Unit 1 - Biology and disease

AQA
AS Biology
Unit 1:
Biology &
Disease
Miss Clarke
Summary Notes
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Unit 1 - Biology and disease

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3.1.3 Cells and Transport

Topic
Syllabus Statement What I need to know:
The structure of an epithelial cell from the small
intestine as seen with an optical microscope.
The appearance, structure and function of plasma
membrane, including cell-surface membrane, microvilli,
nucleus, mitochondria, lysosomes, ribosomes,
Cells
endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus
Transmission v scanning electron microscopes.
The difference between magnification and resolution.
Cell fractionation and ultracentrifugation

Plasma
Membranes

Diffusion

Osmosis
Active
Transport

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Diffusion and effect of surface area, difference in

concentration and the thickness of the exchange
surface (Ficks Law).
The role of carrier proteins and protein channels in
facilitated diffusion.

Osmosis and water potential

The role of carrier proteins and the transfer of energy

in the transport of substances against a concentration
gradient.

Absorption of the products of carbohydrate digestion.

The roles of diffusion, active transport and cotransport involving sodium ions.

Cholera structure (prokaryotic cell)

Causes and symptoms of cholera.
Oral rehydration solutions (ORS) and ethical issues

Absorption

Cholera

The structure of triglycerides (both saturated and

unsaturated and phospholipids.
The emulsion test for lipids.
The arrangement of phospholipids, proteins and
carbohydrates in the fluid-mosaic model of membrane
structure.
The role of the microvilli in increasing the surface area
of cell-surface membranes.

Notes

Revised

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3.1.4/5 Lungs and heart
Topic
Syllabus Statement What I need to know:
The structure of the human gas exchange system alveoli, bronchioles, bronchi, trachea and lungs.
The features of the alveolar epithelium as a gas
Lung Function
exchange surface.
The exchange of gases in the lungs.
Calculation of pulmonary ventilation
The mechanism of breathing.
The course of infection, symptoms and transmission of
pulmonary tuberculosis.
The biological The effects of fibrosis, asthma and emphysema on lung
basis of lung
function.
disease
Explain the symptoms of these diseases and conditions
affecting the lungs in terms of gas exchange and
respiration
Risk factors for lung disease.

3.1.5 Heart
Topic

Heart
structure and
function

The biological
basis
of heart
disease

Syllabus Statement What I need to know:

The structure of the human heart and its blood vessels
Pressure and volume changes and associated valve
movements during the cardiac cycle.
Myogenic stimulation of the heart and transmission of a
subsequent wave of electrical activity.
Roles of the SAN, AVN and bundle of His.
Cardiac output as the product of heart rate and stroke
volume.
Analyse and interpret graphs data relating to pressure
and volume changes during the cardiac cycle.
Atheroma as the presence of fatty material within the
walls of arteries.
The link between atheroma and the increased risk of
aneurysm and thrombosis.
Myocardial infarction and its cause in terms of an
interruption to the blood flow to heart muscle.
Risk factors associated with coronary heart disease:
diet, blood cholesterol, cigarette smoking and high blood
pressure.
Describe and explain data relating to the relationship
between specific risk factors and the incidence of
coronary heart disease.

Microscopes
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Notes

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Notes

Revised

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Units of measure
1 meter = 1,000 mm = 1,000,000 m = 1,000,000,000 nm
1 millimeter (mm) = 1/1000 m
1 micrometer (m) = 1/1,000,000 m = 1/1000 mm
1 nanometer (nm) = 1/1,000,000,000 m = 1/1000,000 mm = 1/1000 m
Examples:
Frog egg = 1mm
Human egg = 100 m
Most animal cell = 10 to 30 m
Most plant cells = 10 to 100 m
Prokaryotic cells = 1 m
Mitochondria = 0.5 to 1 m
Chloroplast = 5 m
Nucleus = 7 m
Virus = 10 to 300 nm
Ribosome = 30 nm
Magnification:
The ratio of how much bigger a sample appears when viewed under the microscope than its
actual size.
The resolution limits how much detail can be seen.
Calculating magnification from photographs:
Magnification = length in photograph
Real length
Calculating real length from photographs:
Real length = Length in photograph
Magnification
NB for both, convert the length in the photograph into the same units that are used for the
specimen. This is usually in micrometers.
Resolution
The smallest separation at which two separate objects can be distinguished (or resolved).
The greater the resolving power, the more detail can be seen.
The resolution of an image is limited by the wavelength of radiation used to view the sample.
When objects in the specimen are smaller than the wavelength of the radiation being used,
they do not interrupt the waves, and so are not detected.
The resolving power of a light microscope is limited by the wavelength of light (400-600nm
for visible light).
Objects closer than 200nm will still only be seen as one point, no matter how great the
magnification.
Electrons have a much lower wavelength than light.
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A beam of electrons has an effective wavelength of less than 1 nm.

Electron microscopes have higher resolution.

Light Microscopy

Most widely used form of microscopy.

Specimens are illuminated with light
Focussed using glass lenses.
Modern microscopes - Compound microscopes use several lenses to obtain high
magnification.
Light microscopy has a resolution of about 200 nm:
View cells, and large organelles but not the details of organelles
Specimens can be living or dead.
Specimens often need to be stained with a coloured dye to make them visible.
Many different stains are available that stain specific parts of the cell such as DNA, lipids,
cytoskeleton, etc.

Electron Microscopy.
Developed in 1930s.
Uses a beam of electrons to "illuminate" the specimen.
Electrons behave like waves.
Produced using a hot wire
Focussed using electromagnets
Detected using a phosphor screen or photographic film
A beam of electrons has an effective wavelength of less than 1 nm.
Resolving power is enough to view small sub-cellular ultrastructure.
Mitochondria, ER and membranes can be seen in detail.
Problems
Specimens must be fixed in plastic or covered in heavy metals.
Viewed in a vacuum.
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Therefore, specimens must be dead.

The electron beam can damage specimens.
Must be stained with an electron-dense chemical, usually heavy metals like osmium, lead or
gold.
People argue that many observed structures could be artefacts - due to the preparation
process and not real.
Transmission electron microscope (TEM)

Works much like a light microscope.

A beam of electrons is passed through a thin specimen.
Electrons are focussed to form an image on a fluorescent screen or on film.
Most common form of electron microscope.
Best resolution 0.2 nm
Creates a 2-dimensional flat image.

The scanning electron microscope (SEM)

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A fine beam of electron is scanned onto a specimen.

Electrons are scattered by the surface, due to the heavy metal covering.
A fluorescent screen or film is used to detect the reflected electrons.
This has poorer resolution 10 nm
Gives 3-dimentional images of surfaces.
The electrons do not have to pass through the sample in order to form the image.
Larger, thicker structures can be seen under the SEM.
Separating Cell Components

Cell Fractionation
The separation of different parts and organelles of a cell.
Relative proportions of each organelle can be discovered.
Biochemical contents of each organelle can be investigated.
Process:
1. Place tissue (e.g. liver, heart, leaf, etc) in ice-cold isotonic buffer.
Cold to stop enzyme reactions.
Isotonic to stop osmosis.
Buffer to stop pH changes.
2. Grind tissue in a blender to break open cells homogenation.
3. Filter to remove insoluble tissue e.g. fat, connective tissue, plant cell walls, etc. This filtrate
is now called a cell-free extract.
Differential Centrifugation
A centrifuge is a piece of equipment, driven by a motor, that puts an object in rotation
around a fixed axis, applying a force that is perpendicular to the axis.
The centrifuge works using the sedimentation principle, where the centripetal acceleration is
used to separate substances of greater and lesser density.
Svedberg unit used to compare sizes of ribosomes a measure of their density.
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Process:
1. Centrifuge filtrate at low speed and remove pellet.
2. Repeat at increasingly higher speeds.
3. Each pellet removed contains structures of lower density.
Density gradient centrifugation.
The cell-free extract is centrifuged in a dense solution
Eg sucrose or caesium chloride
The fractions separate out into layers with the densest fractions near the bottom of the tube.
Heaviest
Lightest

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Nuclei
Mitochondria
Lysosomes
Ribosomes

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Cells

Cell = the smallest unit of life.

All living organisms are made of cells.
There are unicellular organisms that consist of one cell:
o Bacteria
o Blue-green bacteria
o Protozoa
o Yeast
These individual cells must carry out all of the essential life proceses
Other organisms are made of many cells.
These are multicellular organisms:
o Animals
o Plants
o Mushrooms
o Seaweed
In these the life processes can be delegated to different organs and tissues.

Two main divisions of cells

Prokaryotic cells:
o Bacteria
o Blue-green bacteria
Eukaryotic cells
o Animals
o Plants
o Fungi
o Protoctista
Pro = before
Eu = true
Karyo = nucleus
Prokaryotic Cells

Example:
o Cholera Vibrio cholerae
Prokaryote = before the nucleus
Simple cells containing no membrane bound organelles
Considered to be the earliest form of life on Earth.

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Structure
Cell wall

Plasma
membrane

DNA

Ribosomes
Flagella

Plasmids

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Function
Provide shape
Protect against rupture by osmosis
Some protection against other organisms
Rigid
Made of peptidoglycans polymers of sugars and amino acids
Phospholipids and proteins
Proteins include enzymes for metabolic processes
Eg respiration, nucleic acid synthesis (in all) and photosynthesis (in some)
Fluid mosaic
Barrier for selective exchange of nutrients and waste products
Movement by diffusion (including osmosis) and active transport
Singular, circular chromosome
DNA helix
In cytoplasm, not nucleus
Attached to plasma membrane
Eg E.coli 4 x 106 base pairs (A, C, T and G), about 4000 genes
Smaller than in eukaryotic cells
Site of protein synthesis
Hollow cylinder
Made of rigid protein strands (flagellin)
Arise from basal bodies in plasma membrane in some bacteria
Rotate from base like a rotor blade
Bring about movement
Additional hereditary material
Small rings of DNA, 10 30 genes
In cytoplasm of some, not all, bacteria
Eg antibiotic resistance

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Capsule

Can be transferred through conjugation tubes

Exploited as vectors in genetic engineering
Tangled mat of polysaccharide fibres
Slimy physical barrier
Outer protective layer in some bacteria
Protects against chemicals and dessication
Protects against attack by phagocytic cells
Helps bacteria to form colonies

Eukaryotic Cells

Eukaryote = true nucleus

These cells contain organelles

Cell membrane
Thin layer found round the outside of all cells.
Made of phospholipids and proteins.
Controls the movement of materials in and out of cell.
Microvilli
Small finger-like extensions of the cell membrane found in certain cells
eg, epithelial cells of the intestine and kidney.
Increase surface area.
Cytoplasm
Watery solution within cell membrane.
Contains:
o Enzymes for metabolic reactions
o Sugars, salts, amino acids in solution.
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Organelles
Membranous sacs.
Compartmentalise portions of the cytoplasm.
Increase the surface area for reactions.
Allow metabolic reactions to be sequenced.
Isolate potentially harmful chemicals.
Nucleus
The largest organelle (10m diameter).
Controls cells activities.
Store genetic material chromosomes which are made of DNA.
Spherical
Surrounded by nuclear envelope:
o 2 membranes filled with fluid
Nuclear pores enable mRNA to enter the cytoplasm.
Interior is nucleoplasm which is full of chromatin (DNA/protein).
Nucleolus is a dark region of chromatin, site of RNA transcription.
Mitochondrion
o Site of aerobic respiration in all eukaryotic cells.
o 2.5 to 5 micrometers long.
o Spherical or rod shaped
o Double membrane
o Inner membrane folded into cristae - large surface area.
o Internal space is the matrix, a solution of metabolites and enzymes.
o Also contain loops of DNA.
o ATP synthase (stalked particles) are on the inner membrane.
o Site of latter stages of respiration.
o Metabolically active cells contain numerous mitochondria.
o Number of cristae also increases with increased activity.
Ribosomes
o Smallest and most abundant organelles
o Not membranous
o Site of protein synthesis
o Made in nucleolus
o Made of protein and RNA
o Found either in cytoplasm or attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
o Larger type (80S)
o Often found in groups called polysomes
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
o An elaborate system of membranes.
o Forms part of the cytoplasmic skeleton.
o Extends from the nuclear membrane.
o Series of flattened stacks called cisternae.
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o Enables substances to be synthesised and transported.
o Rough ER (RER)
o Studded with ribosomes, gives it rough appearance
o Polypeptides synthesised by ribosomes are passed into it.
o Pass proteins to Golgi body for further processing.
o Smooth ER (SER)
o No ribosomes.
o Involved in synthesising and transporting steroids.
Vesicles
o Small membrane bound organelles.
o Deliver substance around cell.
o Take substances:
o From ER to Golgi
o From Golgi to cytoplasm - lysosomes
o From Golgi to cell membrane for exocytosis secretory vesicles
o Eg release of digestive enzymes.
Golgi body (Golgi apparatus)
o Series of flattened membrane sacs.
o Similar structure to ER.
o More compact and curved.
o Transports proteins from the RER to the cell membrane
o Vesicles of RER fuse with the Golgi on one side
o Contents of the vesicles enter the Golgi
o Steroids may be modified.
o Proteins may acquire tertiary/quaternary structure.
o Other groups may be added.
o Vesicles bud off the other side and move into the cytoplasm.
Lysosomes
o A type of vesicle.
o Contain enzymes.
o Used to breakdown unwanted toxins or organelles to recycle materials.
o Eg used in phagocytosis.
Summary of differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
Prokaryotic cells
Extremely small (<10m)

Eukaryotic cells
Larger cells (10-150m)

Always unicellular

Often multicellular

No nucleus or membrane-bound
organelles
DNA is circular, without proteins
Small ribosomes (70S)
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Nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles

DNA is linear and with protein form chromatin
Large ribosomes (80S)

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Cell wall always present

Cell wall only in plant and fungi

Cell division by binary fission

Cell division by mitosis or meiosis

Exchange across cell membranes

Cell membranes
Surround all cells - also known as cell surface membrane or plasmalemma.
Also surround most cell organelles eg mitochondria, nucleus, Golgi, lysosomes, ER
Also form structures inside organelles eg cristae in mitochondria.
Structure
Its structure relies on a phospholipid bilayer
Phospholipids are arranged as a double layer.
This is about 7-10nm thick.
Hydrophilic phosphate and glycerol heads are orientated outwards.
Hydrophobic fatty acid chains orientate inwards.
Made up almost entirely of phospholipids and proteins with a small amount of carbohydrates
and cholesterol.
Accepted theory is the Fluid Mosaic model.
Fluid proteins and other embedded molecules can move laterally (sideways).
Mosaic appears as such from surface view due to the close fitting arrangement of the
phospholids and the integral proteins.

Membrane proteins
Functions
Create pores through which water and water-soluble chemicals can pass
Act as carriers in active transport and facilitated diffusion
Form receptor sites for hormones
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Important for cell recognition

Types
Channel protein
o Create pores through which water and water-soluble chemicals can diffuse through
Carrier proteins
o Involved in facilitated diffusion and active transport
Glycoprotein;
o A protein attached to polysaccharide chain
o Helps cells to recognise each other
Other constituents of the cell membrane
Glycolipids
o Polysaccharide chain attached to a lipid (in place of the phosphate group)
o Also help recognition
Cholesterol stabilises the cell membrane.
Lipids
General details:
Large, varied group of organic compounds.
Contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
Insoluble in water.
Dissolve in organic solvents, eg alcohol.
3 main types:
o Triglycerides.
o Phospholipids.
o Steroids.
The molecule
2 main sections:

o Glycerol:
An alcohol containing 3 carbon atoms.
Each carbon has a hydroxyl group.
o Fatty acids:
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These determine the characterisitics of the lipid.

They contain a carboxyl group (-COOH).
This is attached to a variable R group - a hydrocarbon chain.
2 groups of fatty acids:
Saturated:
o No double bonds between carbon atoms.
o Eg butyric acid found in butter.
o Eg palmitic acid found in animal and vegetable fats.
o A high proportion in the diet may increase risk of heart disease.
Unsaturated:
o On or more double bonds,
o Eg linoleic acid linseed oil.
o Eg oleic acid found in olive oil.
o Polyunusaturated have 2 or more.
o Monounsaturated have one.

Bonding:
Fatty acids bond to glycerol by an ester linkage.
Formation is a condensation reaction.
Hydrolysis reactions break the bond.
An oxygen atom joins a carbon on the glycerol with carbon on the carboxyl end of the fatty
acid.
Triglycerides
3 fatty acid chains.
Differ according to type and length of chains.
o Oils:
Relatively short fatty acids or unsaturated fatty acids.
Tend to be liquid at room temperature.
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o Fats:

Longer fatty acid chains or saturated fatty acids.

More likely to be solid at room temperature.
Main use is as an energy source.
Can be broken down into glucose (gluconeogenesis) and used in respiration.

Uses:
Animal energy stores.
Twice as much energy per gram as carbohydrates.
Ideal for the low mass required for locomotion.
Insulation:
Conduct heat slowly.
Protection of vital organs.
Waterproofing fur and feathers with oil secretions.
Phospholipids
One fatty acid group is replaced by a phosphate group.
The fatty acid chains are hydrophobic.
The phosphate group and glycerol part are hydrophilic.
Main role is in cell membranes.

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Movement across membranes
o All living cells are surrounded by water.
o Examples:
o Plant cells have a cellulose cell wall but inside this there is a tissue fluid that bathes
the cell membrane too.
o In mammals their bodies are covered in a layer of dead cells, below this the cells are
living and bathed in tissue fluid.
o Therefore all transport in and out of cells happens in solution.
o This transport can happen by various mechanisms.
Diffusion
o Definition: The movement of particles within a gas or liquid from a region of high
concentration to a region of lower concentration until an equilibrium is reached.
o All particles in liquids and gases are in constant random motion
o If there is a difference in concentration between parts of a gas or liquid, these random
movements carry particles from the area of high concentration to the area of lower
concentration.
o The difference in concentration between two areas is the concentration gradient.
o The particles move down this gradient.
o This continues until the particles become evenly dispersed dynamic equilibrium.
o Diffusion is the main process by which substances move over short distances and is
essential for exchange to occur in all cells.
o Diffusion is a passive process = requires no energy
Size and nature of diffusing particle
o Fat-soluble molecules can pass through lipid bilayer eg alcohol and steroids
o Small molecules such as oxygen and carbon dioxide can diffuse through small pores
between the phospholipids
o Larger water-soluble molecules such as glucose and amino acids must pass through
protein pores.
o Very large molecules cannot diffuse into cells at all.
Factors affecting the rate of diffusion
o Surface area:
o The greater the surface area the greater the rate of diffusion.
o Microvilli increase the surface area in some cells.
o Distance:
o Determined by the thickness of the membrane.
o The greater the distance the slower the rate of diffusion.
o Concentration gradient:
o The greater the concentration gradient the greater the rate of diffusion.
o Diffusion is more efficient if the gradient can be maintained.
o This is done by transporting the substance away once diffused or combining with
other chemicals so it cannot diffuse back.
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Ficks Law:
Rate of Diffusion is proportional to: Surface area x concentration difference
distance
Facilitated diffusion
o Some substances that may not normally diffuse across a membrane are facilitated (helped)
by proteins in the membrane.
o Like diffusion this process is down a concentration gradient and is passive there is no
energy input.
o 2 types:
1. Carrier proteins:
The molecule binds to protein
Protein changes shape
Molecule ends up facing the other side of the membrane and is released.
2. Channel proteins:
These are proteins that cross the membrane with a channel running throughout
them.
In some cases, protein channels may open or close to signals:
Eg Voltage gated channels in neurones.
Used in transmission of nerve impulses.

In both cases, these proteins are specific to the molecule that passes through them.
This means that cells can be selective in terms of the type of molecule that passes through
their cell membrane.

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Osmosis
o Definition: The net movement of water molecules from a region of their higher concentration
to a region of their lower concentration, through a partially permeable membrane.
Explanation
o How does water cross the cell membrane?
o Channel proteins permanently open which allow unrestricted movement of water at
all times.
o Lipid pores although the lipid bilayer is theoretically impermeable to water, water is
able to pass through tiny temporary holes that open up as the lipids move around
o Any molecule dissolved in water is known as a solute.
o Water molecules are polar.
o Solute molecules are attracted to the water molecules, resulting in their being less freemoving water molecules.
o Solute molecules also impede (get in the way of) the movement of water molecules.
o Therefore the presence of solute molecules reduces the opportunities for water to cross the
cell membrane.
o Osmosis is affected by the relative concentrations of solutes in the two fluids either side of a
membrane.
Water Potential
o A measure of the free kinetic energy of water molecules.
o In an equation, the symbol for water potential = (Greek letter psi)
o Units for measurement = kPa (kilopascals) pressure units.
o The higher the water potential, the greater the tendency of water molecules to leave a
solution by osmosis.
o In standard conditions (25C and 100kPa) pure water has a water potential of zero.( = 0)
o The addition of solute molecules lowers this value.
o More concentrated solution = more negative
o Water diffuses from less negative to more negative
o Eg. from -100kPa to 200kPa
o Better definition:Osmosis is the net movement of water molecules from a region of higher
(less negative) water potential to a region of lower (more negative) water potential, across a
partially permeable membrane.
Osmosis in animal cells:
In very dilute solutions, water enters animal cells.
They swell up and burst this is called cell lysis.
In concentrated solutions, water leaves the cell by osmosis, and the cell shrinks.
In either case the cell will die.
Therefore, animal cells must always be bathed in an isotonic solution - a solution with the
same solute concentration as the cytoplasm
This is regulated by homeostasis, particularly involving the kidneys.
The exact amount of water and salt removed from our blood by our kidneys is under the
control of a part of the brain called the hypothalamus.
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osmoregulation. - The process of regulating the amounts of water and mineral salts in the
blood .

Osmosis in plant cells:

Plant cells always have a strong cell wall surrounding them.
When the take up water by osmosis they start to swell, but the cell wall prevents them from
bursting.
Plant cells become "turgid" when they are put in dilute solutions.
Turgid means swollen and hard.
The pressure inside the cell rises.
This pressure works against osmosis.
Eventually the internal pressure of the cell is so high that no more water can enter the cell.
Turgidity is very important to plants because this is what make the green parts of the plant
"stand up" into the sunlight.
When plant cells are placed in concentrated sugar solutions they lose water by osmosis and
they become "flaccid".
In this case, plants wilt.
The contents of the cells have shrunk and pulled away from the cell wall: they are said to be
plasmolysed.
When plant cells are placed in a solution which isotonic they are in a state between turgidity
and flaccidity - incipient plasmolysis.

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Active transport
o
o
o
o

The movement of substances across a membrane against the concentration gradient.

Requires energy (ATP)
Uses specialised carrier proteins in the membrane.
Cells and tissues carrying out active transport are characterised by:
o Presence of numerous mitochondria.
o High concentration of ATP
o High respiratory rate

Process
1. ATP is hydrolysed by the carrier protein leaving phosphate attached. The terminal phosphate
group converts the protein to a high energy molecule.
2. The protein readily combines with the substance.
3. The protein makes a conformational change which exposes the substance to the other side
of the membrane.
4. The phosphate group is lost and protein reverts back to original shape.
Examples of active transport
o Absorption of amino acids from the gut to the blood
o Absorption of mineral ions by the roots of plants
o Exchange of sodium and potassium ions in nerve cells
o Movement of sodium ions out of kidney tubules.
o Cells can manipulate osmosis by actively transporting ions to one side of the membrane:
o Examples:
Active transport of sodium ions in Kidney tubules
Active uptake of mineral ions by Root hair cells
Active uptake of specific ions in the small and large intestines

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Absorption in the small intestine

Absorption of small soluble molecules from the lumen, across the epithelium, into the blood.
Water is absorbed by osmosis mainly in the large intestine.
Some solutes enter the epithelium by diffusion and facilitated diffusion.
Most substances rely on active transport.
However, glucose relies on indirect active transport:
o Sodium ions are pumped out of the cytoplasm on the membrane facing away from the
lumen (non-lumenal membrane)
o This creates concentration gradients for sodium from the lumen into epithelium.
o Glucose enters cytoplasm via sodium-glucose co-transporters:

1. The transporter faces into the lumen - at this point it is capable of binding sodium, but not
glucose.
2. Sodium binds, causing a change that allows the glucose to bind.
3. Glucose binds and the transporter changes shape allowing sodium and glucose to be
moved inside the cell
4. Sodium and glucose detach from the co-transporter into the cytoplasm.

This establishes a concentration gradient for glucose from cytoplasm towards the blood.
Glucose leaves the cytoplasm by facilitated diffusion.

Adaptations of the small intestine (ileum) to maximise absorption:

Large surface area:
o Long 6m
o Folded
o Villi
o Microvilli
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Maintaining concentration gradients:

o Peristalsis delivers more nutrients
o Active transport removes nutrients from lumen
o Extensive capillary network provides an excellent blood supply to remove nutrients
from epithelial cells.
Short distances:
o One cell thick epithelium
o Capillaries lie next to epithelial cells.
o Thin walls around capillaries.

The large intestine

Excess water from digestive secretions are absorbed.
The undigested food is expelled as faeces.
Cholera
An infectious disease caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae.
Transmitted through ingesting contaminated water or food.
If enough are consumed, some may survive stomach acid.
They use their flagella to propel themselves into the epithelial cells.
Cholera produces toxins.
These interact with chloride protein pumps in the small intestine.
This increases secretion of chloride ions into the lumen of the small intestine.
This establishes a water potential gradient from the epithelium into the lumen.
Vast quantities of water are lost by osmosis.
This results in severe diarrhoea.
This results in severe dehydration.
Also, essential electrolytes are lost these are ions, including sodium and potassium.
These are required for metabolic processes in cells.
Vomiting may also exacerbate fluid losses.
Internal organs fail, coma results, followed by cardiac arrest and death.
Oral rehydration solution (ORS) Oral rehydration therapy.
A mixture of glucose and electrolytes (sodium, potassium, chloride and citrate ions) in
sachets.
Each is mixed with a specific volume of water (1 litre).
This provides a specific concentration of glucose and electrolytes.
Water for rehydration
Sodium enables use of sodium-glucose cotransporters.
Glucose also enables use of sodium-glucose cotransporters.
Therefore, sodium and glucose can be absorbed quickly.
Potassium, chloride and citrate ions can also be absorbed.
Minimal training and expertise is required to administer this.
It is relatively cheap, and can save many lives in developing countries.
Testing and trialling new drugs
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Research leads to the development of a new drug.

Apply for a patent.
Investigate potential adverse effects by chemical testing and using laboratory animals.
Test on small group of healthy volunteers (eg 50) to check for side effects.
Test on a larger group who have the disease (eg 200) to check for effectivity.
Double blind trial on a much larger group with the disease.
Half receive a placebo treated exactly the same but receive no active ingredient.
Half receive the active ingredient.
Neither patient nor doctor know who receives which.
Results are sent to research scientists.
7. Findings are published in a journal. Other scientists review the findings (peer review).
They may replicate the experiments to check for repeatability of the results.
8. A licence may be granted many years after the initial development, by which time there
may not be many years left for the patent.
9. Monitoring continues all the time the drug is available.
Ethical issues associated with ORS use
Patients are already severely ill.
They may not be in a fit state to commit to the trial.
Also, new formulations may not work.
They may even make the symptoms worse.
In double blind trials, half the patients receive no active ingredients, so will not improve.
Greatest incidence of diarrhoea diseases is in developing countries.
Pharmaceutical companies profit from this.
Also governments may receive payments, but the patients may not be recompensed.
Human rights issues have improved in recent years.

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Lungs & Gas exchange
Structure of the thorax
Lungs
Site of gaseous exchange
Located in thorax
Require ventilation
Left smaller than right it overlaps the heart
Rib cage
Bony case enclosing lungs and heart
12 pairs attached dorsally to vertebrae
Top 10 pairs are attached ventrally to sternum, remaining ribs are floating
Muscles
Intercostal muscles between ribs, responsible for movement
External contracts ribs move up and out - inspiration
Internal contract ribs move down and in - expiration
Diaphragm muscular sheet which separates thorax from abdomen
Pleural membranes
2 membranes that secrete pleural fluid.
The fluid filled cavity is lower than atmospheric pressure.
This prevents the lungs deflating.

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Air ways
Trachea
Rings of cartilage prevent tube collapsing when internal pressure drops.
Lined with ciliated epithelium.
Bronchi
Trachea divides into 2 bronchi.
These tubes enter each lung
Supported by cartilage
Bronchioles
Branch throughout each lung.
Support from cartilage gradually decreases
Alveoli
Spherical sacs
Major site of gas exchange
100m in diameter
Lined with flattened epithelial cells (approx 300 million)
Makes a vast area for exchange (40-60m 2)

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Histology of the breathing system

Epithelial tissue:
Simple cells arranged in single or multilayered sheets, covering the internal and external
surface of the body of an organism.
They often form exchange surfaces in the body, with capillaries providing the blood supply.
2 types of epithelium in the alveoli:
o Type I:
Flattened, squamous (like crazy-paving).
Surround alveolar wall
Very thin diffusion pathway
o Type II:
Secrete surfactant
A mixture of lipids and proteins.
Reduces surface tension.
Prevents alveoli collapsing and provides elastic recoil for lungs
Connective tissue
Supporting layer beneath epithelium.
Made of fine fibres collagen and elastin
Blood vessels
Capillary walls are made of endothelial cells.
Flattened cells forming a narrow tube with a common basement membrane.
Pores (fenestrations) between cells enable exchange.
Extremely narrow, so red blood cells squeeze through.
Slows down passage allowing more time for diffusion.
Increase surface area of cell in contact with endothelium
Network of capillaries from pulmonary artery.
Unite to form pulmonary vein.

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Gas Exchange
Gases are exchanged due to concentration gradients.
Oxygen diffused into blood from alveolar air.
Carbon dioxide diffuses into alveolar air from blood.
Gas
Oxygen
Carbon dioxide
Nitrogen
Water Vapour

Percentage Volume
Inspired air
Expired air
20.90
15.3
0.03
3.6
78.60
74.9
0.47
6.2

Ficks law:
Rate of diffusion is proportional to: surface area X difference in concentration
Thickness of surface

Surface area:
o Large due to alveoli.
o Many small spherical sacs.
Concentration gradients maintained through:
o Pulmonary ventilation
o Circulation of the blood.
Thickness of surface:
o Single layer of squamous epithelium
o SIngle layer of endothelium

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Pulmonary ventilation Breathing
Air movements occur due to pressure difference between atmosphere and alveolar air
If intrapulmonary pressure > atmospheric pressure = Expiration
If atmospheric pressure > intrapulmonary pressure = Inspiration

Pressure differences are achieved in the thoracic cavity

Through the action of the intercostals muscles and positioning of the diaphragm.
A pleural sac surrounds each lung.
The outer membrane is attached to the rib cage, the inner to the lungs.
The inner cavity is at a pressure below atmospheric pressure.
This prevents the lungs deflating.
When the thorax moves, the lungs do too.
Alveoli are elastic and collapse if not held stretched by the thorax.
The secrete surfactant which prevents them sticking together.

Mechanism of inspiration
Contraction of diaphragm

Contraction of external
intercostal muscles

Flattens and descends

Pulls ribs upwards and

Outwards

Thorax cavity lengthens

Diameter of thorax increases

Increase in thorax volume

Lungs expand
Alveolar pressure drops
Pressure gradient established
From atmosphere to alveoli
INSPIRATION

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Mechanism of expiration
Relaxation of diaphragm

Contraction of internal
Intercostal muscles

Returns to domed position

Ribs move downwards

And inwards

Thorax cavity shortens

Diameter of thorax
Decreases

Decrease in thorax volume

Elastic recoil of lungs
Lungs decrease in size
Increase in intrapulmonary pressure
Pressure gradient established from
Alveoli to atmosphere
EXPIRATION
Forced inspiration/expiration
Abdominal muscles used
This greatly increases intrapulmonary pressure
Eg. coughing or blowing up balloon.

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Measurements of pulmonary ventilation
Spirometer
Measures volumes of air expired and inspired
Used to diagnose ventilation deficiencies
Creates a spirogram

Tidal volume (TV):

Volume of air breathed in or out during quiet breathing
About 500cm3 in adults

Breathing rate = the number of inspiration/expiration cycles per minute

Pulmonary ventilation = tidal volume X breathing rate

ie the volume of air breathed in or out per minute during quiet breathing.
The biological basis of lung disease

Pulmonary tuberculosis

Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease

It is caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
TB most commonly affects the lungs but also can involve almost any organ of the body.
Today TB usually can be treated successfully with antibiotics.

Transmission
Someone who has a TB lung infection coughs, sneezes, shouts, or spits.
People who are nearby can then possibly breathe the bacteria into their lungs.
A person can become infected with TB when minute particles of infected sputum are inhaled
from the air.
You don't get TB by just touching the clothes or shaking the hands of someone who is
infected.
Tuberculosis is transmitted primarily from person to person by breathing infected air during
close contact.
There is a form of atypical tuberculosis, however, that is transmitted by drinking
unpasteurized milk.
Course of infection
When the inhaled tuberculosis bacteria enter the lungs, they multiply.
This causes a local lung infection (pneumonia).
The local lymph nodes associated with the lungs may also become involved with the
infection and usually become enlarged.
In addition, TB can spread to other parts of the body.
The body's immune (defense) system, however, can fight off the infection and stop the
bacteria from spreading.
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The immune system does so ultimately by forming scar tissue around the TB bacteria and
isolating it from the rest of the body.
If the body is able to form scar tissue around the TB bacteria, then the infection is contained
in an inactive state.
Such an individual typically has no symptoms and cannot spread TB to other people.
The scar tissue and lymph nodes may eventually harden, like stone, due to the process of
calcification of the scars (deposition of calcium from the bloodstream in the scar tissue).
These scars often appear on x-rays and imaging studies like round marbles and are referred
to as a granuloma.
Sometimes, however, the body's immune system becomes weakened, and the TB bacteria
break through the scar tissue and can cause active disease, referred to as secondary TB.
TB can spread to other locations in the body:
o The kidneys, bone, and lining of the brain and spinal cord (meninges).

Symptoms
TB infection usually occurs initially in the upper part of the lungs.
The usual symptoms that occur with an active TB infection are;
o General tiredness or weakness
o Weight loss,
o Fever, and night sweats.
If the infection in the lung worsens, then further symptoms can include:
o Coughing
o Chest pain
o Coughing up of sputum (material from the lungs) and/or blood
o Shortness of breath.
If the infection spreads beyond the lungs, the symptoms will depend upon the organs
involved.
Pulmonary Fibrosis
Pulmonary Fibrosis involves scarring of the lung.
Gradually, the air sacs of the lungs become replaced by fibrotic tissue.
When the scar forms, the tissue becomes thicker.
Diffusion distances are increased.
This causes an irreversible loss of the tissues for efficient gaseous exchange.
Symptoms
Shortness of breath, particularly with exertion
Chronic dry, hacking cough
Fatigue and weakness
Discomfort in the chest
Loss of appetite
Rapid weight loss
Causes
It could be an autoimmune disorder, and there may genetic predisposition.
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The fibrotic process is a reaction to microscopic injury to the lung.

Macrophages accumulate in connective tissue.
They stimulate the creation of fibrous tissue.
Associations have been made with the following:
Inhaled environmental and occupational pollutants
Cigarette smoking
Diseases such as Scleroderma, Rheumatoid Arthritis, Lupus and Sarcoidosis
The after effects of a viral infection
Certain medications
Therapeutic radiation

Asthma
Asthma causes the bronchi to become inflamed and swollen.
Bronchi are more sensitive than normal.
It could be inherited.
It could also be caused due to a lack of exposure to certain substances in early childhood.
Triggers:
Certain substances, or triggers, can irritate them:
o House dust mites
o Animal fur
o Pollen
o Tobacco smoke
o Cold air
o Chest infections.
Symptoms:
When the bronchi are irritated, they become narrow and the muscles around them tighten.
This can increase the production of sticky mucus.
This causes wheezing and coughing and shortness of breath.
Pulmonary ventilation is reduced.
This effects the maintenance of efficient concentration gradients in the alveoli.
This results in inefficient gas exchange.
The severity of the symptoms of asthma differs from person to person, from mild to severe.
The narrowing of the airways is usually reversible - occurring naturally, or through the use of
medicines.
A severe asthma attack can be life threatening and may require hospital treatment.
Emphysema
Emphysema causes the walls of the alveoli to break down.
Larger air spaces are formed.
Total surface area available for gas exchange is greatly reduced.
Causes:
The single most common cause of emphysema is smoking.
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Heavy cigarette smokers are most at risk from emphysema and chronic bronchitis.
The damage to your airway begins when tobacco smoke temporarily paralyses the cilia that
line the bronchial tubes.
These hairs usually sweep irritants and pathogens out of the airways,
The temporary paralysis prevents them from doing this.
The irritants remain in your bronchial tubes and pass into your alveoli
This inflames the tissue and damaging the walls.
Breathing in industrial pollutants can also contribute to the development of emphysema.
In a few, rare cases (about 2%) emphysema is the result of defective genes.
This type is called alpha antitrypsin (AAT) deficiency emphysema.
AAT is a protein that blocks the action of an enzyme that breaks down the walls of the
alveoli.
If you are deficient in the protein, it can lead to progressive damage that will eventually result
in emphysema.

Symptoms
Shortness of breath when exerting yourself.
Eventually, this shortness of breath may occur even when you are at rest.
Difficulty breathing
Coughing
Wheezing
Excess mucus production
A bluish tint to the skin (cyanosis)

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The Heart
Position
Middle of thorax
Above diaphragm
Behind sternum
Between 2 lungs
Partially overlapped by left lung
Apex points towards left of thorax.
Cardiac muscle
Major tissue in the heart wall is cardiac muscle
Cardiac muscle tissue = myocardium
Branching cells which can share nuclei
Cells are cross striated like skeletal muscle.
Transmit electrical excitation
Capable of contracting and relaxing repeatedly for life.
Blood supply
Provided by coronary artery
Delivers oxygenated blood to the heart muscle
Branches from aorta
Receives 5% of total cardiac output
Dense capillary network
Coronary veins return blood to heart directly into right atrium through coronary sinus.

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Associated Blood Vessels

Vena Cava
o Carries deoxygenated blood from body tissues into right atrium.

Pulmonary artery
o Carries deoxygenated blood from right ventricle to lungs
Pulmonary vein
o Carries oxygenated blood from lungs back to left atrium.
Aorta
o Carries oxygenated blood from left ventricle to respiring body tissues.

Internal structure
Atria (sing. Atrium):
o Relax to receive blood from veins:
Venae cavae into right atrium
Pulmonary veins into left atrium.
o Thin walled
o Elastic
o Contract to push blood into ventricles:
Rings of muscles surround veins at their point of entry
Contract to close off veins.
Prevents reflux of blood into veins.
Ventricles:
o Myocardium thicker than atria.
Distance to ventricles is very small.
o Myocardium of left ventricle 3 times thicker than right.
Creates higher blood pressure in systemic circulation:
o Essential for efficient function of organs.
o Allow for tissue fluid formation.
Lower blood pressure in pulmonary circulation:
o Prevents rupture of delicate pulmonary arteries.
o Separated by septum.
o Relax to receive blood from atria.
o Contract to push blood through arteries:
Left ventricle into aorta.
Right ventricle into pulmonary artery.
Valves
Responsible for heart sounds.
Ensure unidirectional flow of blood though heart.
Atrioventricular valves:
o Between atria and ventricles.
o Prevent blood flowing back into atria when ventricles contract.
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o Higher pressure in ventricles causes them to close back towards atria.

o Causes lub sound.
o Chordae tendinae:
Fibrous cords
Attach loose edge of valves to wall of ventricle.
o Attached by papillary muscle:
Contract when ventricle contracts.
Tighten the chordae tendinae.
o Tricuspid valve:
3 flaps.
Right side of heart.
o Bicuspid valve (mitral valve):
2 flaps.
Left side of heart.
Semilunar valves:
o At entrance of aorta and pulmonary artery.
o Hence aortic and pulmonary valves.
o Prevent back flow of blood into ventricles.
o When ventricles relax
o Pressure in ventricle drops below pressure in arteries.
o Causes valves to fill with blood.
o Creates dub sound

The Cardiac Cycle

A rhythmic series of events.
Resulting in each beat of the heart.
At rest, average 72 beats per minute.
One cardiac cycle = approx 0.83 secs.

Diastole:
o Relaxation of atria and ventricles.
o Atria fill with blood from veins.
o Pocket valves close dub.
o Blood starts to move into ventricles.
Atrial systole:
o Atria contract.
o Increases pressure.
o Pushes blood into ventricles.
o Passes though atrioventricular valves.
o Ventricles remain relaxed.
Ventricular systole:
o Ventricles contract.
o Atria relax.
o Higher pressure in ventricles than atria.
o Atriventricular valves close lub.

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o Pocket valves open.
o Blood flows into arteries.
Pressure Changes During the Cardiac Cycle.
Blood always flows from a high pressure to a lower pressure, unless prevented by
valves.
Graph starts at atrial systole
o Point at which atrial pressure rises above 0 kPa
Ventricular systole occurs when pressure in ventricles exceeds pressure in atria.
o A.V. valves close.
o Causes increase in pressure in atria.
Blood flows into arteries when pressure in ventricles exceeds pressure in arteries.
o Pocket valves open.
Diastole occurs when pressure in ventricles drops below pressure in arteries.
o Pocket valves close.
o Pressure in arteries maintained relatively high.
o Due to elastic recoil of artery walls.
Atrioventricular valves open when pressure in ventricles drops below pressure in atria.
o Pressure in atria rises back towards 0 kPa as they fill with blood.

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Extra detail:
Electrocardiogram (ECG)
Electrodes placed on skin.
Changes in voltage displayed on oscilloscope:
o P wave = electrical excitation of atria
o QRS complex = excitation of ventricles.
o T wave = recovery (repolarisation) of ventricles.
Phonocardiogram (PCG):
Records heart sounds.
Caused by valves closing.
Lub dub.
Conducting tissues of the Heart
The heart beat is initiated from within the heart muscle.
Heart muscle is myogenic:
o It is self exciting.
o It can contract on its own without needing nerve impulses.
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It maintains a continuous, inherent rhythm through electrical excitation of localised areas.

This leads to contraction of cardiac muscle.
This is called myogenic stimulation.
Modified cardiac muscle cells coordinate this sequence of events.
They conduct the excitation through the walls of the heart.

Sino Atrial Node (SAN):

Small group of specialised cells.
In wall of right atrium.
Near opening of superior vena cava.
Referred to as the pacemaker.
Initiates the heart beat.
Electrical excitation passes across both atria causing them to contract.
Atrio Ventricular Node (AVN):
Small group of specialised cells.
Between the 2 atria.
Electrical activity reaches the AVN
Delays passage of excitation down the septum
This enables the atria to empty before ventricles contract
Passes electrical excitation down septum.
Bundle of His:
Specialised non-contractile cardiac muscle fibres (Purkinje fibres)
Lead down the interventricular septum to apex.
Electrical excitation passes down this.
They radiate upwards from the apex around the ventricle walls.
Excitation passes up through these.
Ventricle contracts from apex upwards.
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Cardiac output
Normal heart rate = approx 72 beats per minute.
Varies from 50 to 200 beats per minute.
Approximately 75 cm3 of blood pumped from each ventricle.
Cardiac output is the volume of blood pumped by one ventricle of the heart in one minute
Cardiac output = heart rate X stroke volume.
Measured in dm3min-1
Heart Disease
Atheroma
An accumulation and swelling in artery walls that is made up of cells that contain lipids and
fibrous connective tissue.
Also referred to as plaques.
The swelling occurs between the endothelium lining and the smooth muscle wall of the
artery
They occur due to macrophages that have taken up low-density lipoprotein (LDL).
This is associated with high cholesterol levels.
This is associated with high levels of saturated fats in the diet.
The plaque calcifies and hardens over time.
Aneurysm
Atheroma can cause weakening of the arterial wall.
Can be due to atheroma.
This can lead to a localized, blood-filled dilation (balloon-like bulge) of a blood vessel.
Aneurysms most commonly occur in:
o Arteries at the base of the brain causing a stroke
o Aorta.
The bulge in a blood vessel can burst.
This results in haemorrhage.
The larger an aneurysm becomes, the more likely it is to burst.
Thrombosis
Thrombosis occurs if a plaque breaks through the endothelium.
It develop a rough surface.
This causes the formation of a clot or thrombus inside a blood vessel.
This obstructs the flow of blood through the circulatory system.
It can be dislodged, being carried down into smaller arteries, blocking blood flow.
The tissue affected is starved of essential nutrients and oxygen.
When thrombosis affects important arteries it can be fatal or cause serious illness:
o In the coronary arteries it may cause a heart attack myocardial infarction
o In the brain with blood it may cause a stroke.
Coronary Heart Disease
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Coronary heart disease (CHD) occurs due to the accumulation of plaques within the walls of
the coronary arteries.
These supply the myocardium (the muscle of the heart) with oxygen and nutrients.
Most individuals with CHD show no evidence of disease for decades as the disease
progresses.
Gradually, blood flow to the heart muscle reduces.
This puts extra strain on the heart.

Myocardial infarction
Myocardial infarction is commonly known as a heart attack.
Occurs when a dislodged thrombosis enters a coronary artery, or one of its branches.
The blood supply to a part of the heart is interrupted.
The resulting ischemia or oxygen shortage, if left untreated for a sufficient period, can
cause damage and/or death of heart tissue.
It is the leading cause of death for both men and women all over the world.
Infarction = tissue death due to oxygen starvation.
It can be the cause of cardiac arrest, which is the stopping of the heartbeat.
Severe myocardial infarction may lead to heart failure, in which the pumping action of the
heart is impaired.
Symptoms of acute myocardial infarction include;
o chest pain (typically radiating to the left arm or left side of the neck)
o shortness of breath
o nausea, vomiting
o palpitations, sweating, and anxiety (often described as a sense of impending doom).
Risk factors
Hereditary factors can increase the risk of high cholesterol and high blood pressure.
High cholesterol:
o Essential for cell membranes.
o However, high levels can cause plaques.
o Due to a high concentration of low-density lipoproteins in the blood.
o This is linked to high levels of saturated fats in the diet.
High blood pressure.
o Puts more stress on blood vessels.
o Increases risk of aneurysms or thromboses.
o Can also cause blood vessels to harden and thicken, reducing blood flow
o Various risk factors:
Salt can increase blood pressure
Smoking:
Nicotine causes a narrowing of arteries, leading to high blood pressure.
Carbon monoxide reduces how much oxygen is carried of haemoglobin.
The heart works harder to supply the tissues with oxygen.
This also increases blood pressure.
Stress
o To reduce the risk of heart disease:
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Increase intake of antioxidants eg vitamin C

Increase fibre intake - cellulose
Age Incidence increases in men over 60 and women over 65.

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