Topic 2: Bonding: elastic,

thermal and electrical behavior

MATE 210 Introduction to
Materials Engineering

Topic 2 Outline
Composition
Structure

Performance

Processing

Mechanical Thermal Electrical

Properties Properties Properties
Atomic
Bonding

Application: Aircraft Wings

Wing Mechanics
Tip Deflection

CFL3
EI
Wings act like
cantilevered beams

AL

Elastic Modulus

Density
Image courtesy aerospaceweb.org

Light and Stiff

E = Elasticity

Borrowed from Ashby, Shercliff, & Cebon, Materials: Engineering,

Science, Processing, and Design, 2007.

Elastic Properties
Composition
Structure

Performance

Processing

Mechanical

Elastic

Plastic

Fracture

Atoms do not change, their bonds change while being stretched. They want to return to their original positions
Change the Bond strength to change elasticity. (Metallic, Covalent, and Ionic or primary bonds and Intermolecular
forces are secondary bonds that control elasticity in polymers)
Type of bond and bond strength determine Elasticity
Stress = Force/Area

Elasticity at the
atomic level
In tension, all the bonds are
stretched, and in compression,
they are all compressed.
In bending, however, some bonds
are stretched, while others are
compressed.
What determines how much
stretching/compressing occurs?
7

Measuring Elastic Deformation

A tensile test can tell us how much a specimen will
stretch (deform) under tensile load.
However, load and deformation are geometry dependent.
F
Large crosssection = small
stretch

F
Small crosssection = large
stretch

Tensile Testing Methodology

During a tensile test, a specimen is stretched at a predetermined
deformation rate (in./s,
(in /s mm/s) while the resulting load is measured
with a load cell. This results in a Force vs. Displacement curve that is
usually converted to a Stress vs. Strain curve.

Output:
Force

Input: Displacement

Divide by

Divide by

gage length

cross-sectional area

Engineering Strain

Engineering Strain
9

Engineering Strain
Deformation divided by the original gage length:

= dL / L

Units: mm/mm or in./in.

or as a percentage

Elastic strain: 0.000001 - 0.01 for most materials

10

Sources of Elastic Strain

Stress Field

Stimulus
Material
Property
Thermal Field

Expansion
Coefficient

Elastic
Modulus

Strain

Piezo-electric
Constant

Electric Field

Magnetorestrictive
Constant

Magnetic
Field
Borrowed from Ashby, Shercliff, & Cebon, Materials: Engineering, Science,
Processing, and Design, 2007.

11

Engineering Stress
Engineering stress is equivalent to the force divided by the
original cross-sectional area:
=F/A

Tension

Compression
Shear

Biaxial

Units: MPa or
psi(ksi)

Hydrostatic
12

You can calculate stress but you can not measure stress. You can not measure the Force directly

Measuring Stress and Strain

Strain is a measurable change
(e.g. strain gages), while stress
is not
Strain gage for
composites

So how do you
determine stress?
Wheatstone Bridge
circuit

13

Hookes Law
At small strains, the stress is proportional to the strain.
The proportionality constant is known as the elastic
modulus.

=*E

Hookes Law only applies at very small strains: =~0.002

for most materials, less than =0.01 for elastomers

14

Temporary (elastic) deformation occurs above the yield strength

Permanent (plastic) deformation occurs below the yield strength
15

Elastic Modulus

1
1

2
2

We can reasonably assume

that 2 and 2 are both zero,
giving
i i us H
Hookes
k L
Law

Low Modulus: Floppy materials that suffer large elastic

deformations under load (e.g. foam, rubber, plastics)
High Modulus: Stiff materials that require large loads to
produce noticeable elastic strains. (e.g. metals, ceramics
and composites)
Note:
16

Types of Elastic Behavior

Linear
Elastic
(most
metals)

Non-Linear
Elastic
El
ti
(elastomers)

Anelastic
(e.g., cast
iron)

17

The Organization of Matter

Atoms
Molecules
Amorphous

Crystalline

Disordered
atoms

Crystalline
atoms

18

Atom Structure
The element depends on:
the number of electron shells around the
nucleus

Sodium atom

19

Atom Stability
Atoms without 8 valence electrons will seek to

20

10

Bond Energy
To break a bond
between two atoms
requires a specific
amount of energy.
This energy is called
the binding energy and
determines the
strength of a bond.

Energy well is
non-symmetric
reflecting
g
resistance to
atomic fusion

11

23

Unconstrained thermal
expansion involves a
linear relationship
between temperature and
g in length
g of a
the change
material.

24

12

Thermal expansion of a
constrained material
can lead to catastrophic
outcomes.

25

Types of Atomic Bonding

26

13

800

Ceramics

Material
Ductility

Metals

Polymers

700

600

Observations?
Elongation (%)

500

400

300

200

Range of
brittle
materials

100

0
MaterialUniverse:\Ceramics and glasses\T echnical ceramics

MaterialUniverse:\Metals and alloys

MaterialUniverse:\Polymers and elastomers\T hermoplastics

Untitled

Ceramics

Material
Density

Metals

27

Polymers

18000

16000

14000

Observations?
Density (kg/m^3)

12000

10000

8000

6000

4000

2000

MaterialUniverse:\Ceramics and glasses\Technical ceramics

MaterialUniverse:\Metals and alloys

Untitled

MaterialUniverse:\Polymers and elastomers\Thermoplastics

28

14

Ceramics

Material
Conductivity

0.01

Copper

Conductors

Polymers

1e-4

Metals
1e-6

Observations?

Silicon
1e-8

Conductivity

1e-10

Semi-conductors

1e-12

1e-14

1e-16

1e-18

1e-20

Insulators

1e-22

1e-24

Polyethylene (PE)
1e-26

MaterialUniverse:\Ceramics and glasses\Technical ceramics

MaterialUniverse:\Metals and alloys\Non-ferrous

MaterialUniverse:\Polymers and elastomers\T hermoplastics

29

Untitled

Types of Atomic Bonds

Atomic Bonds

Primary

Metallic

Covalent

Secondary

Ionic

Van der Waals

30

15

Metallic Bonding - Communism

Cations are held together by a sea of
free electrons released by the metallic
atoms

Notice that metallic ions can p

pack
down tightly together despite the
repulsive charge because the sea of
electrons provides a field of negative
charge.
31

Other properties of metals

Also, there is no
directionality to metallic
bonds, so they can slide
past one another easily.
This is why metals are
usually ductile.
32

16

Covalent Bonding

This sharing results in strong

bonds between atoms.

33

In covalent bonding, the bonds consist of electrons being

shared by two atoms. So bonds are negatively charged
and push away from each other. This is called

.
Example: In methane (CH4) the atoms form an
equilibrium structure called a tetrahedron.

Because of the charge repulsion of

these bonds, the position of the
atoms is extremely hard to change,
as in diamond.
34

17

Properties of Covalent Bonds

Electrons are shared between atoms, so
there are no free electrons to conduct
electricity.

Bond directionality also makes it difficult

for atoms to move past one another
resulting in a brittle material.
35

Ionic Bonds
Ionic bonds generally occur in materials consisting of two or
more different elements at least one of which is not a metal
generally ceramics.
Electrons are exchanged from one atom to another to form a
stable octet in both, but turning the atoms into charged ions.

Na has 1 electron in the outer shell, while Cl has 7 electrons in the

outer shell.

36

18

Properties of Ionic Bonds

The lack of directionality allows these atoms to pack
together closely. However, the resulting structures are
complex and require a large volume. The result is that
ceramics generally have moderate to low densities.
There are no free electrons, thus these materials have
very low conductivity.

37

Mixed Bonding
The reality is that many materials consist
of a combination of two kinds of bonding
bonding.
For example:
Iron combines metallic and covalent bonds
giving it lower density than we expect
Intermetallic compounds ((AlLi, TiAl)) are often
a mixture of metallic and ionic bonds
Ceramics and semiconductors are often a
mix of ionic and covalent bonds
38

19

Secondary Bonds
When regions of a molecule are polarized (one part is positively
charged,
g , another part
p is negatively
g
y charged)
g ) regions
g
of opposite
pp
polarity will attract each other. This is known as a dipole.
These secondary electrostatic bonds are
than
the primary ionic or covalent bonds that join the atoms within the
molecule.
Example: Hydrogen Bonding
Water boils at a low temperature
because all it requires is breaking
the secondary bonds.

39

Van der Waals Bonds in Polymers

The long chains are bonded together by Van der Waals bonds
which
These secondary bonds can be permanent dipoles (as in PVC) or
induced dipoles (as in PE).
Example: Polyvinylchloride

40

20

Elasticity of Linear
Thermoplastics
Elastic
deformation
occurs as the
weak Van
der Waals
bonds are

41

Elasticity in Elastomers
(why are rubbers so rubbery?)
Rubbers are lightly cross-linked polymers. When a load is
applied the long
long, kinked polymer chains are straightened out
out,
but cant separate or pull apart because of the cross-links.
When the load is released, the long chains snap back into place.

42

21

Lightweight Materials for Aircraft

Wings
It turns out that good materials are those that
maximize the value of:

43

Boron carbide

Carbon
fiber
composites
perform the
best

Age-hardening w rought Al-alloys

Bamboo
10

Softw ood: pine, along grain

Young's modulus (GPa)

But . . .

CFRP, epoxy matrix (isotropic)

100

0.1

0.01

1e-3

Carbon Composite
100

1000

Density (kg/m^3)

10000

44

22

CFRP, epoxy matrix (isotropic)

Agehardened
aluminum
alloys are
still more
cost effective

Age-hardening w rought Al-alloys

100

GFRP, epoxy matrix (isotropic)

10

Young's modulus (GPa)

Softw ood: pine, along grain

0.1

0.01

1e-3

100

1000

10000

Cost per unit weight

100000

45

Composites lightweight, stiff

and VERY EXPENSIVE

46

23

Matrix

Particle

Short (chopped)
fiber

Reinforcement

Continuous
fiber

Laminate

The elastic moduli of composites

p
can be much higher
g
than that of their matrices and are highly anisotropic.
Anisotropy:

47

Polymer Matrix Composites

Kevlar
Reinforced
Polymers
Carbon-fiber
Reinforced
Epoxy

Glass-fiber
Reinforced
Polyester

48

24

Metal Matrix Composites

Provide strength for higher T applications.
Fiber reinforced titanium composites for aircraft
components
Aluminum pistons and connecting rods with SiC

Ti matrix

Ceramic Fibers

Al matrix

SiC particles

49

Ceramic Matrix Composites

Prevents cracks from destroying brittle
ceramics

SiC fibers in a Si3N4 matrix

showing inter-fiber cracks
50

25

Estimating Elastic Modulus in Continuously

Reinforced Polymers
In unidirectionally reinforced polymers, the elastic modulus
varies depending on the direction of loading relative to the
fiber orientation.
Note: V f
Vm 1
Longitudinal loading:

Transverse loading:

51

52

26

Dealing with Anisotropy

Laminates

Strand Mats

Roving Weaves

53

27