProcessingMetalsActivity).ItresultsinmanysmallFe 3C
precipitatesinthesteel,whichblockdislocationmotionwhichtherebyprovidethestrengthening.
ColdWorking:
Because plastic deformation results from the movement of dislocations, metals can be
strengthened by preventing this motion. When a metal is bent or shaped, dislocations are
generatedandmove.Asthenumberofdislocationsinthecrystalincreases,theywillgettangled
or pinned andwillnotbeabletomove. Thiswillstrengthenthemetal,makingitharderto
deform.Thisprocessisknownascoldworking.Athighertemperaturesthedislocationscan
rearrange,solittlestrengtheningoccurs.
Youcantrythiswithapaperclip.Unbendthepaperclipandbendoneofthestraightsections
backandforthseveraltimes.Imaginewhatisoccurringontheatomiclevel.Noticethatitis
more difficult to bend the metal at the same place. Dislocations have formed and become
tangled,increasingthestrength.Thepaperclipwilleventuallybreakatthebend.Coldworking

12

obviously only works to a certain extent! Too much deformation results in a tangle of
dislocationsthatareunabletomove,sothemetalbreaksinstead.
Heating removes the effects of coldworking. When cold worked metals are heated,
recrystallizationoccurs.Newgrainsformandgrowtoconsumethecoldworkedportion.The
newgrainshavefewerdislocationsandtheoriginalpropertiesarerestored.

13

Alloys:
Thepresenceofotherelementsinthemetalcanalsochangeitsproperties,sometimesdrastically.
Thearrangementandkindofbondinginmetalspermitstheadditionofotherelementsintothe
structure,formingmixturesofmetalscalledalloys.Eveniftheaddedelementsarenonmetals,
alloysmaystillhavemetallicproperties.
Copperalloyswereproducedveryearlyinourhistory.Bronze,analloyofcopperandtin,was
thefirstalloyknown.Itwaseasytoproducebysimplyaddingtintomoltencopper.Toolsand
weapons made of this alloy were stronger than pure copper ones. Adding zinc to copper
producesanotheralloy,brass.Althoughbrassismoredifficulttoproducethanbronze,italso
wasknowninancienttimes.(See"Gold"PennyActivity)Typicalcompositionofsomealloys
isgiveninTable2.
Table2:

Compositionofseveralalloys.

Alloy
Brass...................
Bronze.................
Pewter.................
Solder..................
Alnico..................
Castiron...............
Steel....................
StainlessSteel........

Composition
Copper,Zinc
Copper,Zinc,Tin
Tin,Copper,Bismuth,Antimony
Lead,Tin
Aluminum,Nickel,Cobalt,Iron
Iron,Carbon,Manganese,Silicon
Iron,Carbon(plussmallamountsofalloyingelements)
Iron,Chromium,Nickel

Alloysaremixtures andtheirpercentagecompositioncanvary. Thisisuseful,becausethe

propertiesofalloyscanbemanipulatedbyvaryingcomposition.Forexample,electriciansneed
asolderwithdifferentpropertiesthantheoneusedbyplumbers.Electricalsolderhardensvery
quicklyproducinganalmostimmediateconnection.Thiswouldnotbepracticalforplumbers
whoneedsometimetosetthejoint.Electricalsoldercontainsabout60%tin,whereasplumber's
soldercontainsabout30%.
Pewteroriginallycontainedlead,andsincepewterwasusedforplatesandgoblets,itprobably
wasasourceofleadpoisoning.Pewtermadetodayisleadfree.Increasedknowledgeofthe
propertiesofmetalsalsoleadstonewalloys.Somebrassesformshapememoryalloyswhich
canbebentandwillreturntotheiroriginalshapewhengentlyheated. Zincalloys,usedasa
coatingonsteel,slowcorrosion(galvanizedsteel).Cadmiumalloysfindextensiveuseinsolar
cells.Theabilityofcupronickeltoresistthebuildupofdepositsmakesitusefulforcagesin
fishfarming.
IronandSteel:

14

Carbonsteelsvaryinthepercentageofcarbontheycontain.Theamountofcarbonaffectsthe
propertiesofthesteelanditssuitabilityforspecificuses.Steelsrarelycontainmorethan1%
carbon.Structuralsteelcontainsabout0.10.2%carbonbyweight;thismakesitslightlymore
ductileandlessapttobreakduringearthquakes.Steelusedfortoolsisabout0.51%carbon,
makingitharderandmorewearresistant.Castironisbetween2.5and4%carbonandfindsuse
in low cost applications where its brittleness is not a problem. Surprisingly, pure iron is
extremelysoftandisrarelyused.Increasingtheamountofcarbontendstoincreasethehardness
ofthemetalasshownbythefollowinggraph. Inslowlycooledsteels,carbonincreasesthe
amount ofhardFe3C;inquenchedsteels,italsoincreases thehardnessandstrengthofthe
material.

H
a
r
d
n
e
s
s
PaperClip(0.1%)
Figure9:

%Carbon

BobbyPin(0.6%)

Hardnessofsteelasafunctionof%carbon.

IntersitialCarboninIron
Sincetheinterstitialsitesareso
small,themaximumsolubilityin
BCCironisonlyonecarbonatom
for5000ironatoms.

Figure10:

BCCironshowingthelocationofinterstitialcarbonatoms.

Bobbypinsandpaperclipsareprocessedinmuchthesamewaybutcontaindifferentamountsof
carbon.Bobbypinsandpaperclipsareformedfromcoldworkedsteelwire.Thepaperclip,
containinglittlecarbon,ismostlypureFewithsomeFe3Cparticles.Thebobbypinhasmore
carbonandthuscontainsalargeramountofFe3Cwhichmakesitmuchharderandstronger.
Thepropertiesofsteelcanbetailoredforspecialusesbytheadditionofothermetalstothe
alloy.Titanium,vanadium,molybdenumandmanganeseareamongthemetalsaddedtothese
15

specialty steels. Stainless steelcontains aminimum of12%chromium,whichstopsfurther

oxidationbyformingaprotectiveoxideonthesurface.

16

Corrosion:
Corrosionofmetalscanbeamajorproblem,especiallyforlongtermstructuralapplicationslike
cars, bridges, and ships. Most corrosion is electrochemical (galvanic) in nature. To have
corrosion,ananode(amoreeasilyoxidizedregion)andacathode(alesseasilyoxidizedregion)
mustbepresent.Thesemaybedifferenttypesofmetalsorsimplydifferentregionsonthesame
metal. Somesortofelectrolytethatcanallowthetransportofelectronsmustalsobepresent.
Corrosioninvolvesthereleaseofelectronsattheanodeduetothehighoxidationpotentialofthe
atoms at the anode. As the electrons are released, metal cations are formed and the metal
disintegrates.Simultaneously,thecathode,whichhasagreaterreductionpotential,acceptsthe
electronsbyeitherformingnegativeionsorneutralizingpositiveions.
In the case of the activity or electromotive force series, a metal such as zinc reacts with
hydrogenandservesasboththeanodeandthecathode.(SeeActivitySeriesActivity) The
equationforthisreactionis:
2Zn+2H+>2Zn2++H2
Hydrogen bubbles at the cathode while the anode is destroyed. Surface imperfections, the
presence of impurities, orientation of the grains, localized stresses, and variations in the
environmentaresomeofthefactorsdeterminingwhyasinglepieceofmetalmayserveasboth
electrodes.Forexample,theheadandpointofanailhavebeencoldworkedandcanserveas
theanodewhilethebodyservesasthecathode.(SeeCorrosionofIronActivity)
Although oxidation at the anode and reduction at the cathode are simultaneous processes,
corrosionusuallyoccursattheanode.Thecathodeisalmostneverdestroyed.In1824,Davy
developedamethodofprotectingthehullsofshipsfromcorrosionbyusingzincthatcanbe
periodicallyreplaced.Zincismoreactivethanthesteelinthehullandwillserveastheanode
andbecorroded;itissacrificedtoprotectthesteelstructure. Thesteelthatwouldhavebeen
boththeanodeandcathodenormallyservesasthecathode.Thisiscalledcathodicprotection.
Pipelines aresimilarly protected bythemoreactive metal magnesium. Sometimes electric
currentsaremaintainedinshortsectionsofpipelineswithalengthofsimilarmetalwiredto
serveasthesacrificialanode.
Corrosionisamajorproblemthatmustbesolvedinordertoeffectivelyutilizemetals. Iron
combineswithoxygenintheairformingironoxide(rust),eventuallydestroyingtheusefulness
ofthemetal.(SeeOptional:ChemicalHandWarmerActivity)Fortunately,somemetals,such
asaluminum andchromium, formaprotective oxidecoating that prevents furtheroxidation
(corrosion). Similarly,coppercombineswithsulfurandoxygen formingthefamiliargreen
patina.
Understanding the chemistry of metals leads to the development of methods to reduce and
preventcorrosion.Chromiumatomsareaboutthesamesizeasironatomsandcansubstitutefor
them in iron crystals. Chromium forms an oxide layer that allows stainless steel to resist
17

corrosion. Metalscanbepaintedortheycanbecoatedwithothermetals; galvanized(zinc

coated)steelisanexample. Whenthesetwometalsareusedtogether,themoreactivezinc
corrodes,sacrificingitselftosavethesteel.

18

MetalOres:
Gold, silver, and copper were the first metals used because they are found in the free or
elementalstate.Mostmetalsfoundinnaturearecombinedwithotherelementssuchasoxygen
andsulfur.Energyisneededtoextractmetalsfromthesecompoundsorores.Historically,the
ease with which a given metal could be extracted from its ore, along with availability,
determinedwhenitcameintouse,hencetheearlyuseofcopper,tin,andiron.Theformulasfor
someoresaregivenbelow:

Hematite
Magnetite
Pyrite
Chalcocite
Cinnabar

Fe2O3
Fe3O4
FeS2
Cu2S
HgS

Rutile
TiO2
Zircon
ZrSiO4
CassiteriteSnO2
Bauxite
Al2O3
Galena PbS

Theseoresareioniccompoundsinwhichthemetalsexistaspositiveions. Forexamplethe
oxidation state of iron in hematite is +3; the oxidation state of copper in chalcocite is +1.
Extractingmetalsfromtheiroresisanoxidationreduction(Redox)reaction.Intheelemental
state,metalsconsistofatomsnotions.Sinceatomshavenooverallchargethemetalionsgain
electronsinthereaction;theyarereduced.
Theoverallreactionforthereductionofcopperfromchalcociteis:
Cu2S+O2+Energy>2Cu+SO2
Thisistheoverallreactiononly. Thecompleteprocessisnotthissimple. The reductionof
metalsfromtheirorestypicallyrequiresaseriesofchemicalandmechanicalprocesses.These
areusuallyenergeticallyexpensive,consuminglargeamountsofheatand/orelectricalenergy.
Forexample, about fivepercent oftheelectricity consumed inthe United States is usedto
producealuminum.Itcostsaboutonehundredtimesasmuchtomakeanaluminumpopcan,
startingwiththeore,asitdoestomeltandformrecycledaluminum. Extractingmetalsfrom
ores may also produce pollutants such as the sulfur dioxide above. Whenever possible,
recyclingandreprocessingmetalsmakessense.
Therelativedifficultyofextractingmetalsfromtheiroresindicatesthatthisistheirpreferred
state. Once removed from their ores, and in the elemental state, most metals display
considerabletendency toreactwithoxygenandsulfurandreturntotheirnaturalstate; they
corrode!Incorrosion,themetalisoxidized.Itloseselectrons,becomingapositiveion.(See
CorrosionofMetalsActivity)

19

MetalsSummary

Metals have useful properties including strength, ductility, high melting points, thermal and
electrical conductivity, and toughness. They are widely used for structural and electrical
applications.Understandingthestructureofmetalscanhelpusunderstandtheirproperties.
Metalatomsareattachedtoeachotherbystrong,delocalizedbonds.Thesebondsareformedby
acloudofvalenceelectronsthataresharedbetweenpositivemetalions(cations)inacrystal
lattice. Inthisarrangement,thevalenceelectronshaveconsiderablemobilityandareableto
conductheatandelectricityeasily.Inthecrystallattice,metalatomsarepackedcloselytogether
tomaximizethestrengthofthebonds.Anactualpieceofmetalconsistsofmanytinycrystals
calledgrainsthattouchatgrainboundaries.
Duetothedelocalizednatureofthebonds,metalatomsareabletoslidepasteachotherwhenthe
metal is deformed instead of fracturing like a brittle material. This movement of atoms is
accomplishedthroughthegenerationandmovementofdislocationsinthelattice. Processing
techniques that change the bonding between atoms or affect the number or mobility of
dislocationscanhavealargeeffectonthemechanicalpropertiesofametal.
Elasticdeformationofametalisasmallchangeinshapeatlowstresswhichisrecoverableafter
thestressisremoved.Thistypeofdeformationinvolvesstretchingofthemetalbonds,butthe
atomsdonotslidepasteachother. Plasticdeformationoccurswhenthestressissufficientto
permanentlydeformthemetal.Thistypeofdeformationinvolvesthebreakingofbonds,usually
bythemovementofdislocations.
Plasticdeformationresultsintheformationofmoredislocationsinthemetallattice.Thiscan
resultinadecreaseinthemobilityofthesedislocationsduetotheirtendencytobecometangled
orpinned.Plasticdeformationattemperatureslowenoughthatatomscannotrearrange(cold
working),canstrengthenametalasaresultofthiseffect. Onesideeffectisthatthemetal
becomesmorebrittle.Asametalisused,crackstendtoformandgrow,eventuallycausingitto
breakorfracture.
Dislocationscannoteasilycrossgrainboundaries. Ifametalisheated,thegrainscangrow
largerandthematerialbecomessofter. Heatingametalandcoolingitquickly(quenching),
followedbygentleheating(tempering),resultsinahardermaterialduetotheformationofmany
smallFe3Cprecipitateswhichblockdislocations.
Mixing of metals with other metals or nonmetals can result in alloys that have desirable
properties.Steelformedfromironandcarboncanvarysubstantiallyinhardnessdependingon
theamountofcarbonaddedandthewayinwhichitwasprocessed.Somealloyshaveahigher
resistancetocorrosion.

20

Corrosionisamajorproblemwithmostmetals.Itisanoxidationreductionreactioninwhich
metalatomsformionscausingthemetaltoweaken.Onetechniquethathasbeendevelopedto
combatcorrosioninstructuralapplicationsincludestheattachmentofasacrificialanodemadeof
ametalwithahigheroxidationpotential.Inthisarrangement,theanodecorrodes,leavingthe
cathode,thestructuralpart,undamaged.Theformationofaprotectivecoatingontheoutsideof
ametalcanalsoresistcorrosion.Steelsthatcontainchromiummetalformaprotectivecoating
ofchromiumoxide.Aluminumisalsocorrosionresistantduetotheformationofastrongoxide
coating.Copperformsthefamiliargreenpatinabyreactingwithsulfurandoxygenintheair.
Onlyafewpuremetalscanbefoundinnature. Mostmetalsexistasores,compoundsofthe
metal with oxygen or sulfur. Separating the pure metal from the ore often involves large
amountsofenergyasheatand/orelectricity.Duetothislargeexpenditureofenergy,itmakes
sensetorecyclemetalswhenpossible.

21

DiscussionQuestions
1.Howareoresextractedfromtheearth?

2.Name4alloysandthemetalsfromwhichtheyaremade.

3.Whatimpactdoes"coldworking"haveonmetals?

4.Whatprocessmakesmetalshard,butbrittle?

5.Whatprocessmakesmetalssofterandeasiertowork?

6.Givethreemethodsusedtoreducecorrosion.

7.Give2valuableimpactsofrecycling.

22

Problem
Assumetheradiusofoneironatomis1.24angstroms(1angstrom=1x10 8cm).Whatwould
bethedensityofbodycenteredcubic(BCC)ironingrams/cubiccentimeter? Hint: Findthe
massandvolumeofoneunitcell.Remembertocountonlythefractionofeachatominthecell.

Extension:
ThemaximumsolubilityofcarboninBCCironisoneatomforevery5000atomsofiron.What
wouldbethedensityofsteelwiththemaximumamountofcarbondissolved?

23

Solution
=m/V=#atomsx(mass/atom)/cellvolume

InBCCiron,therearetwoironatomsperunitcell.(8x1/8+1)
Oneironatomhasamassof55.85amuor9.27x1023grams.
Thetotalmassofoneunitcellis1.85x1022grams.

4r

2L

2L

Let(r)betheradiusofanironatom.Theatomsatthecornerscontacttheatominthemiddle,
makingthediagonaloftheboxequalto(4r).
Ifwecallonesideofthebox(L),adiagonalofthecubefacewouldbeequalto(squarerootof
2)times(L).
Oneside,thediagonalofthecubeface,andthediagonaloftheboxmakearighttriangle.Using
thePythagoreantheorem,(L)2+(squareroot2x(L))2=(4r)2.
SolvingforLandplugginginfor(r),wefindthatL=2.86angstromsor2.86x108cm.
Thevolumeofthecube(unitcell)is(L)3=2.34x1023cm3.Dividingthemassbythevolume
weget:
Density=7.91grams/cm3.

24

References
Bogner,Donna,StartingatGroundZero,vol.4,GeniePublications,Hutchinson,KS,
pp.4142.

(1989),

Borgford,ChristieL.,andSummerlin,LeeR.,ChemicalActivities:TeacherEdition,
AmericanChemicalSociety,Washington,DC,(1988),pp.7778.
Carter,GilesF.,Paul,DonaldE.,MaterialsScienceandEngineering,ASMInternational,United
States,(1991).
Ciardullo,C.V.,C.M.,MicroActionChemistry,Princeton,NJ,(1990),pp.6364.
"CorrosionandCorrosionPrevention",alessonfromMetallurgyfortheNonMetallurgist,
Course3,Lesson,Test12,ASMInternational,(1987).
Cortez,JamesA.,Powell,Dick,andMellon,Ed,"TestTubeGeology:ASlowly Developing
RedoxSystemforClassStudy",J.Chem.Ed.,654,April(1988), pp.350351.
FutureMetalStrategy,TheMetalsSociety,London,(1980).
LaQue,F.L.(supervisor),CorrosioninAction,TheInternationalNickelCompany,Inc., New
York,(1955).
Louthan,McIntyreR.Jr.,Metals:AHistory,ASMInternational,(1987).
Loyd,Lowell,PlasticDeformationandAnnealingofMetals,ASMInternational,(1987).
McCabeandBauer,Metals,Atoms,andAlloys,NationalScienceTeachersAssociation, Inc.,
(1964).
Mendenhall,J.Howard,UnderstandingCopperAlloys,OlinCorporation,(1977).
Neely,JohnE.,PracticalMetallurgyandMaterialsofIndustry,2ndEd.,JohnWileyand Sons,
NewYork,(1984).
Shackelford,JamesR.,IntroductiontoMaterialsScienceforEngineers,3rdEd., Macmillan,
NewYork,(1992).
Schrager,ArthurM.,ElementaryMetallurgyandMetallography,3rdEd.,(1969).
Smith,J.Denny,HeatTreatmentofSteel,ASMInternational,(1977).

25

Summerlin,LeeR.,Borgford,ChristieL.,Ealy,JulieB.,ChemicalDemonstrations:A
SourcebookforTeachers,Volume2,2ndEd.,AmericanChemicalSociety,
Washington,DC,(1988),pp.101102.
Tylecote,R.F.,AHistoryofMetallurgy,2ndEd.,TheInstituteofMaterials,Brookfield, VT,
(1992).
Weaver,ElbertC.(editor),ScientificExperimentsinChemistry,Holt,Rinehart,and
Winston,Inc.,NewYork,(1966),pp.9698.

26

Resources

AmericanSocietyforMetals(ASMInternational)
MaterialsPark,OH44073
(216)3385151
TheMetallurgicalSocietyofAIME(TMSAIME)
420CommonwealthDrive
Warrendale,PA15086
(412)7769050
AmericanInstituteofMining,Metallurgical,andPetroleumEngineers(AIME)
345East47thStreet
NewYork,NY10017
AmericanIronandSteelInstitute
110117thStreetNorthwest
Suite1300
Washington,DC200364700
(202)4527100

27

MasterMaterialsandEquipmentGrid
Material
Styrofoam(balls26/lab)
Toothpicks(round)
Plasticpetridish
BB's
"Bobby"pins(hairpins)
Bunsenburnerorhotplate
Pairof3"Cclamps
Hammer
Beaker,400ml,100ml
Tongs/forceps
Wiregauze
1618gaugewire:aluminum,
steel,copper,nickel,etc.
0.016"diameterpianowire,10feet
2Ringstands
2Buretteclamps,single
Meterstick
3Alligatorclipleadwires
VARIAC
4060gramweight
ACammeter
Extensioncord
2#3or#4,1holestoppers
26"strips,14gaugecopperwire
smallpapercup(1oz.)
variablemasses(leadshotorsmall
washers
6and3molarHCl
preandpost1983pennies
triangularfile
centigrambalance
acetone
powderedtin
steelwool
metalsamples:Zn,Cu,Mg,Pb,Fe
0.1MAgNO3,CuSO4,MgSO4,
ZnSO4,andPb(NO3)2

Lab1 Lab2 Lab3 Dem Lab4 Dem Lab5 Lab6

o1
o
2
S/DS
G
LE
H/DS
DS
LE
LE
H/LE
H
LE
LE
LE
LE
LE
LE
LE
LE
LE
LE
LE
H/S
LE
LE
LE
LE
LE
LE
LE
H/DS
LE
H

LE
LE
LE

G/DS
LE/H
LE
O
LE/H
LE
LE

LE
O

LE
LE
LE
LE

28

24holecellwellplateandberal
pipettes

LE

KEYFORTABLE:E=ELECTRONICSTORE
H=HARDWARE,G=GROCERY,
DS=DISCOUNTSTORE,
LE=LABEQUIPMENT/SCIENTIFICCATALOG,
S=SPECIALTYSHOP,O=OTHER

Dem Lab7 Lab8

Materials
o3
2.55.0gramsCuSO4.5H2O
NaCl
Filterpaper
Smallnails
Testtubes
Testtuberack
Stirringrod
Agar
ringstand
Plasticpetridish
Beaker,400ml
Bunsenburnerorhotplate
Wiregauze
3molarHCl
Foil:zinc,copper,aluminum,tin
Magnesiumribbon
Phenolphthalein
.1molarK3Fe(CN)6
Battery(1.5or9volt)
"Cliplead"wires
Ironpowder,25g
Smallvermiculite,1tbs.
plasticbaggy

LE
LE/G
LE
H
LE
LE
LE

LE/G LE/G
H

LE
LE
LE
LE
LE
LE
LE
LE
LE
LE
LE
H/DS
LE
LE
S
G

KEYFORTABLE:E=ELECTRONICSTORE,
H=HARDWARE,G=GROCERY,
DS=DISCOUNTSTORE,
LE=LABEQUIPMENT/SCIENTIFICCATALOG,
S=SPECIALTYSHOP,O=OTHER

29

Experiment1
CrystalPackin'Mama
CrystalStructure/PackingExercise
Objective:
Theobjectiveofthislabistolearnmoreaboutthebasiccrystalstructuresthatmetalatomsform.
ReviewofScientificPrinciples:
Tomaximizethebonding,atomsinmetalspacktogetherascloselyaspossible.Severalpacking
arrangementsexistsuchasfacecenteredcubic(FCC)andhexagonalclosestpacking(HCP).
Applications:
Thepropertiesofmetalsareverydependentontheircrystalstructure.Themetalstructurecanbe
alteredbyprocessingtreatmentstomakethemmoreusefulinvariousapplications.
Time:50minutes
MaterialsandSupplies:
26Styrofoamballs,about1.5"diameter
16toothpicks(round)
Procedure:
1.EachoftheStyrofoamballswillrepresentanatomandthetoothpickwill

representbonds.Attach10oftheballstogetherwithtoothpickstoforma
trianglewithfourballsatthebase.Thiswillformthefirstlayerofthepacking
model.Drawadiagramofthearrangementoftheatomsinthespacebelow.

2.Attach6oftheballstogetherwithtoothpickstoformatrianglewith3ballsat
thebase.Thiswillformthesecondlayerofthepackingmodel.Drawa
diagramofthearrangementoftheatomsinthesecondlayerinthespacebelow.

30

3.FormanothertriangleofStyrofoamballsliketheoneinprocedure1withthe
remaining10balls.
4.Placethesecondlayerontopofthefirstonewith"atoms"ofthesecondlayer
nestinginthehollowsbetweenthe"atoms"ofthefirstlayer.Thiscreatesthe
closestpossiblepackingofatoms.
5.Thethirdlayercanbeplacedontopofthesecondlayerinoneoftwopositions.
Itcanbeplacedsothatits"atoms"aredirectlyoverthoseinlayerone.This
givestheABABABarrangementwhichcorrespondstohexagonalclosest
packing(HCP).Thethirdlayercanalsobeplacedontopofthesecondlayerso
thatits"atoms"arenotdirectlyoverthoseinthefirstlayer.Thisgivesthe
ABCABCarrangementwhichcorrespondstofacecenteredcubic(FCC).Try
botharrangementswithyourlayers.
Questions:
1.Whichpackingarrangement,FCCorHCP,ismoredense?

2.WhatisthedifferenceinFCCandHCParrangements?

3.AbouthowsmallwouldanatomhavetobetofitinaninterstitialholeinanFCC
orHCPcrystalstructure?

31

TeacherNotes:
Itwouldbebeneficialfortheteachertohaveacompletedmodelconstructedwiththelayers
painteddifferentcolorstohelpthestudentsvisualizethetwotypesofpackingarrangements.
TopainttheStyrofoamballsusewaterbasedpaintdilutedslightlyandaddasmallamount
ofdetergent.
Belowarethearrangementsforthetrianglesthestudentsaretoconstruct.

AB

AnswerstoQuestions:
1.Actually,FCCandHCPpackingarrangementshavethesameatomicdensity.
Theyeachhaveapproximately26%emptyspace.
2.FCChasanABCarrangementwhileHCPisABA.
3.Dependingonthetypeofhole,aninterstitialatomshouldbeapproximatelyone
thirdthesizeoftheatomwhichmakesupthecrystalstructureinorderto"fit"
well.

32

Experiment2
AtomicBb's
AParticleModelofMetals
Objective:
Theobjectiveofthislabistolearnmoreaboutthebasicparticlemodelformetals.
ReviewofScientificPrinciples:
Metalliccrystalsarenotperfect.Sometimesthereareemptyspaces,vacancies,whereanatom
shouldbe.Therearealsosmallmismatches,dislocations,intherowsofatoms,andtheseare
foundinallmetals.
Applications:
Defectsinthecrystalstructureofmetalscontrolmanyoftheirpropertiesincludinghardnessand
ductility.
Time:40minutes
MaterialsandSupplies:
PlasticPetriDish
Bb's
Procedure:
YourteamwillbegivenacoveredPetridishcontainingBb's.Keepthedishflatonthetableso
noBb'sspillout!AnswertheQuestionswhichcorrespondtoagivenprocedure.Trytowrite
completeideaanswers;thatincreasesunderstanding.

1.TheBb'srepresenttheatomsinametal.
2.IfyoumovethePetridishbackandforththeatomsmove.Thissimulatesthe
movementofatomsinametalwhenitisheated.
3.Movethedishbackandforthandtrytogettheatomsarrangedasneatlyas
possible.Slowingthemotionofthedishandgraduallystoppingitsimulatesthe
formationofthecrystal.
4.MakeasketchbelowshowinghowtheBb'sarearranged.Youdon'thaveto
33

drawalltheBb's!

5.MakeasketchbelowshowingthearrangementofBb'saroundanemptyspace.
Whenthishappensinthemetalitiscalledavacancy.Inarealcrystalwhen
atomsareoutoflineitiscalledadislocation.

6.Movethedishbackandforthsomewhatrapidly.(Don'tspilltheBb's).This
simulatesheatingthemetal.(Heatingthemetalgivestheatomsmorekinetic
energy.)
Questions:
1.Describethebondingbetweentheatomsinametal.

2.Whattypeofenergydo"moving"atomspossess?

3.Dotheatomsinacrystalmove?

34

4.DescribethearrangementoftheBb's.Arethereanyemptyspaces,i.e.,places
whereaBbismissing?

5.AretheBb'sarrangedperfectly?Wouldyouexpectatomstobeperfectly
arranged?

6.Domoreorlessdefectsexistinthemetalwhenitisheated?

35

AnswerstoQuestions
1.Thevalenceelectronsofametalatomarelooselyheldandconsideredtobe
sharedbyalltheatomsinthecrystal.Thisiscalledtheelectronseamodel.
2.Kineticenergy.
3.Yes,theyvibrateaboutanequilibriumposition.
4.Studentanswer.
5.Itisunlikelythattheatomsareperfectlyarranged.Somedisorderisexpected.
6.Moredefectsexistathighertemperatures.

36

Experiment3
MakingMetalsStrong
ProcessingMetals
Objective:
Theobjectiveofthislabistodemonstratetheeffectofcoldworking(strainhardening)and
annealingontheabilityofwiresofthesamemetaltosupportaload.
ReviewofScientificPrinciples:
Because plastic deformation results from the movement of dislocations, metals can be
strengthened by preventing this motion. When a metal is deformed, new dislocations are
produced. Asdislocationsaregeneratedandmove,themetalcanbebentorshapedwithout
cracking.Asthenumberofdislocationsinthecrystalincreases,theywillgettangledorpinned
andwillnotbeabletomove.Thiswillstrengthenthemetal,makingithardertodeform.When
thisisdoneatornearroomtemperature,theprocessisknownas coldworking. Whencold
workedmetalsareannealed(heatedgently),newgrainsformfromthecoldworkedstructureand
growuntiltheyreplaceitwithnew,softcrystals.Steels(alloysofironwithupto1%carbon)
canalsobehardenedby heating and quenching. Athightemperatures(redhot),ironhasan
FCCstructurewhichcandissolvecarbon.Atlowtemperature,theironchangestoBCCwhich
cannot dissolve carbon, so it precipitates as an ironcarbon compound. If quenched, this
compound does not have time to form, the carbon is trapped and distorts the BCC crystal
structuretocreateanew,hardandbrittlestructurecalled Martensite. IfMartensiteisgently
heated,thecarboncanprecipitategivingastrong,toughstructure.
Applications:
Thepropertiesofmetalscanbealteredbyprocessing. Sincethepropertiesofamaterialare
dependentuponitsstructureontheatomiclevel,alteringitsstructureshouldalteritsproperties.
Commontreatmentsincludecoldworkingandheattreating.
Time:50minutes,partI;50minutes,partII;30minutes,partIII
MaterialsandSupplies:
Hammer
Bunsenburnerandtongs
16or18gaugesolidwireofcopper(oraluminum)
16or18gaugesolidwireofothermetals
highcarbonsteelwireorbobbypins
37

Pairof3"Cclamps(orothersizeif3"notavailable)
Wiregauze
GeneralSafetyGuidelines:
TakeprecautionstoavoidburnswhenusingtheBunsenburnertoheatthemetal.
Makesureallfingersareoutofthewaywhenhammeringthewires.
Procedure(PartI):
1.Hammeroneofthepiecesofcopperwireuntilitisabouthalfitsoriginal
thickness.
2.Benditandtheotherpieceofwirebackandforthseveraltimes.Observe.
3.Heattheflattened(workhardened)pieceofcopperintheburnerflameuntilred
hot.

4.Letitcoolslowlyonthewiregauze.
5.Labelandsaveforexperiment4.

6.Repeatprocedures15fortheotherwires.
7.Labelandsavethewiresforlater.

Procedure(PartII):
1.Obtain7sampleseachofhighcarbonsteelwire(bobbypins)andothermetals.
2.Bendoneofthewiresuntilitbreaks.Countandrecordthenumberofbends
neededtobreakthewire.
3.Heatthesecondandthirdsteelwiresinthemiddleuntiltheyareredhot.Let
themcoolslowlyinair.
4.Whenthewiresarecool,bendoneofthembackandforthasbefore.Countand
recordthenumberofbendsneededtobreakthisheattreatedwire.Labeland
savetheotherwireforlater.
5.Fillthebeakerwithcoldwater.

38

6.Heatthefourthandfifthwiresintheflameuntiltheyareredhotand
immediatelyplungeitintothewaterinthebeaker.
7.Whenthewiresarecool,bendoneofthemasbeforeandrecordthenumberof
bendsneededtobreakit.Labelandsavetheother.
8.Heatandquenchthelasttwowiresasinprocedure6.Heatthemagainbutcool
themslowlyinair.Thisprocessiscalledtempering.Asbefore,notethe
propertiesofthetemperedwire.Labelandsaveone.

9.Repeatsteps18fortheothermetalwires.
10.SavetheextrawiresforExperiment4.

Procedure(PartIII):
1.Usingapairof3"Cclampsattachedtotheendsofthewirestretchasectionof
annealedcopperwireby5%andanotherby10%.
2.Repeatfortheothermetalwires.
3.SavethesewiresalsoforExperiment4.
Questions:
1.WhatisthehammeringinPartI,procedure1called?

2.InPartI,procedure2,whatdidyouobserveabouttheeaseofbendingforeach
wire?Whyweretheydifferent?

3.InPartII,procedure2,howmanybendswererequiredtobreakthewire?Did
itbreakeasily?Brieflydescribethemechanicalpropertiesforthissample.

4.WhattermdescribestheheattreatingmethodusedinPartII,procedure3
(heating,slowcooling)?
39

5.InPartII,procedure4,howmanybendswererequiredtobreakthewire?Did
itbreakeasily?Brieflydescribethemechanicalpropertiesforthissample.

6.WhatiscoolingthehotmetalrapidlyasinPartII,procedure6called?

7.InPartII,procedure7,howmanybendswererequiredtobreakthewire?Did
itbreakeasily?Brieflydescribethemechanicalpropertiesforthissample.

8.InPartII,procedure8,whatwerethepropertiesofthetemperedwire?

40

TeacherNotes:
Youmighthavegoodsuccessinstretchingthewireifyouwraptheendsofthe wire
aroundthetreadsoftheCclampandthentightentheclampontheendsofthe wire.
Aconvenientwaytostretchtherightamountistomarka10cmsectionofwire with a
darkcoloredmarker.Thenyoucaneasilymeasuretheamountofstretch
between the
marks(1cmincrease=10%).Makesurethestudentsunderstandthat thisisanotherwayto
coldworkmetals.
Processingmetalswithheatfollowedbyquenchingandcoldworkingshould harden
them.However,strongheatingandquenchingwillonlyaffectsteel.Some aluminum is
precipitatehardenedwithsmallamountsofcopper.Heatingthese
alloys strongly will
softenthembycausingthecoppertoformlargeprecipitate
particles which have little
hardeningeffect.Mostaluminumwire,however,issoft.
AnswerstoQuestions:
1.Coldworking.
2.Thehammeredwirewashardertobend,butbrokemoreeasily.Thehammering
producedmanydislocationswhichbecametangled,inhibitingtheslidingof
planesofatoms.
3.Answerswillvary.Theunworkedwiresshouldbeeasiertobendandbend
moretimesbeforebreaking.
4.Annealing.
5.Annealingthewiresshouldsoftenthemetalallowingittobendmoreeasilyand
moretimesbeforebreaking.
6.Quenching.
7.Thequenchedwiresshouldbeharderandbendfewertimesbeforebreaking.
8.Thetemperedwireshouldbendmoretimesthanthequenchedwiredidbefore
breaking.

41

Demonstration1(Caution;useonlywithextremecare)
StandBack!
PhaseTransitionofHighCarbonSteel
Time:15minutes
MaterialsandSupplies:
Pianowire10"length,0.016"diameter,ofhighcarbonsteel,obtainedfroman
instrumentstore(orhardwarestore)
VARIACsourceofvariableACvoltage,0120V,05amps
3alligatorclipleadwires
2ringstands
2adjustablesingleburetteclamps
1meterstick
metalweightofabout4060grams
ACammeter05amps
ExtensioncordULratedatover5amps(heatercord)
2#3or#41holerubberstoppers
26"stripsofcopperwire,#12or#14gauge(householdwire)
DiagramofSetup:

meterstick
pianowire
leads
weight
variac

amps
10feet

42

Procedure:
SetuptheequipmentasshowninFigureA.Attachonerubberstoppertoeachclamp.Thread
oneendofthepianowireupthroughtheholeintherubberstopper,andbendtheendsover,or
otherwisesecurethewiretothestopper. Therubberstopperactsasaninsulatorbetweenthe
electriccircuitandthemetalringstandtopreventelectricshock.Slidethemetalweightoverthe
otherendofthewire,andattachthisendofthewiretotherubberstopper.Themetalweight
shouldslidetothemiddleofthewire,causingthewiretohangdown.Tapeametersticktothe
tablesoyoucanreadtheheightoftheweightfromthefloor.
MakesuretheVARIACisunplugged,off,andthedialsetatzero.TheVARIACwillhaveone
wirewithastandard120Vmaleplugontheend. Thiswirewillbepluggedintothewall
receptacle. (LATER) TheVARIACwillalsohaveastandard120Vfemalereceptacleora
secondwire.IftheVARIAChasastandardfemalereceptacle,youcanplugtheextensioncord
intoit.Forcethetwopiecesofcopperwireintothefemaleendoftheextensioncord.(Stripoff
theinsulation.)Alligatorclipleadwireswillattachthesewirestotherestofthecircuit.Attach
oneleadwiretoeachofthecopperwires.Attachtheotherendofoneleadwiretothepiano
wire,about2"belowtherubberstopper. Attachtheotherendofthesecondleadwiretoone
terminalontheammeter.Thenattachthethirdleadwiretotheotherterminalontheammeter
andtotheotherendofthepianowire(about2"belowtherubberstopper).Thepurposeofthe
ammeteristoallowyoutoadjusttheamountofcurrentflowingthroughthecircuit,soneither
theVARIACnorthecircuitbreakerisoverloaded.
NowyouhaveacompletecircuitfromtheVARIACtothepianowire.Checkyourcircuitwith
Figure A. READ THE FOLLOWING EXPLANATION OF THE PROCEDURE
COMPLETELYBEFOREYOUATTEMPTTOPERFORMTHISDEMONSTRATION.
PlugtheextensioncordintotheVARIAC.MakesurethedialontheVARIACissettozeroand
theswitchisintheOFFposition.PlugtheVARIACintothewallreceptacle.Turntheswitch
ontheVARIACon. Nowyouarereadytoheatthepianowirebymakinganelectriccurrent
flowthroughit.Asthevoltageisincreased,thecurrentincreases(I=V/R),andthewiregets
hot(Power=I2R). However,inthebeginning,thecoldwirehasalowresistance,soonlya
smallvoltageisneededtoproducethe5ampcurrentneededtoheatthewireredhot.Thisis
whyyouSLOWLYturnthedialontheVARIAC,carefullywatchingtheammetersoasnotto
exceed5amps.Asthewireheats,youwillhavetoincreasethevoltage(turnthedialclockwise)
toapproximately4060voltstomaintainacurrentof4.6to4.8amps.Thewireshouldbered
hot,andwillhaveexpanded. Anobservercanwatchthewireexpand,bywatchingthemetal
weightloweralongthemeterstick.Atthispoint,theweightwillbeatitslowestpoint.Ifyou
turnofftheVARIAC(FLIPTHESWITCH)andturnthedialtozero,thewirewillcooland
contract,movingtheweightupthemeterstick. Whenthetemperatureofthewirecoolsto
720C,theweightwillhesitate,thencontinuerisingasthewirecontinuestocoolandcontract.
Thehesitationshouldbeverynoticeable;thisiswhenthemetalundergoesthetransformation
fromFCCtoBCCcrystallinestructure.Heatingthewiretakeslessthan2minutes,andcooling
thewiretakeslessthan30seconds.
43

44

NOWYOUAREREADYTOPERFORMTHISDEMONSTRATION.
1.Checkyourconnections.
2.PlugintheVARIAC;MAKESURETHESWITCHISOFF.
3.Chooseonepersontoobservetheweightandreadthemeterstick.
4.Warnalltheobserversnottotouchanypartofthisapparatusduetothe
possibilityofelectricshockorburns.
5.TurnontheVARIAC.
6.SlowlyturnthedialoftheVARIACclockwise,checkingtheammeter,soasnot
toexceed5amps.
7.Continuetoincreasethevoltage,untilthewireisredhot,andapproximately4.6
to4.8ampsofcurrentisflowingthroughthewire.
8.Havethemeterstickreaderrecordthelowestpositionoftheweight.
9.Telltheobservertowatchtheweight.Tellthemeterstickreadertorecordthe
heightoftheweightatthetimethattheweightstopsmoving.
10.Turnofftheswitch,andturnthedialtozero.
11.Asktheobservertodescribethemotionoftheweight.
12.Youcanrepeatthisdemonstrationbyrepeatingsteps3through11.
Note:If5ampsareinsufficienttoheatthewireabove750C,useafinergaugewire.
Note: Asthewireiscycledthroughtheexperimentseveraltimes,thecarboncontentwillbe
reducedasthecarbonburnsoffathightemperatures.Thisdecreasesthesharpnessofthephase
change(whichoccursoverawiderangeoftemperaturesratherthanasingletemperature,andis
obscuredbythethermalexpansion).Thus,itwillbenecessarytoreplacethewireoccasionally.
OptionalApparatus:
Youmaybeabletouseatoasterorotherelectricheatingappliance(withaheatercoil)wiredin
serieswiththepianowire.Thedarknesscontrolonthetoastercanbeusedasapotentiometerto
controlthevoltagedropacrossthepianowire.Thiswayyoucanuseasinglepolelightswitch
(120V),andeliminatetheneedforaVARIAC.Thesuccessofthismethoddependsonreducing
thevoltagedropacrossthetoasterenough,sothevoltagedropacrossthepianowirewillbelarge
45

enough to heat the wire above the transformation temperature. This sounds challenging
however.
Discussion
Thecrystallinestructureofiron isdifferentatdifferenttemperatures,andhighcarbonsteel
alloys undergoatransformation fromBCCto FCCin averysmall temperature range. An
interestingapplicationofthistheoryisindeterminingthemaximumtemperaturetowhicha
pieceofsteelhasbeenheatedbeforeitchangesphases.Bystudyingthecrystalstructureofa
piece of metal, you can determine what transformations have occurred. Since these phase
transformationsoccuroverspecifictemperaturesranges,youcandeterminetheheathistoryof
themetal.Thisinformationcanbeusefulindetermininghowclosethematerialwastofailure.
OneresultoftheThreeMileIslandincidentwasthatsomeofthenuclearfuelwassohot,thatit
melted.Smallpiecesofmoltennuclearfueldroppedtothefloorofthecontainmentvessel.As
thefuelcooled,thesteelfloorbecameveryhot.Byexaminingthecrystalstructureofsamplesof
the floor, metallurgists could determine the maximum temperature the metal reached. This
informationgavethedesignengineersanideaofthemaximumamountofheatandstressthe
steelcontainmentvesselwillexperience,ifpartofthecoolingsystemofthereactorfails.

46

Experiment4
StretchingWires
TensileStrengthTestforVariousMetals
Objective:
Theobjectiveofthisexperimentistodemonstratetheelasticandplasticpropertiesofmetals.
Time:50minutes
ReviewofScientificPrinciples:
Wiresofthesamegauge,butmadeofdifferentmetalstypicallysupportdifferentloads(masses)
beforegoingthroughthepointatwhichtheychangefrombeingelastictobeingplastic.Elastic
deformationisrecoverableaftertheloadisremoved.Plasticdeformationisnotrecoverable.
Applications:
Inordertousemetalsinparticularapplications,itissometimesnecessarytoknowtheirtensile
strength.Toavoidfailure,therightmetalmustbeused.
MaterialsandSupplies:
15to20cmlongpiecesof16or18gaugewireofcopper,aluminum,steel,etc.
wiressavedfromexperiment3
ringstand
adjustablesingleburetteclamp
meterstick
smallpapercup(a1oz)papercupworkswell)
variablemasses(leadshotorsmallringwashers)
Procedure:
1.Clampthesolidcopperwireintheclampandattachthesmallcuptotheendof
themetalwire.Seediagramofsetup.
2.Adjustthewiresoitextendshorizontallyabout8to10cmbeyondtheedgeof
theclamp.

3.Measuretheheightoftheendofthewireabovethesurfaceoftheworkarea.
Thisheight,ho,willbeyourreferenceheight.
47

4.Carefullyplace3smallwashers(approximately3g)intothecupandagain
measuretheheightoftheendofthemetalwireabovethesurfaceofthework
area.Recordthismassandthenewheight.

5.Usingyourhand,gentlysupportthecupandshowthestudentshowtocheckto
seethatthewirereturnstoapproximatelyitsoriginalheight,ho.
6.Continueincreasingthemassinthecupby3washersatatime,recordingboth
themassinthecupandtheheightoftheendofthewireabovethesurfaceofthe
workarea,untilthewirenolongerreturnstoapproximatelyho.Recordthis
valueofmass.Weshallrefertothismaximumnumberofwashers(mass)that
thewirecanelasticitysupportasitscriticalnumber,Wc.

7.Nowtake3or4moresetsofdataonthiswireafterstraighteningit.
8.Replacetheoriginalcopperwirewithannealedcopperwireofthesamegauge.
9.Replacetheannealedcopperwirewiththepieceofcopperwirethathasbeen
annealedandthenstretched(coldworked)by10%.
10.Repeatprocedures18abovefortheotherwires,timepermitting.Besurethe
distancefromtheclamptothepointwheretheweightsareattachedisthesame
fortheannealedwireasitwasfortheoriginalwire.
DiagramofSetup:

48

sample

wt. cup

Data:
Sampletable
mass ht.
disp.

49

SampleGraph:

Cu20%stretch

mass

Cu10%stretch

Cu
displacement

Analysis:
1.FromyourdatacollectedinPartIII,generateadatatableforeachwire;
includingthevaluesformass,height,anddisplacement(heightho).
2.Plotagraphofmass(onverticalaxis)versusdisplacementforeachofthe
differenttypesofwires.Notethattheslopeofthecurverepresentstherelative
stiffnessofthewirerepresentedbythecurve.Seesamplegraph.
3.Foreachofthetypesofmetalwires,findthemaximummassforwhichthe
curveremainedbasicallyastraightline(theslopewasconstant).Thisdefines
theyieldstrengthsofthemetal.
Questions:
1.Whatishappeningtothebondedmetalatomsduringelasticdeformation?

2.Whatishappeningtothebondedmetalatomsduringplasticdeformation?

3.Givethemaximummassplacedoneachwirebeforepermanentdeformation
occurred.
50

4.Whywouldanengineerbeinterestedintheyieldstrengthofametalfora
particularapplication?
TeacherNotes:
Itisadvisabletotestthisexperimentbeforehandtobesuretheparticulargauge wire
thatyouhavechosenundergoessufficientdeformationwiththemassesyou aremaking
availabletothestudents.
Onewaytosavetimeonthislabistohavedifferentgroupsdodifferentmetals.
AnswerstoQuestions:
1.Thebondsbetweentheatomsarestretching.
2.Metalatomsareslidingpasteachother.
3.Studentanswers.
4.Inmostapplications,itisnotdesirabletoexceedtheyieldstrengthofthe
product.Iftheyieldstrengthisexceededtheobjectwillbepermanently
deformedandlikelywillnolongerbeuseful.

51

Demonstration2
FloatingPennies
RemovalofZincfromPennies
Objective:Thedifferentreactivitiesofcopperandzinctohydrochloricacidwillbeusedto
separatethetwometalsinapost1983penny.Thepercentofzincandofcoppercanbe
calculatedaswellastheeconomicvalueofeach.
Time:Thisactivitymustbeperformedoveraperiodoftwodays.Onlyafewminutesof
studenttimearerequiredeachday.
MaterialsandSupplies:
onepenny(newerthan1983)
20ml6MHCl
100mlbeaker
triangularfile
centigrambalance
forcepsortongs
acetone(optional)
GeneralSafetyGuidelines:
Gogglesarenecessaryforthisexperiment.
Thebeakercontainingthe6MHClshouldbesetinafumehoodovernight.
Procedure:
1.Useatriangularfiletomakefour1mmdeepscoresinthepenny'sedgeat90
apart.
2.Determinethemassofthepennyonabalanceandgivethisvaluetothe
students.
3.Placethepennyina100mlbeakerandadd20mlof6MHCl.
4.Placethisbeakerinthefumehoodorothersafeareaovernight.
5.Thepennyshouldbefloatingthenextday.DecanttheHCloffintothesink,
flushingwithplentyofwater,addabout50mloftapwatertothebeaker

52

containingthepennytorinseitoff,pourthewateroff,andtipthepennyout
ontoapapertowel.Leavethepennyonthetoweltodryafewminutes.
6.Whenthepennyisdry,determinethemassagain.Reportthisvaluetothe
students.
7.Determinethemassofapre1982pennyandreportthisvaluetothestudents
also.

53

QuestionsandCalculations:
1.Fromthemassesofthepennybeforeandafterthereaction,calculatethemassof
zincinthepenny.

2.Calculatethepercentageofzincandthepercentageofcopperinthepenny.

3.Fromanewspaperlookupthepricesofcopperandzincatthepresenttime.
Notetheunits.Iftheunitsaredollarsperounce,convertthevaluetodollars
pergram.(1pound=454grams)

4.Fromthemassofzincandthecurrentmarketvalueofzinc,calculatethevalue
ofzincinthepenny.Dothesameforthecopperinthepenny.

5.Determinethevalueofthecopperinthepre1982penny.

Whydoyouthinkourgovernmentswitchedtoacoppercladzincpenny?

54

Experiment5
"Gold"PennyLab
FormingBrassfromZincandCopper
Objective: Theobjectiveofthislabistouseapost1983pennytoproduceathinlayerbrass
alloyandapre1983pennytomakeabronzealloy.
ScientificPrinciples:
Inordertosaveexpensivecopper,pennycoins,startingin1983,weremadeofzincwithathin
layerofcopperplatedonthesurface. Ifthesecoinsareheated,thezincwilldiffuseintothe
copperlayer,producingasurfacealloyofzincandcopper.Thesealloysarebrasses.Notonly
doesthezincchangethepropertiesofcopper,butalsothecolorofthebrasseschangeswithzinc
contentreachingagoldenyellowcolorataround20%zincandgoldenat3540%zinc.Copper
alsooxidizeswhenheatedinair,producingablacklayerofcopperoxide(CuO). Thuswhen
heated,thereisacompetitionbetweentherateofoxidation(makingthesurfaceblack)andthe
rateofdiffusion(makingthesurfaceagoldenyellowcolor).Bronzesarealloyscontainingtin
andcopper.
Applications:
Brassesareusedinmanyindustriesbecausetheyarefairlycorrosionresistantbutharderand
cheaperthanpurecopper.Bronzesaresometimesusedforthesamepurposesandarealsoused
tomakebearings.Bronzesaregenerallyharderandmorecorrosionresistantthanbrasses.
Time:40minutes
MaterialsandSupplies:
3,pre1982penny
5,post1983pennies
powderedtin(Sn)
steelwool
hotplateorBunsenburner
wiregauze
forcepsortongs
GeneralSafetyGuidelines:
Hotmetalscancausesevereburns.

55

ProcedureI:
1.Obtainfivepost1983pennies.Thoroughlycleanthemusingthesteelwool.
2.Preheatthehotplateusingthesettingwhichis75%ofthemaximumvalue.
ForBunsenandwiregauze,placetheBunsentoproducemaximumheatingand
preheat.
3.Starttimingandplacefourofthepost1983penniesonthehotsurfaceinaring
aroundthecenter.
4.FORHOTPLATE:Usingforceps,removeoneofthepenniesateachofthe
followingtimeintervals:
1minute
5minutes
10minutes
20minutes
FORBUNSENANDWIREGAUZE:Usethefollowingtimeintervals:
15seconds
25seconds
35seconds
45seconds
5.Whilethesepenniescool,placethepre1982pennyonthehotplatefor10
minutesorwiregauzefor40seconds.
Observations:
Recordthecolorandanythingelseyouobserveaboutthepennies.
Post1983,noheat
Post1983,1min/15sec
Post1983,5min/25sec
Post1983,10min/35sec
Post1983,20min/45sec
Pre1982,10min/40sec
Whatcausesthecolorvariationsamongthecoins?
ProcedureII:

56

1.Place3or4smallgrainsoftinonthetworemainingpre1983pennies.Place
thesepenniesonthepreheatedsurface.
2.Whenoneofthepenniesdevelopsasilvercolorintheareaofthegrainsremove
itfromthesurface.Removethesecondpennyinatimeperiodequaltotwice
thatofthefirstpenny.
Observations:
1.Describehowthezincalloy(brass)differsfromthetinalloy(bronze).
Questions:
1.Whatisanalloy?Whatdistinguishesanalloyfromacompound?

2.Whydidthecolorofthepost1983pennychangeasyouheateditlonger?

3.Whatwouldhappenifyouheatedothercoins?

57

TeacherNotes:
Brasscanalsobemadebyheatingamixtureofcopperandzincpelletsifgood contact
existsbetweenthepellets.
CAUTION!Zincpowderisveryflammable,onlyusepelletsofzinc.
AnswerstoQuestions:
1.Analloyisamixture(solution)ofdifferenttypesofatoms,generallymetals.
Analloycanhaveavariablecomposition,butacompoundhasaspecific
composition.
2.Thecolorcontinuedtochangeasmorezincdiffusedintothecopper.Also,the
longeritwasheated,themoreoxidationoccurred.
3.Ifthecoinsweremadeofpuremetal,oxidemightformonthesurface.Ifthe
metalswereamixture(dimeorquarter),analloymightform.

58

Experiment6:(Optional)
WhichoneReacts?
ActivitySeries
Objective:Anactivityseriesofsixsubstancescanbedevelopedfromperformingandobserving
aseriesofsinglereplacementreactions.
ReviewofScientificPrinciples:
When two different metals are in contact with each other or simply wetted with a solution
containing sufficient ions to carry an appreciable electric current, an electrochemical cell is
formed.Themoreactiveofthetwometalswillbeconsumedbythereaction.
Applications:
Understanding the chemistry of metals leads to the development of methods to reduce and
preventcorrosion.Twometalsmaybeusedtogether;themoreactiveonecorrodes,sacrificing
itselftosavetheother.
Time:30minutes
MaterialsandSupplies:
6piecesofzinc,1cmby1/2cm
6piecesofcopper,1cmby1/2cm
6piecesofmagnesium,1cmby1/2cm
6piecesoflead,1cmby1/2cm
optional6piecesofiron
0.1MAgNO3
about1ml1.7g/100ml
0.1MCuSO4
about1ml2.5g/100ml
0.1MMgSO4
about1ml1.2g/100ml
0.1MZnSO4
about1ml2.9g/100ml
0.1MPb(NO3)2
about1ml3.3g/100ml
3MHCl
24holecellwellplateor13x100mmtesttubes,rack,andtesttubebrush
beralpipettesfilledwiththesixsolutionsabove
forceps
GeneralSafetyGuidelines:
59

Performingthisexperimentasamicrochemicallabrequireslesschemicalandis
generallysafer.
Propereyeprotectionshouldbeworn.
Procedure:
1.Obtainacellwellplateandsixpiecesofeachofthefollowingmetals:lead,
copper,magnesium,andzinc.
2.ObtainsixBeralpipetteseachfilledwithadifferentsolution.Theneeded
solutionsare0.1Msilvernitrate,0.1Mzincsulfate,0.1Mmagnesiumsulfate,
0.1Mlead(II)nitrate,0.1Mcopper(II)sulfate,and3Mhydrochloricor
sulfuricacid.
3.Notethatthecellwellplatehasanumberandlettergrid.Place2025dropsof
silvernitratesolutionincellwellA1.RepeatthisforB1,C1,andD1.Itmay
benecessarytorefillthepipette.Place2025dropsofzincsulfatesolutionin
eachholeA2,B2,C2,andD2.Repeatthisprocessremainingsolutionsuntilall
ofthecellsarefilledappropriately.
4.Usingforceps,dropasampleofleadintocellwellA1.Addanothersampleof
leadtoA2.RepeatthisprocessuntileachofthecellsintheArowcontainsa
sampleoflead.Recordyourobservations.
5.AddapieceofcoppertoeachofthecellsintheBrow,zinctotheCrowcells,
andmagnesiumtotheDrow.Recordyourobservationafteraddingthemetal
samplestoeachrow.
6.Usingforcepsremoveandrinseeachremainingpieceofmetal.Followyour
teacher'sdirectionsastodisposal.Donotputthemetalpiecesdownthedrain.
Addwatertotheplateanddumpthecontentsinthereceptacleprovided.
Questions:
1.Drawachartsimilartothecellwellplateandrecordyourobservationsinthat
chart.

2.Writesinglereplacementequationsforthosereactionsthatoccurred.

60

3.Drawandfillinachartshowingwhichsubstanceineachoftheabovereactions
ismoreactiveandwhichislessactive.Thesixsubstancesforcomparisonare
magnesium,silver,hydrogen,copper,lead,andzinc.
Activity
More
Less

4.Whichofthesixsubstancesalwaysendeduplessactive?Whichalwaysended
upmoreactive?

5.Usethechartyoucreatedinquestion3torankthesixsubstancesfrommost
activetoleastactive.

61

TeacherNotes:
Ifequipmentisnotavailableformicrochemicalanalysis,testtubescanbe
substitutedforthecellwell.Asmentionedpreviously,microchemicalanalysisis
saferandresultsinlesschemicaltodisposeofaftertheexperiment.
Questions:
1.Studentchart.Thestudentsshouldnotereactionsbetweenanymoreactive
metalwithalessactivecation.
2.Asamplereactionwouldbeonebetweenmagnesiumandcopper(II)sulfate.
Mg(s)+CuSO4(aq)>MgSO4(aq)+Cu(s)
35.Theorderofactivity,frommosttoleastactive,is:MgZnFePbHCu
Ag

62

Demonstration3
TestTubeGeology
CorrosionofIron
Objective:Theobjectiveofthisexperimentistoobserveoveraperiodofseveraldaysthe
corrosionofironnailsinatesttube.
TimeRequired:Theinitialsetupwillrequirefifteentotwentyminuteswhichincludestimeto
massthecopper(II)sulfate.Fivetotenminuteseachdaycanthenbespent
recordingobservationsuntilnomorechangesareobserved.
MaterialsandSupplies:
2.5to5.0gCuSO4.5H2O
NaCl(twiceasmuchvolumeasthatofcopper(II)sulfate)
twocirclesoffilterpaperorpapertoweling
2to3smallnails
testtube
testtuberack
longstirringrod
GeneralSafetyGuidelines:
Weargoggleswhenusingcopper(II)sulfate.
Washhandswell.
Discardtesttubecontentsintrashorotherreceptaclewhenfinished.
Procedure:
1.Usethetesttubeasatemplateandcutouttwosmallfilterpaperdisks.
2.Mass2.5to5.0gofcopper(II)sulfatepentahydrateandplaceintoastandard
sizetesttube.Seediagramofsetup.
3.Placeoneofthepaperdisksinthetesttubeandusethestirringrodtopushitflat
againstthecopper(II)sulfate.
4.AddSodiumchloridetotwicethedepthofthatofthecopper(II)sulfate.

63

5.Placethesecondpaperdiskontopofthesodiumchloridelayer.
6.Placetwoorthreenailsontopofthepaperdiskandslowlyaddenoughwaterto
covertheentirecontents.
7.Sketchandlabelthecontentsofthetesttubeeachday.Recordany
observations.

64

DiagramofSetup:

water
ironnails
paperdisk
NaCl

paperdisk
Copper(II)sulfate

Questions:
1.Whichisthemoreactivemetal,sodiumoriron?

2.Whichisthemoreactivemetal,copperoriron?

3.Writethereactionwhichallowstheirontocorrode.

65

AnswerstoQuestions:
1.Sodiumisthemoreactivemetal.Theirondoesnotreactwiththesodium.
2.Ironismoreactivethancopper.Theironisoxidizedandthecopperisreduced.
3.2Fe+3Cu++>2Fe++++3Cu

66

Experiment7

Rust!
CorrosionofIron
Objective:
Theobjectiveofthislabistoobservetheelectrochemicalnatureofthechangesinanironnail
whenitcorrodesandtoinvestigatemethodstoprotectit.
ReviewofScientificPrinciples:
Anunderstandingoftheactivityseriesinvestigatedinexperiment6suggeststhatonewayof
preventingthecorrosionofironistoprotectitwithamoreactivemetal.Anotherwaytoprevent
the corrosion of iron is to exclude oxygen and moisture from its surface with a protective
coating.
Applications:
Whenironisexposedtotheweather,ittendstocorrode(rust). Understandingofhowthis
occursleadstowaysofpreventingthecorrosion.
Time:Ifthesolutionsarealreadyprepared,eachdaywillrequire15to20minutes.
MaterialsandSupplies:
Agar2to5grams/250mlH2O,enoughfor6to8petridishes
7.5gNaCl
Ironnails
Copperfoil,2inchby1/8inch,orcopperwire
Zincfoil,2inchby1/8inch
Aluminumfoil,2inchby1/8inch
Tinfoil,2inchby1/8inch
Magnesiumribbon,2inch
Magnesiumribbon,1inchpiece
0.1%phenolphthalein(0.1gto5050wateralcoholmixture)
0.1Mpotassiumferricyanide,K3Fe(CN)6(0.33g/100ml)
3MHCl(ifgalvanizednailsareused)
1400mlbeaker(forheatingagarsolution)
6petridishes,eitherglassorplastic
1stirringrod
Bunsenburnerorhotplate
67

ringstand,ringclamp,wiregauzeifBunsenburnerisused
beakertongs(optional)
clipleadwires
1.5Vor9Vbattery

68

GeneralSafetyGuidelines:
Thepotassiumferricyanideandphenolphthaleinshouldbemadebytheteacher.
Potassiumferricyanideisnotdangerousunlessheatedtoveryhightemperatureswhich
isnotdoneinthisexperiment.
Procedure:
1.Add7.5gofsodiumchlorideto250mlofdistilledwaterina400mlbeaker.
Heatthistoboiling.TurnofftheflameifusingaBunsenburnerorturndown
theheatifusingahotplate.Addslowly,withconstantstirring,5.0gofagar.
2.Aftertheagarhasbeendissolved,add5to10dropsofthe0.1Mpotassium
ferricyanidesolutionand5dropsof0.1%phenolphthaleinsolution.
3.Whiletheagarmixtureiscoolinginthebeaker,preparethenailsforthepetri
dishes.Obtaintwelvenailsthathavebeensoakedin3MHCltoremoveany
zinccoatingandsixpetridishes.Eachdishwillhavetwonails.Thefollowing
aresuggestionsforeachdish.Yourteachermaywishtochangethecontentsof
eachdish.Getthenailsreadybutdonotplacetheminthedishesyet.
Fordish1:onestraightnailandonebentnail
Fordish2:onestraightnailwithcopperfoilwrappedwithtwoturns
onestraightnailwithzincfoilwrappedwithtwoturns
Fordish3:straightnailwithaluminumfoilwrappedwithtwoturns
straightnailwithtinfoilwrappedwithtwoturns
Fordish4:straightnailwithmagnesiumribbonwrappedwithtwoturns
straightnailwithonein.ofMgmetalsetnearbybutnottouchingnail
Fordish5:straightnailhammeredinmiddle
straightnailheatedredhotinthemiddleandallowedtocoolslowly
Fordish6:twostraightnailswithtipsbentupward,batteryattachedbywires
4.Pourtheagarmixtureintothepetridishestoadepthofalittlelessthana
centimeter.Allowittocooluntilitjustbeginstoset.Placeeachnailinthe
agar.
5.Usealligatorclipandanyotheravailablemethodtoattachleadwirestothenails
inthedish.
69

6.Attachtheotherendstoabattery.Notewhichnailisattachedtothepositive
endandwhichisattachedtothenegativeendofthebattery.Observethe
reactionandsketchandexplainwhatishappening.Afterthereactionhasbeen
noted,detachthewires.
7.Allowthedishestoreactovernight.Observe,sketch,andexplainthechanges
observed.

70

Questions:
1.Comparethecolorsobservedonthestraightnail,thebentnail,thehammered
nail,andtheheatednail.

2.Explainthedifferencesobservedbetweenthecopperwrappednailandthezinc
wrappednail.

3.Wasthereanydifferenceobservedbetweenthealuminumwrappednailandthe
tinwrappednail?Ifso,whatwasit?

4.Didthemagnesiumthatwasnear,butnottouching,thenailshowanyprotective
tendencies?

5.Whichendofthebattery,thepositiveornegative,wasconnectedtothenailthat
turnedpink?Wasthisnailthecathodeortheanode?

71

TeacherNotes:
This may be performed as an overhead demonstration using a water mixture
containingafewdropsofphenolphthaleinandpotassiumferricyanidesolutions. Any
1.5Vbatteryshouldworkbuta9Vbatterywillgivealmostimmediateresults.
Attachtwodissimilarpiecesofmetaltoavoltmeterusingeithertheagarorwater
solutions.
Foranextension,askstudentstodesignandperformotherpossible
combinations.
Inpreparingagar,itisimportanttogetthemixturehotenoughtoallowtheagarto
dissolve,butifitgetstoohottheagarwillburn.Ifyouhavenotmadeagarbefore,
youmightwanttostartoutwithasmallbatchforpractice.
Itisveryconvenienttouseamicrowavetoheattheagarmixture,ifoneis
available.
Duringthesectionusingthebatteries,youmightaskthestudentstoswitchthe
electrodesfromthebatteryandnoticethefadingoftheoriginalcolorsandthe
creationoftheothercolors.
Bluecolorationisevidenceofthereductionoftheferricyanideionandpinkisthe
oxidationoftheironnail.
AnswerstoQuestions:
1.Wherethenailwasstressed,theagarwillturnpinkandrustwillformonthe
nail.Otherlocationsaroundthenailwillbeblue.Nearthetip,end,bent
portion,hammeredportionandheatedportiontheagarshouldbepink.
2.Whenthenailisremoved,lessrustshouldbeseenwhereitwasincontactwith
thezinc.Thecopperislessactivethanironandshouldnotshowprotective
tendencies.
3.Thealuminumshouldshowbetterprotectivetendenciesthanthetin.
4.Yes.Sincethemagnesiumismuchmoreactivethanironandthereisan
electricalconnection(ionladenagar),themagnesiumcanshowprotective
tendencies.
5.Theagarnearthenailconnectedtothepositiveendofthebatteryshouldturn
pinkduetotheoxidationofthenail.Thisnailshouldalsoshowmorerust.
72

Thisnailistheanode.Theagarnearthenailconnectedtothenegativesideof
thebatteryshouldturnblue,showingthereductionoftheferricyanide.This
nailisthecathode.

73

Experiment8:(Optional)
ChemicalHandWarmer
OxidationofaMetal
Objective:
Theobjectiveofthislabistoobservetheheatenergythatisgivenoffduringtheoxidationof
iron.
ReviewofScientificPrinciples:
Whenareactionisendothermic(absorbsenergyheat)inonedirection,suchasthereductionof
ironoxidetoelementaliron,itwillbeexothermic(giveoffenergy)inthereversedirection,the
oxidationofelementalironbacktoironoxide.
Applications:
Theconvertingofironore(ironoxide)intheblastfurnacerequirestremendousamountsofheat
energy.Whenironspontaneouslyoxidizesbacktoironoxide(rust)intheairtheheatreleasedis
notnoticeable.Whenthisreactionisspedup,theamountofheatisnoticeableandusableinthe
formofahandwarmer.
Time:20minutes
MaterialsandSupplies:
25gIronpowder
1gsodiumchloride
1Tbs.smallvermiculite(mighttrysand)
plasticbaggy
GeneralSafetyGuidelines:
Avoidburnsfromthewarmchemicals.
Usenormalprecautionsforalaboratoryexperiment.
Procedure:
1.Mass25gofironpowderorveryfineironfilingsand1gofsodium
chloride.Placetheseinasmallplasticbag.Shakethebagtomix.

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2.Addaboutatablespoonofvermiculitetothebagandshakewell.
3.Add5mlofwaterandsealthebag.Shakeit.Thereactionwillstartafterabout
aminute.

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Questions:
1.Theindividualcommercialsportinggoodsstorehandwarmersarepurchasedin
aplasticbag.Insidetheplasticbagisaclothbag.Thedirectionsstatethatthe
plasticbagsshouldnotberemoveduntilyouarereadytoactivatethehand
warmer.Whyshouldtheplasticbagnotberemoved?

2.Inthisreaction,ironmetalwasoxidizedtoformiron(III)oxideandheatwas
released.Millsthatreduceorestometalstakealargeamountofenergytoform
metals.Explainwhythesecondprocessrequiressomuchenergy.

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TeacherNotes:
Youmightwanttobringinacommercialhandwarmertoshowthestudents.
AnswerstoQuestions:
1.Theplasticbagkeepshumidity(moisture)awayfromthechemicalsuntilthey
arereadytobeactivated.
2.Thereactiontoformelementalironfromiron(III)oxideisveryendothermic.

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ReviewQuestions
1.Whydidittakesocietysolongtodevelopmetals?

2.Defineanalloy.

3.Whydometalsbreakeventhoughtheyarenotstressedbeyondtheirelasticlimit?What
conditionscausethistypeoffailure?

4.Whatwouldbetheadvantageofalloysthatwouldwithstandhighertemperatures?

5.Whydoesrecyclingsavesomuchenergy?

6.Removingelementalmetalfromitsoreiscalled.

7.Whatimpactdoesquenchinghaveonferrousmetals?

8.Whateffectontensilestrengthdoesstretchingcopperhave?

9.Doesrustingofsteeloccurattheanodeofcathode?

10.Whatmaterialisusedasa"sacrificial"anodeofsteel?

11.Whatmetalisalloyedwithirontomakestainlesssteel?

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12.Whatmechanicalprocessisaccomplishedbystretchingcopper?

13.Whathappenstodislocationswhenawireisbent?

14.Givethewordsforthefollowingacronyms:FCC,BCC,HCP.

15.Howdoesthemetalcompositiondifferinapaperclipandabobbypin?

16.Comparethegraindifferencesinnormalsteelandquenchedsteel.

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AnswerstoReviewQuestions
1.Whydidittakesocietysolongtodevelopmetals.Itisverydifficulttoformelementalmetals
fromtheirores.Itoftenrequiresveryhightemperatures.Thetechnologyforthisprocesstook
manyyearstodevelop.
2.Defineanalloy.Asubstancethathasmetallicpropertiesandismadeupoftwoormore
chemicalelements,ofwhichatleastoneisametal.Thetwotypesofalloysarein
3.Whydometalsbreakeventhoughtheyarenotstressedbeyondtheirelasticlimit?What
conditionscausethistypeoffailure?Underrepetitivestresses,cracksinametalcandevelop
andgrow.
4.Whatwouldbetheadvantageofalloysthatwouldwithstandhighertemperatures?They
couldbeusedformanyapplications,suchashighertemperaturegasolineengines,nuclear
reactorcontainmentvessels,etc.
5.Whydoesrecyclingsavesomuchenergy?Becauseofthelargeamountofenergyrequiredto
formelementalmetalsfromtheirores.
6.Removingelementalmetalfromitsoreiscalled
ExtractingorReduction

.
7.Whatimpactdoesquenchinghaveonferrousmetals?Ifthemetalcontainscarbon,the
carbonwillnotbeabletoseparateduringtheFCCtoBCCtransitionandwillbetrapped,
resultinginadistortedBCCstructure.Thishard,brittleformofsteeliscalledMartensite.
8.Whateffectontensilestrengthdoesstretchingcopperhave?Stretchingcopperincreasesits
tensilestrengthduetotheformationofdislocationswhichbecomepinned.
9.Doesrustingofsteeloccurattheanodeofcathode?Rustingisanoxidationprocessand
occursattheanode.
10.Whatmaterialisusedasa"sacrificial"anodeofsteel?Zincisusedingalvanizedsteel.
11.Whatmetalisalloyedwithirontomakestainlesssteel?Chromium.
12.Whatmechanicalprocessisaccomplishedbystretchingcopper?Coldworking.
13.Whathappenstodislocationswhenawireisbent?Moredislocationsformandtheyget
tangledorpinned.
14.Givethewordsforthefollowingacronyms:FCC,BCC,HCP.FCCFacecenteredcubic,
BCCBodycenteredcubic,HCPhexagonalclosestpacked
15.Howdoesthemetalcompositiondifferinapaperclipandabobbypin?Thebobbypin
containsmorecarbonandisharderandstronger.
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16.Comparethegraindifferencesinnormalsteelandquenchedsteel.Normalsteelcontains
separategrainsofBCCarrangedFeandFe3C.Inquenchedsteel,thecarbonremainsintheBCC
ironcrystalsdistortingitsstructure.

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Glossary
activityseries:alsoknownastheElectromotiveForceSeries.Thisisalistingofthe
elementsaccordingtotheirpotentialdifferencesandabilitytoplaceotherelemental
ionsinsolution.
alloy:asubstancethathasmetallicpropertiesandismadeupoftwoormorechemical
elements,ofwhichatleastoneisametal.
annealing:aheattreatmentofametaldesignedtoproduceasoft,ductilecondition.
Typicallythemetalisheatedandallowedtocoolslowly.
anode:electrodeatwhichelectronsarereleasedduringcorrosion.Thehalfreactionatthe
anodeiscalledoxidationandthemetalissaidtobeoxidized.Theanodeisthe
electrodethatdisintegratesduringcorrosion.
bronze:Analloycomposedoftinandcopper.
cathode:electrodewhichacceptselectronsduringcorrosion.Thehalfreactionatthe
cathodeiscalledreductionandthemetalissaidtobereduced.Thecathodeisnot
destroyedduringcorrosion.
cathodicprotection:amoreactivemetalisplacednexttoalessactivemetal.Themore

activemetalwillserveasananodeandwillbecorrodedinsteadofthelessactive metal.
Theanodeisthencalledasacrificialanode.
coldworking:apermanentdeformationofametalbelowitscrystallizationtemperature.
Deformingthemetalcreatesmoredislocationswhichentangle,pinningthemand thereby
strengtheningthemetal.
corrosion:oxidationreductionreactionwhereelectronsarereleasedattheanodeand
takenupatthecathode.
dislocations:lineardefectsinacrystal.
ductile:canbedrawnorstretchedintowireandothershapes.
elasticdeformation:materialsreturntotheiroriginalshapeafterasmallloadorstress
isapplied.
facecenteredcubic:crystalarrangementofclosepackedlayersofparticleswherethree
layersofparticlesalternatepositions.ThislayeringisknownasABCABC.
failure:ultimateseparationofmetalpartsduetoappliedloads.i.e.itbreaks.
fatigue:theapplicationandreleaseofstressesasmetalisusedwhichcausesmallcracks
togrow,duringmanycyclesofapplication,untiltheyfracture.
grain:acrystal(orderedarrangementofatoms).
grainboundary:theinterfacebetweenthegrainsorcrystals.
HallProcess:anelectrolytictechniquetorefinealuminumfromitsore.
hardening:heatingandrapidlycoolingsteel.
heattreating:modificationofpropertiesandstructureofalloysbyspecificheatingand
coolingcycles.
hexagonclosestpacking(HCP):crystalarrangementoflayersofparticleswhere

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twolayersalternatepositions.ThelayeringisknownasABAB.
malleable:canbehammeredintoasheet.
martensite:asupersaturatedsolidsolutionofcarboninferrite.Thecarbonatoms
distorttheBCCferriteintoaBCtetragonalstructure.
metallicbonding:bondformedbypositiveionssurroundedbyaseaofvalence electrons.
ore:anaturalmineraldepositthatcontainsenoughvaluablemineralstomakeitprofitable
tomineatthecurrenttechnology.
oxide:acompoundofoxygenwithsomeotherchemicalelement.
oxidation:thehalfofanelectrochemicalreactionwhereelectronsarereleased.Oxidation
occursattheelectrodecalledtheanode.
pinned:thedislocationsinacrystalgettangledorattachedtoatomsofanalloyingagent.
plasticdeformation:materialsremaindeformedafteraloadisaddedandthen removed.
quenched:cooledrapidly.
reduction:thehalfofanelectrochemicalreactionwhereelectronsaretakenup. Reduction
occursatthecathode.
reductionofmetals:changingametaliontoaneutralatombytheadditionofelectrons.
steel:anironcarbonalloy,malleableinsometemperaturerangeasinitiallycast.Steel
usuallycontainssomeotheralloyingelementssuchassilicon,manganese,etc.as
wellasimpuritiessuchassulfurandphosphorus.
strength:ameasureoftheabilityofamaterialtosupportaload.
stress:theinternalforcesproducedbyapplicationofanexternalload,tendingtodisplace
componentpartsofthestressedmaterial.Itisdefinedastheforce(load)dividedby
theareaonwhichitacts.
toughness:theabilitytoaborbenergyofdeformationwithoutbreaking.Hightoughness
requiresbothhighstrengthandhighductility.
unitcell:Thesmallestrepeatingarrayofatomsinacrystal.

83