Advantages and Limitations of Supersonic Planes

SEMINAR REPORT

ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF SUPERSONIC

AIRCRAFTS

Submitted by:
Sana Syed(153106004)
M.Tech (Design)
Mech. Engg. Dept.
IIT BOMBAY
ADVANTAGES AND

A detailed study of the operational and

DISADVANTAGES OF

ergonomic requirements of a supersonic

SUPERSONIC AIRCRAFTS

aircraft for various applications, either

ABSTRACT:
153106004

military or commercial passenger flights

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Advantages and Limitations of Supersonic Planes

is essential to understand the nuances of

associated with Supersonic flight, the

supersonic flight. Further, the control of

major factors of these being the sonic

various factors that affect supersonic

boom, supersonic wave drag and low

flights and its mitigation techniques is

efficiency during supersonic flight. The

essential to reduce sonic boom, achieve

Concorde,

low supersonic wave drag, and offer

commercialized

high subsonic performance. This report

aircraft, was discontinued from service

discusses the various advantages and

in 2003 due to high operating costs and

limitations of a supersonic aircraft.

infeasibility constraints. Since that time,

Further, it introduces a new innovative

various efforts have been made to make

concept of a supersonic bi-directional

supersonic

commercial

(SBiDir) flying wing (FW) concept,

economically

and

which has the potential to overcome the

feasible for passenger flights. The

major limitations of supersonic aircraft,

introduction of the concept of SBiDir is

i.e.

efficiency.

one such effort in this direction, which

According to the case study for the

has the potential to overcome and

SiBiDir FW, it is possible to reduce or

possibly eliminate the drawbacks of a

completely eliminate sonic boom and

conventional supersonic flight.

sonic

boom

and

which

was
civil

the

only

Supersonic

flights

environmentally

achieve low supersonic wave drag.

SUPERSONIC FLIGHT : A BASIC
INTRODUCTION :
Supersonic flights have been a popular
choice for military applications since
common enemy surveillance radars are
unable or find it quite difficult to detect
objects flying at supersonic speeds [1].
In addition, the commercial sector has
been interested in these flights due to its
great potential to reduce the intercontinental travel time [2].
However, various disadvantages are
153106004

INTRODUCTION
A bullet fired from a gun travels at supersonic
speeds. This picture shows a bullet and the air
flowing around it. The bullet is traveling at 1.5
times the speed of sound.
Credits: Andrew Davidhazy/Rochester
Institute of Technology
An F/A-18 Hornet aircraft speeds up to
supersonic speed. The Hornet is flying through
an unusual cloud. This kind of cloud sometimes
forms as aircraft break the sound barrier.
Credits: Ensign John Gay, USS
Constellation, U.S. Navy

The aerodynamics of supersonic flight

is called compressible flow because
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Advantages and Limitations of Supersonic Planes

of

the compression

supersonic jets to the innovation

aimed at passenger supersonic
flight. Concorde was the first
supersonic aircraft used for
passenger travel [2].

(physics) associated with the shock

wavesor "sonic boom" created by any
object travelling faster than sound.

Supersonic aircraft are the

aircraft that travels with the
speed more than mach 1. Mach
1 is the speed of sound. The
aircraft travelling with the speed
very large than the speed of
sound is known as hypersonic
aircraft (above mach 5). In the
current global economy, where
individual companies as well as
business partnerships, transcend
national
boundaries,
and
mandate collaborations across
the globe, the required time for
travel has become a valuable
resource, prompting interest in
high
speed
transportation.
Compared to todays typical
transport
aircraft
mission
profiles with cruise flight speeds
of Mach M=0.8 and design
ranges of 4000 nautical miles
(nm), up to a 55% time savings
can be achieved by increasing
the cruise speed to M=1.8 [1].
However,
a
successful
supersonic aircraft design has to
overcome numerous challenges
to meet opposing requirements.
1. History:
60 years ago Chuck
Yeager, captain of United States
air force, broke the sound barrier
while flying his bell X-1 aircraft.
That was the beginning of the
supersonic flight era. Since then,
numerous advances have been
made, from the introduction and
design improvements of military
153106004

Fig.1 The Concord Jet

Concorde ceased to fly from

2003 because of following
reasons.
1. Sonic boom, a very loud
shockwave that sounds a lot
like an explosion when
aircraft breaks the sound
barrier.
2. Fall in number of passengers
travel because of high cost.
3. Large amount of fuel used to
propel the aircraft.
4. High maintenance cost.
5. Air
pollution
(exhaust
emission).
2. Functional requirements:
1. The aerodynamics of
supersonic flight are
dramatically
different
from those of subsonic
flight (i.e., flight at
speeds slower than that
of sound). In particular,
aerodynamic drag rises
sharply as the aircraft
passes the transonic
regime, requiring much
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Advantages and Limitations of Supersonic Planes

greater engine power

and more streamlined
airframes.

be as low as possible.
Again
the
sound
produce by supersonic
aircraft while taking and
landing should be within
the limit, so that it is not
harmful
to
human
beings.
The
sound
produce by sonic boom
should also be less[3].

2. To keep drag low, wing

span must be limited,
which also reduces the
aerodynamic efficiency
when flying slowly. Since
a supersonic aircraft
must take off and land at
a relatively slow speed,
its aerodynamic design
must be a compromise
between
the
requirements for both
ends of the speed range.
3. The structural sizing needs
to balance minimum weight
with adequate safety margin
to support high loads at high
speed.
4. Engine must be compact
and should consume
less fuel.

7. The heat generated by

friction as the air flows
over the aircraft is very
high
therefore
the
material should have the
capacity to withstand
the high temperature.
8. The ticket price should
be low.
3. Advantages
aircraft:

supersonic

1. The value of time has been

growing, resulting in a
premium being placed on the
ability to get to the
destination faster.
a. Supersonic
aircraft
reduces travel time for
business
leading
to
increased productivity. It
also shortens travel time
for leisure.
b. It has the ability to
provide rapid response in
disaster situations and
faster delivery of timecritical goods[2].
2. Supersonic aircraft quickly
delivers the time-critical
cargo which could save
lives, as in the case of organ
transplants[2].
3. It is also useful for defence
in military.

5. The need for efficient

fuels is tied to the need
to reduce the fuel
contribution
to
the
weight of the aircraft,
both in terms of fuel
weight and the weight of
the rest of the aircraft
using
this
fuel
for
propulsion, because the
weight
is
a
major
contributor to the sonic
boom and the drag. The
fuel
and
propulsion
system also affects the
emission levels of NOx
at high altitudes as well
as the cruise efficiency,
leading to changes in
aircraft configuration[2].
6. Environmental
constraints
are
becoming more and
more stringent. The high
altitude emission should
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of

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Advantages and Limitations of Supersonic Planes

a. Supersonic speed with

manoeuvrability
provides amazing dog
fighting ability to fighter
aircraft.
b. Supersonic aircraft can
quickly and safely attack
enemy targets.
c. Supersonic speed allows
fighter jets to intercept
enemy
airplanes.
Supersonic interceptors
can quickly reach their
target if the target is
slow, in a matter of
minutes if they are close
by.
(The
hijacked
airplanes of 9/11 should
have been intercepted.)
4.

Fig.2 Propagation of sound waves produced by

aircrafts at different speeds

When aircraft travels at the

speed less than sound, the
sound
it
creates
will
propagate
in
all
the
directions ahead of the plane
as shown in fig.2 when it
travels with mach 1 the wave
propagation is also shown in
fig.2. Now when it travels
with the speed greater than
sound, it travels faster than
the sound wave it creates and
it breaks the sound barrier
and it forms the cone like
structure behind the aircraft
as shown in fig.2. The visual
impact of the sonic boom is
shown in fig.3. It is because
of the speed with which
aircraft is travelling causing
the
pressure
to
drop
significantly which in turn
reduces the temperature
causing condensation in the
air.

Disadvantages:
1. Sonic boom:
A major problem, which all
supersonic aircrafts face, is
sonic boom. The term sonic
boom is used to refer to the
shocks caused by the
supersonic flight of an
aircraft.
Sonic
booms
generate enormous amounts
of sound energy, sounding
much like an explosion[4].
Sonic boom is the reason
why supersonic flights are
not allowed over populated
areas.

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Advantages and Limitations of Supersonic Planes

the engine design and

operation and may vary
widely between engines.
SOx is directly related to
fuel composition.
Rough estimates of the
impact of future supersonic
operations (assuming 500
aircraft flying at Mach 2.4 in
the stratosphere and emitting
15 grams of nitrogen oxides
per kilogram of fuel)
indicate an increase of the
North Atlantic flight corridor
concentrations of NOx up to
about 250%, water vapour
up to about 40%, S Ox up to
about 40% , H2S04 up to
about 200%, soot up to about
1 00%, and CO up to about
20%[5].

Fig.3 Sonic Boom

2. Emission:
Atmospheric
effects
of
supersonic aircraft depend
on the number of aircraft, the
altitude of operation, the
exhaust emissions, and the
background chlorine and
aerosol loading. Emissions
from the engines are
functions
of
engine
technology and the operation
of the aircraft on which the
engines
are
installed.
Primary engine exhaust
products are C02 and H20,
which are directly related to
the burned fuel, with minor
variations due to the precise
carbon-hydrogen ratio of the
fuel. Secondary products
include NOx (=NO + N02),
CO, unburned and partially
burnt fuel hydrocarbons
(HC),
soot
particulates/smoke, and SOx.
NOx is a consequence of the
high temperature in the
engine
combustor;
the
incomplete
combustion
products (CO, HC, and
soot/smoke) are functions of
153106004

Since supersonic aircraft

engines may emit significant
amounts of NOx, the fear is
that
large
fleets
of
supersonic aircraft flying at
stratospheric levels, where
maximum
ozone
concentrations exist, might
seriously
deplete
the
stratospheric ozone layer,
leading
to
increased
ultraviolet radiation flux on
the biosphere. Also, climate
sensitivity studies have
shown that ozone changes in
the upper troposphere and
lower stratosphere will have
greater radiative effects on
changing surface and lower
tropospheric
temperatures
than would ozone changes at
other levels[5].
3. Climatic Effects:
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Advantages and Limitations of Supersonic Planes

Supersonic
aircraft
emissions
include
constituents
with
the
potential to alter the local
and global climate. Species
important in this respect
include water vapor, NOx
(through its impact on 03),
sulfur,
soot,
cloud
condensation nuclei, and
C02 .
Increases of C02 and water
vapor, and alterations of
ozone and cirrus clouds have
the potential to alter in situ
and global climate by
changing
the
infrared
(greenhouse) opacity of the
atmosphere
and
solar
forcing[5].

Water Vapour:
Water vapour is the primary
atmospheric greenhouse gas.
Increases in water vapor
associated with aircraft
emissions have the potential
to warm the climate at low
tropospheric levels, while
cooling at altitudes of
release, due to greater
thermal
emission.
The
effects are largest when
water vapor perturbations
occur near the tropopause as
is likely to be the case[5].
4. Some supersonic fighter jets
use afterburners to gain
speed, which can reveal
there position on enemy
radar due to heat signatures.

Sulfuric acid:
Sulfuric acid, which results
from SOx emissions, may
cool the climate through
producing aerosols that give
increased
scattering
of
incoming solar radiation.

5. The heat generated by

friction as the air flows
over the aircraft limits
the speed of aircraft to
around mach 2.2. It
implies that new material
should be developed
such that it should
withstand the heat[6].

Effect of ozone depletion:

The impact of ozone changes
on the radiation balance of
the surface troposphere
system depends on the
vertical distribution of the
ozone changes. Reduction in
tropospheric
and
lower
stratospheric ozone tends to
cool the climate, by reducing
the atmospheric greenhouse
effect. Reduction in middle
and upper stratospheric
ozone tends to warm the
climate, by allowing more
shortwave radiation to reach
the surface.
153106004

6. High Wave Drag, high fuel

consumption/cost[7].
7. Low Subsonic performance,
long
takeoff/landing
distance[7].
5. Mitigation techniques:
1. Sonic boom:
The following are some
factors affecting sonic boom
strength[6]:
a. Aircraft weight, shape
and length:
The bigger the aircraft is,
the more air molecules
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Advantages and Limitations of Supersonic Planes

push aside. Thus a big

aircraft will produce a
stronger sonic boom.
b. Aircraft altitude:
The altitude of the
aircraft and the strength
of the sonic boom are
reciprocal.
As
the
altitude increases, the
strength of the sonic
boom decreases.
c. Aircraft maneuvers:
Maneuvers
such
as
pushovers, S-turns and
accelerating can amplify
the intensity of the shock
wave. Hills, valleys and
other
topographic
f.
g.
Quiet Spike project
[10] showed that by extending
the length of the nose, and by
changing the position of the
wings, sonic boom would be
reduce to about 55 dB[11]. But
the capacity of Quiet Supersonic
Jet suggested by Gulfstream is
about 8-11 passengers. Extended
and shaped nose of the aircraft
will propagate the shock waves.
The nose will break up the initial
shock into a series of very weak
shocks.
2. Emission:

features
can
create
multiple reflections of
shock
waves
thus
affecting intensity.
d. Location in sonic boom
carpet [8]:
Special
topographic
features in each area
such as mountains, hills
and valleys can create
multiple reflections of
shock
waves
thus
affecting intensity.
e. Attitude: orientation of
the
aircrafts
axes
relative to its direction of
motion[9].
new synthetic fuels that
are
highly
efficient,
produce less pollutants,
and are inexpensive
appears to be very
promising[2].
3. The lift/drag ratio of a
supersonic jet is much
lower than that of a
subsonic
aircraft.
Reducing the drag could
in part be accomplished
by reducing the weight
of the aircraft. The new
light weight, innovative
composite materials, in
particular those that can
withstand
high
temperatures could be a
part of solution. It is one
of the ways to reduce
fuel
needed
per
passenger-mile[2].

h.
Hydrogen fuel can
be used to reduce the
emission and it is also
very
light.
If
more
efficient
propulsion
systems are created then
smaller
amounts
of
hydrogen fuel could be
used for the same flight
distance. Hydrogen fuels
do
not
eliminate
pollution, but their use
significantly reduces its
level. Development of
153106004

i.

References:

j.[1] Deremaux, Y., 2009, Why a

Small Size Supersonic Transport
Aircraft? Objectives and TradeOffs, HISAC 2009 Conference,
Paris.
k.
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Advantages and Limitations of Supersonic Planes

x.
y.
[7]Toward Zero SonicBoom
and
High
Efficiency
Supersonic Flight: A Novel Concept
of
z.
Supersonic
BiDirectional Flying Wing. Gecheng
Zha, Hongsik Im , Daniel Espinal,
aa.
University of Miami,
Dept. of Mechanical and Aerospace
Engineering,AIAA Paper 2010-1013.
ab.
ac.
[8]Martin K. Chan,
Supersonic Aircraft Optimization
for Minimizing Drag and Sonic
Boom,
Available
at:
http://aero.stanford.edu/Reports/Ma
rtinFinalThesis.pdf, 2003
ad.
ae.
[9] David Gallo, AP
Physics project on propagation of
sonic boom, Available at:
af.
http://library.thinkquest.
org/12228/page6.html
ag.
ah.
[10] NASA, Supersonic
Jousting, Available at:
ai.
http://www.nasa.gov/visi
on/earth/improvingflight/supersoni
c_jousting.html Accessed 10 April
2004.
aj.
ak.
[11] Preston A. Henne,
Sr VP Programs, Engineering, &
Test Gulfstream Aerospace Corp
Available
at:
http://www.aiaa.org/events/aners/Pr
esentations/ANERS-Henne.pdf,
Accessed May 2005.

l.[2] Making the Small Supersonic

Airliner
m.
a Reality: Obstacles and
Solutions.
n.
Gail M. Krutov, Bard
High School, New York, NY.
o.
NASA
Fundamental
Aeronautics Student Competition
2008-2009 Academic Year.

p.
q.
[3] Joel brezillon, Gerald
carrier
and
Martin
laban,
Multidisciplinary optimization of
supersonic aircraft including lowboom considerations, journal of
mechanical design, ASME, October
2011,vol.133/105001.
r.
s.
[4] Wikipedia, Sonic
Boom,
Available
at:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonic_
boom.
t.
u.
[5]
Scientific
Assessment
of
ozone
depletion:1994. World Metrological
Organisation
Global
Ozone
Research And Monitoring ProjectReport No:37( US department of
commence/National Oceanic And
Atmosphereic
Administration/NOAA Research).
Chapter 11, book by A.Wahner and
M.A.Geller.
v.
w.
[6] NASA Fundamental
Aeronautics Student Competition,
Supersonic flight project by
Emmanuel Vasileios and Dimitrios
Tsounis, high school of Kareas
(Greece).
al.

am.

as. ake

an.

supersonic

Supersonic

ao.
ap.

flight

co,
is

one of the four speeds

of

aq.

flight.

Objects

moving at supersonic
ar.
153106004

speeds are going faster

Page 9

Advantages and Limitations of Supersonic Planes

than

the

speed

sound.

of

by

Supersonic

any

object

travelling faster than

includes speeds up to

sound.

five times faster than

at.

the speed of sound.

When

the

aircrafts

au. ADVANTAGES :

exceed the speed of

sound,

the

pressure

av. - With the use of delta-

waves mix and form

wing design,

shock waves that travel

attain a high angle of

forward from where

attack at low speeds,

they were released. As

which

the

plane

can

generates

flies

at

vortex on the upper

speed,

it

surface which greatly

continuously generates

increases lift and gives

shock waves, dropping

a lower landing speed.

supersonic

sonic boom along the

aw. -Supersonic speed with

flight path. The sonic

maneuverability

boom

provides amazing dog

is

swept

backwards as it travels

fighting

way

fighter aircraft.

from

the

ability

to

plane. This boom later

ax. - The major advantage

hits the ground in front

of a modern supersonic

of

commercial

it.

The

aircraft

aerodynamics

of

over the commercial

supersonic

is

subsonic

flight

called compressible
flow because

aircraft

more
of

carried

the compression

is

passengers
on

overseas

flights per day per

associated

with

the shock

wavesor

aircraft
ay. - With the use of

"sonic boom" created

153106004

it

a variable-geometry
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Advantages and Limitations of Supersonic Planes

wing,

commonly

which

their

known as the "swing-

strength

wing," which spreads

high temperatures.

wide

for

low-speed

sharply,

quickly

at

bh. FUNCTIONAL

flight and then sweeps

REQUIREMENT :

supersonic

bi. 1)

Supersonic

aircraft able to take off

airfoils

and land at a relatively

A supersonic airfoil is

slow speed.

az. -

Most

supersonic

cross-section

geometry designed to

designs use aluminum

generate lift efficiently

alloys

such

at supersonic speeds.

which

The need for such a

are cheap and easy to

design arises when an

work.

aircraft is required to

as Duralumin,

ba.

operate consistently in

bb.

the supersonic flight

bc. DISADVANTAGES :

regime.

bd. -

Supersonic airfoils

Expensive

flights

(passenger use)
be. -

Supersonic

generally have a thin

flights

section

formed

of

cause sonic boom and

either angled planes or

noise pollution.

opposed

bf. -Some
fighter

supersonic
jets

afterburners
speed,

gain

which

can

with

very sharp leading and

use

to

arcs,

trailing

edges.

The

sharp edges prevent the

formation

of

reveal their position on

detached bow shock in

enemy radar due to

front of the airfoil as it

heat signatures

moves

bg. -

Supersonic

flights

through

the

air.This shape is in

uses aluminum alloys

153106004

loses

contrast
Page 11

Advantages and Limitations of Supersonic Planes

to subsonic airfoils,

shape and the pressures

which

have

at entry to, and exit

rounded leading edges

from, the nozzle. The

to

internal shape may be

often

reduce flow

separation over a wide

convergent

range

or convergent-

of angle

of

attack. A rounded edge

divergent (C-D).C-D

would behave as a

nozzles can accelerate

blunt

in

the jet to supersonic

supersonic flight and

velocities within the

thus would form a bow

divergent

shock, which greatly

whereas a convergent

increases wave

nozzle

body

drag.

section,
cannot

The airfoils' thickness,

accelerate

camber, and angle of

beyond sonic speed.

attack are varied to

Propelling nozzles may

achieve a design that

have fixed geometry,

will

or

cause

may

jet

slight

deviation

in

the

variable geometry to

direction

of

the

give different exit areas

surrounding airflow.

they

the

have

to control the operation

of the engine when

bj. 2) Propelling Nozzle :

bk. Propelling

equipped
system.

When

afterburning

gas

engines

are equipped with a C-

to subsonic, transonic,

D nozzle the throat

or supersonic velocities
on

an

afterburner or a reheat

nozzles

accelerate the available

depending

with

area

the

is

variable.

Nozzles for supersonic

power setting of the

flight speeds, at which

engine, their internal

high nozzle pressure

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Advantages and Limitations of Supersonic Planes

ratios

are

generated,also

between

have

(8,400 mph;

variable area divergent

14,000 km/h)

sections

Mach 24 (16,000 mph;

bl. 3) Scramjet :

bo. MITIGATION

(supersonic combustin

TECHNIQUES:

g ramjet) is a variant of
a ramjet air
jet

and

25,000 km/h).

bm. -A scramjet

bp. 1)JET

breathing

engine in

NOISE

REDUCTION :

which

bq. Jet aircraft noise is a

combustion takes place

combined

in supersonic airflow.

aircraft noise and the

bn. - As in ramjets, a

effect

of

jet engine. And this can

scramjet relies on high

be

vehicle

Controlling The Source

speed

to

reduced

i.e.

incoming

velocity and Enhance

air

before

Reduce

by

forcefully compress the

exhaust

combustion

jet

(hence ramjet), but a

chevrons). And one of

ramjet decelerates the

the other possible ways

air

to reduce jet noise and

to subsonic velocities

aircraft

before

make use of bypass

while

combustion,
airflow

in

mixing

(like

noise

turbofan

is

to

engines

scramjet is supersonic

instead

throughout the entire

engines as the noise

engine. This allows the

created

scramjet

engines is lesser than

to

operate

of
by

turbojet
turbofan

efficiently at extremely

that

high speeds: theoretical

turbojet engines.

projections place the

generated

br. 2)SONIC

top speed of a scramjet

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Mach 12

BOOM

REDUCTION:
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by

Advantages and Limitations of Supersonic Planes

bs. When

an

aircraft

structure and to move

passes through the air

the

it

upstream,

creates

of pressure

series

wave

the

flow

waves in

perturbations have to

front of it and behind

move upstream beyond

it, similar to the bow

the

and

front.

stern

waves created

by

boat.

waves

These

original

shock

Shock

wave

appears in the form of

a

steep

pressure

travel at the speed of

gradient. It introduces

sound, and as the speed

a discontinuity in the

of the object increases,

flow properties. plasma

the waves are forced

spike serves the same

together,

purpose,

compressed,

or

which

because

encounters the flow in

they cannot get out of

the region upstream of

the way of each other.

the location of the

Eventually they merge

original shock front20.

into a single shock

The

wave, which travels at

perturbations from the

the speed of sound.For

plasma spike coalesce

sonic-boom mitigation

with

can be achieved by

perturbations from the

increasing

the

wing

object into a new shock

dihedral

anglethe

front, which replaces

angle between the left

the original one located

wing and right wing

behind it.

induced

the

flow

flow

on the ground sonic-

bv.

boom noise

bw.4) REDUCTION IN

bt. 3)SHOCK

WAVE

DRAG:

MITIGATION:

bx. drag reductions allow

bu. To modify the shock

153106004

shock

lower
Page 14

fuel

Advantages and Limitations of Supersonic Planes

requirements and can

chances that due to

lead

higher

to

operating

reduced
costs

and
by.

and noise effects. The

bz.

on

ca.

supersonic

vehicles

can

be

classified

into

three

cb.
cc.
cd.REFERANCES :

different categories: 1)

1)

Bill

Gonston,

"The

skin-friction drag, 2)

Development of Jet and Turbine

drag caused by lift, and

Aero

3) zero-lift bluntness

2)

(thickness-wave) drag.

Engines",

2006,

4th

edition, pp. 160.

http://www.brown.edu/research/

projects/scientific-

Linearised supersonic

computing/sites/brown.edu.resear

theory indicates that

ch.projects.scientific-

for an airfoil of a given

computing/files/uploads/Demonst

thickness

shape

rating%20Shock%20Mitigation

that gives minimum

%20and%20Drag%20Reduced

zero-lift bluntness drag

%20Pulsed%20Energy

the

%20Lines.pdf
3) http://eeweb.poly.edu/faculty/kuo

is the sharp diamond

airfoil. However, very

/publications/Mitigation-

sharp leading edges are

review.pdf
4) http://web.stanford.edu/group/frg/

not practical. During

publications/recent/sonic-

takeoff, landing, climb

and maneuvering light,

boom3.pdf
5) http://www.langleyflyingschool.c

blunted leading edges

om/Pages/CPGS+4+Aerodynami

are desirable so that

cs+and+Theory+of+Flight+Part+

flow

separation

prevented
required

.this
because

is

1.html
6) http://digitalcommons.calpoly.ed

is

u/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?

at

article=1081&context=aero_fac

higher speed there are

153106004

the

sharp edge would melt.

reduced sonic boom

drag

heating

Page 15