Muhammad Azeem Qureshi

Lecture 1
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Research: An Introduction

Recommended Books
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Introduction to Research
Understanding and Applying Multiple Strategies
2015-Fifth Edition (Elizabeth DePoy, Laura N. Gitlin):
(ELSEVIER)

Research Methods

Concepts and Connections

(Michael W. Passer)
2014 by Worth Publishers, Macmillan Higher Education

Business Research Methods

Eight Edition (Zikmund, Babin, Carr & Griffin)

Recommended Books
Research Methods for Business Students
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2009-5th Edition (Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis, Adrian Thornhill)

Fundamental of Research Methodology & Statistics

Yogesh Kumar Singh
2006 New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers

Research Methodology

Methods & Techniques

2nd Revised Edition (C. R. Kothari)

Research Methods for Business

A Skill Building Approach
4th Edition (Uma Sekran)

Research
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A process employed to find out solution to a problem.

An activity to answer the questions which have not
been answered yet.

Systematic investigative process employed to increase

or revise current knowledge by discovering new facts.

It starts from observation and identification of problem.

The research in Natural & Social

Science
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The natural sciences are different from the

social sciences in several respects. The
natural sciences are very precise, accurate,
deterministic, and independent of the person
making the scientific observations while in
social sciences, the subjective approach is
used.

Scientific Knowledge
knowledge

refers

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Scientific

to

generalized body of laws and theories to

explain a phenomenon or behavior of
interest that are acquired using the
scientific method.

What is The Scientific Method?

systematic

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A method of

observation,

measurement, and experiment is called

The Scientific Method.

The Hallmarks of Scientific Research

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Purposiveness
Rigor (Exactitude & Carefulness)
Testability
Replicability
Precision and Confidence (Closesnes of
findings to reality & Estimations are
correct)
Objectivity
Generalizability
Parsimony (Simplicity)

Theory
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Theory refers to generalization about a phenomenon

and gives explanation about how or why something
occurs.

Theory is a formal, testable explanation of some

events that includes explanations of how things relate
to one another.

The power of a theory is its ability to connect events

into a unified web.

Theory (Continue)
It may also be described as a system of generalizable
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statements that are logically linked together to understand or

predict human phenomena.

There are two goals of a theory

Understanding

and

predicting.

(explanation

supplement material given to students)

through

Theory (Continue)

A theory can be built through a process of reviewing previous findings of

theoretical areas.

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similar studies, simple logical deduction, and/or knowledge of applicable

For example, if a Web designer is trying to decide what color background is

most effective in increasing online sales, he may first consult previous
studies examining the effects of color on package design and retail

store design. He may also find theories that deal with the wavelength of
different colors, affective response to colors, or those that explain retail
atmospherics. This may lead to the specific prediction that blue is the most
effective background color for a Web site.

Laws and Theories

are observed and established patterns of
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Laws

phenomena or behaviors, while

Theories

are

systematic

explanations

of

the

underlying phenomenon or behavior.

The goal of scientific research is to discover laws and

postulate theories that can explain natural or social
phenomena, or in other words, build scientific
knowledge.

Laws and Theories

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We arrive at scientific laws or theories

through a process of logic and evidence.
Logic (theory) and evidence (observations)
are the two, and only two, pillars upon
which scientific knowledge is based.

Induction and Deduction

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Induction and deduction are two different

reasoning strategies. In other words, they
are two different ways to figure out the
solution to a problem.

Induction (From specific to

general)
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With induction - you start with your own experience and

then generalize a rule. For example, The last ten times I
touched the hot stove I burnt my hand. I bet every time I
touch the hot stove my hand will be burned.
Another example: Because the last few times I cut my
hair, it grew back. Inductive reasoning allows me to
generalize that after anyone cut his/her hair it will always
grow back.

Induction (From specific to

general)
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It is a theory building approach.

On the basis of a theory and its propositions, hypotheses
are derived and then formally tested.

Experimental-type researchers primarily use deductive

logic.

Deduction (From general to

specific)
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With deduction - you start with a rule and then apply it to

new situations. For example: The law of gravity says that
what goes up must come down, so I bet if I throw this
ball up it will fall back down.

Another example: Since my teacher's grading policy

states that he takes 1 point off for each spelling mistake,
I can deduce that I will lose 5 points if I make five
spelling mistakes.

Deduction (From general to

specific)
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It is a theory testing approach.

Using a deductive type of reasoning, the researcher
begins with the acceptance of a general principle or
belief based on a particular theoretical framework. This
principle is then applied or used to explain a specific
case or phenomenon. This approach involves drawing
out or verifying what is already accepted as accurate.

Conducting scientific research, therefore, requires two sets

of skills theoretical and methodological needed to
in

the

theoretical

and

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operate

empirical

levels

respectively. Methodological skills ("know-how") are

relatively standard, invariant across disciplines, and
easily acquired through doctoral programs.

However,

theoretical skills ("know what") is considerably harder to

master, requires years of observation and reflection.

They

cannot

be

taught

but

rather

learnt

though

experience. All of the greatest scientists in the history of

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mankind, such as Galileo, Newton, Einstein, Neils Bohr,

Adam Smith, were master theoreticians, and they are
remembered for

the theories they postulated that

transformed the course of science. Methodological skills

are needed to be an ordinary researcher, but theoretical
skills are needed to be an extraordinary researcher.

Abductive Reasoning
Abductive reasoning typically begins with an incomplete set of
and

proceeds

to

the

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observations

likeliest

possible

explanation for the set. Abductive reasoning yields the kind of

daily decision-making that does its best with the information
at hand, which often is incomplete.

Abductive Reasoning
A medical diagnosis is an application of abductive reasoning:
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given this set of symptoms, what is the diagnosis that would

best explain most of them? Likewise, when jurors hear
evidence in a criminal case, they must consider whether the
prosecution or the defense has the best explanation to cover
all the points of evidence. While there may be no certainty
about their verdict, since there may exist additional evidence
that was not admitted in the case, they make their best guess
based on what they know.

Sources of Knowledge or Beliefs

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Philosopher and scientist Charles Peirce (1877),

in an article titled The Fixation of Belief,
described four methods by which people come
to hold beliefs about the world:
1) Tenacity
2) Authority
3) Reason
4) Science

Tenacity
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Tenacity involves believing something simply

because it is what we have long believed.
There is no exploration of ones beliefs, no
reasoned contemplation of opposing viewpoints.
Peirce argued that tenacity involves closing
oneself off to information that is inconsistent
with, or otherwise threatens, a rmly held belief.
Although he clearly viewed tenacity as an
unsatisfactory method upon which to base ones
knowledge and beliefs, Peirce noted that it
possessed strength, simplicity, and directness
(1877, Section V, Para 12).

AUTHORITY
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Authority involves relying on other people as

our source of knowledge and beliefs, and its
pervasive throughout our life. In childhood we
begin to rely on parents, other caregivers,
siblings, teachers, friends, television, radio, the
web and books etc.

AUTHORITY (Continue)
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As a college student, you rely on authority when you

acquire knowledge from your professors and textbooks. If
you decide not to take a course from a particular
instructor because a friend says Dont do it, his lectures
are really boring, or He will not give you good marks
then youve relied on your friend as an authority.
We are most likely to view someone as credible when
the following are true:
We believe that the person has expertise on the
subject.
We perceive the person as trustworthy.

REASON
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Reason rests on the use of logic and rational (i.e.,

intellectually sound) argument to reach a conclusion
about how things must be.
Scientists use reasoning when they construct theories to
account for known facts and when they derive
hypotheses from theories in order to test those theories.
But scientic knowledge is not based on the method of
reason only. The primary limitation of the method of
reason is that different logical conclusions can be drawn
depending on the premises one begins with. For example:

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REASON (Continue)

Although opposite conclusions are reached, both

conclusions are logically valid, given the starting
assumption that their respective premises are true. But in
reality, of course, both conclusions cant be true.

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Moreover, in the real world of human behavior, neither

of the premises about infants understanding of object
permanence may be true.
For example, the age at which children acquire an
understanding of object permanence may vary from
child to child.
Perhaps its the case that 70% of infants understand
object permanence by 7 months of age. In that case we
would have to phrase our conclusion in probabilistic
terms: There is a 70% chance that Alice understands
the concept of object permanence.
Pure reason is a poor basis for understanding behavior:
What reason can provide, however, is absolute clarity
about the phenomenon

EMPIRICISM
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A great deal of what we know comes directly

from our senses: from what we see, hear, touch,
and so forth. Knowledge based on the senses
on experiences with the worldis called
empirical knowledge.
The related term, empiricism, is the process of
acquiring knowledge directly through
observation and experience.

EMPIRICISM (Continue)
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As a method of acquiring knowledge,

empiricism is a central building block of
science.
But especially in its raw personal form, as you
and I learn about the world and form beliefs
based on our direct experiences, empiricism
has limitations and risks.
First, no matter how full and varied our lives
are, none of us experience everything.

EMPIRICISM (Continue)
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Second, our experiences may not be

representative of other peoples experiences.
Students or followers may have different
opinion about the same teacher/leader, but in
reality the case may be entirely different.
Their knowledge is different because theyve
had different experiences.

EMPIRICISM (Continue)
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Third, even if our experiences are representative,

we may interpret or remember them in a biased
manner.
Your teacher may act fairly and consistently to all
the employees, but you and your colleague might
be hypersensitive to criticism. Therefore, you may
interpret as criticism remarks made by the
teacher that most students would interpret as
constructive feedback.

Conclusion
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Reason alone doesnt constitute sufcient

evidence,
Nor do claims made by authorities without
good empirical evidence to back up those
assertions.
Collecting evidence without evaluating it and
drawing conclusions wont get us far; we need
to use reasoning.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

The following characteristics may be gathered from the
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definitions of Research
1. It places emphasis upon the discovery of general principles.
3. It is an exact systematic and accurate investigation.
4. It uses certain valid data gathering devices.
5. It is logical and objective.

6. The researcher resists the temptation to seek only the data

that support his hypotheses.

7. The researcher eliminates personal feelings and preferences.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH (Continue)

8. It endeavors to organize data in quantitative terms.
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9. Research is patient and unhurried activity.

10. The researcher is willing to follow his procedures to the
conclusions that may be unpopular and bring social
disapproval.

11. Research is carefully recorded and reported.

12. Conclusions and generalizations are arrived at
carefully and cautiously.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD RESEARCHER

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1. He should be sensitive in his nature.

2. He should be problem-minded.
3. He should have mastery on the area and should have specialization
in the field studied.
4. He should have a scientific outlook about the area.
5. He should be able to think reflectively on the field studied.
(Active, persistent, and careful consideration of any belief
/knowledge)
6. He should have tolerance and patience.
7. He should be interested in the field studied.
8. He should be honest and devotee to his work.
9. He should have the curiosity to find out something new or to
answer some questions which are still to be answered.

Ten Essentials of Research

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1. Identify philosophical foundation

2. Frame a research problem
3. Determine supporting knowledge
4. Identify a theory base
5. Develop a specific question or query
6. Select a design strategy
7. Set study boundaries
8. Obtain information
9. Analyze information and draw conclusions
10. Share and use research knowledge

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Ten Essentials of Research

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Ten Essentials of Research

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The process of conducting research does not

mean following linear steps, such as deciding
hypothesis, collecting data and data analysis,
rather it implies getting deeper into the
phenomenon under investigation and
contribute to knowledge for the sake of
knowledge.
Designing a research is as much art as science