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International
Library of Technology
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OR FOR THOSE WHO DESIRE INFORMATION CONCERNING THEM.
FULLY ILLUSTRATED
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SCRANTON
INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY
1922
History of Architecture and Ornament: Copyright, 1909, by INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY. Entered at Stationers' Hall, London.
All
rights
reserved
Printed in U. S. \.
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v lecture
fi
Urban Planning
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I
J J
t
-?
PREFACE
The volumes of the International Library of Technology
made up of Instruction Papers, or Sections, comprising
are
the
Correspondence Schools. The original manuscripts are prepared by persons thoroughly qualified both technically and by
experience to write with authority, and in many cases they are
regularly employed elsewhere in practical work as experts.
are then carefully edited to make them suit-
The manuscripts
advancement
selves for
more congenial
mation include
essentials.
all
To make
These
this infor-
make
fully to the
CONTENTS
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT
Section
Page
Origin of Architecture
50
Egyptian Architecture
Asiatic Architecture
50
Greek Architecture
50
Roman
Architecture
50
4
30
40
80
50
118
50
129
Byzantine Architecture
Rise of the Saracens
50
130
50
Architecture
Romanesque
Italian Romanesque
Central Italian Romanesque
Northern Italian Romanesque
Southern Italian Romanesque
French Romanesque
German Romanesque
The Crusades
50
158
50
161
50
184
50
188
50
193
50
195
200
213
227
232
237
Gothic Architecture
50
50
50
50
English Gothic
French Gothic
51
51
44
German Gothic
51
57
51
66
Spanish Gothic
Secular Architecture
51
51
83
95
Moslem Architecture
51
142
Renaissance Architecture
51
173
51
189
Italian
Italian
50
Gothic
Renaissance
CONTENTS
vi
Section
Page
Florentine Renaissance
51
189
Roman
51
198
51
216
236
276
285
Renaissance
Venetian Renaissance
French Renaissance
51
German Renaissance
51
51
Spanish Renaissance
English Renaissance
Classic Revival
Recent Architecture in Europe
Gothic Revival
51
291
51
296
American Architecture
51
321
51
336
342
345
51
51
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
AND ORNAMENT
(PART
1)
INTRODUCTION
ORIGIN OF ARCHITECTURE
1
The
history
of
architecture
antedates
the
written
mankind; but we are able to study the characteristics of certain ancient buildings from ruins that still
From
exist, or from their restorations by modern students.
these can be formed a general idea of the habits and customs of races of people long disappeared from the earth.
The history of architecture is a history of the manners,
customs, and temperaments of the people, as the buildings
history of
all
existed
at
tecture
had
the
nomadic
and therefore no permanent residences of these classes
are found, the cave and the tent having been sufficient for
their purposes.
The agriculturist, however, settled where
he tilled his land and gathered his crops, and it was he that
life,
L L
3032
50
LOCAL INFLUENCES
2.
Six
specific
architecture.
of living,
the roof
windows large
to
system of government
manners and temperaments of the influential
construction.
lintel
50
CHARACTERISTICS OF STYLiK
4.
Each
ences by which
it
may
all
the
Plans,
vary to
better
when
5.
the
Ornament.
is
applied to the
is
6.
50
EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE
(4000 B. C.
TO 200 B. C.)
INFLUENCES
7.
Geographical.
In Fig.
is
shown
map
of
Egypt
and the surrounding region that gives an idea of the geographical character of this remarkable country. Along the
bank of the river Nile stretches a narrow strip of fertile
This narrow strip
land, beyond which lies a sandy desert.
constituted the entire country of Ancient Egypt.
It had
easy access to the Mediterranean Sea, to the Red Sea, and
through the latter to the Arabian Sea. This geographical
position assisted Egypt largely in the days of her greatness,
as her products were easily exported, and those of foreign
nations easily imported, through these natural highways,
while the Nile formed the means of communication throughout the length of the home country. Through its peculiarity
monuments
of
Egypt today.
Clay was used to make bricks, but they were simply baked
in the sun and entered into the construction of dwellings
and buildings of minor importance. A suitable wood was
not to be found, the palm and acacia trees being the only
ones of importance that grew in this country.
161-1
LT
100, 303
ISO
Pie. 1
T.I
50
heat were
considered.
animal creation. Hence, we find Egyptian gods represented in the forms of birds and beasts, with emblems of the
all
moon worn
11. Political and Historical. Ancient Egypt possessed a vast population, and under the strongest of despotic
governments, a multitude of her people were compelled to
the public monuments for little or no pay,
Captives
and foreigners were enslaved and put on this work, thus
work on
establishing a condition of society that was immensely favorable to the construction of large and important works.
The historical influences are hard to trace but pictorial
12.
Egyptian architecture
is
of little
importance to the
is
50
CH ARACTERIS TICS
13.
On
were
built with a
come. Hence his great care for the permanency of his tomb
and the preservation of his body that he might be ready and
presentable at the great day of resurrection.
Material was so abundant (see Art. 8) and labor so cheap
(see Art. 11) that economy of either was utterly unneces-
50
EXAMPLES
The existing structures from which
14.
the characteristics
with
in this
mysterious country.
15.
Pyramids.
a distinct class by
with any other
common
16.
royal
viduals.
The
earlier
tombs consisted
of three parts:
(1) the
Hassan,
in
The
t&y
$
'
4-/
-
i..
;,,^
?J>>
v
.
-^
.
'
1
'' b
21?^^
f%5R^.i
10
were
slightly fluted,
in Fig. 4.
50
These
from wooden
origin.
17.
Temples.
Next
pyramids in massive
grandeur stands the Great
Sphinx at Gizeh. This is
a statue of the Egyptian
god Harmachis and is
carved out of solid rock,
to the
FIG. 4
buried in
are
still
of the
visible, as
body
is
shown
Between
in Fig. 5.
excavated a temple
in
the forefeet
FIG. 5
r>o
11
there
quarried
one
great
bearing
hieroglyphical
inscriptions. In fact
every plain surface in
the Egyptian Temples
was covered with hiero-
glyphical ornament
some sort, either incised below the face of
of
horizontal lines as a
written inscription or
in a large pictorial
representing
FIG. 6
some historical event.
Each of these parts was varied slightly in different structures,
some having two courts in front of the hypostyle hall, known
subject
the sekos
ments.
was surrounded by
On
the
outside
of
and
a
the
in
many
number
of the temples
of smaller apart-
12
50
is
FIG.
Hieroglyphs, meaning
50
13
On
19.
tured in
the inside of the temple, these pylons were sculpthe same manner, although the lower part of
much
of the court.
Fig. 8
This example is
ing the roof on the right side of the court.
taken from a temple on the island of Philas in the upper
in their interiors, a
14
over
it
is
50
main entrance
propylon illustrated
in Fig. 6.
better idea of the massiveness of these pylons may be
obtained from Fig. 9, which is an illustration of the temple
FIG. 9
20.
shown
Ramesseum, a
after, Rameses, who was king
temple
of Egypt about 1500 B. C.
Here the sanctuary is shown
at a, surrounded by a number of smaller apartments that
were used by the priests and members of the royal family,
In Fig. 10
built by,
is
and named
one
from
the
hypostyle
hall
b,
and
the
other
50
FIG. 10
the central ones being longer than those on each side, in order
to provide a clearstory for the admission of light and air.
is
FIG. 11
At a is shown the double row of tall columns, which are connected longitudinally by the stone lintels b, in order to receive
16
50
the edges of the stone slabs c, which form the roof over the
On each side of
nave, or central portion, of the temple.
the columns a are the shorter columns d, which are con-
e,
g
is
thus
erected in Europe
21.
first
many
centuries later.
of the
is based on the
two principles of construction previously referred
22.
The
in itself,
all
effect of
four sides.
this
was enhanced by
17
1
LT
303
18
50
Egyptian
deities.
architecture
leading up
to
court.
e.
and
FIG. 13
by the
New
York, where
it
shown
as
it
stood
It is
It
is
50
19
ANALYTICAL STUDY
24.
WALLS
25. The buildings were surrounded by walls of tremendous thickness that were usually built of granite. The faces
of the walls sloped inwards, and the tops were surmounted
by a massive concave cornice over a rolled molding, as
shown
at the
6.
ROOFS
26.
on
The
lintels
COLUMN'S
The columns were thick and massive, their height selbeing more than six times their thickness. Five general
designs were used, all derived from some conventionalized
form of the lotus, papyrus, or palm. The earliest columns
were square or polygonal, as in the tombs of Beni-Hassan,
27.
dom
Fig. 4.
Subsequently, they became round, tapered toward
the top, and spread out into an enormous bell-shaped capital
that supported the roof.
They were carved and painted to
The edge
20
50
rounded
off and decorated with a pointed ornament representing the large leaves around the sprouting lotus, above
FIG. 10
shown
in Fig. 15 (a).
Occasionally, as at
28.
>'..
Another form
of
noil
161
I.
101.
,W
50
FIG
r>
of
proportion.
21
were no established
projection
of
the
formed the
roof.
OPENINGS
29. The openings were uniform, in general style, and
resembled the propylon in general treatment. Windows
were rare, as the clearstory (see Fig. 11) admitted sufficient
light for the mysterious rites that were performed in the
temples.
MOLDINGS
30.
to separate architectural
sist of
members
in a building.
or horizontally.
but
each
is
ORNAMENT
31.
term stylo
the
class
is
applied
when
it is
22
50
of some style, as the constructive class of Egyptian ornament; and the term type is used to refer to the natural form
from which the ornament is derived.
32.
Types.
dom were
in the
highest
FIG. IS
In fact
this flower.
50
in
Fig.
19,
23
on whose banks
it
grew, but
It
was the
first
material
Feathers
presented another
met with in
ornament, and these, with
type frequently
some
33.
o
na
winged
men
winged
j)isk.
known
disk,
Fig.
The
as
the
20,
con-
of the
FIG. 20
24
34.
The Scarabeeus.
The scarabeeus,
50
new
or
birth.
exact significance is
as are in fact all
Its
somewhat complicated,
35.
FIG. 21
The wall
Wall Decorations.
decorations usually
hieroglyphic representations of
some
consisted of
historical event.
In
painted;
sometimes merely
it was both
was always most
and, occasionally,
It
FIG. 22
entire plant, with all its distinguishing characteristics emphasized to produce the simplest and severest conventionalism.
shown
in
Fig. 23.
executed
background
is
some-
full relief,
in the
FIG. 23
FIG. 24
The scroll borders at (a) and (b] Fig. 25, represent conventionalized waves of the Nile, and were frequently used
in a multitude of forms as borders, or frames, to wall panels
filled in with surface ornament.
,
At
(c]
(i?), and (h] are shown forms of surface decowere used within the panels surrounded by the
(d),
ration that
strip,
26
many
No
27
type
is
(c)
surface decoration
The minor
sub-
curved
lines, as in (c)
and
(c)
in
ment.
simple
circle
3(>.
Fig. 20 are
with an inner
circle,
The
transition
to the
sists
a notching of
merely of
circumference;
as (b)
ding
the
same
lines
are
arranged
in
itself.
From
(c)
to (</), the
2f.
in
many
different ways,
2*
50
decorative
lotus and
elementary
entirely different.
the rosette are again combined,
effect
is
At
(c),
details, the
the spiral
ably of small, geometrical subdivisions presented in a repeating pattern in all directions, while the latter term is applied
to large surfaces treated in a pictorial manner, and not
repeating in design.
38.
Wall Paintings* In
tomb
Fig. 28
is
shown a painted
represents the
"sacred bark," the ceremonies connected with which were
an exceedingly complicated but important branch of the
This device frequently
religious devotions of the priests.
in
the
and
sculpture
appears
paintings of the tombs, and
of Seti
I.
It
The
common
structions.
EGYPTIAN DECORATION
8/)0
29
FIG. 28
Then
its
application
is
its
REVIEW EXERCISES
1.
2.
and
What
What
(l>)
class,
type?
3.
What influences must be taken into consideration in studying
an architectural style? Describe the effect of each.
4.
(c)
is
Make
(i
in.
X
X
(>
in.,
of white
drawing paper
in.
12 in.
propylon similar to Fig. 6, but complete it with all details restored and
colored and hieroglyphics incised, as shown in Fig. 23. The design
is to be 10 inches high on a sheet 9 in. X 12 in.
30
50
ASIATIC ARCHITECTURE
(2000 B. C.)
INFLUENCES
39. Geographical. The map, Fig. 29, shows a portion
Western Asia including the valley between the Tigris and
Euphrates rivers. The land watered by these rivers was
of
very
fertile,
plain of
50
venomous
construct
31
it was necessary to
buildings on platforms so as to prevent insects
and there
was a high
was not required.
In
inundations.
plain,
and
other
bodies were
the open
sun
celestial
made in
The
air.
entrances to their
palaces were guarded
by ferocious-looking
stone bulls with
human
30,
heads,
Fig.
FIG. 30
that represented
some genius
or beneficent
their ideas
of deity.
43.
Political
and Historical.
The
sculptures
and
facts,
and so much
in
this
form and
32
50
EXAMPLES
45.
The only
present day
is left at
the
The civilization of
the palaces.
rivers
was next in antiquity to that of Egypt, but
Euphrates
was far inferior to that country in art and architecture. The
carrying
their
structures to any
great
height.
by
33
50
of procuring
(6)
FIR. 31
34
46.
The system
50
at the
summer midday
in
window-
lamps.
Above
the
by
wainscots
and corridors
enameled
brick, richly ornamented with
various symbolic forms, used as
decorative motives. Of these
the most frequent were the
"sacred tree," Fig. 32, the
winged bull, Fig. 30, and other
that line the courts
were wide
friezes of
mythological monsters,
together with palmettes or fanshaped floral designs, and the
50
35
ANALYTICAL, STUDY
PLANS
47. Assyrian palaces were planned with open central
courts and long, narrow rooms and halls. They were raised on
platforms, or terraces, from 30 to 50 feet in height.
Egyptian
,
WALLS
The
48.
ROOFS
49. The roofs consisted of wooden beams supported on
wooden columns, and clay walls tiled over on the outside.
The more important rooms were arched over, or vaulted,
with brick; whereas, in Egypt, the roofs were invariably of
stone slabs supported on stone lintels.
COLUMNS
50. In the earlier periods, the columns were made of wood,
but in the later periods some of them were built of stone.
The most ancient cities, being in Chaldea and Assyria, where
there
was no
brick or
tile.
at Persepolis,
36
50
columns were
consisted
of
double
bull,
griffin,
etc.,
characteristic,
double
the
and
horse,
shown
in
Fig.
and
33
(c).
The
are
placed
abruptly on top the shafts without
any intervening moldings or preparation, but in (c] the top of the
capitals
(a)
(b)
to present
from the
round reeded shaft to the animal
from above. The beams of the
roof rested on the heads of the
animals in one direction, as shown
at (c), and on their backs and
between their heads when running
a transectional condition
in the
at
(b)
in
different
cases,
and
scrolls
shown
to the later
owing
appearance of a similar
some
of
material remains
which
sufficient
to study from.
50
37
OPENINGS
The temples were lighted by means
51.
of a clearstory
but
the palaces
temples,
Egyptian
MOLDINGS
As in Egypt, the architects of Western Asia made
use of formal moldings. Plain sinkings were used in
the bases and capitals of the columns, with an occasional
52.
little
ORNAMENT
53. The ornament of Assyria was probably borrowed
from Egypt, as there are many points of resemblance in the
two styles. The sculpture of the Assyrians seems to have
been a development of that of the Egyptians, but descended
rather than advanced in scale of perfection.
Egyptian
sculpture degenerated toward the end of the 4th century
B. C., as it expressed an
unnatural swelling of the
limbs that was at first only
lightly indicated but gradually
he conventional
decline.
is
represented
in the
same way.
38
50
54.
The
FIG. 35
50
39
refinement.
This
is
more importance in
The details of every
part, however, were finely wrought and no item of the ornamental scheme seemed to have been considered of lesser
Asshur in Fig.
known, and although
deity
35.
it
Its particular
significance
is
not
no place
in
modern
architectural applications.
40
5C
GREEK ARCHITECTURE
(500 B. C. TO 150 B. C.)
INFLUENCES
55.
Geographical.
The
map
of
Greece
shown
in
Fig. 36 presents a small country projecting into the Mediterranean Sea, which washes its shores on three sides. There
are
its
coast,
and many
was
its
came
The
was between the rigorous surNorthern Europe and the passive conditions
as
it
degree of perfection.
was sure
to
'
50
41
the
replaces
mysterious halls of
dark,
the
superstitious
Egyptians.
and Historical.
Political
their
reason
we
find
some
of the
in
Asia
It is
42
50
tural
massive walls,
FIG. 37
50
built
Mycenae.
is
43
The entrance
of
tem
It
that
followed.
be noted
though the walls
should
that
this
of
structure
purely trabeated
FIG. 38
62.
other
monuments
all
erected between
known
44
50
146 A. D.,
fifty
The
CHARACTERISTICS
cities were usually built on or near a fortified
the acropolis, or "upper city," and on this acropolis
The
are usually found the principal temples and treasuries.
Greek
63.
hill called
64.
Greek
architecture
reached
we can
its
full
development
still
in Fig.
them
at d.
46
50
(d)
(o)
(f)
FIG. 40
50
47
3.
Amphi
in Fig. 40 (d}.
Peripteral hexastyle, surrounded by columns, six on
each end, as in Fig. 40 (e).
at
each end, as
5.
6.
by columns, eight on
7.
Fig. 40 Or).
Circular and octagonal temples also existed, but these are
rare and can be considered as exceptions to the general rule.
67.
systems
followed.
and are
These systems
named
to have originated.
In
Fig. 41 are shown these three orders according to the Greek
standard, the Doric being shown at (a), the Ionic at (),
try
is
supposed
at (c}.
its
(a)
550
49
EXAMPLES
68.
The Parthenon.
dedi-
Ictinus and
cated to Athena Parthenos (Athena the Virgin).
the
and
Phidias
Ualliciates were the architects,
superintending
The
FIG. 42
8 in. high
half these
of the structure as
it
stands today in
LT
303
This model
50
69.
Owing
structure, there
how
to
the ruined
the interior
was
Ferguson maintains
clearstory, as
condition of
this
celebrated
shown
lighted.
that this
to
of
53
7O.
The Kreclitheum.
FIG.
4f>
shown
the plan, Fig. 40 (//), which
temple,
exhibits the peculiarities of its outline.
It combined three
temples, that of the Greek god Erechtheus at a, and those of
triple
as
in
54
50
ively.
The temple
columns
of Erechtheus
in its porch,
on the east
all
at the sides.
ooooooooo
if
FIG. 47
columns
and a
in Fig. 47,
As
will
50
The
in
this
The
fulfil
much
less
would
be.
FIG.
72.
FIG. 49
The doorway
of the
is
It is of
is
shown more
in
few
56
50
wide, and the sides taper slightly so that the top is only
about fifteen-sixteenths the width of the bottom.
This
diminution was undoubtedly given in order to obviate any
The conventional honeysuckle
appearance of weakness.
ornament adorns the cyma and an egg-and-dart ornament is
carved on the ovolo under the soffit of the corona (see
is
The windows,
as
shown
in
same
the
relative
as the
proportion
doorway.
73.
Temple
of
Nike
Apteros.
Another
structure that
was demolished
and
its
Ionic
Acropolis walls,
is
the
little
temple of
Nike Apteros, or
Wingless
Victory,
This
Fig. 50.
was rescued
students, how-
little edifice
by architectural
ever, and rebuilt in its original
position on the right of the
Propylaea stairs, as shown at d,
Fig. 51.
Fig. 50 shows the
FIG. 50
of Wingless Victory as
it
The Propyleea.
74.
is
The Propylaea a
57
50
small
of a
tristyle,
or
left of
shown at b and c.
Beyond the Propylaea,
the summit of the hill
was leveled off to form a
plateau, and prominent
on the south side at e
of the
monument and
this
northeast
of the Par-
theum, the
triple
Ionic
temple, as
shown
at g.
Smaller temples to
minor deities and
of
heroes and
gods were
numerous
statues
make
most impressive
architectural
tion,
composi-
worthy
of the
whom incense
gods
was burned on the
to
numerous
FIG. 52
altars.
See
50
59
and
is
in
known
receive
details
grooved by twenty-four
flutes
separated by
fillets,
as in the
It
is
thus
introducing
capital.
60
76.
50
Tower
The
and
it
of the
was
FIG. 53
architectural
is
Neither of them
is
50
77.
Tombs.
The tombs
in
61
Caria,
FIG. 54
its
among
78.
Theaters.
struc-
on a side
seats in
hill,
rows
and arranged
in the
62
50
FIG. 55
the top of a row of columns, which were the only architectural feature visible from the outside of the building.
To the Greeks we owe the greater part of the beauand delicate details of columnar architecture. To them
79.
tiful
we
most
refined
methods
of obviating
the pediment,
center
50
63
ANALYTICAL STUDY
PLANS
80.
WALLS
The
81.
ROOFS
laid
owing
COLUMNS
83.
and
constituted
the
column
height of the
These temples were in one of the three orders,
building.
except in the Propylaea, where the Ionic order was introduced
in an otherwise Doric composition.
In the Erechtheum, the
its
64
50
caryatids were used on the porch, but as this was an exceptional structure, the caryatids can be considered as an element
of this exception.
two
straight
and the
portion shown
shaped block
being the
superimposed weight
column. The diameter
of the shaft is less at the top than at the bottom, the diminution being effected, not in a straight line from the bottom to
the top, but in a curved line that renders the face of the
column slightly convex or barrel-shaped. This curved profile
is called the entasis of the column, and its purpose is to
overcome an optical illusion, which causes long, straight
This curvature of outlines to appear hollow or concave.
line was maintained not only in the columns, but also
throughout entire buildings, and as a consequence, in Greek
and concentrate
shown
85.
The
is
not a
straight
line
in
the
entire
structure.
as
there
compositions,
flutes
it
shaft
is
at x.
The
entablature
architrave, or
lintel, d;
is
the frieze
all
/.
is
the
meaning
of the
term triglyph.
The
cornice consists of
edge of the
It formed a
slabs, or tiles, that form the roof covering.
the
rainwater
that
through numerous
discharged
gutter
/,
Fig. 41 (a).
50
To
86.
the Greeks
we
65
The triangle
carried straight across the ends of the building.
then forms a pediment, while the surface enclosed by the
This surface was fremoldings is called the tympanum.
decorated
with
sculptured figures as in the Parthenon,
quently
but equally often was left perfectly plain. The
or under side, of the lower member of the cornice
was ornamented with a number of projecting slabs, called
Fig. 42,
soffit,
is
times
its
diameter
in height.
The
capital c is
Ionic order.
pediment
I
50
the
fillets,
as in the Ionic
column
is
is
spread more on
column.
is taller
wmnnnnii
FIG. 56
The
capital
than that of
either of the
other
orders, and
carved
in
is
representation of
foliage arranged
around a bell-shaped
OPENINGS
89. All openings in Greek structures were square-headed.
The lintel alone was used to span distances between supports,
as the style of architecture is a trabeated one. The openings
were necessarily narrow, owing to the difficulty in obtaining
stone lintels of any considerable length. The sides of the
openings occasionally tapered toward the top, and they were
usually relieved by an architrave at the sides and a cornice,
or entablature, supported on consoles, across the top.
MOLDINGS
90.
systematically, and
the
to use the
first to
50
67
forms to secure the most artistic effect. The original outlines of their moldings were probably drawn freehand, but in
cases they approximate closely to the curves of the conic
When they were carved or enriched, the form of
all
sections.
molding
itself.
Thus, we
from
its
91.
JOOOOOO
egg shape.
Eight distinct mold-
which
is
used
All of
is
The
(/).
The bead
(b] is similar
round
in
section and
fre-
The cavetto
is
a small
hollow, being almost universally used under a fillet and at the top of a plain, vertical
When a hollow similar to the
surface, as shown at (c]
.
cavetto
is
68
50
as here
shown, but
in
is
of the molding.
The ovolo,
is an egg-shaped moldand
its
characteristic ornamentaing (*r) entirely convex,
tion was a carved egg-and-dart form, as shown.
It is more
7.
or echinus,
ORNAMENT
92. Types. The types on which Greek ornament is
based are few, and the renderings are so conventional that it
is difficult to recognize in many cases from what particular
type the ornament was derived. The fret is used frequently,
and is undoubtedly derived from an Egyptian source, as is
50
much
also
ornament indicating
of the foliated
69
a modified
93. The acanthus leaf is the first new type that is met in
Greek ornament, and it appears on the Corinthian capitals
and on much of the painted decoration.
Fig. 08 (a) shows a form
of the acanthus taken from the
Tower
This
of the
is
Winds
purely
at
Athens.
conventional
the
principles
plant as do
growing
developments
in
of
all
the
other
Greek ornament.
94.
of
observed the
artists carefully
principle on which certain plants
grew, and carried that principle
out conscientiously in the execution of their designs, cannot be
doubted.
make
true portraits of
they
never
portionate
distribution
of
areas,
and
lines
it
importance, that
fills
(6)
50
71
FIG. 60
as the
there
is
much
72
50
plant itself, and it is far easier to assume that these are the
outcome of brush-stroke renderings of lotus forms. In
Fig. 58 (c) are shown six strokes made with a brush and
black paint. The point of the brush is first touched to the
and
(</),
and
is
will
molding.
In Fig. 64 are
individual
ornaments
in
alternation;
that
is,
two forms
a main central
branch
wavy
line or
off alternately
scrolls
74
50'
The forms
fa;
(c)
The same may be said of the Greek lily, Fig. 62 (c), which
may have been derived from the lotus form (a) and (b}.
The antliemion ornament, Fig. 63, consists of the honeysuckle
form enclosed
much used
in
an
elliptical
outline.
This was
points of pediments.
In Fig. 66 are shown examples of Greek ornament found
on painted vases. At (a) is
in
two
colors.
FIG. 65
76
GREEK DECORATION
161-1
LT
100, 303
50
w
FIG. 67
50
77
At
(e)
order,
were painted.
FIG. 68
were used
in
much
Egypt.
in the
same manner
as the hieroglyphs
78
50
the
carefully
adjusted to the
molding that
It will
it
occupied.
be observed, how-
fillets,
are
dart
WWf
shown
in Fig. 69.
It
repre-
161-1
LT
100. 303
50
FK;. 70
50
79
Greek
99.
pure form to a
been reached, and the abundant
compel us to believe that refined
taste
was
with
skilled
them
to
The beauty
of Greek ornament, however, lies almost exclusymmetry and form. It is lacking in one of the
greatest charms that should always accompany ornament,
namely, symbolism; and, despite the pleasure experienced in
its beautiful gradations of form and color, Greek ornament is
meaningless, purely decorative, never representative, and in
few cases, in the stricter sense, hardly even constructive.
sively in
its
REVIEW EXERCISES
1.
To what
2.
What
3.
What were
is
6.
7.
8.
for the
much
4.
fullest
Greece owe
development of
artistic
In
(a]
what
cities in
development?
(b)
Which was
its
composed
long.
square.
(c)
Design two
Each
drawing paper
tiles
in
of these designs
if desired.
may
80
50
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE
(343 B. C.
TO 313 A. D.)
INFLUENCES
100.
Geographical.
Italy is
under these two influences were somewhat strongly conThe Romans were not a seafaring people; the
trasted.
Greeks were. The Romans therefore did not colonize in
other parts of the world in the same manner as did the
Greeks. In the early period, there were no rival cities as in
Greece, and since no petty jealousies existed between the
smaller towns, the Roman power grew up in a unit by the
absorption of smaller states, which was never accomplished
by either Athens or Sparta.
101.
Geological.
The
Greece was marble, but in Italy there was not only an abundance of marble, but terra cotta, brick, and granite and other
stone were in use all over the country, while individual localproduced a local stone that in many places characterThere was a very hard
ized an architectural development.
ities
50
81
102.
Italy are
ical.
On
the
of
the
On
emperor was
looked on
Italy
history,
part,
on
both sides of the river Po, were the Gauls, a people that did
not take part in Roman affairs until a later period.
central portion, extending from the Arno River to
I L T 3037
In the
Rome,
82
50
development of the
city.
in a small village,
until, at the
Italy.
About 343
B. C., however,
Rome began
a series of
50
it
became
Roman
province
in
83
133 B. C.
Rome
city of
itself.
The
difficulty of
governing so many
distant provinces under the old system of a seat of government at Rome made the adoption of an empire a necessity,
and
of
in the
Rome
Hadrian,
calla,
religion of the
106.
Social.
Roman
The
social
empire.
84
50
Therefore, it is found
clearly.
necessary to take this social influence into consideration, as
many customs of the present day have been handed down
The
Roman
times.
Romans were
107.
The
50
85
108.
of slaves.
few were
classes
sufficient,
but
86
50
CHARACTERISTICS
109. With Roman architecture, the study of ancient
architecture ends and that of modern architecture begins.
The Roman style of design has been used in modified form
throughout all subsequent eras, except the epoch known as
It will be
the Middle Ages, which gave birth to a new style.
well to bear in mind all the details that characterize the
Greek temples and tombs when following the thread of
architectural history through the expansion of the Roman
The Romans introduced the arch as an architecempire.
the
style, so is
style.
Roman
But there
is
The Greek
buildings
were
simply ornamented construction, the entire system consisting of columns and beams decorated to give architecOn the other hand, in the
tural character to the building.
and
beam
the
column
the
Roman style,
played no part in the
but
served
as
ornament.
The walls
construction,
simply
50
As
87
aisles.
From
this isolated
middle ages.
110.
The
Romans
many
into service.
The punishment
of crimi-
work
on public buildings.
Thus, we find a condition of affairs
that would easily enable the Romans to erect the mighty
structures that they did throughout the length and breadth
of the empire.
Roman ruins in western Europe affected
subsequent architecture from Spain to England.
88
111.
One of
was
construction
50
the semicircular, or
The first
was constructed by simply
laying a wooden semicylinder on top of the
and the dome.
FIG. 72
shown
in Fig. 72.
The
cross-vault consisted of
to
be covered by a
series of vaults
supported
by intermediate columns.
Circular structures were
usually covered by domes
that were hemispherical in form.
50
89
EXAMPLES
Fora. The forum was an open space in the cenportion of the city, and was used as a public market or
112.
tral
meeting place
It
corresponded
As
will
113.
Temples.
Roman
temples were
the
result
of
building, and
in
treasury.
the
in
100 B. C.
and Faustina,
This
at
141 A. D.
It is
90
50
FIG. 74
the
best
preserved
entablatures
were
Roman
richly
The
temple in existence.
and statues originally
carved,
94
50
ornamented the pedestals in front. These are typical rectangular temples that remain today, to show us the general
character of
115.
Temple
as the
Roman
Of the
structures.
of Mater-Matula, at
Temple
of
Vesta.
of
ipteral,
we have
is
approached by marble
present
It
was
it is
the
Rome,
now
At
The Pantheon
at
Rome,
Fig. 77,
is
a circular structure
is
FIG. 7
also
its
height.
The
is a pair of columns.
On the exterior is a Corinthian octastyle portico, the columns of which are 42 feet
recesses
6 inches high.
hemisphere, and
is
of panels.
50
95
27 feet in diameter.
Another
Tivoli,
circular
temple
19 miles from
Rome.
is
the
Temple
This structure
of
is
Vesta
at
peripteral,
is
sur-
each
columns,
being 23
feet
6 inches high.
116.
Basilicas.
merchants as places
of exchange.
They
represent
some
of the
handsomest buildings
that ever existed in
Rome, and are monuments to the importance that the
Romans
They
are of interest,
on the subsequent
Christian
architec-
ture, as will
be pointed
out later.
The
plan
FIG. 79
was a
rectangle, as shown in the Basilica of Trajan, Fig. 79, the
length of which was twice the width, or more in many cases.
Two, and occasionally four, rows of columns extended through
of the basilica
it
which
96
50
upon which
Fin.
Arranged
(-0
around the platform were seats for the assembled orators and
other persons interested in the matters on trial. In front of
the tribunal was an altar on which sacrifices were offered
before the beginning of
all
important business.
The buildings
50
97
17.
Public
characteristic of
lisitlis.
Roman
The
civilization
baths, space
I
L T 3038
was
50
life
was made a
for sixteen
that
were used as
hot-air ducts.
It is
coffered
ornamental figures
in
metal and
mosaic.
of
it
Rome by Greek
or executed in
artists.
The various
basins and
mouths
the
of
119.
summer
weather.
The Romans
99
FIG. S2
elaboration.
Where
them
to construct the
50
upper portion on a
101
result.
The
tier of corridors
theater
of
shown
This
original openings may still be traced, as in Fig. 82.
structure originally consisted of two stories of arcades
120.
The
amphitheaters,
Roman amusement
buildings.
Roman
however,
They
city,
are
characteristic
later,
columns, while the upper story was a flanked wall with pilasters, between which were brackets to support the masts, which
in turn carried an immense velarium, or awning, extending
over
all
of the seats.
In no building: of
Roman
construction
102
in:;
104
is
this.
These four
more
50
121.
Triumphal
Arches.
In
Rome
it
arch of triumph
in
his
These structures
sometimes consisted of
honor.
arches were
composition
commemorate
The archway
is
coffers,
50
105
Many of these arches still exist, and the arch of ConstanRome, Fig. 85, erected in 312 A. I)., is a good example
tine of
in
over Maxentius.
Pillars of Victory. Pillars of victory, or memocolumns, instead of arches, were sometimes used to
122.
rial
record
hundred human
and chariots,
war with the Dacians.
w ere placed
r
known
in
as the catacombs.
It
is
now
familiarly
the
Tomb of
circular, 94 feet in
Cecilia Metella,
50 feet high from the base to the top of the cornice. The wall
is divided into three general parts corresponding approximately to the proportions of the Corinthian order. The wall
space occupies the column height and the cornice and base
are proportioned to correspond with the entablature and
pedestal of the order.
and the freize was
106
The
side walls
is,
50
built of stones
with
FIG. 87
124.
hesitate to build
their
cities.
immense aqueducts
Rome
itself
required
In the far
The Romans
for
did not
conveying water to
immense
quantities of
water for public use, fountains, baths, etc. The local service
being poor, immense aqueducts had to be built far into the
mountains. These aqueducts consisted of a series of arches
over which a cement-lined channel was carried, and sometimes
50
125.
left
Palaces.
Of the
Roman
palaces, there
is
107
nothing
Enough remains,
these, there
ANALYTICAL STUDY
PLANS
The
126.
between the plans of the
Greek and Roman buildings are first, size; and second, refinement. The Greek plans were comparatively small, the proportion being the element of first importance, whereas the
Roman
essential differences
108
became purely
50
WALLS
127.
of marble,
was secured
solely
of gravita-
The
ROOFS
128. In the Greek temples, the slope of the roof determined the form of the pediment. The eaves presented a
row of richly carved antefixae at the end of each run of tiles,
and gargoyles in the form of lions' heads served as spouts
from which rainwater was discharged. In Rome, the vault
covered all important areas. Wood construction was frequently used, and in many instances formed the decorative
element for a ceiling. As a rule, however, the Roman roofs
were of terra cotta or of bronze, but the roof formed no
architectural detail of the building, as the walls
were crowned
50
109
COLUMNS
129. When the Romans adopted the Greek orders, they
altered them materially to suit their own conditions, and the
result
was not an
of the
Greeks being
one.
artistic
The
three
simple orders
connection with each of the orders, the pedestal was introduced, and although the relation of the diameter to the length
of the column varied in each order, the proportions of the
pedestals and entablatures remained about the same.
The height
is
to
by a
fillet;
its
its
is grooved with
Greek Doric column.
the shaft
the
flutes that
meet
The echinus
is
in
an
arris, as did
ornamented with
an egg-and-dart pattern, while the frieze exhibits the characteristic triglyph of the Doric order and the soffit of the
cornice is supported on a mutule.
The space between the
mutules is coffered and paneled. The peculiar difference
between the Greek Doric and the Roman Doric orders is
exhibited in the fact that when a triglyph occurs at the end
no
50
of a
Greek composition,
it is
111
Roman
column
in
style.
row
of dentils
practically introducing
Composite.
smooth
materials.
to
In
112
50
From
131.
the
whom
structural
importance
of
whatever.
In
the
Roman
art,
the
designed successively
The
it
Ionic order
From
Corinthian order
50
113
constructed.
to secure a
OPENINGS
133.
MOLDINGS
134.
in
order to produce
114
50
ROMAN ORNAMENT
135.
Roman
It
is
ornament.
work,
we
ventionalism than
is
characteristic of the
Greeks, and a stronger
tendency to favor elabo-
The acanthus
was much used in scroll
patterns and on the
ration.
and composite
scroll
PIG. 89
of the Greek.
shown
in Fig. 89.
however, and
in
many
instances
made up
50
skill in
115
materials.
Many
Roman
entablatures are
had been
slain,
Pompeii.
later.
ROMAN HOUSES
The Roman dwelling was a simple structure, and
The
principal apartments on the ground floor.
entrance vestibule was simply an unroofed hall and was
136.
had
its
The
Beyond
this
Of course
wealthy.
this
The
116
50
POMPEIAN ARCHITECTURE
Pompeii was a distant suburb of Rome. The
architecture of Pompeii can hardly be considered a style
by itself; it was a combination of the Greek and late Roman.
There is every reason to believe that the dwelling houses in
Pompeii were copied from dwellings of the Greeks. That
Greek artists were employed in their decorations, there is
not the shadow of a doubt. These residences consisted of
an atrium with a peristyle beyond, around which were grouped
the family apartments. The street fronts of the houses were
137.
FIG. 90
in Fig. 90.
FIG. 91
50
161
50
138.
117
Pompeian wall
consisted
The
orders.
conventional.
of
figures,
dancing
common,
girls,
etc.,
was also
somewhat
as
the introduction
after
the
Greek
The
as a reflection of
Roman
with
art,
as
Fig. 91.
REVIEW EXERCISES
1.
2.
3.
architecture?
4.
5.
What were
6.
chiefly built?
and customs
of
the nation.
7.
In
8.
On
(a)
of the
Greek orders?
118
50
TO 604 A. D.)
INFLUENCES
139. Geographical.
removed the capital
tine
In 323 A. D.
of
Emperor Constan-
Rome
to the
old Greek city of Byzantium, now generally known as ConBefore this time, many of
stantinople (see map, Fig. 71).
the Roman emperors lived in Milan, Nicomedia, and other
cities,
how completely
the
to
overshadow
It
the city of Rome and even the peninsula of Italy itself.
should therefore be borne in mind that during all of the
period heretofore discussed, the term Rome applied practically to the civilized portion of the continent of Europe, and
that the city of Rome was a small factor after the empire was
established. On the death of Theodosius, in 395 A. D., the
Roman Empire was divided between his two sons, and from
that period the history of Rome divided itself into two
distinct epochs and the architecture of the world developed
The Western, or Latin, Empire
customs and traditions of the old
Romans, but the Eastern, or Byzantine, Empire, absorbed
Oriental ideas and gradually developed new systems, different government, religion, and architecture.
into
two separate
preserved
many
styles.
of the
140.
were
in ruins
architectural
50
Roman
from the
them
119
at first
new
their
The
their temples
The persecutions
142.
periods of
ones.
its
all
through
many
as possible
their
meetings
The
from
all
in secret places
is
generally taken
120
50
Political and Historical. While Oriental civilwas exerting its influence over the Eastern Roman
Empire, the Western Empire, comprising what was afterward
Italy, France, and Spain, continued to exist as the Latin
The Gothic tribes that had for centuries inhabited
country.
the countries to the North, had ever been dangerous enemies
of Rome, but their contact with the Romans acquainted them
with Roman civilization and its Christianity, and the Goths
gradually became Christians by the teachings of a bishop
named Ulfilas. The invasions of Italy from the North commenced about 376 A. D., and the various barbaric tribes
143.
ization
conquered
Rome
in
476 A. D.
In the latter part of the 4th century, the Tartars and the
Huns, being driven from Eastern Asia, invaded Europe,
defeated the Goths, and established a new kingdom of
Hungary north of the Danube. The Goths appealed to
their children
Roman
they paid all they had in money to bribe the Roman officers
In this way a million souls
to be allowed to keep their arms.
settled,
sword
in
Roman Empire.
where Valens
this fertile
country
50
144.
121
and
fast dissolving,
was evacuated
by the Romans and was soon overrun by the Angles and
Saxons, barbaric tribes from Northern Germany. The
Teutonic tribes from the North rushed into Gaul, and from
Gaul into Spain.
Spain was conquered by the Vandals,
a Moorish tribe from Northern Africa.
The Huns that had
driven the Goths into the Eastern Empire, now started under
Attila to conquer the world.
With this intention, a half
million savages crossed the Rhine and pierced the center
of Gaul, but were soon defeated by the united power of the
Romans, Goths, and Franks. Attila then entered Italy,
where he was again defeated, and finally he returned to his
kingdom of Hungary. No sooner had Attila departed than
in the early part of the 5th century, Britain
at the
the city of
dals and
Rome
in
power was
different
Spanish,
etc.,
were
122
50
developed.
new
CHARACTERISTICS
146. Early Christian architecture developed so gradually
from the Roman style that it is practically impossible to tell
where one style ends and another commences, and this is
the case throughout
tion stage is
all
periods of
more apparent
The
art,
as
later
their
early Christians
styles.
of
in
erect
a
a
method
and
order
to
worship,
place
disposal,
of construction had to be followed that required few tools
and economical materials. Roman temples were now useless
duced.
below
of
it;
if
too long,
it
was cut
in
the
off.
Thus we
find a lack
details of these
buildings,
strongly illustrative of the poverty of the time. However,
though this period may be of interest to the archeologist, the
buildings erected are of little value to the architectural student, as they present no distinct style, or even a borrowed
style, but a reunion of materials to serve the new purpose.
50
123
in
Eastern Europe.
148.
The plan
of the basilica as
altar,
ings were
still
called basilicas.
all
the aisles parallel with the length of the building a crossaisle, called the transept, was introduced near one end, and
the sides of the building were extended somewhat at the
extremities of
plan to the
this
aisle,
form of a cross.
124
50
EXAMPLES
The
149.
first
aisle,
80 feet across.
The
or atrium,
open courtyard,
and candidates
FIG. 92
districts,
types.
where
away from
In the
all
the influence of their early Roman protoresidence, the atrium had been the place
Roman
it
thus
became
a natural
50
The
150.
and
125
quently placed
lined the
in a
bottom
shown
in the
The pavements
of
also details of
style.
151.
of
Baptisteries.
building
characteristic
and temples of the Roman Empire. As a rule, the baptisteries were detached buildings adjoining the atrium of the
basilica, and not until the end of the 6th century was the
baptismal font placed within the walls of the church.
Tombs.
is
52.
that erected
a church in 1256 A. D.
place in
tombs
126
50
ANALYTICAL STUDY
PLANS
The
153.
development
WALLS
The
154.
somewhat according
to
the old method, of rubble and concrete, and were faced with
some decorative material or plaster. Internally, glass mosaic
ROOFS
Roofs of wood covered the nave and were sup-
155.
wooden
at the
COLUMNS
156.
taken from
we
Thus,
attained.
find
in
nearly
all
of the
50
127
OPENINGS
The doors and windows were usually semicircularThe windows were small
the pagan model.
after
headed,
and were confined to the aisles of the church. The nave
157.
in the
The moldings
resulting in
are of
attempts to work
very crude effects.
unskilled
159. Taken as a whole, the early Christian period represents the transition from the ancient to the modern.
It is
not a style borrowed by itself and possesses none of the
characteristics of an individual style, but it is the stem from
may
is
necessary
in
order
are
thousand years.
all
memory
of the pure
128
50
REVIEW EXERCISES
1.
is
included?
2.
What
3.
When was
Christianity
4.
What were
5.
When
made
Rome?
Europe begin
to
form
In
what countries
of
to influ-
Under what
developments:
(a)
rulers or statesmen
in
Greece?
(6)
in
Rome?
or tracings.
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
AND ORNAMENT
(PART
2)
MEDIEVAL ARCHITECTURE
From the early Christian architectural style developed
two great structural systems of the middle ages the
Byzantine in the East and the Gothic in the West. The
former was based directly on Roman designs rather than on
a transitional style that intervened between the fall of Rome
and the perfection of the system, whereas the Gothic style
was slowly evolved from the Romanesque, which in itself
was developed from the early Christian endeavors to use
1
the
Roman
the
The Byzantine
center, with
50
I
LT 30310
130
50
BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE
(395 A. D. TO 1453 A. D.)
INFLUENCES
The ancient city of Byzantium, now
as Constantinople, lies between the Black Sea and
the Sea of Marmora, as can be seen by referring to the map
2.
Geographical.
known
shown
in Fig. 1.
The
Strait of
Bosporus washes
its
shores,
MEDITERRANEAN
FIG.
and thus
it
Europe.
It was originally called "New Rome" for the reason that
when Constantine became emperor he changed the capital
of the Roman Empire to the Oriental city on the Bosporus,
which, like its predecessor, was built on seven hills between
two great waterways.
50
3.
131
Geological.
Byzantium possessed no good building
Stone was scarce, and there was no clay suitable
materials.
capital
4.
Byzantium was
Climatic*.
Romans changed
Rome,
their habits
and
climate.
5.
Religions.
In 324 A.
into the
ideas concerning ecclesiastical rules governing the introduction of sculptured portraits in church architecture, and other
practices. The Eastern Church disapproved of the use of any
establishment.
(>.
Political
and Historical.
of
Rome
(see
Constantine's system of
of the despotic
Roman
methods
Architecture,
of the
Historical
132
50
Architecture
1)
known as the
Emperor Arcadius, a
was
Rome
from
to the
The building
brought a multitude
gave the community importance politically, ecclesiastically, and commercially. After
the Western Empire was claimed by the Goths, in 476 A. D.,
Ravenna remained the residence of the Gothic kings and
of craftsmen to the town, but
it
rivaled
50
133
CHARACTERISTICS
8.
The
brick construction no
more
In Fig. 2
of construction,
is
shown
abed
134
over
until, at the
circular, as at
thus formed at
crowns of the
p
f ,'-'
fk
/'
became
The
n.
enk,
first
50
I,
Over
k
m n,
this
circular
the
opening
dome op
was
but
in
the
more
o.
porous stones,
such as pumice. Some domes
were constructed of terra cotta
FIG. 2
The
50
135
was
purposes involved.
fireproof roof of
domes could be
136
50
EXAMPLES
12. Byzantine architectural examples consist mostly of
churches and baptisteries. A few of the former follow the
basilican style, but the majority are based on the circular
and polygonal plans of the Roman and early Christian tombs.
Church
of Hagia Sophia.
The great church of
built
Justinian in
3,
Emperor
Fig.
by
Hagia
532 A. D., is the earliest monument purely Byzantine in
style and one of the really great buildings of the world.
13.
Sophia,
peculiarity of this
monument and
its style is
it
little
The emperor
become
a part of this
great
structure.
The plan
of the church of
in
KA6IA SOPHIA
CONSTANTINOPLE.
ill
Gauer/es orer
-ill
'
OROUND PLAN
FIG. 4
A? Ga//enes
138
140
50
These
It will
dome
this
with a
dome
the
semi-
or buttress against
it,
as
shown
in Fig. 4 (a).
skill.
This
edifice
at
16.
Church
church of
at
the
St.
of St.
Mark,
end of the
Mark.
In
feet.
Fig.
is
shown
the
at
Venice.
50
(ft)
FIG. 6
141
144
50
nearly square.
In the section
shown
making
in Fig. 9 (a) a
over the center and side arms may be seen, together with the
false and greatly elevated wooden domes erected to serve as
These
the roof and at the same time give exterior effect.
wooden domes are of later date than the original construction.
The interior of St. Mark's, Fig. 10, is richly veneered with
colored marble and mosaic.
The latter is used almost
exclusively in the upper parts of the walls and the interior
of the domes.
This mosaic presents illustrations depicting
scenes from the lives of the saints, portraits of the martyrs,
and scriptural subjects, all set off against an elaborate back-
17.
are
In Greece there
buildings in the
LI ILL
JU
50
147
STUDY
PLANS
The
18.
Greek
cross.
The whole
is
Byzantine church tends toward a condensed plan and effectcrowning feature being the central
dome, around which smaller domes, or semidomes, are
ive interior height, the
WALLS
19.
The
filled in
rative effect
of the enclo-
patterns.
ROOFS
20.
The main
a series of
form.
The
early
later they
series of
causing
little
windows, Fig.
7.
148
50
COLUMNS
21.
As
columns were
taken
first
from
Byzantine
ancient buildings.
The
were of
rich
The
capitals originally
orders in many
Roman
OPENINGS
22.
Semicircular
window heads
much
necessary light.
the latter.
_____
MOLDINGS
50
149
ORNAMENT
24. In the East, around the city of Byzantium, architecIn
ture was influenced by the art of Assyria and Persia.
became
an
character
with
Oriental
its
entire
fact,
tinged
spirit, and this spirit in the course of three or four centuries
did much to develop a new and entirely different style of art
and architecture, known as Byzantine.
The scheme of ornamentation was most elaborate. The
richest marbles that could be procured were used for the
lower portions of the walls, and the natural veinings were
arranged so as to form geometrical patterns. Glass mosaic,
and symbolic figures representing groups of saints and signs
of the Evangelists were inlaid against a golden ground.
The
small amount of carving used was in low relief, and the
was frequently produced by sinking portions of surThe acanthus leaf was cut in sharp relief, with the
holes between the lobes deeply drilled. The style of the
acanthus carving was more Greek than Roman.
effect
faces.
One of the strongest characteristics of Byzantine ornament, compared with classic ornament, is that the design
seems to be cut into the surface instead of being applied to
it, the surface always remaining flat and the pattern so cut
as not to break its outline.
There is a characteristic Grecian
influence pervading
all
city.
conventionalized acanthus
leaf,
it
is
is
&mmwm
ffU
wMrmwvfflm/maff
Fio. ll
150
50
151
construction.
In (r), a capital from St. Mark's Church, at Venice, the
volutes at the top of the column, the shape of the capital as
it swells out to the abacus, and the general character of the
details suggests the
Roman
Corinthian order.
(d)
is
2(>.
The
is
illustrated in Fig. 11
(<?).
branch.
In (/) is shown an example of geometrically arranged
running ornament from the church of Hagia Sophia. The
main geometrical forms, as will be observed, are circles.
These circles, however, are not formed complete in themselves, but result from the crossing and intersection of two
wavy
wavy
same
in
27.
of
St.
The
capital
shown
at
in Fig. 12 (a) is
Ravenna.
The
peculiar-looking
birds on the upper part, as well as the sharply indented
foliage, are characteristic of this style, as is also the
Vitale,
Fig.
7,
line,
J*
(fr)
t'lG.
152
50
153
shown here
in a
most character-
Byzantine form.
The
29.
shown
at
50
155
to
it
does
characteristic, however, as
is
and symmetry. On
both at the top and the edge, and on the other side, it runs
One of the two central leaves
off the panel at the top only.
extends over the molding of the panel frame; the other is
carved entirely within it.
Fig. 14 (b), however, shows a trend in a different
Here the openings in the screen are larger, the
exterior portion of it being outlined with a design undoubt-
32.
direction.
angles.
and
this panel,
scroll
33.
of
emanated.
In Fig. 12 (r)
which
is
shown
illustrate clearly
is
fairly
156
50
BYZANTINE DECORATION
(a)
id)
161-1
LT
100, 303
50
Fitt.
BYZANTINE DECORATION
161-1
LT
100, 303
50
FIG. 16
50
157
34.
and
(r)
(a)
and
first
(b)
differ.
ground.
The design
conventionality,
repetition.
the
The
hexagon
35.
from
is
is
worked out
extreme
still
same
edifice.
The
of the rectangles
is
The
color-
Though
study.
brilliant, it is never glaring; the hues are selected to harmonize and to produce a soft bloom effect at a distance.
ing
is
of
careful
158
50
TO 755 A. D.)
It will
to consider a
people.
number
of converts.
ious reformer
became
With increase
a red-handed soldier,
10 years, conversion to Mohammedanism
50
159
To
changed.
of
Europe
emperor, or caliph.
38.
The
influence
reality beneficial.
in
all
and physics.
160
50
medieval styles
is
finished.
REVIEW EXERCISES
2.
3.
W hen
4.
What
5.
Of what character
1.
of
Empire come
buildings
style?
into existence?
consist?
6.
What
(a)
() When was
7.
In what
from the
it
is
way
Roman
the
Byzantine style?
built?
system?
8.
What
9.
10.
ornament?
(a)
Who
(c)
8r>0
161
ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE
(800 A. D.
TO 1200 A. D.)
INFLUENCES
While the Byzantine art was setEastern Europe the Romanesque was developing in the West. As the different
countries of Europe began to assume character under indi-
39.
Geographical.
vidual
rulers,
the
that
architecture
The Romanesque
developed in those
were purely geographarchitecture of
ical
in
was
many
Italy
cases
Romans
40.
of the style in
marked
its
immense
territory throughout
which
is
this style
developed, a
found, due
to
climatic
conditions.
42.
Religious.
Were
it
not
for
the
civilizing
Romanesque
and
architecture
162
50
became designers
entirely
locality to desist
ments
to their enterprise
Had
it
money
if
to
buy
it,
without
it,
even
50
163
number
by war.
3.
Because the religious orders were able
to
form
with
44.
owes
its rise
from barbarism
Political
A. D., the
from the
164
50
When
45.
Feudalism.
medieval architecture
held
so
50
165
cases
of
the lands
serfs.
sold
on
a hill,
where
the
Many
of these
Feudalism tended
to
kingdom consisted
of a cluster of principalities
166
50
members
of the lord's
own
family,
ence extends even to the present day. From the knight of the
middle ages developed the gentleman of today. In antiquity
50
48.
period,
it
is
During a part of
this
Up
Romans enjoyed
barbarism.
to
the
fall
of
the
in Latin,
feudal
almost to
Roman
167
Empire, the
and culture, and
and Alexandria.
scholars,
of the country
this
Roman
168
50
That
the lack of books
this
present day.
The
wonderful works of
seemed excessive
crated their
to the devoted
work
monks
that
had conse-
to the
many
50
169
CHARACTERISTICS
49.
said to apply to
all
constructions
in
it
by dead
weight; whereas, if a Romanesque architect wished to withstand the thrust of an arch, he arranged for it to receive the
thrust of another arch in an opposite direction, thus counteracting the force.
new material also
The Romanesque
architect,
up
170
(*)
FIG. 17
(f)
5d
50
of the
and
arrow
a.
of rafters, a
171
masonry arch
b.
If,
instead
is
be the same.
The
be
split Jand transmitted against the walls in the direction c, and unless they are strong and heavy enough to
withstand this thrust, they will turn over in the direction b.
will
Two
upright
timbers
would immediately
supporting
fall
outwards
two
if
rafters,
a load
as
in
(c),
were imposed
the
direction cde.
Now, applying
this
principle
to
the
on each side prop up the main walls under the arch. The
development of this principle as completed in (/) presents
the complete principle of buttresses and flying buttresses
The flying buttresses are the
in medieval architecture.
semiarches that prop up the main arch, and the simple
buttresses,
This principle
Figs. 66 and 67.
earth.
in
51.
Romanesque
is
architecture
was
shown
distinctively ecclesi-
Civilization
50
problem
172
To
Romanesque
builders
unbonded throughout
their height,
53.
Romanesque Vaulting.
In order to
comprehend
Toward the beginning of the llth century the Romanesque architects attempted to vault their structures. They
had inherited a knowledge of the value of the Roman vault,
but were unable to use it owing to the lack of sufficiently
50
powerful
Roman
walls
in
the
structures
solid
it
is
they
had
when
formed
built.
its
of a
173
The
supports are
homogeneous
the
medieval builders
them
The
firmly.
ended
new system
in failure,
of building is
Romans.
The
FIG. 18
their vaults of
of the
Roman
cradle vault
shown
at (a).
54.
174
50
and
halls that
50 years
fell in
is
pressure and thrust only at the four supports, and, recognizing the advantage of the groined vault, they tried to
it and thereby bring all the
on
which
weight
piers,
they hoped to be able to render
stable.
But new difficulties immediately arose. The Roman
groined vault can be built only over a square space, and it
was necessary to invent a combination of groined vaults
other
but
an
shown
in
four,
ellipse, as
the
like
semicircle,
of
removed
show the
line
intersection,
or
50
175
of the intersection of
of
compound
On this
important
is
account
of
the
on
fact
they modified it to
such an extent that
it
became
device
the
a different
entirely,
builders
of
and
FIG. 20
the
manner
same
that
developed an
original style, by
ers
dome.
Roman
vault
it
FIG. 21
already realized
danger
of
cradle
vaults
to
wide
the
The
spans.
applying
groined vault, applied to oblong spans with a wide
intersection, required the arch over the narrow span to be
stilted, as shown at e f, Fig. 21, and the lines of the groins a b
Roman
176
50
for
the
in
the
section, or groins, in
the
Romanesque
circumstances
to
be
plan, as
they were built over
straight
in
semicircular
centers;
warped surface in
vault covering
the
itself
were projecting
at the
point and
indented at the crown.
springing
Fig. 22 shows an
exaggerated form of
the
Romanesque
FIG. 22
mno
The
s t
is
the case
of the
50
177
57.
It
was
at this
work
in
groined
just cited.
a and
out
their
and
length
can be worked
beaded as desired.
As
method
arches
embedded
in
Fir
''3
it
it
vault
late
58.
late
Fig.
Romanesque
line of
178
50
is
FIG. 24
ting the two great principles of Gothic construction: concentration of load on isolated supports, and balanced thrusts.
The former of these principles was made possible by the
on masonry
shown
stilts
and
in Fig. 24.
filled in
between with
50
The second
59.
tion
179
is in
where
mass
inertia of a
In
ments.
late
of
masonry
by the
This system
French
ANALYTICAL, STUDY
PLANS
60. Charlemagne adopted the plan of the Roman basilica
model for his new churches, and, with the assistance of
as a
artists
them
the
in
basilica
until
Roman
the church
same
style.
the aisles.
The
choir
was raised on
a series of steps,
under
had cloisters
in
These consisted
of
they
still
Roman
basilican.
180
50
WALLS
61. While the Roman system influenced all construction
work in Europe, it had materially declined in character before
fall of the Empire, and technical skill being particularly
scarce during the early Romanesque period, the masonry
was carried out with extreme crudeness.
the
ROOFS
62. In the llth century, vaulting was introduced over
But the nave
the side aisles for the purpose of fireproofing.
was still covered with a roof of wood. The earliest examples
of vaulting appear as plain intersecting barrel vaults without
any rib moldings, as in Fig. 18 (b) but simple ribs were
,
In the
Roman-
The Romanesque
architects
The
inability of the
ellipse of the
tems
Roman
worked out
profiles of the
in
France,
vaulting
ribs
country.
In
Germany and
of
circular
50
same
181
rib as a semicircle
alternate piers.
From this time forward, the principle of rib design dominates the style of the vault, and becomes more and more
complex, characterizing the several periods of the Gothic
be observed hereafter that the difficulty of
accommodating different heights of arches in the intersections
style.
will
It
of diagonal ribs
was
entirely
COLUMNS
63.
At
first
there
the
Ionic
exerted by
characteristic
was undoubtedly
and
Romanesque
Corinthian
style
a strong influence
capitals,
developed
but
itself later.
the
182
50
OPENINGS
64. One of the strongest characteristics of the Romanesque style is found in the door and window openings. The
jamb around the door was formed in receding planes, or
orders, as they
were termed,
The
principal
in
was
Circular win-
at this
MOLDINGS
65.
Generally
speaking,
Romanesque moldings
con-
wards they were more finely cut with the chisel. On bases
of columns, a form of the old classic base was used over a
square plinth, with carved leaves to fill up the projecting
triangles at the corners, or with the lower torus molding
overhanging the
plinth.
ORNAMENT
66. All decorative design was derived from vegetable
and animal elements, and was very rudely carved and very
conventionally treated. Fresco is more frequently found on
the walls than mosaic, owing to the lack of skilful artists,
and the designs in stained-glass windows show the influence
of the Byzantine character.
general characteristics
of
Romanesque
50
characteristic
of
the
Byzantine
183
The Romanesque
style.
Italy,
KKVIKW EXERCISES
1.
When and
in
Romanesque
architecture
flourish?
2.
In
Roman-
esque period?
3.
In
from the
4.
5.
Roman
Why
(a)
What system
7.
What were
To what does
the
little
of
(b)
Describe
it
briefly.
Dark Ages?
the term
Romanesque
architecture apply?
9.
10.
(b)
differ
8.
the
of building
system?
the
Roman
openings,
(c) roofs.
system and
(a)
plans,
184
50
ITALIAN ROMANESQUE
INFLUENCES
67.
Geographical.
influ-
The
central portion,
as
shown on
in
the
50
Tivoli.
other
185
In Southern Italy,
principal building material obtainable.
the mountains afforded an abundance of limestone.
Medieval
of
Map
ITALY
FIG. 25
69.
Climatic.
Europe. Milan is near enough to the mountains to experience very cold winters, while its summers are almost
Southern Italy enjoys a tropical climate. Palm,
tropical.
186
50
customs
70.
characteristic.
Religions, Political,
first
and
Historical.
In Italy
power.
71.
On
and known
OO^
o z
a!^--
18.1
188
monarch
Rome
50
among
themselves,
until
finally,
in
843 A. D.,
Fig. 26).
During
all this
Rome
endeavored
and thus insti-
tuted a struggle between the kings and the popes that lasted
many
bitter years.
In the meantime, Southern Italy had come under the
influence of the Saracens, who had landed in Sicily in
EXAMPLES
Cathedral at Pisa. The cathedral at Pisa, Fig. 27,
a characteristic building of this period.
Small, external,
superimposed arcades produce a fine effect, as does also the
treatment of the walls with blind, or false, arcades, in red
73.
is
The
interior
columns support a
flat ceil-
FIG. 28
190
FIG. 29
50
193
The baptistery
Baptistery at Pisa.
at
Pisa,
and on the first story is surrounded by half columns connected by an encircling arcade.
There are many later additions that give this structure a
Gothic character, so that above the first story it should not
Fig. 29,
is
be classed
built of marble,
in the
Romanesque
style.
In Northern Italy,
the arcades
that
decorate the
Italy.
The facades
to
the
unbroken by any
details
mark
rest
L T 30314
lions,
50
two stories
in height,
Chapels are
arate
195
built
them serving
The campaniles,
as interior buttresses.
of the country.
EXAMPLE
78.
Church
of
San Mlchclc.
shows the
The church
characteristic
of San
Northern
The facade
is
The
Mohammedan
structions.
Fig. 32,
is
is
The
observable
cathedral
in
of
all
the
Monreale,
a characteristic example.
near
The plan
is
Palermo,
typically
The
surrounded by arabesques of Mohammedan origin.
columns of the cloisters, shown in Fig. 33, are richly worked
in mosaics and carved relief, the designs varying in alternate groups, with an indiscriminate intermixture of ByzanThis is also evident in the
tine and Mohammedan detail.
interlaced borders around the door shown in Fig. 34.
FIG. 33
FIG. 34
50
199
ANALYTICAL, STUDY
80.
The
windows
circular
Italy,
while
The
roofs
subjects,
owing
to
the
Southern
medan
200
50
FRENCH ROMANESQUE
INFLUENCES
81. Geographical. France lies between Rome and
Northwest Europe, and during the greatest days of the
FIG. 35
Romnn Empire,
Rhone
it
was by way
of Provence
50
201
The
soft, fine
83.
The climate
Climatic.
of
84.
Religious.
France, took
firm
Christianity,
hold in the
rules as to the
affected the
that materially
local style.
85.
Political
and Historical.
Up
to the
end of the
one of these
exercise
rife
little
gave name
In
to
Normandy.
Normans, under William,
1066, the
a descendant of
William
Rollo, crossed the Channel and conquered England.
ruled as king of England and retained Normandy as a
a circumstance that subsequently gave rise to
frequent wars between England and France.
province
202
50
CHARACTERISTICS
86.
In Southern France
is
found an adaptation of
Roman
Gascony.
In the north, the style shows the first steps in the coming
change to the Gothic system of construction. The interiors
were very impressive, great loftiness of the naves being a
strong characteristic, and the vaults were ponderous, being
supported on massive piers. In the valley of the river
Loire, vaulting made rapid progress in constructive ingenuity,
but the system practiced in the north differed from that in the
south.
after the
In
vaults two stories in height extending over the aisles.
the north, groined vaults were built over a square compartin the nave, executed in sexpartite vaulting, the ribs or
groins of which were constructed independently of heavy
stone and the infilling inserted afterwards.
ment,
87. As there are peculiarities traceable to the local conditions in both Northern and Southern France, the country
must be considered
in
its
environs (Champagne,
Roman
origin,
and the
204
50
The churches
and
prototype of
domed churches
in France.
Provence has today many examples of the llth- and 12thcentury architecture, showing classic influences in the
vaulting.
much
influence
in decorative treatment.
rich in
ecclesiastical structures.
In
the
EXAMPLES
Church of St. Front. The church of St. Front,
Perigueux, Fig. 36, presents one of the most important
examples of the Romanesque period in Southern France.
It was the work of the Romanesque builders, but owing to
88.
at
The
St.
plan, Fig. 37
Mark's Church,
at
all
shown
it
inflii
^^
pres^i'*-" a
in Fig. 36.
Unlike St. Mark's, however,
the interior, Fig. 38, is extremely plain. No Oriental marbles
embellish the walls here, nor do elaborate mosaics incrust
lanterns as
50
205
FIG
38
50
dome
207
soffits;
2.
89.
edifice
it
was
Not
is
St.
far
from Perigueux,
Croix,
Fig.
39.
This
was
The fagade
is
characteristically
Roman-
esque
with
its
blind
arcades
208
50
more
Columns
FIG. 41
210
50
The western
is
richly sculptured
CHURCH
OF THE
APOSTLES
CATHEDRAL
X'
JX
*~>X-''
' V'*!i
\ kf
^'
x
'''
\i''
'
V'
^\'/'
'
^< x
^i'''
x'
'
/'
i*~*jf'''1'V''''
I'C/"*^''
50
211
91.
ines,
it
to
in
1066 by William
ANALYTICAL, STUDY
PLANS
92.
The plans
in the
WALLS
93.
The
The
idal roofs.
ROOFS
94.
over the nave with half vaults over the aisles, which, being
two stories in height, would not admit the introduction of a
212
clearstory.
In
characteristic,
the
owing
north,
an
increased
50
clearstory
was
The groin
nave and grouped windows in the spandrels.
ribs of the nave vaults were maintained by buttressed arches
under the aisle roofs, which received their thrusts.
COLUMNS
95.
OPENINGS
96.
and
five
narrow windows,
the clearstories.
MOLDINGS
97.
Moldings
in the
classic influence, but in the north, they are crude devices cut
ORNAMENT
98. Painted glass did not enter into the designs in
Southern France, as the windows were small and narrow
and thus did not favor its display; but its use was gradually
developed for the large openings in the northern buildings.
The northern
draperies
that
originally
occupied
the
same
positions.
50
213
GERMAN ROMANESQUE
INFLUENCES
99. Geographical. During the days of the Roman
Empire, cities had been established on the banks of the
Rhine and to the south of it, and, when Christianity spread
over Europe, these parts were affected first, while, in the
north and east, paganism still flourished (see Fig. 43).
101.
Climatic.
climate.
and
in
In winter there
summer
excessively hot.
102.
Religions.
Charlemagne being
porter of Christianity,
The
of baptism
Political
214
50
first
was
to
of five
become
the greatest
FIG. 43
of
as king of Italy,
From
this
three coronations
time on each
as king of
and as emperor of the West.
50
215
CHARACTERISTICS
The general
104.
tecture
Rhine
is
style of German Romanesque archisimilar to that of Northern Italy, and though the
EXAMPLES
105.
Apostles,
Church
at
of the Apostles.
is
Romanesque
style.
is
German
apses that open from three sides of the nave and are crowned
by a low, octagonal tower, Fig. 42 (b}. The exterior is
beams
of the roof.
The
thrust
from vaults.
Fro. 44
FIG. 46
50
219
and
(<:)].
The
interior of
acteristic
Worms
107.
Cathedral at Speyer.
Romanesque.
108.
Cathedral at Bonn.
The
cathedral
at
Bonn,
Speyer.
109.
in other
220
221
FIG. 48
222
50
ANALYTICAL STUDY
PLANS
In the German Romanesque style, the naves and
were vaulted over square bays, one bay of the nave
receiving two from the aisles, as the latter were usually half
The choir ended in an apse, and was
the width of the nave.
110.
aisles
were introduced
WALLS
111. The walls present open arcades under the eaves
and string courses, or cornices consisting of horizontal
There is always a clearstory and
arcades, resting on corbels.
occasionally a triforium, or open space, between the clearstory
and aisle vaults.
ROOFS
COLUMNS
113.
50
223
OPENINGS
114. The openings are usually single, but occasionally
they are subdivided by mullions, as in Fig. 49 (a), which
(a)
FIG. 49
The
224
50
MOLDINGS
115.
The moldings
are of
little
The bases
ORNAMENT
116.
The
flat,
plain surfaces
sometimes frescoed
in colored
on the
interior walls
were
for
rich
decoration
is
Worms
in (b}
/I
225
I
L T 30316
(a)
(6)
(c)
(d)
FIG. 51
226
50
227
THE CRUSADES
(1096 A. D.
TO 1270 A. D.)
Pope Urban
II.
Encouraged by
from
from the
infidels.
As
at
all
parts of
Europe assembled, on
228
50
the
charge.
FIG. 52
fate of the
vanguard
this
the
Here
all
f)0
229
much
Asiatics.
and 30,000
slain.
of Europe,
Conrad
III of
123. Third Crusade 1189 to 1192. The third crusade was caused by the invasion of Palestine by the Turks
230
and the
fall
of Jerusalem in 1187.
of
50
The
third crusade
Augustus of
in a truce
and
ended
Germany,
of England, Philip
124.
medans their effects were most important on the development of western civilization. Western nations having come
to act together in a common cause, became better acquainted,
exchanged chivalrous sentiments, and entertained more
The returning crusaders brought from the
liberal ideas.
East knowledge of many processes and products tending to
promote the arts and industries of the West. These expeditions were the beginning of international commercial rela-
The
tions.
first
Italian
establishing the
demand
commerce
of the Mediterranean.
and other
articles of Oriental
these armies
necessary to
we
many
From
50
231
and
finally, in 1500,
invented,
warfare was revolutionized and the feudal system of government and defense became obsolete.
REVIEW EXERCISES
What geographical influences affected the architecture of North1.
ern and Southern Italy?
What important religious influence affected the political con2.
ditions in Italy during the early Romanesque period?
What are the leading characteristics of (a) Northern
3.
Romanesque architecture? (b) Southern Italian Romanesque?
4.
(a)
the north
line
(a)
After
6.
(a)
France?
7.
(b)
and south
of France?
(b)
Romanesque architecture in
What is assumed as the dividing
5.
(b)
What
Italian
(a)
8.
9.
What
(b)
What
(a)
on the
What
is
what was
Romanesque church
in
France?
patterned?
How came
What
are
the
characteristics
characteristics
were due
What were
civilization of
(a)
it
What
is
to the
the Crusades?
Western Europe?
a chevet?
(b)
of
German Romanesque?
(b)
Of what
What
style of architecture
have
was
it
characteristic?
10.
style of
In
affect the
Romanesque
232
50
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE
(1200 A. D. to 1500 A. D.)
INTRODUCTION
125. An architectural style is now reached that, although
developed by a process of evolution from the structural
systems of ancient Rome, is, in its perfected form, entirely
opposed to classic architecture in principle, purpose, and
design. The term Gothic has been applied to this style
because it was developed by the descendants of the Goths
that overthrew the Roman Empire in 476 A. D. The term is
a misnomer, however, for these early Goths were a barbarous,
uncultured people, whereas Gothic architecture from the 12th
to the 15th century was the embodiment of refinement and
The style developed
taste in both construction and design.
from purely local conditions, and it can therefore be readily
understood that the more remote from Rome, the purer
one finds the art. For this reason, Gothic architecture found
greatest development in England, for that country was
not only far to the north of Italy, but it was entirely isolated
it
126.
At
its
surrounding water.
Western
its
the
kingdoms
50
233
Lady
erected in
found a place in
requiring
of an ambulatory, where they could take place.
formed
leagues for
regulation of trade.
127.
The
climate of
from that
of
234
50
CHARACTERISTICS
128. The principles of Gothic architecture were the
same throughout Westerfi Europe. Gothic construction of
the 13th century was the direct outcome of the development
of Romanesque vaulting.
Its strongest characteristic is the
persistent application of the pointed arch. As has already
been shown, the fully developed Gothic vault was pointed,
Roman
under
in the
these, vaults,
it
is
They heaped
it
it
showed a
They constructed flying
constructions
the
up
in towers
thrusting
veritable
of small spires.
to act as props to
designed to present a
forest
buttresses of
superstructure,
but
it,
infilling
itself into
split
mullions
50
235
fit
new forms
of capitals,
131. The architectural style was adapted to a construction of small, rectangular stones with wide joints, which was
a compromise between the rubble walls of the Romans and
the solid-block stone constructions of the Greeks.
The
available stone
The Gothic
Romans found
architects
were forced
that
number and
132.
as
possible,
outside only.
133.
The construction
of these buildings
lifetime.
236
50
may be
arm
into a
aisles.
The
way up
aisle vaults
distribution in
all
cases
is
the
same
as just stated.
135.
through the dark ages. They taught illuminating and execution of manuscripts, for there were no printing presses
The Cistercian monk was the friend of the
in those days.
poor, encouraging agriculture and industrial pursuits, and
the Cluniac monk was the student and artist.
complete
monastery included
50
237
ENGLISH GOTHIC
INFLUENCES
136.
Climatic.
admit of heavy
238
50
elements.
Consequently, throughout England are
found small entrances protected by deep porches, to exclude
these
the weather.
139.
Religious.
By
embraced
Christianity.
The
Map of
ENGLAND
Showing the
CATHEDRAL. TOWNS
J^terbojoug
Warwick
*E y
'
FIG. 53
power
that the
popes had
head
at
England an
had
been
repeatedly made
independence of Church influences
authority of the kings.
Attempts
to establish in
50
and
failed,
239
Gothic period.
different religious orders had come into existence and
well established, their monasteries and other build-
The
were
the early part of the 9th century, the country became a united
Christian kingdom under the Saxon King Egbert, a contem-
called
government.
CHARACTERISTICS
141.
is
freer
Europe. It can be divided into four general periods, including the late Romanesque, as follows: Norman or Romanesque, Early English, Decorated, and Perpendicular.
240
50
The medieval
themselves.
first
and then
left to
take care of
and
which were
at the
The stone
esque vaulting
marked by distinguishing
143.
is
The
vault-
what owing
to its
diagonal rib
circular, as
FIG. 54
241
I
LT 30317
242
144.
50
The
Early English vaulting surmounted all the difficulties of difference in span by using the pointed arch over all plan
arrangements and semicircular
groins.
vaults were
and
for
ribs
The
the
ribs of all
built first,
designed
and then
surfaces between
them were filled in with
the
severies*
or infilling, as
were
plain curves,
ally
FlG
&
seldom
but usu-
winding or warped
surfaces so constructed
their
V-
50
and
in perspective in
Fig. 54
(/>)
Later
in the
243
13th cen-
ribs
"filled in,"
shown
of
Fig. 54 (c).
in
they became
with carved
ribs
molded
Owing
lighter
to
in
the increase in
section
number
or buttons, at
bosses,
section.
Decorated
145.
Vaulting
(I4tli
Century).
ther
elaboration
fur-
of
vaults
pre-
a very
com-
the
sented
plicated
appearance,
the con-
although
struction
was
very simple.
still
new
FIG. 57
the
name
owing
to the
FIG. 58
244
50
245
146.
The
FIG. 59
of the vault
FIG. 60
50
247
FIG. 61
ings that were not vaulted, these roofs partook of considerable elaboration in construction and variety of design.
248
50
at or
mental work being placed above the tie-beam when the pitch
was
steep.
The hammer-beam
a modification of the
hammer
EXAMPLES
148.
menced
Nearly
all
of the English
cathedrals were
com-
Norman
period, and their construction continued throughout the four centuries of Gothic development.
Any one of these structures, therefore, will show in its
in the
first
a opening to
249
FIG. 63
50
251
the aisle, the next b disclosing the triforium, and the third c
showing the clearstory. These openings are covered by,
semicircular arches, characteristic of the Norman period, and
the details are extremely simple, tending to severity.
On the outside elevation, as shown in (c) a single semi
circular-headed window a in each bay lights the aisle, while
,
tion of
it
it
In Fig. 63
is
shown
Norman
period.
the interior.
tress b
is
and therefore
building.
duced a
is
of a flying buttress.
the
wooden roof
This
of the
Here
new
necessary by
under the
then, in the Early English style, is introarchitectural detail, the flying buttress, made
the vaulting of the nave but so concealed
it
detail.
252
253
254
151.
Cathedral.
transverse
50
section
The inside
window with
clearstory,
above.
152.
Winchester Cathedral.
The
characteristics of
255
Jlf*
50
257
windows consist
ings, the tops of
group of three nearly rectangular openwhich are given a pointed effect by means
The
of tracery.
is
now
still
of a
its
form
is
propriety
or form.
On
shown
change
is
154.
Iffley,
I
Church
Fig. 68,
LT 30318
FIG. 68
FIG. 70
50
261
is
not because of
torically, but because
style,
155.
Canterbury Cathedral.
Canterbury Cathedral,
a splendid structure, being 545 feet long and 170
feet wide with a nave 80 feet high.
Nearly four centuries
Fig. 69,
is
passed while
this structure
it
thus
It
presents nearly every period of the English Gothic style.
was commenced in the 12th century on the site of an older
structure built during the Roman occupation, and the great
bell
tower
at
was
loth century.
156.
Ely Cathedral.
in
262
FIG
-v
FIG. 73
264
50
158.
265
Westminster Abbey,
WESTMINSTER
FIG. 74
of
their
costume.
Like
other
Friars,
on
monasteries,
it
266
50
house.
On one
A court with
granaries, bakehouses, storerooms, stables, servants' quaretc., and mills, workshops, gardens, orchards, etc.
were distributed as circumstances required. Monasteries
took the place of inns during the medieval period, and even
at the present day there are parts of Europe where they
ters,
still fill
this function.
ANALYTICAL STUDY
PLANS
159.
During
the
Norman
period,
the
cathedral
and
some
PETERBOROUGH
267
FIG. 75
Fio. 76
268
50
269
all
been started
160.
WALLS
Norman period,
thick,
broad and
were necessarily
weight of
vL rj~l_i-
t
i
i-i
j.
j-'-^.-
50
the vault,
271
The development
of tracery in the
windows and
the increased
between
angles of the buildings, projecting diagonally, were introin this period, as shown at a in the Bangor Cathedral,
duced
272
50
COLUMNS
162. An interesting development of the arcades under
the nave walls of the cathedrals is shown in Fig. 78. The
change of form from the round arch to the pointed arch,
which has been previously discussed, resulted in a change
from the heavy pier to the lighter pier, while the elaboration
of carving from the simple tooth ornament to the foliated
forms of the Gothic period was due to change of taste, increase
of skill, and improvement of instruments used.
The two
arches
shown
change in carving.
shows the Norman crude work which
was cut with the stone ax, while that on the right shows the
transition in style and elaboration in design, when the chisel
left
and
is
a striking
style.
shown
ter of
Norman in character.
The Early English treatment
still
is shown in (d).
Here, the
arches are pointed and the columns are clustered and capped
with the characteristic stiff-leaf foliage. The moldings of
the columns
details
more
delicate,
The
sur-
together.
In (/), approaching the Decorative period, the capitals are
ornamented with elaborate leaf carvings, and the spandrels
between the artnes present elaborated canopies a with gables
(tl)
273
I
L T 30319
50
and
finials.
in the
275
treatmenc of
The
introduction of
work under
istic of this
in
(), which
itals
have a
again.
They were frequently octagonal
moldings worked around the angles, as
some simple
in plan, with
simple
with
in (z), or later
leaf form, as in
(_;').
276
50
OPENINGS
164.
One
"Windows.
development of tracery.
The
toward the Early English, the jambs were molded, and the
part between the pointed windows was pierced
either with a circular opening, as in Fig. 80 (6), or with an
upper
165. During
dows presented a
rise evenly
construction
was introduced,
frequently applied in
end of this period the introduction of the ball-flower ornament.
U^^fe^^v^
T^~
~
',
l-l
J=LLTLl
J-14-IM
-t
Til
NTH
L.-U-J
h |-JL
I-H
*M
I,
50
some
windows very
279
same time
extremes, as shown in
(/)
in the
lower
half,
166. In
window
the
in construction,
in the panels
..
nnmnl
FIG. 82
280
50
panels, and in
167.
Circular
at the
ends of
periods.
The window shown in Fig. 81 (/) is strongly characteristic
of Norman, and shows the application of the tooth ornament.
In (g) is shown a window from Lincoln Cathedral that was
openings,
as
in
(h).
168.
Doorways.
In
some
These
cases, there
circular
windows
is
are
at first a
282
50
MOLDINGS
169. In the earliest Norman construction, the moldings
simply consisted of a series of projected courses of stone, as
shown in Fig. 84 (a). The corners of alternating courses
were sometimes chamfered off and a roll carved on the
course between, but with the introduction of the pointed
it became the pointed roll, or boltel, as
The Early English moldings consisted
arch
in (b).
of bold, round
and shade.
the
of
same projecting
courses as in the
were not cut so deeply, though they were based on the same
details
as
in
the
preceding
style.
In the
Perpendicular
umwuivuwiiiivutuiijaumtnuji
(k)
284
50
ORNAMENT
170. The points
with some form of
of gables
the cross.
171.
Where
the
ribs
groined
intersected
under the
in (/)
may
period.
Along the
ets
gables, as has already been pointed out, crockThese usually took the form
shown
285
286
50
ornament, as shown
Along
in (d).
FIG. 86
crestings
floral
decoration
is
omitted
is
shown
at (/).
173.
FIG. 87
288
(/)
divide
the
panels.
The
characteristics
50
to sub-
174.
were
The
The
4)
wr
^^
^Mk\
<*J
FIG. 88
218
50
FIG. 89
I
LT
30320
290
50
REVIEW EXERCISES
1.
During what period was Gothic architecture dominant throughout Western Europe?
2.
Why
(a)
is
Gothic be divided?
of each period lie?
(c)
3.
English vaulting,
Make a
4.
structural
(a)
details
Norman
Make
the
color,
Make
and two
in
wash work.
NOTE:
All
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
AND ORNAMENT
(PART
3)
FRENCH GOTHIC
(987 A. D.
TO
14(51
A. D.)
INFLUENCES
1.
France
The northern
Religious.
gave
this
to
its
unswerving
justice
and
of the entire
liberties of the
ecclesiastical
establishment,
the
local
Various
51
architectural treatment.
commercial
cities.
new
1).
combined forces
of the English,
51
CIIARACTKRISTICS
Though Gothic
4.
architecture in France
numerous
etc.,
spires
the Continent as
is
same opportunity
to develop independently.
Nevertheless, French Gothic architecture presents the same
general development as does the English style during its
four periods, but the French periods are known under different names, owing to the differences in local influence. The
tem being
in the
English system.
to
by height.
To
con-
One
struct a long building is a comparatively easy matter.
section after another may be added without limit so long as
51
The
by
itself
with
little
it
where the outward pressure is greatest. The first of these methods is Roman and
Early Romanesque, and the second is late Romanesque and
at the point
Gothic.
may be
6.
The proportions
in different periods
and
The Roman-
English
style, in
FIG. 1
=^
V ^ ^-^=ii
^i
W
CHOIR
NAve
TTTTT
fc'
w
D
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51
By
this
interior.
EXAMPLES
Notre
7.
Dame
Cathedral.
Notre
Dame
at
Paris,
It has a wide
jected to many alterations and additions.
central nave with double aisles and small transepts that do
FIG. 3
EXTERIOR ELEVATir
OFAI-SI.EWAI.I,
ftloft
f>
NA.VC
(&)
ELEVATION
or
CLERESTORY
FIG. 5
WALL
12
51
up by
remembered
Notre
Dame
A continuation
end
way around the end of the church and usually includes the apse.
The west front of Notre Dame, Fig. 1, is one of the
grandest
elevations
in
France.
high,
pierced
screen
The main
lines
its
more
However, notwithstanding
still
it.
remains unsurpassed
in
noble
8. Bourges Cathedral.
Bourges Cathedral, which was
commenced in 1190, resembles Notre Dame somewhat in
14
51
from
it
short in comparison to
Chartres Cathedral.
9.
was
in
its
8,
built
for its
of
Gothic
statues
in
Europe.
most important
The
transept
porches are also richly carved, and present examples unexcelled in any other structure.
Over the main portals is a
magnificent rose window, which fills the entire tympanum of
the nave vault within. This window is beautifully designed
in Early Gothic plate tracery,
Although
at
first,
seems
to be
more
LT 30321
18
51
would keep
it
it
in place.
The
FIG. 10
20
51
Romanesque
12.
are
period.
all different,
in detail.
The
cathedrals
aisles.
Immediately above
FIG.
11
22
51
At
in
window
at
the end of the nave lies immediately over the central portal,
13.
Elaborate decoration
in all countries.
an elaboration of
is
is
24
14.
Fig.
The nave
12,
Europe.
of
the
cathedral at Amiens,
51
shown
in
vastness
little left
of the transept.
1318 and 1345, and is probably the latest pure Gothic work
of importance in France.
St. Ouen exemplifies absolute perfection of lightness and
a building.
transept
The
and nave
suggests
English
influences,
as .this
FIG. 14
28
51
The western
is
of
much
The
is lost,
first
and sciences.
The town of Mount
wall that
wall
is
lines
monastery
way known
as
shown
17.
to
in
Fig
16.
is
The
whelming
in
Norman
massiveness.
From
nave,
its
FIG. 16
Fio. 17
L T 30322
32
51
The capitals,
vaulting, are deserving of special study.
though similar in general appearance, are widely different in
and each vault rib descends independently to the circuThe simplicity of the ribs and the arrangement
of the joints are typical of Early French Gothic construction.
detail,
lar abacus.
18.
Above
structures.
They
The
which are
34
51
are elaborately
worked
in foliated
ornament that
is
beauti-
the construction
is
of granite.
ANALYTICAL STUDY
PLANS
19. There seems to have been a wide difference in ideas
between the English and the French Gothic architects. The
plans of the English cathedrals were long and narrow, the
length being about six times the width, and the vaults over
Cloisters were a characteristic detail,
the naves were low.
to
the
fact
that
owing
many English cathedrals were erected
on the foundations of, or through the influence of, the monas-
2,
rule,
51
35
are
common.
WALJ.S
20.
The
with panels.
In France, the buttresses appear in the Romanesque period
about as in England, although they are sometimes semiLater they became very deep, but they do
circular in plan.
tresses instead of at the inside [see Fig. 2 (a), ($), and (<?)].
These projecting buttresses, like the English, are offset in
two or three
flatter
36
nave and
51
elaborated into an
The
front elevation
of the English.
ROOFS
21.
scientific.
halls,
worked as part
wooden
roofs
of the design;
whereas, in the French interiors, open-timber roof construction was never properly developed.
English roofs were covered with lead; French roofs were usually covered with slate.
was adhered
Romanesque
vault
development
of vaulting
and vault
Eng-
51
37
French vaults.
COLUMNS
22.
shaft,
and
in
later
work
this style
is
the clustered
to
and
is
easily followed.
sometimes used
its
merge
into the
capitals.
OPKNINGS
23. It is important to note the great difference in detail
between the French and the English style of openings. The
doorways in the English cathedrals are simple, and with one
or two exceptions are in no way elaborated.
The entrances
to the French cathedrals, however, are richly ornamented
with carved figures and are deeply set in the west fronts, as
in Fig. 6.
The Early English windows had "plate" tracery,
but this was quickly abandoned for the "bar" tracery. The
French window of plate tracery is carried throughout the
style, the final development being found in the flamboyant characteristics that give that name to the period.
Only
occasionally are circular windows found in English examples,
while such details are characteristic of the west fronts of the
principal French cathedrals.
38
51
MOLDINGS
24.
examples.
ORNAMENT
25. The human figure introduced as a decorative motif
was carried to the highest state of perfection in the French
style, as may be seen in the great doorways of Notre Dame,
Amiens, and Reims, and also in the niches and tabernacles
that characterize the fagades and portals of Notre Dame,
Chartres, Reims, and Amiens.
The introduction of fierce, grotesque figures at the angles
of towers and as gargoyles, or waterspouts, characterized the
French style. These grotesques represented imps and devils
of the infernal regions, or consisted of a weird combination
of animal and bird forms typifying both evil and good influences. These figures may be seen around the upper part of
the
character
Fig. 20.
if
at the
day of judgment.
51
39
shown
at (c]
The
pelican
shown
at
(<5>),
was, however, an
FIG. 20
emblem
40
51
they did by tearing open their own breasts and feeding their
life's blood to the dead offspring.
own
26.
The
capitals
of
the
stiff -leaf
The molded
bell capitals without any foliage whatever are rare, except in Normandy, where English influences
were felt. In England, however, the classic type of capitals
found.
actually destroys
the governing lines of the support.
These three capitals
are, respectively, examples of the Early French, Rayonnant,
27.
istic
and
(/).
The
FIG. 21
42
51
FIG. 22
is
as
51
43
Abbey
common
work
ventional in the Early English period and decidedly naturalThe Perpendicular period returns
istic in the Decorated.
again to conventionalism. Stained glass is found in both
countries, although the best that existed in the French
cathedrals was practically destroyed during the revolution.
to wall surfaces
number
on the intersection
of a
found
of circles
at the intersection of
zontal
lines,
thus
ground
in
and a foliated
form
44
51
TO 1520 A. D.)
INFLUENCES
30. Geographical. Holland and Belgium constituted
what was known as the Netherlands, being wedged in between
the German empire, France, and the North Sea (see Fig. 23).
Belgium was under French rule for a long time, while
Holland came under German influences. The architectural
style in these countries,
therefore,
is
influenced by their
31.
is
Religions.
51
45
Fu;. 23
46
51
former probably originated in England, where early in history the king had granted certain associations of tradesmen
exclusive rights to carry on trade without tolls or taxes.
This amounted to a monopoly and the merchants' gilds
exacted a period of apprenticeship and confined the applicaThe
tions for membership to their own sons and relations.
crafts' gilds were similar in character and their essential pur-
constantly at
51
47
CHARACTERISTICS
35. Belgian architecture during this period presented
two general types: the high part farthest from the coast was
German in character, while the low part, commonly known
as Flanders, reflects French influences.
In the domestic
buildings, a number of Spanish details are discernible, but in
the development of their town halls, a type of architecture
One
and
Dutch
is
simplicity,
ture, that
much
of the
ornament
in
many
of the buildings
was destroyed.
The Netherlanders were intensely religious, but at the
same time they were skilled and experienced tradesmen and
therefore expressed themselves architecturally more in their
secular buildings than in their cathedrals.
Where
the pride
is
commerce
The
protec-
more
L T 30323
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I
*u,
C^HOIR
^-JU
4-
NAVE:
...
50
51
36.
there are
the
on the
The problem
by means
of
immense
edifice,
French
and
English
examples,
is
here
of
secondary
importance.
37.
the eastern end, the French chevet and choir are partly
developed, and the whole was vaulted with stone during the
52
14th
imposing, standing as
it
51
up by windows, as
38.
of
is
shown
Antwerp Cathedral.
which
is
shown
in Fig.
in the plan.
One
and
of the aisles
25 (b),
its
is
ing a chevet, but the rest of the plan beyond the transept is
The three aisles each side
irregularly cut up into chapels.
Fig. 27
nave
is
narrower
in
The narrowness
the nave.
The
the principal characteristics of the Late French style.
florid design of this front reflects the taste of the wealthy
tradesmen of that period, and
it is
BRUSSELS CATHEDRAL
ANTWERP
FIG. 27
FIG. 28
FIG. 29
56
51
ANALYTICAL. STUDY
PLANS
The
39.
model.
instances
also
that
occurs
in
so
many
The
body
40.
of the
in
sidered in Art.
119.
COLUMNS
41. Round piers, occasionally with smaller piers attached,
are used to support the nave walls, but the clustered pier
so common in the English style is rarely seen in the
Netherlands.
ORNAMENT
42.
although
much
in the
of the English.
The greatest activity in Belgian and Dutch
Gothic architecture occurred at a period when the style was
on the decline in other countries. The ornament is therefore
of an inferior grade.
51
57
GERMAN GOTHIC
(1270 A. D. to 1535 A. D.)
INFLUENCES
43.
south
strong national differences (see Fig. 43, History of Archiand Ornament, Part 2). This situation rendered
tecture
44.
Geological.
In
Northern
Germany
there
is
scarcely any building material except clay, and brick structures therefore characterize the architecture of this region
more than of any other country. In the south there are
45.
for
46.
The
Climatic.
Romanesque
same
as
architecture.
Religions.
The
and that of the Church were practically one and the same
This system was closely adhered to in some of the
thing.
47.
Political
and Historical.
The
gilds
and societies
Germany during
cities
masons
58
51
records, however,
center of the
interruption
during
these
turbulent
times.
At
first
the
League aimed
became so
Northern
it
rose.
51
59
CHARACTERISTICS
48.
at
the
time
in France,
Lombardy.
tion
plicity rather
structures there
of the
skilled craftsmen
in sections
is
German
is
much
Even
intricate carving,
in their
stone
Town
60
62
51
EXAMPLES
Cologne Cathedral. The plan of the Cologne
This edifice presents the
is shown in Fig. 25 (c).
49.
Cathedral
finest
example
Germany.
It
strongly
spires
German
two lower
and the
of
lacelike
the
buttresses carry the thrust of the nave vault to the sustaining buttresses at the sides.
FIG. 32
L T 30324
64
51
ANALYTICAL, STUDY
PLANS
52. The plans of the German Gothic
combination of those developed under the
style and the adopted plan of the French
The chevet does not seem to have been
erally as other French details, although
cathedrals were a
early
Romanesque
Gothic cathedrals.
WALLS
53.
The arcaded
galleries
Architecture
',
ROOFS
roofs were usually vaulted, although wooden
some cases. The vaulting was very carefully
constructed, and the nave bays were usually square with two
It was not until a later period that
aisle bays connecting them.
54.
The
roofs existed in
51
65
COLUMNS
In the nave, the main piers are used to support the
vaults, as, owing to the great height of the aisles, no attempt
was made to introduce semidetached columns.
55.
OPENINGS
windows are used
in later examples,
Double tracery
The characterelaborate.
and the tracery was exceedingly
56.
istic
of
these
openings
is
the
great
height;
in
many
tiers of
ORNAMENT
57. Foliage was treated in a
boughs and branches were carved
way, and
forms of
a characteristic of German carved orna-
which is
ment. The carving itself
and the intricate tracery
tracery,
more
is
in
naturalistic
in interlacing
2,
Fig. 89 (d}.
66
51
ITALIAN GOTHIC
(1235 A. D.
TO 1450 A. D.)
INFLUENCES
58.
Geographical.
Italy, the
home
of classic art,
was
Germany was
that country
60.
Climatic.
its
continuous and
winters, rendered
the construction of large openings undesirable.
Hence, the
windows are low and narrow and the walls are thick, so as
brilliant sunshine,
dow
up
showed
them with stained glass.
construct large
windows and
fill
to
51
67
62.
Political
and Historical.
After Charlemagne
whom
fell
between the pope and the emperor, which continued throughIn 1155, Frederick Barout the reigns of their successors.
barossa, who was elected emperor of Germany, effected a
reconciliation and
the
the
municipal
institutions,
arts
in architectural construction.
the wealth of
68
51
CHARACTERISTICS
63.
The
classic
masked on
is
some
of the cornices.
This, however,
was
its
architectural purpose.
70
51
EXAMPLES
64.
Milan Cathedral.
Gothic
style.
It
in
65.
of which
in Fig. 35 (b).
The aisle
are placed high above the floor,
leaving large wall spaces both outside and inside. The
walls are thick and present no buttresses on the exterior,
high
in the
windows
The
exterior
MOAN
CT
"^
^a
rt-
mf-^^
!%%%;%*
. ->^.,,^,.A
B^
*i
^.
=tti
^.-^-T^~,-T
JLONOITUDINAL SECTION,
-n qpfnnni
........... ..f./".':-
J.ONGITUDWAL SECTION.
(ft)
FIG. 35
72
51
73
The
FIG. 36
FIG. 37
FIG 88
76
51
with crockets.
67.
of
the nave
arcades
gives
The pointed
of
the
arch
was
cathedral
at
78
51
ANALYTICAL, STUDY
PLANS
68.
The
influence of
Roman
WALLS
69.
The use
of small
windows
set high
above the
floor
assistance.
L T 30325
80
51
ROOFS
70. The structural details of the roof form no part of the
design scheme. The roofs are usually low, as the climate
does not require a steep pitch, and they are therefore hardly
from the streets. The end gables, when they
somewhat masked behind high screen walls
visible
exist,
are
richly
COLUMNS
71. The nave piers of the churches are singularly clumsy
and inelegant. Square piers composed of four pilasters set
back to back are frequently used, as are also heavy round
piers with Corinthian capitals and classic bases, recalling
Roman influences. These were widely spaced so that the
long perspective effect characteristic of the naves in Northern
Europe was never attained.
OPENINGS
72.
The windows
MOLDINGS
73.
81
FIG. 41
82
51
ORNAMENT
74. During this period, the art of the fresco painter
was greatly developed and led to the perfection attained in
wall decoration during the succeeding period.
ings were erected devoid of all manner of
Many
build-
wall
treat-
in the colored
marble
scarce
The
openings
climatic conditions
to relieve the
demanded a treatment that invited close inspecelevations were therefore designed to consist of
recesses and balconies behind rich traceried screens conof the canals
tion.
The
over alternate columns, as in (d). The tracery work sometimes consisted of pointed arches, between which the superimposed wall was pierced with quatrefoils, as at (e) and (/).
51
83
SPANISH GOTHIC
(12.30
A.
I),
to 1450
A. D.)
INFLUENCES
75. Geographical. Spain, Fig. 42, is a peninsula in
the southwestern part of Europe.
Mountain ranges divide
the country into several sections that were peopled by rival
races and were almost constantly at war.
Andalusia, until
FIG. 42
84
51
included
Coast,
78.
tropical.
Religious.
the
Moham-
medan Moors
tians
of
effected a feeling of unity between the ChrisSpain, and thus gave the Church great power.
The cause
of the wars
ence in that barbarous age, for at that time the priest and
the monk together established the outward order and the
In fact, they often had greater
of the world.
The cathedral and the
than
chief
or
a
a
authority
king.
of
centers
were
power for good. There the
monastery
inward
life
ignorant were taught, the helpless protected, the poor shelThe monasteries also served as
tered, and the starving fed.
the hotels of the day, and hospitality to travelers was a chief
duty. The Church, too, knew no distinction of rank or class.
79.
Political
and
Historical.
When
the
Romans
left
51
85
and for 800 years their influence was continuous. Their constructions, which still remain at Cordova and Granada,
express the richness of their architecture in an exuberance of
intricate detail in which the rich color effect is remarkable.
to
Spanish peninsula.
The beginning of the llth century found the old Mohammedan Dominions in Northern Spain divided into the Christian states of Castile, Leon, Navarre, Aragon, and Portugal,
and all these states were united in the endeavor to drive the
Mohammedans
into Andalusia.
The kingdoms
of Navarre,
Mohammedan
influence grad-
fell
came under
sovereign.
86
51
CHARACTERISTICS
80.
many
features.
The average
inhabitant of Spain
was
indifferent to plastic
It
the national artistic talents being limited to music.
mattered little to him whether his church was Gothic or
art,
South.
interiors is
in the cathedral
throbbed in
FIG. 43
88
51
EXAMPLES
81.
Burgos Cathedral.
built at
may
The
florid
effigies
of
characteristic
of
lantern itself is
and the
saints,
the
intricate
Spanish Gothic.
somewhat
like
tall
The effect
dome whose
of the
walls,
is
gigantic in
its
proportions,
it is
as
82.
Cathedral of
St.
Gregorio.
The entrance
to
FIG. 44
90
51
by
its
expression of the
races of people.
83.
Segovia Cathedral.
different
45,
much
Mohammedan
it
previous mosque.
was
built to
fit
92
51
ANALYTICAL STUDY
PLANS
84. The plans of the Spanish cathedrals are wide in
comparison with the length. The choir is usually west of
The dome over the crossing is similar in
the crossing.
treatment to examples found in Southern France. Traceried, open spires surmount the towers at the west end,
similar to these details in
Germany.
WALLS
The
85.
ideas, and
walls
in late
ROOFS
86.
The
ceries,
the
COLUMNS
87.
piers,
The
as at Burgos,
very massive.
OPENINGS
88.
triforium
was sometimes
sively used.
51
93
MOLDINGS
89.
ment
ture.
They
of conception, as are all details of Spanish architecIn a few isolated cases, the moldings are well chosen
and are
in
no way
ORNAMENT
90. In the Spanish churches, the reredos, or screen
behind the altar, was richly ornamented, being often as wide
It was usually
as the nave and reaching to the vaulting.
constructed of stone, and was treated with canopies and
niches containing figures, elaborate paneling being placed
between. The painting was naturalistic, and the gilding
was applied so solidly as to give the effect of real metal.
Much
was introduced,
Spanish
style.
On
the exterior, numerous sculptured figures were introduced, and these were intermingled with heraldic devices
filled
example of
this is
shown
in the
Fig. 44.
characteristic of Spanish art
is
the
demand
for realism,
94
51
REVIEW EXERCISES
Describe the contrasting characteristics of the French and
English cathedral plans and state why the general system of planning
is less uniform in France than in England.
1.
2.
What
is peculiar to
contrasting characterdistinguish the interior effects of French and English cathedrals?
(a)
(a)
Why
England? and
in
(b)
What
in France?
What
4.
cathedral roofs?
What
5.
(a)
nave columns?
What
6.
(b)
doorways?
(c)
window
and English
tracery?
German
cathedrals
What
(6)
(a)
What
10.
In what
way does
style?
11.
end
(a)
of the
What
XI century?
section?
12.
What
51
95
SECULAR ARCHITECTURE
INTRODUCTION
As cathedrals were the first important structures of
middle ages, during which Gothic construction and
ornamentation were developed, the studies thus far have
been confined to the development of the Gothic system in
these buildings. As a matter of fact, however, every build91.
the
men and
by
their consideration as
monuments
of
utility
basilica.
Cathedral
building was
ally the
same:
The problem
structural sense.
To
The
economy
of material.
plan,
96
51
92.
castles
is
castle,
where
all
in.
The keep,
or donjon, a
forti-
51
97
98
all
Around
51
oil,
molten
lead, etc.
on the
These openings,
besiegers below.
called louvers.
was
carried off by
means
of chimneys.
94. In the 14th century, the great hall was divided into
two apartments, one of which was known as the withdrawing
room, where the lord and his family could retire after meals,
but the hall was still retained for business and dining purposes.
Sleeping rooms, when introduced, were often dark,
cheerless apartments, and were designated by the term
chamber, a word derived from the Latin, meaning a dark vault.
With the growth of the royal power, the fortifications
became a less prominent feature, as the danger of petty
wars between the nobles was decreased. In the 15th century, the plans of the castles became more regular, generally
rectangular in outline, but they
bailey, or court, as in Fig. 46 (b]
.
still
retained
These
details
the
inner
developed
prevailed throughout.
95.
a
hill,
51
within.
The
99
and as
late as the
century
many prominent
when
was
100
51
EXAMPLES
CASTL.ES
96.
Bodiam
AND CHATEAUX
Castle.
In Fig. 47 (a)
is
shown Bodiam
The square
Castle, in England, with its surrounding moat.
tower was used more in England than on the Continent.
The
to serve as targets
97.
Chateau Pierrefonds.
in France, Fig. 47
The
may
be found in
nearly
As
chateau.
The
architectural
development of
the
fortress
halls
also,
(ft)
FIG. 47
101
102
51
was
The towers and walls were both machicolated and battlemented, with loopholes between the embrasures of the
battlements. The main entrance was protected by a moat
and a walled court and was closed by a portcullis. All the
walls, except the court, rise from the edge of a steep bluff.
The fagades on the quadrangular inner court are less
The windows here are larger, and
military in appearance.
traceries and foliations are prominent in their design, as
shown in Fig. 48 (a). Numerous dormer-windows are surmounted by crocketed gables and finials, and a traceried
balustrade stands above the cornice. These, with grotesque
gargoyles, heraldic animals, and richly carved moldings, combine to produce a most imposing architectural composition.
In front of the main staircase is a bronze equestrian statue
of the founder, the Duke of Orleans, and opposite, on the
right, is the entrance to the chapel, with
window over
an elaborate rose
The
with elaborately
gabled
(ft)
103
FIG. 48
104
51
The
Hoensarzburg Castle.
burg, in
101.
fortified cities,
architect.
modern design
102.
its
Chateau at Blols.
of these
chateaux
is
until
XII, in the early part of his reign, rebuilt a portion of it, and
the wing bearing his name, Fig. 50, presents one of the
daintiest compositions in Gothic domestic architecture.
(6)
FIG. 49
105
218-1
LT
101
51
FIG. 51
108
51
may be more
closely studied.
The entrance
110
ILT 30327
112
51
to
104.
Private Chateaux.
Among
citizens, that of
Jacques Coeur, at
The street front prea fine example.
sents a central pavilion, in which a large entrance, flanked
is
by a smaller one,
in plan, and at the angles were slightly projecting buttresses that carried the vaulting under the stairs.
It will be well to note these buttresses carefully, and also the
was octagonal
that
reappear
in
a later structure
The
this
buttress
is
of
importance.
windows on each
stairs,
side of
and as the
stairs
sides
of the stairs are also different, there being three tiers of windows on one side and only one on the other. This arrange-
FIG. 56
114
(ft)
115
FIG. 58
116
51
105. Among the private chateaux is Chateau de Nacqueshown in Fig. 58 (a). The residence portion of this
building has been remodeled, and the old moat in front of
the main terrace is now converted into a lily pond. The old
ville,
entrance to the inner court, with its drawbridge and port59 (a), still stands, however, and serves as a grim
reminder of the good old days "when knights were bold."
cullis, Fig.
106.
Cliaumont Chateau.
The chateau
of
Chaumont,
The
situation
is
ideal for an
is
most
suit-
a varied one, as
it
118
51
About the middle of the 16th century, Chaumont was purchased by Catherine de Medici, who owned it for 9 years.
After that it was sold and resold many times, until in the
18th century, it was bought by a Mr. Leray, who turned it
TOWE&
HATFIEL& HOUSE
FIG. 60
119
FIG. 61
120
51
107.
FIG. 62
castle,
and
in
of furnishings,
108.
Warwick
Castle.
Among
still
121
FIG. 63
122
tower.
in
1370,
is
Guy,
legendary
first
earl
of
51
an irregular
named
after
Warwick.
Guy's tower
the base, and has
the
court,
as
shown.
into
long
shown
in Fig. 59
109.
shown
in Fig. 62.
Palaces in Germany.
palaces at
war,
when
their
safety.
many
of
During
other places,
111.
and
(t>),
The
palaces
respectively,
Cavalli
present
and Foscari,
the
Fig.
same general
64
(a)
details
123
FIG. 64
124
as
Ducal
the
that
except
Palace,
they
are
51
differently
arranged.
The
single
known
as the house of
Desdemona.
TOWN HALLS
The prosperous condition of the individual cities
Netherlands and in Germany greatly influenced their
112.
in the
political architecture.
had developed
Owing
to the
form
of
government
country, it was
necessary for the cities to protect themselves rather than to
depend on the king or any specific power, and through these
that
in
this
part
of
the
honor
The
most picturesque
at this period.
113.
The town
in the history
of the country.
114.
The
115.
The town
inn
\m
urn
prtiin
iimijtti
iiiiinii!
mil
iii
!.,!
inn
I.
101
51
Pin. C5
HfJSJi
'
Fir..
(iG
Fid. 07
126
FIG. C8
ILT 3032
130
51
116. Of a more simple character is the city hall at Brunswick, Germany, Fig. 70. The design of this building is
decidedly ecclesiastical, yet it presents the same indifference
to regularity and balance that characterizes all Gothic conIn this example, the high-pitched roof over the
structions.
is
dormer-windows.
117.
dence in the
is
style.
118. The
takes more of
France, Fig. 72, parthe feudal character that is seen in the early
chateaux of France. The walls surrounding it enclose a
court and are crested with battlements supported on corbels.
Corbeled towers guard the angles, and the characteristic doors
for
pedestrians
interior.
119.
FIG. 71
134
51
The
walls
are
more regular
in
design
than in
other
Gothic style, the symmetry and proportion of the Netherland edifices are contrary to the characteristics of Gothic
architecture in other countries.
(See Figs. 66, 67, and 68.)
Elaborate tracery and paneling characterize the window
openings, rows of windows being arranged symmetrically
on each side of the center of the building or between
CITY GATES
120. Many city gates still remain in the towns that were
once walled or partly walled for protection. Among the
most picturesque gates are those of York, England, as
shown in Fig. 73. These gates are battlemented and are
protected by small turrets in which are loopholes for the
discharge of small projectiles. There is something deeply
impressive about these formidable relics of feudal days as
they still stand at the entrances of the older cities. At
York, as at other places, the city has grown beyond its
original limits, and some of the old city gates are now
included within the confines of the city proper, as shown in
Fig. 74.
121.
more ponderous
ture
is
very picturesque.
Fu.. 75
138
is in
51
buildings.
it is
split into
MINOR DWELLINGS
123.
Some
over (see Fig. 77). This was termed open-timber construction, and was essentially Gothic in
principle, as heavy
timbers supported roofs and floors, while the brickwork
was simply an enclosing screen between the supports.
In Germany, the roofs of these houses were very high, and
frequently contained more stories than the house proper,
which it covered. The space under the roof, as in Fig. 78 (a)
was used as a drying room for the household wash.
,
some
In
street,
tion;
cities,
the ridge
was placed
parallel with
the
139
FIG. 77
141
124.
Small brick residences were also numerous, parGermany and the Netherlands. On these the front
walls were carried up in a gable, the pitches of which, instead
ticularly in
FIG. 79
Fig. 79.
REVIEW EXERCISES
Describe the architectural characteristics of (a) the Early French
chateaux, (I)) the English castles.
1.
2.
Make
What important
city
Make
gate of the
represents.
5.
What were
middle ages?
142
51
MOSLEM ARCHITECTURE
(637
A. D. TO 1492 A. D.)
INTRODUCTION
125. Moslem, or Saracenic, architecture is the term
applied to the constructions of the nations that were followers
of the teachings of Mohammed.
Gothic architecture developed from the Romanesque
through a natural progress of construction problems. In a
similar manner, Romanesque architecture developed from
the Roman vaulted style, and Roman architecture in the
Western Empire adopted the Greek orders and developed
to suit the requirements of the Roman constructions.
Byzantine architecture developed in the Eastern Empire
from the Roman domed style, but as Byzantium was origi-
them
126.
Moslem
sidered under
its
its
architecture and
ornament
entirely.
will
be con-
principal nationalities:
Each
Indian, Arabian,
nation influenced the
style.
f>l
143
INFLUENCES
127.
conquering the
after
finest countries in
Asia and
In the
remote antiquity.
known
that the
tinguished each
other by
character of
On
Indians, and
Persians, the Arabian people produced a style of ornament
that formed an important part in the compromise now called
their
contact with
the
Greeks,
East
in
144
51
Geological.
different
129.
Climatic.
The
climate varied
Roman Empire
remote parts, were wars for conquest and not for the extenWith the Moslems, however, the
sion of Christianity.
them
It
into a nation,
51
H5
131.
stated, the
constructions.
as successor to
the religion and the chief ruler over all the countries that
worshiped according to the Moslem rites. These rites were
set forth in a book called the Koran, written by Mohammed
by dictation from an angel alleged to have appeared to him
in a vision.
The
tural structure.
multiplication of capitals,
sec-
ular,building.
The
women
dwelt, and
was
also
street.
51
147
CHARACTERISTICS
132. The temples, or places of religious service, of the
Moslems are called mosques, and these with the palaces and
tombs constitute the most important architectural structures
The mosques
consisted
of
low,
brilliant
flat-roofed
buildings, within which numerous rows of columns supported a series of arcades that gave the interior a mysterious and complex appearance, as shown in Fig. 80 (b).
These were roofed over so as to give a dome effect on the
of
which
the
muezzins,
or
priests,
summoned
the
faithful to worship.
the
Moslems
to
make any
pictorial
geometrical constructions representing intricate and ingenious fretwork and interlacing of straight and curved lines.
schemes appear
to
be
that this
command-
districts
where the
forms.
introduction of quotations from the Koran in Arabian
characters interwoven with elaborate geometrical ornament,
is an innovation original with the Moslems, and friezes and
The
more popular.
148
51
EXAMPLES
133.
At Cordova,
other cities in
all
The Alhambra.
A. D.
134.
of this structure, Fig. 80 (a), is impressive, but it is undecowere other feudal castles. The interior, however, was
rated, as
all
latticed
wood.
most imposing
It is built in
two different
styles, the
it is
still
part of the original Moorish prayer tower, while the top conIt is hardly conceivsists of a crown of Renaissance detail.
able that two such widely differing styles of architecture
could be combined in one design and result in as harmonious
a composition; yet the Giralda of Seville is as satisfactory a
composition as can be found in any country. For two-thirds
of its height (about 200 feet) the tower consists of a plain
massive structure faced with reddish tiles. Eighty feet above
the ground the severity of the tower is relieved by a characteristic surface decoration in panels diapered in arabesque
ornament. The original design was battlemented at the
top, as
were
all
rs-i
LT
101
s 51
Re,. 81
150
51
will
(Art.
154).
136.
137.
Mosque at Cordova.
The mosque
at
Cordova,
*
*
OF TH MO5QUE ATCOfcDOVA
PIG.
83]
this forest of
columns
is
51
151
ANAL.YTICAJ, STUDY
PLANS
138. The plans of the mosques (see Fig. 83) generally
consisted of a rectangle with an open, unroofed space in the
center, containing a fountain for ablution as enjoined by the
Koran. Around this open space was a series of columns
supporting arcades, and on the side toward the sacred city
of
Mecca
(east) extra
to
give greater depth of covered space. At the corners, minarets arose, and these were usually octagonal, though in
some instances they were square. Some of the eastern
WALLS
139.
The Moslem
walls
were
constructed
of
brick,
In
tiles, rare stones, or relief plaster.
the interior of the Alhambra, the walls are wainscoted to a
height of 4 feet with glazed tiles, above which a rich
face decoration in
arabesque decoration
Fig. 85.
the
first
story,
is
In Cairo,
ROOFS
140. The ceilings were usually flat, except where a
dome was used, and were richly decorated in colors and gildThe dome was a characteristic feature of the mosques
ing.
and tombs
Spain.
but
is
KlG.
>>0
154
51
155
dome is seldom hemispherical, but of a bulbous shape, and windows were frequently placed in the
lower parts. The domes were built over square compartments, and the pendentives of the Byzantine style were
replaced by a series of projecting corbels, one over another.
followed, the
COLUMNS
141. Many
early Moslem buildings used old
columns taken from Roman or Byzantine ruins. A characteristic style soon developed, however, and in the Alhambra are found examples of original compositions that are at
once graceful and pleasing. The capitals are usually square,
with a long necking, and the supporting column is tall and
slender.
(See Figs. 86, 87, and 88.)
of
the
OPENINGS
142.
excessive heat.
in Spain.
wooden beam or an
iron rod.
MOLDINGS
143. Moldings were of little importance, their place
being taken by elaborate bands of surface decoration.
Occasionally, however, moldings of the Byzantine model
were used around doorways and window openings.
Fir.. 89
51
159
ORNAMENT
144.
The crowning
Moslem
glory of
architecture
was
most beautiful
results.
primarily in place of
Moorish Ornament.
of
interwoven
ration
arises
FIG. 90
51
161
shown
is
147.
of the Moorish
three primaries blue, red, and yellow, the last being represented by gold and the secondary colors purple, green,
and orange occurred only in the mosaic dados. These,
being nearer the eye, formed a point of repose from the
more brilliant coloring above.
148.
be remarked here that among the Egyptians, Greeks, Arabs, and Moors, the primary colors were
used exclusively in the earliest period of the arts, and, during
the decadence, the secondary colors were used.
Thus, in
were
Pharaonic
of
the
the
period
painted
temples
Egypt,
of
the
Ptolemaic
those
in
while
colors,
primary
entirely
period used the secondaries. The early Greek temples were
It
may
162
(a)
(c)
FIG. 91
51
(c)
218-1
I.
101
51
Fie. 92
51
163
and
tint is
149.
In Moorish
art,
the upper portions of the design and the secondary and terThis is entirely in accordtiary colors in the lower portions.
151.
Interlaced Ornament.
Moorish interlaced
governed by certain geometrical patterns in its
formation, and although the number of these patterns is
small the variety of designs produced on them is great.
ornament
is
FIG. 93
164
51
165
between each pair being twice the distance between the lines
composing each pair, and (2) of diagonal lines drawn through
the pattern at an angle of 45, and spaced a distance apart
The diagonal
equal to the vertical and horizontal pairs.
lines are arranged so that the set of squares formed by their
intersection will contain in their centers the intersection of
parts.
system shown
Figs.
in Fig.
91 (d)
and
(e)
are
based on
the
93 (a).
the
characteristic
devices
M,
166
154.
The forms
just
51
mentioned
FIG. 94
is
and
is
similar to the
155.
218-1
LT
I0l
51
51
167
observed.
157.
Koran, and
Arabia.
Byzantine
in character,
Another pattern
number
is
is
of scrolls of
while the
filling in is typically
Arabian.
itself, it is
fascinatingly complicated
158.
same
in
East Indian
every respect.
Ornament.
abundance of decoration.
The
is
usually
filled
FIG. 96
168
51
169
the
modern
style.
shown off by a
or
a
tint
on
dark grounds.
light grounds
by light
dark
tint
159.
on
is
lines
ornament enclosed
in the
is
170
51
160.
Turks
is
mosque down
When
same
customs, the resulting designs are certain to show the deficiency of intellect or refinement that the borrowing people
possessed in contrast to that of those from whom it was
borrowed; and this is the case with the Turks when compared with the Arabs. There is the same difference in
refinement, elegance, and judgment between the Turkish
51
and
artists,
in the
171
style.
161
all its
Indian
embroidery
is
found
of
treatment.
162.
Persian Ornament.
The
outlines of Persian
ornament are generally taken from the conceptions of Arabian architecture, but they are modified by Indian tradition
and the peculiar genius of the Persian race. The floral motif
some examples
even
is
it is
treated in a
manner
that
is
half
naturalism.
172
51
164.
The
Indian and Persian styles resemble each other in their polychromatic decoration. The rule is usually a silhouette, with
The
manuscripts, which were widely spread through all Mohammedan countries, would naturally tend to spread the influence
of this
it
REVIEW EXERCISES
1.
What
2.
4.
Into
what
classes is
Mohammedan ornament
5.
Make a drawing
6.
Make a drawing
of Moorish interlaced
divided?
a Moorish arch supported by two or four columns with appropriate decoration in the
spandrels. For this, the general idea of the arch may be taken from
Fig. 82, 84, or 88; the capitals of the columns from Fig. 86 or 94, and
the color scheme from Fig. 92.
intersecting lines, as in Fig, 93 (0) or (0)
ornament on a system
of
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
AND ORNAMENT
(PART
4)
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE
(A. D. 1500
TO A. D.
1800)
INFLUENCES
The
influences that
to classic architectural
2.
Geographical.
all
3.
Geological
and Climatic.
in
The
The
different
geological and
countries and lent
some
places.
about the
middle of the 15th century led to a spread of knowledge, a
spirit of inquiry, and a diffusion of freedom of thought
4.
Religious.
invention of
51
printing
Since the
fall
of the
174
Roman Empire
literature
all
51
except
Through the
was
manor houses,
great
structures
5.
were erected.
Political
and Historical.
As
itself
marked
first
intellectual
in literature,
it
public
generally and thus influences the architectural development of the period. Dante,
Petrarch, and Boccaccio, three celebrated Italian writers,
soon
affects
the
taste
fled
from there
to Italy,
where
51
175
classic ideas
that
it
that the
architecture
came
to
be
its
Holy Roman Empire. However, owing to constant disbetween the succeeding emperors and the popes,
Italy suffered from almost constant internal dissensions
putes
and
In
strife.
the
latter
part
of
the
12th
century,
the
ILT 30331
emperor
Northern
176
51
govern themselves.
brought back silks, spices, and jewels from the Orient, and
Venice became one of the richest cities of Europe.
Florence grew strong through the commercial spirit of
her citizens. There were large manufacturers of silk and
woolen goods and jewelry. Many of the citizens followed
banking as a profession, and their gold coin, which was
called a florin, and was first coined in 1252, became the
standard coin of Europe.
One of these Florentine families of merchants, Medici by
name, rose to great prominence in Florentine politics, and
many
generations.
51
177
CHARACTERISTICS
Renaissance architecture was the characteristic style
throughout civilized Europe during the 15th and 16th cenIt was a deliberate break in the system of
turies.
designing
that had characterized the buildings up to this time.
The
nature and requirements of the materials no longer fixed the
9.
developed,
classic orders
all
other styles
down
10.
On
account of their
architects
The Italian
principles of construction that led to the end.
schools of painting also affected the buildings in this respect,
as they created the tendency to consider buildings as works
of art instead of structural problems.
Generally speaking, there was a tendency to combine the
Roman
The body
of
the walls and the decorative facing were one and the same
thing constructively, because the architects of the period
Roman
178
51
building
architectural conditions.
11.
more
as
a picture of masses and lines than as structures for a utilitarian purpose, as they were often designed by men whose
12.
The Renaissance
architects unhesitatingly
borrowed
They
FIG.
180
51
The ribbed vaulting of the Gothic architects was abandoned soon after the Renaissance movement, and the old
Roman method with the solid arch was revived. This did
not occur in actual construction, however, so much as in
decorative form, for instead of the solid-concrete vault of the
Romans, the Renaissance architects covered many of their
halls
ANALYTICAL STUDY
13.
Although several of the most imposing catheEurope were erected during the Renaissance period,
the style found its most luxurious expression in municipal
structures, palaces, country residences, and elaborate fronts
of town buildings and monuments of civic improvement.
the Gothic.
drals of
PLANS
14. Gothic plans were irregular and were composed of
a multitude of parts, tending to create a feeling of largeness.
They included towers, spires, turrets, etc., and all
passages and apartments were as far as possible vaulted in
All Renaissance
stone, except in the minor structures.
plans are symmetrical and are proportional, so that each
part bears a certain relation to every other part. Few parts,
simply arranged, tend to make the buildings appear small.
(See Fig.
2.)
details,
and were
FRONT
182
51
compartments, and
and decoration.
its
grandeur
is
produced by spaciousness
WALLS
15.
were
richly ornamented.
1.
The stones
ROOFS
16. The roofs in the Gothic period were steep and
The vaulting
pointed, in order to cover the vaulting.
added richness to the interior through its multiplicity of
and pendants. Open timber roofs, candidly
displaying their construction in richly carved details, were
ribs, bosses,
line.
was raised
in
184
51
it
COLUMNS
17. When used in the Gothic buildings, the columns
were purely structural, witnout any fixed proportion of
length to thickness. The capitals and bases were either
simply molded or richly foliated, according to the period,
and although the shafts were frequently clustered, they were
never planted against a wall purely for decorative purposes.
Renaissance columns were designed after the five orders
of classic architecture, which at this time became the rule
for everything.
Columns and pilasters were frequently
appliqued against the wall of a building like a buttress but
purely for decorative purposes. Thus, fagades came to be
divided into three parts, namely, basement, superstructure, and
roof, in
shown
in
Fig.
3.
The
shafts
fluted,
foliage or fruit.
OPENINGS
18. Openings were placed wherever required in the
Gothic period, without any attempt at symmetry or centering of one window over another. The windows were large,
divided by mullions, and glazed in richly designed painted
The jambs were formed in receding planes, in the
glass.
angles of which small circular shafts with carved capitals
support a richly molded pointed arch.
Renaissance
symmetrically disposed
openings were
throughout the facade, the doors usually being in the
middle, while the windows were evenly distributed each
side and one over another in the different stories.
The
windows were small in Southern Europe, and square or
circular-headed, usually without mullions, while in Northern
186
subdivisions.
projecting
Instead
architrave
designed on classic
51
lines,
MOLDINGS
19.
Moldings
in
cornice,
of verticality.
Renaissance
architecture
presents
its
symmetrically
independence
of
the Gothic
period.
ORNAMENT
20. Stained-glass decoration in the immense traceried
windows was characteristic of the Gothic style. The human
figure carved life size in niches and along the jambs of the
portals gave scale to the buildings and details, so that their
relative sizes were at once apparent.
Color as an exterior
embellishment was attained by the use of marbles or natural
v-
(a)
188
51
were
Opaque
21.
it
developed
in
each
become
51
189
ITALIAN RENAISSANCE
22. Renaissance architecture in Italy may be divided
into three separate styles of design, each partaking of the
same general
FLORENTINE RENAISSANCE
INFLUENCES
23.
cities
Geographical.
made up
smaller cities,
of a central
Political
and Historical.
The independent
cities
of Italy formed leagues during this period and one city ruled
over the others. Pisa became subject to Florence in 1406,
and the latter city soon became the dominating power in
51
191
CHARACTERISTICS
28.
rugged dignity
around interior
and
They
are built
in
the
fagades in consequence
cornice crowning the walls
massive
The Florentine
in
EXAMPLES
The
examples in the Italian Renaissance style will be grouped under the names of the architects
I L T 30332
30.
architectural
FIG. 7
51
193
were responsible
that
style
Brunelleschi.
31.
at
Rome,
built the
dome over
dome
and
is
octagonal in plan,
is
is
ones.
built
wooden
The
roof.
interior
is
interesting
because
it
is
first in
other countries.
Riccardi Palace. The Riccardi Palace, Fig. 1, comyear 1430, by Michaelozzo, a contemporary of
Brunelleschi, was the first residence erected in the RenaisIt is an imposing structure with a rectangular
sance style.
fagade two stories in height, standing over a massive basement, and crowned with a classic cornice of almost excessive
33.
pleted in the
proportions.
The general
what
exterior appearance of these palaces is someand forbidding, but they were nearly
fortress-like
always
built
light
51
195
Palace. The Pitti Palace, Fig. 8, by Bruembodies the same ideas on a much larger scale,
but the cornice is too small for so massive a building.
Here, the wall surface is broken by heavy rusticated pilasters
in two stories, while the windows on the garden wings are
small and unobtrusive. The windows on the court, however,
are exceedingly wide, occupying, with their flanking columns
and pilasters, the full space between the rusticated orders.
34.
Pittl
nelleschi,
35.
a deep student of
and a musician. He, with
Brunelleschi, literally started the Renaissance style in Italy.
He wrote a treatise on architecture that materially influenced
the minds of his students and followers and did much to
popularize the style. His design of the Ruccellai Palace is
the first Renaissance building in which superimposed pilasters
were used on the exterior. This structure is lighter in style
and more refined in character than the Pitti Palace (Fig. 8)
classic literature, a writer, a poet,
comparison
crowning cornice
36.
is
so
much smaller
much of the
Church
of
St.
is
lost.
Andrea Mantua.
is
shown
St.
Andrea
in Fig. 2 (a), is
many Renaissance
imporchurches were
modeled.
classic
The
sept.
a magnificent
windows
dome on
a tall
drum, which
is
pierced with
FIG. 9
FIG. 10
196
51
197
palaces
sill.
L T 10118
198
51
ROMAN RENAISSANCE
INFLUENCES
Geographical, Geological, and Climatic.
40.
The
41.
Religious.
2.
Charlemagne
in
Rudolf
Emperor
of Hapsburg.
at
papal palace
51
was entrusted
and others.
sans,
who
199
to
afterwards
Renaissance both at
the
spread
of
the
42. Political and Historical. As a central government was recognized at Rome, fortified palaces were not
Rome was the center of the old
necessary as in Florence.
and the remains of such structures as the
Colosseum, the Pantheon, and the Fora gave impetus to
the revival and at the same time furnished material for
classic traditions,
building purposes.
CHARACTERISTICS
43.
As
it
was
inevitable that
lute
the architect.
the city.
The
most dignified
was developed
simplicity.
when
An
attempt
at
unity in design
200
51
shown
in
tiers
of arcades, as
Colosseum.
EXAMPLES
44.
Bramante.
Roman
Renaissance
The
was
first
architect
of
note
in
the
Bramante, who
was born in
He was educated as
was
in Milan.
it
Late in
life,
202
architecture and
the
dome
among
51
at Florence,
much
Up
had
Consequently, they measured the details and proporand reduced architectural design
problem
in
mathematics.
assured
its
satisfied
will create
all
sorts of
frivolous
details
in the effort to
effect.
204
51
to the
year 1546,
III.
Michelangelo completed the
building with the exception of the dome, which was finished
after his death in 1564, by Fontana.
Michelangelo left a
plaster
model
of the
it
was completed
206
on a
tidal
wave
51
this
great
of popularity,
51.
St. Peter's
Cathedral at
Rome was
the
most impor-
dome was finished at the time of his death, in 1564, and the
dome itself was carried out in accordance with Michelangelo's
model by Giacomo
della
Fontana.
PLAN
208
51
The design
by Palladio
at
Vicenza.
is
this
it,
one of the
finest in
is
it
Rome.
Roman
53.
among
Roman
means
of a diligent study of the ancient monuments, reproduced in the palatial residences of their aristocrats the most
was obtained by
in the
210
51
bas-reliefs
rooms
of
these princely
dwellings.
by the
careful
proportioning
and arrangement
the
of its position
55.
The
on the
finest palace in
Rome.
11, is
a magnificent enclosure over 125 feet square and is surrounded on four sides by a deep colonnade, over which the
second story of the palace extends. The colonnade is some-
what on the
Architecture
83, History of
half
columns
I.
T 10119
214
51
stories.
The upper
pilasters face the .walls over the columns below in superimposed orders according to the rules of Vignola.
Palace Caprarola.
58.
from Rome.
in outline, enclosing
buildings in
Rome.
subjects,
reception of statues
lack of
windows accounts
216
51
VENETIAN RENAISSANCE
INFLUENCES
60. Geographical. The importance of Venice was
always due to her geographical position being especially
advantageous to Oriental trade. This trade brought wealth
and consequently architectural development.
it
Climatic. The climatic conditions favor an outas Venice is very warm in summer, though tempered by sea breezes; yet it is sufficiently cool in winter to
The former condition
require artificial heating of interiors.
62.
door
life,
Renaissance period.
Political and Historical. During the 15th cenVenice conquered the surrounding country and appointed
Venetian governors, thus strengthening her republican form
64.
tury,
of government.
Many wealthy families arose to prominence
and a great rivalry existed in the erection of handsome
(a)
217
218
inent citizens
that
51
had
acquired
Oriental trade and manufactures.
Northern
Italy,
eventually
all
CHARACTERISTICS
65.
the Gothic period, and being more isolated from Rome, they
were not so much influenced by classic traditions as were
the people of nearer cities like Florence. Therefore, instead
of adopting the classic forms at once, there was a period of
transition, during
The
architecture of Venice
was
in
of land
as
its
prototype.
Fio. 21
220
51
EXAMPLES
Venetian Architects. The principal architects of
Venetian school were Sansovino and his immediate
Sansovino built the staircase in the court of
successors.
the Ducal Palace, Fig. 23, the Zecca, or Mint, and the church
66.
the
He commenced
the library of
Mark, Fig. 21, but this structure was finished after his
death by one of his successors.
Sansovino was succeeded by two rivals, Scamozzi and
The former finished the library of St. Mark and
Palladio.
erected numerous churches and palaces. He possessed little
originality, however, and Palladio, with his transcendent
St.
talent, finally
was an author as well as an architect. He carefully measured the Roman antiquities and published drawings of them in a book on architecture, which did much to
His designs were
influence other European designers.
Palladio
mostly erected
in brick
ancient
appropriate to
its
plan.
completed by Sansovino,
The
in 1554.
was
21
FIG. 22
222
51
is
The Vendramini
Vendramini Palace.
69.
commenced
Palace,
in 1481
established
a type of large-
flanking wall
ture,
which
is
mass on each
side, is a typical
also traceable in
some
Venetian
fea-
70. Cornaro Palace. The Cornaro, Fig. 20 (6), commenced in 1532 by Sansovino, is similar to the Vendramini
Palace. However, the openings are smaller and the first
higher, and
is built
of rusticated
story
is
what
71.
Pesaro Palace.
The Pesaro
stonework some-
most
designed by Longhena,
1650,
dignified comthere
no
is
doubt
that
the fagade is
position, although
overornamented. It belongs to the later period of the
in
is
L T 30334
224
51
Palazzo del Consigllo. The Palazzo del Conor council hall, at Verona, Fig. 5 (b) by Fra Giocondo,
a characteristic structure erected about 1500.
It consists
72.
siglio,
is
of
73.
Church
The church
is
buttresses that extend over the aisles and thus add to the
richness of the exterior effect.
smaller
dome
covers the
225
FIG. 24
226
51
ANALYTICAL, STUDY
PLANS
74.
The
a straight front.
Stairways well in the central part usually
opened on a court.
WALLS
75. In Florence, rusticated walls with a dominant proNo exterior pilasters
jecting cornice were characteristic.
or columns were used, except as details of window treatment.
In
Rome,
pilasters,
two or more
stories in height,
wall
approached
space
the
was
Roman
the Colosseum.
ROOFS
76. Over galleries and passages semicircular vaults
were used in Florence, and these were richly decorated.
In church work, the dome was introduced over the crossing and the nave vault was coffered, as in the Pantheon
at Rome.
Tiles were used on the exterior and were sometimes visible, but usually the pitch was too flat for them to
show. In Rome, coffered vaults were used for interior
Domes
effect, but the exterior roofs were rarely visible.
UlJJJUUUblJLPJUlJUULIUl
(f\
228
mounted on
a high
51
a lantern
became
In Venice, a
characteristic of all churches of the period.
balustrade was carried above the upper cornice and the roof
behind
it
sufficient pitch to
shed the
rain.
COLUMNS
77.
seum, and the entablature was broken out over them and
then back along the wall space between, as in the Pesaro
Palace, Fig. 5 (a).
OPENINGS
78.
Windows
The
Venice, the windows are tall, as in (/), and are set close
together, the fagade of a building being frequently treated
as a series of voids and solids, through the adoption of the
Rome.
.J-?%
r^^-sltoflffw^
SEN AT CNS ANDRE H?*1
S^>/7-Jl'!
^M'-W
AE
DF:
POR
PATR AE
^S^"
IWSi-
^^U^sLIiiffi
229
230
51
MOLDINGS
79. In Florence, the moldings are few and simple. In
Rome, the details of the classic style were followed as closely
as possible, but on a colossal scale.
details
ORNAMENT
80.
Fresco painting of the walls and ceilings was pracwas also sculptured ornament
masses
is
usually grouped in
with large areas
81.
On
and thus
frequently carved
with elaborate arabesques and classic ornament, as shown in
Fig. 26. The example shown in (a) was executed in white
marble, and consisted of two paneled pilasters for the side
trim and an elaborate entablature for the lintel, or cap. The
to the
frieze
82.
c
I
FTQ
97
232
The
inti
extremes
in
human
and was
51
figures
is
later carried to
France.
The arabesques
that
were carved
in panels
on the shafts
shown
and
were placed
in the semicircular
door
Ren-
in (d)
(e),
heads.
The use
from which
233
FIG. 28
(fir)
FIG. 29
234
FIG. 30
(d)
51
235
The forms
treatment
but
decoration
treatment
this
is
is
found
in
many
Renais-
is
and superthe
design one finds
Analyzing
the male figures suggestive of Hercules or Atlas, the tablet
appears to be modeled after a Roman altar, and the griffins,
figures, naturalistically rendered, support a tablet
acanthus scrolls, and Greek vase all appear to be of Pompeian origin. An unlimited variety of design can thus be
invented and when carried out in the varied possibilities of
color scheme, the painted ornament of the Renaissance presents a unique and interesting study.
Much of it is false,
REVIEW EXERCISES
1.
What
is
the
meaning
What
4.
What
of
Renaissance and
Gothic architecture?
5.
(a)
Into what
Renaissance
three
architecture
characteristics of each?
style
6.
of
its
and
(a)
state
by
whom
What was
(c)
schools,
divided?
Name
(b)
(b)
What was
the character
ornament?
7.
Who was
8.
(a)
On
What
(a)
is
Michelangelo?
the Vatican?
(b)
(b)
Vignola?
When was
it
erected?
236
51
FRENCH RENAISSANCE
(1515
TO
1800)
INFLUENCES
Geographical. France had by this time assumed
she was destined "to maintain practically
down to the present day. Under Louis XIV and Napoleon,
she acquired more territory, but soon lost it, so it need not be
83.
the
boundaries
85.
51
237
that France
Loire.
He
by his
one of the great Medici family of Italy, and through this
marriage and that of one of her later kings, France was
under Italian influence for nearly 100 years. Henry was
Under Henry
Lorraine,
leaders of
apartments of
238
freedom
that
had
51
1774.
He
revenues in
the people.
XV
Protestant countries.
all
Louis
With Louis
in
dition of the country could not stand the wasteful extravagance that had characterized the previous reigns, and the
But the
architecture of the period reflects this influence.
came too late. The revolution broke out and the
reaction
enraged populace
new conditions.
lines of the
Roman details
Greek
style
and
by these
influences.
51
239
CHARACTERISTICS
88.
tury (1461 to
to Henry III;
may be
divided
to
Louis XIV;
XV
89.
In Italy, the
almost
The
immediate.
severely classical disposition, while the open-country surroundings, where the chateaux were erected, demanded the
more picturesque treatment that could be attained through
the Gothic school.
The proximity
of
Rome
rendered the
purity, while in France, the detail was used freely and was
altered whenever necessary to suit the Gothic construction.
of view.
ILT 30335
240
5]
EXAMPLES
The most
90. Chateaux.
interesting monuments of
the Early French Renaissance are the chdteaux.
These constituted the country residences of the kings and their royal
relatives.
The chateaux are somewhat similar in character
but were situated farther away from
were used more as rural retreats than were
the
Italian
villas.
Renaissance throughout
91.
its
entire development.
Chateau de Blois.
The
largest,
and
in
some
The plan
posed
as
to
enclose
a court of
honor
in
wings so
dis-
the form of a
,\
Oi>Tbwr
PLAN OF
CHATEAU
Dt BLOI5
^^
M,AN OF
CHATEAU CHAMBORD
241
FIG. 31
242
51
quadrangle, this irregularity being a most conspicuous and characteristic bequest that was left to the new
structure by the old medieval castle on whose lines the
distorted
92.
Having discussed
wing
of
244
51
wall.
The coarse
are replaced by elegant modillions borrowed from the Corinthian order, and between them are carved a series of delicate
trudes,
246
of the
dawning Renaissance.
51
the buttresses at the floor levels, but with these the horizontal elements cease.
Every other detail inclines with the
as they ascend, and richly carved balconies extend
The balustrades of the balconies are
to pier.
stairs
from pier
is
two-story dormer
necting the top-story apartments.
breaks the continuity of this roof arcade with Gothic independence of symmetry, being just out of center. In fact, the
great charm of this entire facade lies in the disregard of the
absolute symmetry and duplication that was being followed
in Italy and later was to characterize the French style also.
96.
Chftteau Chenonceau.
Chenonceau, Fig.
of Francis
34, is
at Blois.
of about the
It
247
51
249
its
conical
Chateau Azay-le-Rideau.
97.
The chateau
of
Azay-
le-Rideau, Fig. 35, was begun in 1520, five years later than
Chenonceau and a few years before the completion of the
Francis I wing at Blois. It presents no single feature that
harmony
of arrangement,
and simplicity of
outline,
it
is
with the characteristic conical roof. The towers are battlemented, as is also the curtain wall between them in some
window openings
Chateau Chambord.
Fig. 36,
unromantic
timber has
all
been
251
FIG. 37
252
cut
Being
left
51
alone
at a considerable distance
fagade
is
The angles
by immense round
towers and the main fagade is broken by two others, so as
to include the outer corners of the donjon.
The walls are
divided into panels by horizontal string-courses and pilasters,
which, with the window openings and other details, are
arranged with rigid symmetry and regularity. Were it not
for the round towers, which are of enormous girth, the walls
would pass for commonplace Renaissance, but the roof that
crowns the whole structure is of most riotous Gothic, carried
out in Renaissance detail. It scarcely seems credible that
this
of the
same
shown
99.
in Fig. 37.
beauty.
was a double
staircase
as celebrated for
its
31
253
shown
shown
where it ended on a
one of the spiral stairways
starts from the landing shown, and winds to the left in a
continuous flight, while the second stairway starts at the
landing on the opposite side of the shaft and winds spirally
beneath the first. In the illustration, the two balustrades
above the
balcony.
roof, as
As shown
in Fig. 37,
in Fig. 38,
FIG. 38
show one over the other flank the two independent stairThe interior double stairway terminates in the lantern
shown in the center, Fig. 37, from \vhich access is obtained
to the immense roof, which is surrounded by a balustrade.
All the carved details are interwoven with the crowned F
or crowned salamander of Francis, and occasionally with the
crowned H of Henry II, his son, who inherited the chateau
that
ways.
and
left it
unfinished, notwithstanding
it for 12 years.
256
51
100.
was
of Francis
more than do
built in
windows grouped
The ornament
Venetian.
tinctly
Church
101.
du Mont, Fig.
40,
of St. Etienne
is
du Mont.
St.
Etienne
was one
Louvre Palace.
102.
Francis
The
man.
is
FIG. 41
257
258
51
which are constructed niches that were afterwards embellished with statues.
The height
is
103.
Classic
Period.
The
Classic
Renaissance
details.
more conspicuous.
104.
Fig.
full of historic
meaning.
wing of Francis I
Mansard constructed the
that
first
story in the Doric order, the second story in the Ionic order,
and the third story in the Corinthian order, precisely as the
259
FIG. 42
260
51
architect;
not
its
origin in classic
Rome.
105.
Fig. 42,
classic
was conspicuous by
its liberal
108.
is
To
structurally unnecessary.
FIG. 44
FIG. 45
264
51
in Paris.
dominant feature
is far
from
satisfactory.
neither
in the composition;
There
is
is
no
there an
it
is
which
112.
Petit Trianon.
erected by Louis
XV,
The
in 1766,
Petit
shows
Trianon,
Fig.
49,
The treatment
and shows no
265
FIG.
4fi
FIG. 48
51
269
ANALYTICAL STUDY
PLANS
113. The Gothic castle plans materially influenced the
early chateaux, many of which were built on the sites of old
medieval structures. A few large residence structures, however, were erected on entirely new sites, and Chambord may
be taken as an example of one of them. Chambord was an
The town houses
early attempt at an ideal palace plan.
retained the interior court of the medieval castle, and closed
The windows of
it on the street side with a screen wall.
the principal ground-floor apartments opened on the court
and not on the street. In Italy, the central courtyard was
It was usually surthe principal feature of the palaces.
rounded by a covered colonnade or an arcade over which
the second floor projected.
WALLS
114.
At
some
localities brick
tural orders
ROOFS
115.
The
to characterize the
characterized
the
Italian
style,
where,
owing
Chimney
to
narrow
stacks were
i70
51
examples
were made
271
in early
visible
above
COLUMNS
116. In the early work, pilasters were mere decorative
adjuncts to Gothic construction, but later they were paneled
and carved with geometrical and foliated ornament; whereas,
in Italy, geometrical decoration of the pilasters was unusual,
the pilaster there being used for its architectural value as an
In France, an
order, rather than for its decorative effect.
order of pilasters was used to support the window head in
the
first
story,
formed the
OPENINGS
117. The mullions and transoms of the Gothic style
remained in the Early Renaissance (see Fig. 33), but later,
as the orders were used successively in each story, the horizontal lines of their entablatures were used to mark the
sill-courses and lintel courses of the windows (see Fig. 42).
Symmetry, both in size and in arrangement, was aimed at
until toward the end of the period, when there was little
In Fig. 50 are shown
original feeling left in the designs.
three characteristic doorways. At (a) is an example from
classic details
XIV
door
at (c)
272
The
51
but a special
with
windows in
cornice,
the frieze, topped the Italian wall, while a balustrade surmounted the French wall, and dormer-windows appear above
it in the roof slope.
attic
rare in
the
Italian
style,
The heavy
MOLDINGS
The Early French moldings were a combination of
and Gothic, but the Gothic details gradually gave
way to the full classic profiles. The Italian moldings were
full and of great projection, especially in the great over118.
classic
ORNAMENT
119.
left
many
of
Fontainebleau.
'///'iSBafc--
').,
PIG.
51
i^isp
^frFV
274
51
work.
Francis
tion.
In (b)
is illustrated
the chateau, with the crowned L and A, for Louis XII and
Anne of Brittany, together with two shields, on which
grouped
tufts of
carved in
full relief.
121.
The designs
are similar to
panels
shown
in Fig.
30
(c)
and
(d)
51
human
275
REVIEW EXERCISES
What
1.
are the
general characteristics of
French Renaissance
architecture?
2.
(a)
divided?
What
3.
and
architecture
Italian residences?
What
4.
sance period?
6.
art into
political influences
France from
Italy?
8.
operative?
was
it
did
its
(c)
the
How
owe her
effect
made
when
of the country
9.
Revolution.
(a) What form of government followed
By whom was it overthrown?
10.
(d)
11.
In what
way was
by the overthrow
of the
French monarchy?
276
51
GERMAN RENAISSANCE
INFLUENCES
122.
Geographical.
Influ-
123. Geological.
many caused designs
to be
124.
Climatic.
125.
style.
Influences,
2.
Religious.
of a
From
own
national union of
its
all
down
emperor,
Austria, there
line of rulers,
51
277
The reign
it saw
but
and Renaissance.
Maximilian
I,
homogeneous empire.
In 1516,
until
1648,
religious liberty
granted.
As
finally
signed at Westphalia, in
France against their Emperor, and all the little courts of the
states adopted the French language and imitated the
immorality and prodigality that characterized the French
court and was destined to cause its destruction at the hands
of an enraged people.
German
LT
101-23
278
51
CHARACTERISTICS
The
characteristics of the
German Renaissance,
classic details.
therefore,
is
not so
refined as the
heavy. It
the Francis
period, in France.
time that
of the
it is
to the
German
naturally took a
Rococo copied the
it
all
of ornament.
In France, the rococo
out
of
the
grew
exaggerated and excessive
this style
decorations
The
France.
Italian
in the
same manner
as
it
was
into
until
the
reign of
showed strong
Francis
that
architecture
generally
51
270
EXAMPLES
128.
and Louis
XV
was received
into
XIV
FIG. 52
280
129.
money
The Zwinger
when
the decorator
51
is
unfet-
or talented artists.
galleries, at
elaborately ornamented
with
FIG. 53
forms
human
in great profusion.
FIG. 54
282
51
STUDY
131.
PLANS
German Renaissance,
In
WALLS
132. The gable ends, instead of conforming to the
pitches of the roof, assumed fantastic and irregular outlines,
as shown in Fig. 54.
Columns and pilasters were freely
used as wall decorations, and in this manner, effects of
FIG. 55
supporting
frieze
representing
51
283
appearance.
also singly in
many
instances.
ROOFS
133. High, pitched roofs, with their ridges parallel with
or at right angles to the street, were as numerous as in the
Gothic period, and elaborate stepped and scroll treatment
gave the gables great prominence where they faced the
The sloping roof, as in the Gothic
was
characterized
period,
by numerous dormers when it was
street (see Fig. 56).
shown
in Fig. 57.
COLUMNS
134.
details
as
decorative
Each
quently supported on projecting corbels instead of on independent pedestals. The faces of the pilasters, or narrow panels
between the windows, were carved in arabesque patterns, and
the columns were richly decorated with carved detail.
OPENINGS
135.
136.
MOLDINGS
The German moldings were heavy and lacked
refinement
and
purity
French moldings.
of
detail
that
characterized
the
the
284
51
285
On
at the
time of
286
51
Political
in 1648,
They
World and
of the
newly recognized
New
The
in
Europe.
navy
prosperity
was prodigious and in mari-
state
Europe.
CHARACTERISTICS
The
is
clearly
shown
in
their
or
monumental
scale
was projected.
The
is
FIG. 58
LT 30338
288
51
EXAMPLES
141.
Church, du B6guinage.
style.
The
The Church du
Be"guin-
the
is
the
long,
FIG. 59
51
289
neighboring countries.
The
Roman
little
architecture, but
143.
Tlic
structure
of
a public
is
character.
adapted
courses of stone and brick give variety to the front, while
carved cartouches are sparingly introduced into the wall
spaces.
trary to the
Dutch
characteristics.
290
51
ANALYTICAL STUDY
PLANS
144.
The development
WALLS
145.
Grotesque gables characterize the style throughWild curves, derived from the rococo ornament of
France and Germany, where the style was already on the
decline, were used in the outlines.
out.
ROOFS
146. The roofs continued to be high and steep, with
many elaborate dormer-windows and towers. The chimneys
stand out boldly and add to the picturesque grouping.
147.
OPENINGS
Windows were numerous and were crowded
148.
MOLDINGS
The moldings were coarse and not
closely
Pilasters with fluted or paneled faces flanked the
together.
jambs of windows, while entrance doors were treated with
columns and entablatures.
well propor-
ORNAMENT
149. Various grotesque forms were carved to fill panels
or other vacant spaces that could not be otherwise utilized.
The motifs were usually of Italian origin, but were worked
over and corrupted by the Dutch artists until their original
form was lost almost entirely. Much carved ornament was
executed in wood.
51
291
SPANISH RENAISSANCE
INFLUENCES
150. Geographical, Geological, and Climatic. See
Spanish Gothic Influences, History of Architecture and Ornament, Part
3.
The
result of this
tortures.
152.
Political
and Historical.
of
292
had added
to the
51
discovery of America.
which
Dutch republic,
Spain was later
CHARACTERISTICS
153. Spanish Renaissance is rich, florid, and fanciful.
The early work is interspersed with details from the Moorish
The
style, while the construction adheres to the Gothic.
are small and finely executed, little consideration
being given to the orders as structural details. Later, the
style assumes more classic proportions, and ends in the wild
extravagances of the rococo, as it did in other countries.
details
EXAMPLE
154. Hotel de V-Ille. The Hotel de Ville, or City
Hall of Seville, Fig. 60, is characteristic of the early period
of the Spanish Renaissance.
The pilasters in the first story,
with their paneled faces and rich arabesque carvings, are
not proportioned according to the rules of Vignola, but are
designed to suit the existing conditions. In the upper
the
Rome.
FIG. 60
294
51
ANALYTICAL STUDY
PLANS
In churches, wide naves prevail, sometimes without aisles. Over the crossing, domes are common, and the
155.
Largeness of scale
Italy.
is
characteristic of palaces
and
churches.
WALLS
156.
Gables
Brick, stone, and granite were freely used.
and
wooden
cornices
were
great
rarely employed
were
were
left
plain in
stonework on the
interior, to
be hung with
tapestries.
ROOFS
157. The roofs were flat, or low in pitch, and the towers
were completed with spires of slate or lead. Interior ceilings are usually richly coffered in wood.
COLUMNS
158.
The
OPENINGS
159.
of columns,
and were large in size,
that the entrance, or gateway, is a feature
owing
to the fact
51
of special
importance
among
295
carved pilasters.
MOLDINGS
160. Gothic and Moorish influences combined to produce moldings of great refinement in the Spanish Renaissance.
Entablatures are carried out and around detached
columns and pilasters, giving a variety of outline and
shadow
effect.
ORNAMENT
161.
The
Tilework
Southern Spain is excellent. Stained glass was vivid in
color and showed Flemish influences.
Ornamental ironin
REVIEW EXERCISES
1.
first
between
half of the
16th century.
2.
part in
3.
(a)
countries took
it?
affairs at
the
296
51
ENGLISH RENAISSANCE
INFLUENCES
162. Geographical. While England's isolated posiwas 'especially advantageous in the development of the
Gothic style, which grew up there free from any foreign
influences, it was decidedly disadvantageous for the artistic
tion
Gothic architecture
and ornament were based on sjerious problems of construction and types derived from nature, the former being
solved by local intellect, and the latter supplied by the local
natural growths.
Renaissance architecture and Renaissance
ornament were one and the same thing by the time the style
had affected England. The construction was Gothic, on
which the classic architectural forms were grafted purely for
decorative effect.
At
this period,
163. Geological.
wood was becoming
characteristic
51
164.
Climatic.
its
297
fireplace
2.
was found
to
be irksome to
title
of
estates
in the character-
istic
298
51
Henry VIII was married six times, and three of his children by three different wives were to ascend the English
throne. In 1509, he married Catherine of Aragon, a daughter
of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, who was naturally, like
himself, an ardent Catholic. He condemned the Reformation
under Luther so strongly that he received from Pope Leo X
Defender of the Faith. In 1533, however, when
and could not get the papal
he wanted
sanction, he repudiated the pope's authority and married
Anne Boleyn. For this he was excommunicated by the
pope, but immediately in 1534 caused parliament to pass an
act declaring him and his successors to be head of the church.
He had Anne Boleyn beheaded in 1536, and the day after the
execution he married Jane Seymour.
Henry died in 1547 and was succeeded by Edward VI, his
son by his third wife, Jane Seymour. Edward reigned
6 years and encouraged the Reformation; then his half
the
title
of
to divorce Catherine
sister
of Aragon,
faith
but
and
when
came
to the throne.
Mary restored
the Catholic
167.
The reign
of Elizabeth
in the history of the country. Elizabeth restored Protestantism as the state religion, and the Catholic powers of Europe
formed many schemes to dethrone her and elect a Catholic
in her place.
The
51
209
came her
England as James
who
ruled in
of
development
in
domes-
18th century.
300
51
CHARACTERISTICS
168.
English Renaissance
may be
Some
authorities
make
further sub-
mentioned
the pope.
larity
influence of
and symmetry
of
There
is
neither
As
for
show and
little
for comfort.
51
301
ANALYTICAL STUDY
PLANS
169. The Renaissance in England presents practical
designs in house planning with consideration for the comforts and conveniences of the occupants; and from the
Elizabethan plan have
characterize the
homes
been
derived
many
details
that
Architecture
The
SCALE
(a)
PLAN OF
CASTLE HOWARD
YORKSHIRE, ENGLAND.
iff TV
|N of
A|P A|R r! M
U TN !r!
(ft)
BLENHEIM PALACE
WOODSTOCK. ENGLAND
L T 30339
304
51
TVAL.T.S
The tower
pediments, consist of
scrollwork combinations,
somewhat
after
with
much pierced
and
At a
screen work
ustrades.
bal-
later
and over
in
FIG. 63
characteristic feature,
sometimes
51
305
ROOFS
171. The roofs were both high in pitch, after the Gothic
model, and low and flat, after the classic style. They were
covered with either lead or tile, and in some districts, with
In nearly every case, the roofs were surrounded
stone slabs.
by the characteristic pierced balustrades. The gables took
fantastic forms, with curved or stepped outlines, as in Holland.
COLUMNS
172,
The columns
are founded
on
OPENINGS
173. The cheapness of glass rendered large square windows an important feature and these were flanked with
pilasters so as to
Old Schools
at
MOLDINGS
174.
are
The moldings
FIG.
218-T
LT
101
51
Fin. 64
51
307
ORNAMENT
175.
The
in (d).
ments
The
in
octagonal prisms.
classified as
England only so
far as material
when
until the
Anglo-Classic period,
308
51
ELIZABETHAN PERIOD
176.
so modified that
all
were eliminated.
The Renaissance
details of
Italy
were
therefore
conditions.
borrowed ornament
for the
51
309
ANGL.O-CL.AS8IC PERIOD
The Anglo-Classic period extends from 1625
178.
1702,
and
Charles
Italian
II,
the
includes
James
school,
II,
reigns
of
Charles
I,
to
Cromwell,
the classic
Jones took
long
course
Palladio
of
study at Vicenza,
was the
favorite master of
The
179.
Sir Christopher
London.
Wren was
a mathematician, and
his early training fitted him for the great structural problems that he solved in his latter works. He did not possess
Wren probably
built
PLAN OF WHITEHALL
PALACE LONDON
GRAND COURT
400 Ft. X 800 Ft.
PUN
OF
ST.PAUIS CATHEDRAL
AS ORIGINALLY DESIGNED
FIG. 66
310
312
Wren
51
king a
Cathedral.
WEST ELEVATION
ST.PAUL'S CATHEDRAL
LONDON
FIG. 68
180.
Paul's Cathedral.
St.
metrical precision.
The
51
313
it
is
the
churches,
it
at all visible
dome d
is
with the
dome
c,
itself.
314
51
182.
St.
Mary
Bow.
Wren's smaller
It may be
plan and detail.
architects was most successful in applying
le
315
in
in
this
particular
CHURCH OFST.BK1DE
LONDON
LONDON
FIG. 70
of St.
Mary
le
Bow, Fig.
70.
The tower
is
rectangular in plan to a height of 112 feet, and is then surmounted by a circular peristyle supporting inverted consoles
The diminution
FIG. 71
FIG. 72
316
51
is
317
183.
Church
of St. Bride.
the
little
church of
Sir Christopher's
Here, the square tower is carried
is
is
184.
that he built,
aces than any other architect, before or since his day, but in
this field he did not meet with the success that crowned the
The works
of Sir
John
318
51
FIG. 73
which was the typical palace of the day, as well as the tameness that was the feature of Winchester and Hampton Court.
187.
Castle
Howard, Fig.
72,
319
FIG. 74
189.
in the
The church
James
Gibbs, shows
by
of St. Martin
the growing
forms.
toward
of
classic
the
revival
tendency
complete
Were it not for the tower and spire this structure might
The
readily pass for an amphiprostyle Corinthian temple.
is
at
each
end.
a
with
rectangular
portico
plan
projecting
I L T 30340
Fields, Fig. 74,
320
51
The
REVIEW EXERCISES
What
1.
ment
Describe briefly what religious influences led to the establishof the great English manor houses.
What
3.
foreign
and
artists
architects
influenced
the
English
Renaissance?
What was
4.
English Ren-
aissance?
What
5.
are
the
distinguishing
of
characteristics
Elizabethan
architecture?
6.
and
illustrate
by sketches,
if
necessary.
in
(a)
(a)
What
Church
10.
of
the
Church
of
Sir Christopher
England?
Wren
as leading
51
321
CHARACTERISTICS
The
190.
essential difference
Roman
details to
Roman
were used in
would never be
taken for anything but Christian churches. Whitehall and
Versailles were the residences of the kings of the age in
which they were built, and pretend to be nothing more.
No one could think of St. Peter's as a Roman temple, and
temple.
St. Peter's
and
Although
Versailles
322
51
for a change.
In France, the frivolous designs and details
had become tiresome, and the
of the period of Louis
XV
Severity and
was
demanded, and the duplication, line for line, of
Roman temples was the method of its accomplishment.
In Germany, however, the Renaissance style had been
such a failure that the country was not inclined to adopt
any more Roman forms, and an adoption of purely Greek
designs was substituted; while in England, the influence of
Palladio during the Renaissance was still sufficient to modify
the style when Great Britain adopted the Greek Revival.
The effect of this revival in all countries was to increase
the dignity and monumental effect of the streets at the
expense of the convenience and practicability of the plans.
Public squares and parks, surrounded by colonnaded buildings and deep porticos, were very fine to look at, but the
porches and colonnades darkened the buildings and rendered
them unfit for the purpose of their erection.
frivolity,
therefore
The
of too
much
fell
from a
fine art to
an imitation.
51
523
forms,
103.
Clmrcli of
St.
Cciicvicvc, or Pantlicoii.
we
In
see a noble
building
presents a Greek cross 3G2 feet long and 2G7 feet wide, over
the intersection of the arms of which rises a dome that is
265 feet
in
The whole
324
exterior, as
shown
refined, composition.
The
51
but extremely
The
The Madeline,
327
Fig. 78,
pagan
intercolumniations
beams
328
51
In the
the intercolumniations were comparatively small.
intercolumniations
the
afe
still
maintained
accordMadeline,
second Rome, and in order to carry out the appearance, they confined their architectural designs to the duplication of Roman edifices of historical renown.
to be a
195.
second
umns
Napoleon's campaigns
in
1805.
It
is
similar to Trojan's
Rome, Fig. 86, History of Architecture and OrnaPart 1. Numerous other monuments of a similar
column
in
ment,
character were erected at later dates throughout Paris, most
of which were of Roman rather than Greek model, as the
in
51
CLASSIC REVIVAL IN
329
GERMANY
the
the public mind to the study of Greek art, and the discoveries of Stuart and Revett, and their publication of the
"Antiquities of Athens," gave the contemporary architects
models by which
The
197.
to
be governed.
Wallialla.
erected, at Ratisbon, a
monumental
Walhalla,
while praise
of the
may
German
villages.
The Ruhmeshalle.
Fig. 80,
is
memory.
ing,
it is
E-shaped
in plan,
Although it was not copied after any Greek buildpurely Greek in design and is correct in form and
FIG. 80
FIG. 81
330
51
331
It forms a fitting
propoition clown to the smallest detail.
background, and adds dignity to the colossal figure in front,
without appearing unsuited to its surroundings, as did the
The Glyptotliek.
gallery, at
FIG. 82
is its
200.
Fig. 82,
The somber
332
of the
201.
in
ment houses
51
in order
The
parlia-
FIG. 83
51
CLASSIC REVIVAL IN
203.
in
333
ENGLAND
England there
is little in
The modified
praise to
be
said.
Revival, which never succeeded in combining any two feaplain fagade, with unmolded
rectangular windows, was embellished with a four- or a sixcolumned Ionic portico and called Greek; or, a street front
was erected without any window's, and covered with a sculp-
FIG. 84
light.
the revived
Greek
style,
334
51
a purely
modern purpose.
205.
St.
George's Hall. St. George's Hall, at Liveris a building whose imposing peristyle and
FIG. 85
206.
Greek
Royal
London, Fig.
able for a
revival.
Exchange.
The
Royal Exchange, at
would be more suit-
Roman
207.
It will
in rare instances,
down
ILT 30341
336
51
Up
and
styles,
architectural
construction
ceases
to
exist.
utilitarian construction.
209.
218-1
LT
101, 303
51
51
337
than painting.
210.
In
the same time prevented a free development of idesis.
consequence, French architecture has adhered to the principles of the Renaissance, though slight breaks have
occurred in the progress of a modern Renaissance development. These breaks were in the form of an attempt to
the Greek Revival, which failed, and a strong
Revived Gothic movement, represented by a very able and
The Gothic
celebrated architect and writer, Viollet-le-Duc.
movement produced no very important buildings, but it was
fruitful in the restoration of a great many medieval churches
and castles, which would otherwise have gone to ruin.
introduce
of the
most monumental
338
Nothing
51
either
harmonized according to
a well-governed system practiced in the French school of art.
traditional or structural
and
all is
FIG. 88
There are certain defects, to be sure, but the critic must hunt
for them, as they are not glaring, and they are so outweighed by
the good points that there can be no hesitancy in commending
the design as successful from every point of view.
340
213.
of
Music at Paris.
51
The Academy
of Music, or Paris
"The nation
is rich
contrast
L T 10127
342
51
GOTHIC REVIVAL
215.
About
number
of
medieval monuments
endeavored to revive the Gothic as a national style of archiThese enthusiasts were bitterly opposed by the
practicing architects of the Classic Revival, and the arguments became so active that in the principal art societies
all discussion of the relative merits of the two styles was
tecture.
suppressed.
The revived Gothic, however, is not the same as that of
the 12th century, although when the style was first revived,
it
historical
striving
for
correctness
of
effort to adapt
interesting buildings.
imposing.
each other.
one
at the angle
344
imposing
if
51
fagades
if it
their
details.
to the
in
Great Britain
the
beginning
is
of
same uncertainty as at
some architects still
What was
many
instances English Gothic materially altered by the introduction of Italian and French detail, principally details in colored
51
345
AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE
EARLY COLONIAL PERIOD
218.
The
successful colonization of
Wren's designs
extent in the southern English colonies, though the strucwere nearly all erected of wood or of brick and wood.
tures
From
known
drawn
During
The
style,
and culture
of the colonial aristocracy in its delicate and refined treatof the woodwork, but there were no buildings erected
ment
in this
style that
were
of a really
monumental
character.
346
219.
51
were, before the colonies achieved their independence, sections settled by Holland, Spain, and France, and many of
the New England settlers sojourned a long time in Holland
before sailing for America. The architecture of each of
these countries, therefore, influenced the style of the new
Republic, as the local precedents were followed even after
England controlled the coast settlements that were afterwards to constitute the first thirteen states, and English
architectural style was to predominate in the best buildings.
New York was settled by the Dutch, and their characteristics affected the architecture of the
Hudson
valley settle-
The dwellings exhibit clearly the different tastes of the different colonies, though they all possess features of common
In Maryland and Virginia,
origin in the mother country.
which were colonized by a wealthy class of English subjects,
are found fine brick manor houses and extensive grounds.
The grounds are surrounded by high brick walls and are
entered through broad gates of artistic design. The interiors of these southern colonial houses are usually very
elaborate, the side walls of the large high-ceilinged rooms
being decorated with stenciled or frescoed patterns of the
cornices, stairs,
mantels,
etc.,
51
347
in the South,
The
interest in
in the taste
FIG. 92
English
style,
and erected
skill
to
parent style.
348
51
new
conditions
undertake the erection of structures that should be monumental as well as purely useful. Capitols and other buildings
for the national and state governments, and municipal buildings in the cities, were erected at this time, and though the
style was after the late Renaissance of Wren and his followers, there was a considerable admixture of French details,
due no doubt to the active sympathy of the French people
during the war.
222.
itol,
at
Capitol at Washington. The United States CapWashington, Fig. 93, was commenced in 1793, and
consisted of the central portion of the present building, without the dome. The rusticated basement and high-columned
portico, together with the pedimented windows in the first
story and the square masonry openings above, are strongly
the Pantheon, at
by massive
walls.
Rome, is a concrete
The dome over Hagia
Sophia, at Constantinople, is a masonry construction supported on four immense piers. The dome over St. Peter's
is constructed in two shells, the inner one for interior effect
349
350
effect.
dome and
a lead-covered outer
dome
a stone inner
is
wood, while
of
dome
51
St. Paul's
dome
of stone, an outer
of
The
fulness.
is
not what
it
aside
all
insures
to
know
art,
1792, is a typical
America.
It
51
Leicester, at Dublin.
it
351
exceeded
in
become known by
225.
Virginia,
its
University
at
designed by
present name.
of
Virginia.
Charlottesville,
Thomas
another
The University
classic
edifice,
of
was
FIG. 94
much
in
218 feet long and 159 feet wide, and with its columns 6 feet
diameter and 55 feet in height, its marble exterior might
have rivaled the Walhalla, were it not for the fact that
instead of a cella, the colonnade encloses a very ordinary
two-storied college building.
I L T 30342
executed,
352
51
227.
Other existing
America
FIG. 95
228.
The
decline of
England,
immediately
found
its
echo
in
America,
and
art.
51
353
The establishment
New
FIG. 9G
At
this
354
51
its
inhabitants.
230.
American
In
Hunt's
office,
many
FIG. 97
51
355
windows were not required, thereby presenting a rough, gladiator-like expression of crudity, characteristic of the period when the architecture of every country of
are left where
Europe was feeling its way from the rejected classic arch
toward the perfected Gothic vault. This architecture of
Richardson's was true in its construction. Everything was
real; no false domes nor senseless pilasters crowned the roof
or graced the walls.
Everything existed because it was
needed, and details not wanted were omitted, without any
attempt to fill blank wall spaces with relieving ornaments.
&
clever
of Architecture
art,
but
it
variety of good designs, which made them more appreciative of the architectural merits of their cities than would
lot
of
more
compositions.
original,
more
artistic,
51
232.
fifty
357
prominent
FIG. 99
358
the country,
was
in his
establishment, in his
office,
51
of a
use.
entitled
tects
good
architectural composition.
until 1854,
As
was to be
Hunt designed
of which
a pupil of Lefuel's,
51
359
FIG. 100
360
51
the
CONCLUSION
234.
cient to
show
the
progress
made
in
this
direction.
The
architecture
Roman
construction.
to a
51
361
REVIEW EXERCISES
1.
(a)
What
European countries?
(b)
What was
Name
3.
What are the existing conditions affecting the development of
architectural style in (a) France? (b) England?
4.
is
(a)
What
(b)
What
What
America?
What American buildings reflect the influences of the (a) ClasRevival in England? (b) Gothic Revival in England?
6.
sic
7.
INDEX
NOTE. In this volume, each Section is complete in itself and has a number. This
number is printed at the top of every page of the Section in the headline opposite the
page number, and to distinguish the Section number from the page number, the Section
number is preceded by a section mark (). In order to find a reference, glance along
the inside edges of the headlines until the desired Section number is found, then along
the page numbers of that Section until the desired page is found.
Thus, to find the
reference "Alhambra, The,
51, p!48," turn to the Section marked
51, then to page 148
of that Section.
XV,
Analytical
English
31,
p34
Analytical study of French Renaissance,
p264
51,
of
51,
p269
51, p!95
Alberti, Leoni Battista,
Alcazar at Seville, 51, p!49
Aihambra, The,
Analytical study of
American
architects,
architecture,
51,
50,
p!48
51,
p352
51,
p345
p309
Anthemion ornament, 50, p/4
Antwerp Cathedral, 51, p52
50, p!06
Aqueducts and bridges, Roman,
Arabian art, Persian compared with,
51,
p!71
ornament,
51,
51,
Architects, American,
50,
51,
p328
p352
51,
p4
of
German Renaissance,
Gothic,
51,
of
Italian
Gothic,
of
Italian
Renaissance,
of Italian
51,
Romanesque,
Analytical
study
of
Romanesque,
50,
p!79
Analytical study of Spanish Gothic,
Gothic,
51, p56
Analytical study of early Christian,
50,
Asiatic,
p294
50,
p30
p!26
study of English Gothic,
51,
p92
p345
Belgian and
51,
Dutch
Analytical study of
Renaissance,
51, p290
50, p!47
Analytical study of Byzantine,
Analytical study of Dutch and Belgian
p266
German
plSO
50,
p3
Architecture, American,
Analytical
of
50,
ornament,
German Romanesque,
P 199
Analytical study of Moslem,
51, plSl
Analytical study of Renaissance,
51,
p!66
Arch du Carrousel,
p222
Analytical study
p64
Analytical study
51, p282
Analytical study
p78
Analytical study
51, p226
Analytical study
50,
p211
50,
of
Belgian
p2S6
Characteristics of Byzantine,
Renaissance,
and
Dutch
51,
50,
p!33
INDEX
Dutch and
Characteristics of
Architecture.
Belgian Gothic,
Characteristics
51,
of
p48
Christian,
50,
Characteristics of Egyptian,
50, p6
of English Gothic,
50,
early
p!22
p379
Characteristics
p239
of
English
Renaissance,
p300
p!91
p239
Characteristics
50,
Characteristics
Romanesque,
of
p278
Characteristics
50,
French
of
p202
Characteristics of
51,
German Romanesque,
of
p215
Characteristics of Gothic,
50, p234
Characteristics of Italian Gothic,
51,
p68
Characteristics of Moslem,
51, p!47
of
Italian
Characteristics
Northern
Romanesque,
50,
Characteristics of
p!93
Romanesque,
p!69
50,
Characteristics of Renaissance,
51, p!77
Characteristics of Roman Renaissance,
51,
p!99
50,
p292
Characteristics
of Venetian
Renaissance,
51,
p!95
50,
50, pi 24
50,
p248
Florentine Renaissance,
51,
51,
p292
51,
50,
pl!8
p44
Examples
p240
50,
51, P 218
p!88
Examples of
51, pSO
Examples of
Examples of
Examples of
p!91
Examples of
Characteristics
51,
51,
50,
p296
Influences
affecting
sance,
51, pi 89
Influences affecting
Florentine
Renais-
French Gothic,
51,
Pi
Influences affecting French Renaissance,
51,
p236
p200
Influences affecting
P 57
Influences affecting
51,
50,
Gothic,
51,
German Renaissance,
German Romanesque,
p213
Influences
p66
German
p276
Influences affecting
51,
Gothic,
P 237
affecting
Italian
Gothic,
51,
INDEX
Influences
Architecture,
Romanesque,
50,
Italian
affecting
p!84
Belgian
Blois,
Chateau
Bodiam
p!73
Roman
Influences affecting
Renaissance,
p!98
51,
Influences
Romanesque,
affecting
50,
p!61
Influences affecting Spanish Gothic,
51,
p83
Influences affecting Spanish Renaissance,
p291
Influences
sance,
Renais-
Venetian
affecting
51,
Gothic
p216
structures,
p!93
pl!6
Renaissance,
51, p!73
Roman, 50, p80
Roman
50,
Renaissance,
Romanesque,
Secular,
51,
50,
p!98
51,
p!61
p95
50,
architecture,
architecture.
Examples
50,
of,
p!95
50,
p35
p32
50, p37
Assyrian ornament,
Azay-le-Rideau, Chateau, 51, p249
B
Roman, 50, p95
Roman, 50, p96
Basilicas,
and
Belgian
Dutch
Renaissance
p285
Dutch
Renaissance
ture,
and
51,
Dutch
Renaissance
and
Examples of, 51, p286
Renaissance
and
Dutch
Examples of, 51, p288
Dutch
Renaissance
and
Influences affecting,
Dutch
p290
architec
51,
and
p56
plOO
50,
51,
p219
p!2
Influences
50,
50,
affecting,
50,
p!49
p!44
Cancellaria Palace,
51, p214
Canterbury Cathedral, 50, p261
Renaissance
50, p!25
Baptisteries,
50, p!93
Baptistery at Pisa,
Baths,
51,
pp!04, 240
51, p348
Capitol at Washington,
51, p214
Caprarola, Palace,
Carcassonne, Fortified city of,
51, p!04
Castle, Bodiam,
51, plOO
50, pi
of,
and,
Pompeian,
Dutch
Brunelleschi, Filippo,
51, p!93
Brussels Cathedral,
51, pSO
Burgos Cathedral, 51, p88
p!30
ornament,
50,
51,
architecture,
51,
at,
Castle,
Italian Gothic,
51, p66
Italian Renaissance,
51, p!89
Italian Romanesque,
50, pi 84
Origin
architecture,
p44
Gothic ornament, Dutch and,
51,
51,
iii
architecture,
p290
architecture,
architecture,
architecture,
p285
ornament,
51,
51,
51, r-30
INDEX
IV
51, p62
Cathedral, Ulm,
Wells, 50, p261
architecture,
architecture, Charac-
Romanesque
teristics of,
Italian
p!88
50,
Romanesque
amples
51,
p249
Chartres Cathedral,
at Blois,
Ex-
architecture,
p!88
50,
of,
Chambord, Chateau,
Chateau
51,
51,
50, p3
51, p249
p249
51, pl!6
51, p246
Pierrefonds, 51, plOO
Chateaux, 51, p240
and castles, 51, plOO
Private,
51, pl!2
Chaumont chateau, 51, pl!6
Chenonceau, Chateau, 51, p246
50, p!66
Chivalry,
Choragic monument of Lysicrates,
51,
50,
p59
50,
of
50,
p!22
architecture,
architecture,
Influences
affecting,
50,
pl!8
tombs,
51,
50, p!93
p351
51, p62
Cologne Cathedral,
Colonial architecture, Early, 51, p345
Colored decorations, 51, p43
Coloring in Moorish ornament,
51, p!61
Column, Grecian Doric, 50, p64
p!26
College, Girard,
p!4
pp!04, 240
Azay-le-Rideau,
Chambord,
Chaumont,
Chenonceau,
p321
p!88
50,
Italian
51,
p!25
Church du Beguinage, 51, p288
50, p257
Iffley,
Notre Dame le Grande, 50, p208
of San Michele,
50, p!95
of St. Andrea Mantua, 51, p!95
of St. Bride,
51, p317
of St. Croix,
50, p207
of St. Etienne du Mont, 51, p256
of St. Front,
50, p204
of St. Genevieve, or Pantheon,
p323
of St. John Lateran,
51, p208
of St. Maria della Salute, 51, p224
of St. Mark,
50, p!40
of St. Martin,
51, p319
of St. Mary le Bow, 51, p31S
of St. Sulpice,
51, p264
of St. Vitale,
50, p!40
of the Apostles, 50, p215
Sorbonne, 51, p260
City gate at Munich, 51, p331
gates,
51, p!34
Classic period of French Renaissance,
p258
revival,
51, p321
p!67
Decorated vaulting, 50, p243
Decoration, Wall, 50, p24
Decorations, Colored, 51, p43
De Ville, Hotel, 51, p292
Domestic architecture, Examples of military
and, 51, plOO
architecture, Military and, ^51, p96
Doric column, Grecian, 50, p64
Du Beguinage, Church, 51, p288
Ducal Palace, 51, p220
Dutch and Belgian Gothic architecture, 51,
50,
p44
and Belgian Gothic architecture, Analyti-
50,
cal
study
p56
51,
of,
and
51,
amples of,
and Belgian
p48
Gothic
Belgian
51,
architecture,
Ex-
p50
51,
E
51,
50,
architecture,
p!26
50, pi 18
Analytical study
INDEX
Early Christian architecture, Examples of,
50, p!24
Christian ornament,
50, p!27
Colonial architecture,
51, p345
English vaulting,
50, j>242
Republican architecture, 51, p348
East Indian ornament,
51, p!67
50,
Egyptian architectural characteristics,
p6
architectural influences,
50, p4
architecture,
50, p4
architecture, Analytical study of, 50, p!9
obelisks,
50, p!8
ornament, 50, p21
ornament, Types of,
50, p22
pyramids, 50, p8
50, plO
temples,
tombs,
50, p8
Elizabethan period, 51, p308
Ely Cathedral, 50, p261
English Gothic architecture,
50, p237
Gothic architecture, Analytical study of,
50, p266
Gothic architecture, Characteristics of,
p239
50,
Gothic
p3
51,
Gothic
architecture,
Examples
architecture,
Influences
Gothic
Examples
of,
50,
architecture,
Influences
affecting,
50, p237
Gothic ornament, 50, p284
Renaissance architecture,
51, p296
Renaissance
architeclure,
Analylical
study of,
Renaissance
51,
study of,
Renaissance
51,
Characlerislics
architecture,
of,
51, p300
Renaissance architecture,
Influences
af-
p269
Characteristics
architecture,
p239
Renaissance architecture,
51,
of,
Classic
period
p258
Renaissance architecture,
Examples
of,
p240
Renaissance
Influences
af-
of,
51,
51,
architecture,
p236
Renaissance ornament,
51,
feeling,
Romanesque
Romanesque
study
Romanesque
of,
p272
p200
51,
architecture,
50,
architecture,
50,
of,
Analytical
p211
Characteristics
architecture,
p202
50,
architecture,
Examples
of,
architecture,
Influences
af-
p204
50,
feeling,
50,
p200
Q
Gales, City,
51,
German Golhic
p301
affecting,
Romanesque
p248
Gothic
51,
pi
51,
Romanesque
architecture,
of,
j)8
p!34
archilecture,
51,
p57
p296
Renaissance ornament, 51, p307
Erechtheum, The, 50, p53
51, p60
Gothic archileclure, Examples of, 51, p62
Golhic archileclure, Influences affecting,
51, p57
Gothic ornament, 51, p65
Renaissance architecture, 51, p276
Renaissance
architeclure,
Analytical
feeling,
51,
p!89
Renaissance
architecture,
sludy of,
Renaissance
51,
Characterislics
of,
p!91
Renaissance architecture,
51,
p!91
Renaissance
Examples
of,
51,
affecting,
Francis
I.
Influences
architecture,
51,
p!89
Hunting lodge
51,
L T 30343
51, p279
Renaissance
archilecture.
51,
feeling,
Romanesque
Romanesque
of.
Romanesque
p256
51, pi
of,
of,
p282
Characlerislics
51,
study
of,
51,
architeclure,
p278
Renaissance archileclure,
of,
50,
of,
af-
p276
archilecture,
50,
architeclure,
50,
p213
Analytical
p222
architecture,
Characteristics
p215
Romanesque
50,
Examples
Influences
p215
architecture,
Examples
of,
INDEX
VI
German
Romanesque
ences affecting,
p213
Romanesque ornament,
Giralda, The,
Influ-
architecture,
50,
of;
50,
p224
p!48
51, p351
51, p210
Glyptothek, The, 51, p331
Gothic architecture, 50, p232
architecture, Characteristics of,
Characteristics of
architecture,
50,
p234
of
Characteristics
of,
51, p226
Renaissance ornament,
Spanish,
Romanesque
Romanesque
p86
51,
of
Examples
architecture,
p237
50,
study
Spanish,
51,
51,
Romanesque
p230
p!84
50,
architecture,
50,
of,
51,
architecture,
Analytical
p!99
Central,
architecture,
50,
p!88
p88
architecture, Influences affecting English,
p237
50,
Romanesque
fecting,
Spanish,
K
Kenil worth Castle,
p83
51,
Examples
architecture,
of,
Influences
architecture,
50,
50,
50,
p63
p44
p49
affecting,
50,
p40
50,
51, pi 20
p74
af-
p!84
p83
51,
architecture,
Influences
architecture,
50,
lily,
of,
English,
p239
architecture, English,
Examples
architecture,
p70
51,
architecture,
Characteristics
architecture,
p68
51,
Gothic
Girard College,
Giraud Palace,
50,
Gothic
Italian
Choragic
monument
of,
50,
monuments,
50, p42
ornament, 50, p68
Forms
ornament,
of,
50, p71
theaters, 50, p61
tombs, 50, p61
51,
plOO
Monument
of Lysicrates,
Monuments, Greek,
Moorish ornament,
ornament, Coloring
Moslem
Indian
Church
art,
at,
50,
Persian
in,
51,
51,
51,
plSl
p257
compared with,
51,
p!72
Ionic order, The, 50, p6S
Italian Gothic architecture,
p59
50,
p42
p!59
p!61
p!42
Analytical study of,
architecture,
architecture,
Iffley,
50,
51,
architecture,
p66
Gothic architecture, Analytical study
51, p78
51,
of,
Examples
of,
Influences
51,
51,
affecting,
p!43
ornament, 51, p!59
Mosque at Cordova, 51, p!49
p!47
p!48
51,
INDEX
Munich, City gate
Museum,
Palace, Riccardi,
51, p331
at,
Fitzwilliam,
51,
p333
Strozzi,
Norman
vaulting,
Northern Italian
50,
Italian
50,
p56
Roman,
Romanesque
architecture,
Romanesque
50,
architecture, Charac-
Pandolfini Palace,
p!93
50,
p208
50, p!8
Obelisks, Egyptian,
50, p47
Orders, Architectural,
50, pi
Origin of architecture,
51,
p!66
Architectural,
50,
'
'
P 74
50,
p3
p171
51,
sci \e
German r
51, p65
Gothic,
TT,.
German Romanesque, o-n
oO, p224
i
,-.
r*
Greek,
C-A
p68
.
,
,,
Honeysuckle, sO, p71
,.
T
^
.1
c-i
OT
Italian Gothic,
al, p82
30,
,.
Moorish,
.,
ol,
vict
'
R man
at,
.0,
ry
'
at
50
decorations,
Pyramids,
'
P
51, p214
Cornaro, 5,1, p222
Ducal,
51, p220
Farnese,
51, p210
Giraud,
51, p210
Louvre, 51, p256
Caprarola,
Pandolfini,
p!97
Pe?aro. 51, p222
Pitti,
51, p!95
51.
pl!7
'
^0,
p8
'
'
p!82
51,
aO, pi 16
30,
p
Ratisbon Cathedral, 51, P 62
Recent architecture in Europe,
Palace, Cancellaria,
p193
'
R
ae
pi 14
50,
'
51,
Romanesque,
pl 5
p!95
51,
ompeian architecture,
w>a "
'
50, P 188
at,
Cathedral
L
a "'" g tOWer
f
Pitti Palace,
>
p!93
p230
p!59
Moslem, 51, p!59
Persian,
51, pl~l
Renaissance,
51, P 186
Roman
T)
Baptistery
'
Italian Renaissance,
2'
,.
arS
!"
Pisa
,,307
English Renaissance,
5 ''
p!72
51,
art,
pl/1
51,
p224
51,
p!97
51,
jj
Arabian,
p208
51,
Notre
Ornament, Anthemion,
51, pi 22
50, pi 07;
Venetian, 51, pi 22
Palazzo del Consiglio,
p!93
teristics of,
51,
Palaces in Germany,
p240
50,
p222
p264
51,
Versailles,
of,
p!93
51,
p!97
51,
Vendramini,
N
Nike Apteros, Temple
vii
Reims Cathedral.
architecture,
51,
p336
pl8
Renaissance architecture,
Analytical
51, P 173
study
of,
51,
p18
architecture. Analytical study of Belgian
and Dutch,
p214
51,
51,
p290
p301
p269
architecture.
51,
German,
p282
Analytical s-widy of Italian,
p226
p294
INDEX
Vlll
English,
p300
51,
of
Floren-
Characteristics
of
French,
Characteristics
of
German,
Characteristics
architecture,
tine,
of
Characteristics
architecture,
p!91
architecture,
51, P 239
architecture,
51,
p278
51,
Roman,
of
Characteristics
architecture,
P 199
of
Characteristics
architecture,
Spanish,
51,
p292
p218
51, p296
Examples of, 51, p279
architecture, Examples of Belgian and
Dutch, 51, p288
architecture,
Examples of Florentine,
architecture, English,
basilicas,
baths,
p!91
Examples of French,
architecture,
51,
p240
of
Examples
of,
af-
51,
Influences
affecting,
51,
p285
p296
Influences affecting Floren-
p!89
p236
German,
p276
Roman,
p!98
50,
p291
51,
Influences
affecting
p216
architecture, Italian,
51,
Roman,
51,
architecture,
50,
50,
p98
p!04
p88
architecture,
architecture,
p!61
study of,
50,
Analytical
50,
50,
p!93
of
Example
p!95
architecture, French,
Italian,
Northern
50,
architecture,
German,
50,
50,
Influences
p200
p213
affecting,
50,
p!61
50, p!84
Northern Italian,
Southern
architecture,
Italian,
ornament, 50, p!82
50,
vaulting,
p!72
Roofs, Timber, 50, p247
Rosette forms, 50, p27
Royal exchange, The, 51, p334
Ruhmeshalle, The, 51, p329
architecture, Italian,
tian,
vault,
architecture,
architecture,
p!98
p89
architecture,
51,
architecture,
51,
p!79
51,
fecting,
Romanesque
51,
51,
51,
p!73
51,
of,
temples, 50,
theaters and amphitheaters,
51,
51,
pl98
Influences
p!89
architecture, French,
51, p236
architecture, German,
51, p276
and Dutch,
51,
Characteristics
51, p200
Renaissance
p220
tine,
Renaissance architecture,
Renaissance architecture,
51,
architecture, Florentine,
51,
50, p!07;
palaces,
51, p208
pillars of victory,
50, p!05
Examples of Spanish,
Examples of Venetian,
architecture,
50, pi 14
ornament,
p!99
Renaissance architecture,
p292
architecture,
p97
50, pi 15
houses,
51,
p200
architecture,
p95
50,
50,
Roman,
Examples
architecture,
architecture,
50,
affecting,
p80
architecture,
51,
Influences
architecture,
architecture, Spanish,
architecture, Venetian,
p!89
p!98
51,
p291
p216
51,
Vene-
architecture,
50,
50,
p!93
p!95
INDEX
IX
T
Temple
50, p251
Salisbury Cathedral,
San Michele, Church of, 50, p!95
Rise
of
50, p!58
Saracens,
the,
Scarabreus ornament,
Secular architecture,
Segovia Cathedral,
Seville, Alcazar at,
p24
p95
51, p90
51, p!49
50,
51,
p292
Renaissance architecture,
of,
architecture,
51,
Examples
of,
Influences
af-
p291
Renaissance ornament,
51, p295
50, p219
Speyer, Cathedral at,
St.
p323
George's Hall,
51, p334
Gregorio, Cathedral of,
51, p88
John Lateran, Church of, 51, p208
p!93
51, p264
Vitale,
50, p!40
Strozzi Palace,
51, p!97
Structures, Byzantine,
50, p!44
51,
Church of,
Church of,
Suljiice,
U
Ulm
Cathedral,
51, p62
51, p351
University of Virginia,
V
Vanbrugh, Works
51,
fecting,
50, p56
Temples, Egyptian, 50, plO
Roman, 50, p89
Theaters and amphitheaters, Roman, 50,
Greek, 50, p61
Three great laws of nature, 50, p69
Timber roofs, 50, p247
^ombs, Christian, 50, p!25
50, p8
Egyptian,
Greek, 50, p61
Roman, 50, p!05
Tournai Cathedral, 51, pSO
Tower of the Winds, 50, p60
Town halls, 51, p!24
Trinity and Grace Churches, 51, p352
Triumphal arches, Roman, 50, p!04
Turkish ornament, 51, p!70
Types of Egyptian ornament, 50, p22
Characteristics
51,
p292
Renaissance
of Nike Apteros,
Vault,
Roman,
50,
p317
51,
of,
p88
50, p243
Vaulting, Decorated,
Early English,
50, p242
Norman,
50,
Perpendicular,
p240
50,
p245
Romanesque, 50, pi 72
Vecchio Palace, Court of, 51, p!97
Vendramini Palace, 51, p222
Venetian architects, 51, p220
51, p!22
Renaissance architecture, 51, p216
Versailles Palace,
51, p264
Vignola,
51, p202
Villa Medici, The,
51, p214
Virginia, University of,
51, p351
palaces,
\V
Walhalla, The,
51,
p329
Warwick
50,
p28
Castle,
51, p!20
Washington, Capitol at, 51, p348
Wells Cathedral, 50, p261
Westminster Abbey, 50, p265
Parliament Houses at, 51, p342
White House
at Washington,
51, p350
Winchester Cathedral, 50, p254
Winged disk ornament, 50, p23
50,
p219
p309
51,
This book
is
RENEWALS
I|IOV191989
'D
AUPL,
MAY 2 4 1990
jvn.
REC-D
UCLA-AUPL
NA
001 248131