Volume 2, Issue 1 (2015) Tropical Plant Research

ISSN (E): 2349 1183
ISSN (P): 2349 9265

2(1): 0104, 2015
Research article
Impact of lopping on tree species of tropical Indian forests

Gitamani Dutta and Ashalata Devi*
Department of Environmental Science, Tezpur University, Tezpur, Sonitpur, Assam, India
*Corresponding Author: ashalatadevi12@gmail.com [Accepted: 08 January 2015]
Abstract: The study was carried out in Hojai reserve forest of Nagaon district of Assam, a good
example of tropical moist deciduous forest of Northeast India. For this study fifty 1010 m size
quadrates were laid down and recorded the number and girth size of cut stumps within the
quadrates. Cut stump of Syzygium cumini, Shorea robusta, Holarrhena antidysenterica, Trewia
nudiflora, Terminalia belerica, Cassia fistula, Lagerstroemia parviflora, Lagerstroemia
flosreginae, Careya arborea, Dillenia scabrella, Zizyphus jujuba and Pterospermum acerifolium
were recorded from the study site. Among these 12 largely exploited tree species highest cut
stumps were found in Syzygium cumini (26%) and Shorea robusta (19%). Both the species can use
as a timber and other purpose. The highest cut stump was recorded in 1030 cm girth class. It
indicates that the species were exploiting not only for the timber but also for firewood and some
other household purpose.
Keywords: Trees - Anthropogenic disturbances - Cut stump - Regeneration.
[Cite as: Dutta G & Devi A (2015) Impact of lopping on tree species of tropical Indian forests. Tropical Plant
Research 2(1): 14]
INTRODUCTION
In India protected area includes national park, animal sanctuary, biosphere reserve, reserve forest etc
designated by IUCN. In reserve forest rights to activities like hunting and grazing allow to communities living
on the fringes of forests who partially or wholly depend upon the forest resources or products for their
livelihood unlike national park or biosphere reserve. Reserved forests have their own Conservation values
(derived from species richness, floristic and faunal endemism, and uniqueness of ecosystem), sometimes that are
equivalent to or higher than the areas designated as National Parks and Sanctuaries (Ramesh et al. 1997). In
India, habitat destruction, over exploitation, environmental pollution and anthropogenic pressure are the major
disturbances to forest ecosystems. Disturbance induced by human being differ with response to the people
inhabitant in and around the protected areas and their livelihood status and economic conditions. The
conservation of biodiversity and human use of tropical forest resources in developing countries are in conflict
with each other (Singh 1998). It is important to see how natural communities in forest stand and their structural
attributes are affected by anthropogenic disturbances (Mishra et al. 2004). The degree of disturbance were
quantify from lopping status by many worker (Kanzaki & Kyoji 1986, Rao et al. 1990, Pandey & Shukla 2003).
The objective of the present study is to find out the highly exploited tree species through lopping and their
natural regeneration status.
MATERIAL AND METHODS

Study area
The study was conducted in tropical forest of Assam namely Hojai Reserve Forest (HRF) situated within the
Hojai sub-division, towards the South of Nagaon district of Assam, India. The Hojai Reserve Forest is situated
between the geographical limit of longitude 9249'30"9253'0" E and latitude 2555'0"2558'0" N (Fig. 1).
The area of this forest is 948 ha at an elevation of 76 m above msl. Topography of Hojai Reserve Forest is flat
ground. The forest is surrounded with settlement except the southeast corner. There is one forest village
(Kurkut) and one taungya village (Nandapur) located in and around the Hojai Reserve Forest. The forest is
being affected by firewood collection, artificial forest fire and grazing. Champion & Seth (1968) classified Hojai
www.tropicalplantresearch.com 1
Received: 12 October 2014 Published online: 28 February 2015
Dutta & Devi (2015) 2(1): 0104
.
Reserve Forest as a Kamrup sal forest (3C/C2d(iv)) under the tropical moist deciduous type of forest. The
dominated tree species of the forest is Shorea robusta. Along with Shorea robusta, species of Albizia and
Lagerstroemia covers the top canopy of the forest.
Figure 1. Map of Hojai reserve forest, Assam, India.
Sampling
The study was carried out during 20092010. Fifty quadrates of 1010 m size were laid down in study site.
Tree individuals and cut stumps encountered within the studied quadrat were counted and girth sizes were
recorded during the sampling. Girth of tree individuals were measured at 1.3 m height from the ground surface.
Depending on height of cut stumps, girth of cut stumps was measured above the ground surface or at 1.3 m.
Girth 30 cm of tree individuals were considered as an adult, <30 to >10 cm were considered as a sapling
and 10 cm at the base were considered as a seedling. The regeneration status of exploited species was
determined based on population size of seedlings, saplings and adults (modified from Khan 1987, Shankar 2001,
Khumbongmayum et al. 2006). Thereby the forest was considered to be in good regenerating state, if seedling >
sapling > adults; fairly regenerating state, if seedlings > or saplings adults or seedling sapling > adult;
poorly regenerating state, if the species survives only in sapling stage, but no seedlings (saplings may be <, > or
= adults). If a species present only in adult form, it was considered as not regenerating species. Species
considered as newly regenerating if the species had no adults but present only in seedlings or saplings stage.
RESULTS
Cut stump of Syzygium cumini (26%), Shorea robusta (19%), Holarrhena antidysenterica (13%), Trewia
nudiflora (10%), Terminalia belerica (7%), Cassia fistula (7%), Lagerstroemia parviflora (3%), Lagerstroemia
flosreginae (3%), Careya arborea (3%), Dillenia scabrella (3%), Zizyphus jujuba (3%) and Pterospermum
acerifolium (3%) were recorded (Fig. 2). In the study sites sapling and adult tree species was the main targeted
individual for exploitation. The maximum cut stumps were recorded in adult stage compared with the seedling
and sapling stage. The highest cut stumps was recorded (12 cut stumps ha-1) for Syzygium cumini in sapling
stage followed by Shorea robusta (10 cut stumps ha-1) in adult stage (Table 1).
Dutta & Devi (2015) 2(1): 0104
.
Figure 2. Photographs showing cut stumps in the study site.
Table 1. Tree species showing living individual density and cut stump density in each seedling, sapling and adult stage.
Seedling (ha-1) Sapling (ha-1) Adult (ha-1)
S.N. Species Living Cut Living Cut Living Cut
individuals stumps individuals stumps individuals stumps
1. Syzygium cumini 142 0 38 12 4 4
2. Shorea robusta 3396 0 384 2 164 10
3. Holarrhena antidysenterica 1058 0 22 6 2 2
4. Trewia nudiflora 8 8 2 0 0 6
5. Terminalia belerica 54 0 2 0 4 4
6. Cassia fistula 66 0 10 2 2 2
7. Lagerstroemia parviflora 278 0 6 0 2 2
8. Lagerstroemia flosreginae 206 0 8 0 4 2
9. Careya arborea 454 0 30 0 12 2
10. Dillenia scabrella 72 0 8 0 0 2
11. Zizyphus jujuba 230 0 20 2 0 0
12. Pterospermum acerifolium 88 0 6 0 0 2
Except Terminalia belerica other exploited species like Syzygium cumini, Shorea robusta, Holarrhena
antidysenterica, Trewia nudiflora, Cassia fistula, Lagerstroemia parviflora, Lagerstroemia flosreginae, Careya
arborea, Dillenia scabrella, Zizyphus jujuba and Pterospermum acerifolium were recorded in good regenerating
condition in natural habitat. Terminalia belerica was recorded in fairly regenerating condition.
DISCUSSION
Presence of cut stumps indicate the larger intervention of local people to meet various purposes of their
requirements such as for timber, medicine, food, fodder, fuel wood, building material, etc and as a result of
which the Hojai reserve forest is under the threat of lopping, a major anthropogenic pressure (Dutta & Devi
2013). Among the lopped species Syzygium cumini, Zizyphus jujuba are fruit yielding plant. Holarrhena
antidysenterica, Terminalia belerica have some medicinal property and Holarrhena antidysenterica is
considered as a good drug for the diarrhoea by the local inhabitants. Shorea robusta is a good timber yielding
plant, so the government attempted to manage sal forest for commercial timber production in order to increase
revenue (Gautam & Devoe 2006). Because of the commercial value, it is found as a second highest lopped
species during the study followed by Syzygium cumini. Syzygium cumini preferred as a fodder by local people
might one of the reasons for heavy lopping of this species was also observed by Pradhan et al. (2007) and
Sapkota et al. (2009). Adult tree individuals are the main target for illegal lopping. Illegal lopping is considered
as one of the major disturbance factor in forest stand and is associated with saplings and adult tree individuals
(Sapkota et al. 2009).
All the lopped species may tolerate the disturbances, so the natural regeneration of these species took place
adequately but affects the density of tree individuals. Felling of tree also create a gap inside the forest create
Dutta & Devi (2015) 2(1): 0104
.
suitable microsites for species, which may be another reason for highest number of seedling density in the study
sites. The combined effect of increased light intensity, increased soil temperature, and reduced competition
increases seedling recruitment and establishment in canopy gaps compared to closed canopies (Sapkota et al.
2009).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We sincerely acknowledge the D.F.O of Nagaon South Forest Division for permitting us to work in Hojai
reserve forest. We are extremely grateful to Mr. Dilip Dutta for his constant support during field visit. Thanks
are also due to the forest guards accompanying us during field visits. The first author is a recipient of UGC
fellowship and hence it is duly acknowledged.
REFERENCES
Champion HG & Seth SK (1968) A revised survey of forest types of India. Natraj Publishers, Dehradun, India.
Dhar U, Rawal RS & Samant SS (1997) Structural diversity and representativeness of forest vegetation in a
protected area of Kumaun Himalaya, India: Implications for conservation. Biodiversity and Conservation 6:
10451062.
Dutta G & Devi A (2013) Plant diversity, population structure and regeneration status in disturbed tropical
forest of Assam, northeast India. Journal of Forestry Research 24: 715720.
Gautam KH & Devoe NN (2006) Ecological and anthropogenic niches of sal (Shorea robusta Gaertn. f.) forest
and prospects for multiple-product forest management- a review. Forestry 79: 81101.
Mishra BP, Tripathi OP, Tripathi RS & Pandey HN (2004) Effect of anthropogenic disturbance on plant
diversity and community structure of a sacred grove in Meghalaya, northeast India. Biodiversity and
Conservation 13: 421436.
Pandey SK & Shukla RP (2003) Plant diversity in managed sal (Shorea robusta Gaertn.) forests of Gorakhpur,
India: species composition, regeneration and conservation. Biodiversity and Conservation 12: 22952319.
Pradhan NMB, Wegge P & Moe SR (2007) How does a re- colonizing population of Asian elephants affect the
forest habitat? Journal of Zoology 273: 183191.
Ramesh BR, Menon S & Bawa KS (1997) A vegetation based approach to biodiversity gap analysis in the
Agastyamalai region, Western Ghats, India. Ambio 26: 529536.
Rao P, Barik SK, Pandey HN & Tripath RS (1990) Community composition and tree population structure in a
sub-tropical broad-leaved forest along a disturbance gradient. Vegetatio 88: 151162.
Sapkota IP, Tigabu M & Oden PC (2009) Spatial distribution, advanced regeneration and stand structure of
Nepalese Sal (Shores robusta) forests subject to disturbances of different intensities. Forest Ecology and
Management 257: 19661975.
Singh SP (1998) Chronic disturbance, a principal cause of environmental degradation in developing countries.
Environmental Conservation 25: 12.
ISSN (E): 2349 1183
ISSN (P): 2349 9265
2(1): 0509, 2015
Research article
Utilization of vegetable waste for biomass production of some

wild edible mushroom cultures
Smita Behera and Nibha Gupta*
Plant pathology and Microbiology division, Regional Plant Resource Centre, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
*Corresponding Author: nguc2003@yahoo.co.in [Accepted: 26 January 2015]
Abstract: A preliminary experiment was carried out to analyse the growth performance of six
wild edible mushroom cultures using some chemosynthetic media and vegetable media in static
culture condition. The chemosynthetic media used were Tien and Kirk medium, Mushroom
complete medium, Yeast malt extract medium, Glucose yeast extract peptone medium, Malt
extract broth medium and Sabouraud dextrose broth medium whereas vegetable peels, Drumstick
peel medium, Potato peel medium, Carrot peel medium, Bottle gourd peel medium, Litchi peel
medium, Papaya peel medium, Pointed gourd peel medium, Chopped grass medium, Little gourd
peel medium, Pumpkin peel medium and Rich gourd peel medium were utilized for the
preparation of media as well. Overall, Mushroom complete medium showed growth promoting
activity as far as all mushroom culture concerned. However, Papaya peel, Drumstick peel, Carrot
peel and Bottle gourd peel medium also exhibited as a good source of media for growth
enhancement in case of Russula, Lentinus and Pleurotus sp. Present study exhibited the usefulness
of vegetable peels and may be explored further for the cost effective technology for the biomass
production.
Keywords: Macro fungi - Mushroom - Vegetables - Biomass.
[Cite as: Behera S & Gupta N (2015) Utilization of vegetable waste for biomass production of some wild edible
mushroom cultures. Tropical Plant Research 2(1): 59]
INTRODUCTION
Mushroom fruit bodies are well known food items since ancient times and became important as nutraceutical
and pharmaceutical agent now due to the capability of producing many useful secondary metabolites, high
protien content with essential amino acids, vitamins, minerals and exopolysaccharides (Adebayo-Tayo et al.
2011). Though, mushrooms are demonstrated as potential source of many bioactive compounds, large scale
production is the major constraints in order to fulfill the huge requirement of bioactive materials. However,
mushroom fungal mycelium are the best source to be utilized for production of extracellular and / or
intracellular bioactive compounds useful for formulation of nutraceutical and pharmaceuticals (Chang 2007).
Many fungi and their mycelium biomass are reported as good source of food, protein supplement, lipid source
and many more metabolites (Jong & Birgmingham 1993, Maziero et al. 1995, Moore & Chiu 2001). Similarly,
several mushroom fungi have also been exhibited a good source of protein, carbohydrate and other secondary
metabolites (Maziero et al. 1999, Caglarlrmak 2007). Recently it has been observed that submerged cultivation
of mushroom mycelium in defined medium may also perform as good as mushroom fruit bodies (Yang & Liau
1998, Vieira et al. 2008, Joshi et al. 2013, Hamedi et al. 2007). Submerged cultivation methods are useful in
mass scale production of many industrial compounds as well as advantages over the constraints of space and
contamination. Many mushroom fungi are ligno-cellulolytic due to extracellular enzymes that can degrade the
lignocelluloses into the favorable substrates (Howard et al. 2003). Complex sources of nutrients are not often
used in large scale production of fungi. In addition, complex media helps in growth abundance may be due to
unknown growth elicitor/compounds are present or slow rate of carbon and nitrogen metabolism (Crognale et al.
2003).
Keeping view the importance of waste material and their influences, a screening study has been planned to
grow mushroom (wild) mycelium in different kind of kitchen waste and compared with synthetic media in order
Received: 10 November 2014 Published online: 28 February 2015
Behera & Gupta (2015) 2(1): 0509
.
to obtain a good biomass as many wild mushroom are very difficult to grow in laboratory conditions though
they are proved to be a good source of useful bioactive compounds.

Six wild edible mushroom cultures namely Russula lepida, Russula brevipes, Russula nigricans, Pleurotus
sajor-caju, Lentinus tuberregium and Calocybe indica were used for the study of biomass production in
different medium. All strains were maintained on Malt extract agar slants and the slants were incubated at 28C
for 7 days and then stored at 4C for about 2 weeks. All stock fungi cultures were then transferred and
maintained on Malt extract agar (MEA) plate by periodical sub culturing every one month. Both slants and
plates were incubated at ambient temperature which ranged from 2530C for 57 days and then preserved at
4C in refrigerator. Seventeen media namely chemosynthetic media (Tien and Kirk medium, Yeast malt extract
medium, Mushroom complete medium, Glucose yeast extract peptone medium, Malt extract broth medium and
Sabouraud dextrose broth medium) and vegetable media (Drumstick peel medium, Chopped grass medium,
Carrot peel medium, Bottle gourd peel medium, Potato peel medium, Litchi peel medium, Papaya peel medium,
Pointed gourd peel medium, Little gourd peel medium, Pumpkin peel medium and Rich gourd peel medium)
were used for present study.
The seed culture of each organism (Russula lepida, Russula brevipes, Russula nigricans, Pleurotus sajor-
caju, Lentinus tuberregium and Calocybe indica) was prepared by punching out 0.5 cm2 of the agar-plate culture
and transferred into tissue culture bottles.
For studying the effect of different medium on the mycelial biomass, 50 ml of each synthetic medium were
dispensed in tissue culture bottles (pH maintained at 6.0), along with the basal medium (chopped plant products
were distributed in particular amount in each tissue culture bottles) having 50 ml of distilled water, pH adjusted
to 5.6 and sterilized at 121C for 15 minutes, cooled down, then inoculated with the seed culture. All cultures
were maintained at 30C, for 14 days of incubation period. The mycelial biomass produced in each treatment
was harvested by filtration to separate the culture broth and the fungal biomass was washed several times with
distilled water, then air dried at room temperature until constant weight and represented as dry cell mass (DCM).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Fungi are endowed with the properties of organic waste decomposition in order to extract useful nutrient for
their growth and development (Essien et al. 2005). In similar way, several studies have been carried out on the
utilization of lingo-cellulolytic activities of fungi for the degradation of complex substrate into fermentable
substrate ultimately that result into production of bioactive materials (Howard et al. 2003). To this effect, a
study has been planned to compare the effect of vegetable waste materials with chemosynthetic media on
growth of some mushroom culture under static culture condition.
Results depicted in table 1 regarding the growth of three species of Russula showed good growth of fungal
culture in both the media types. However, R. lepida and R. nigricans exhibited comparatives good growth in
Mushroom complete medium. R. lepida performed well in vegetable peel media prepared by Papaya and
Pumpkin peels and data is very well comparable to the biomass of this fungi obtained in other synthetic media.
Surprisingly, R. brevipes produced more biomass (0.6150.02 g) in Papaya peel medium followed by
Mushroom complete medium (0.3490.05 g) and Glucose yeast extract peptone medium (0.3920.09 g).
Russula nigricans performed good in Papaya (0.2440.02 g) and Little gourd medium (0.320.01 g) besides the
Glucose yeast extract peptone medium (0.3460.06 g), Tien and Kirk medium (0.2570.03 g).
Growth performance of Pleurotus sajor-caju, Calocybe indica and Lentinus tuberregium has been presented
in table 2. Pleurotus sajor-caju performed well in Glucose yeast extract peptone medium and Malt extract broth
medium. However, good biomass was obtained in Potato peel medium also as compared to other
chemosynthetic media. Lentinus tuberregium preferred Carrot peel medium and Bottle gourd peel medium
besides Mushroom complete medium (0.5060.04 g) and Glucose yeast extract peptone medium (0.3620.21
g). Though Calocybe indica showed growth in vegetable media, chemosynthetic media were proved to be best
for biomass production.
Overall, a good biomass of all mushroom cultures was also obtained in the media prepared by using kitchen
waste i.e. vegetable peels and very well comparable to their growth performance occurred in chemosynthetic
media used. The study presented a preliminary series of different media for the biomass production of
Behera & Gupta (2015) 2(1): 0509
.
Table 1. Biomass production of Russula spp. under different liquid media.

Biomass production (g)
S.N. Medium
R. lepida R. brevipes R. nigricans
1 Tien and Kirk medium 0.3650.05 0.3020.05 0.2570.03
2 Mushroom complete medium 0.5850.08 0.3490.05 0.2050.09
3 Yeast malt extract medium 0.3990.004 0.2570.05 0.1760.01
4 Glucose yeast extract peptone medium 0.4020.01 0.3920.09 0.3460.06
5 Malt extract broth medium 0.3680.03 0.1580.04 0.1860.03
6 Sabouraud dextrose broth medium 0.4160.01 0.1690.04 0.1640.02
7 Drumstick peel medium 0.0660.003 0.1220.07 0.1600.05
8 Potato peel medium 0.1150.02 0.0460.01 0.1560.03
9 Carrot peel medium 0.1850.025 0.1280.02 0.1890.02
10 Chopped grass medium 0.10.01 0.0650.01 0.0730.02
11 Bottle gourd peel medium 0.1350.003 0.0770.02 0.1370.02
12 Litchi peel medium 0.1490.13 0.1440.01 0.1640.001
13 Papaya peel medium 0.4170.0 0.6150.02 0.2440.02
14 Pointed gourd peel medium 0.0320.002 0.0550.01 0.0420.01
15 Little gourd peel medium 0.0440.01 0.0290.06 0.320.01
16 Pumpkin peel medium 0.3430.071 0.0710.004 0.0340.02
17 Rich gourd peel medium 0.1030.011 0.0470.013 0.0660.02
Note: Where is average and standard deviation for three replicates.
Table 2. Biomass produced by Pleurotus sajor-caju, Lentinus tuberregium and Calocybe indica under different liquid media.
Biomass production (g)
S.N. Medium
P. sajorcaju L. tuberregium C. indica
1 Tien and Kirk medium 0.2950.14 0.2440.08 0.220.03
2 Mushroom complete medium 0.2610.33 0.5060.04 0.2620.13
3 Yeast malt extract medium 0.280.05 0.1860.05 0.1970.0
4 Glucose yeast extract peptone medium 0.4600.20 0.3620.21 0.2170.18
5 Malt extract broth medium 0.3880.19 0.110.02 0.220.02
6 Sabouraud dextrose broth medium 0.240.09 0.2120.06 0.2780.04
7 Drumstick peel medium 0.0870.02 0.1410.06 0.0830.03
8 Potato peel medium 0.2540.02 0.2970.15 0.1380.01
9 Carrot peel medium 0.1560.02 0.4070.15 0.150.01
10 Chopped grass medium 0.0370.002 0.0580.03 0.0620.013
11 Bottle gourd peel medium 0.1090.012 0.4870.22 0.110.003
Note: Where is average and standard deviation for three replicates
mushroom cultures. Synthetic media is cost effective as presented in table 3. Malt extract broth medium costed
Rs. 6.77 for 50 ml broth medium prepared followed by Sabouraud dextrose broth medium (Rs.5.118) whereas
preparation of other chemosynthetic media required expenditure of less than Rs. 3.00 for 50 ml broth media in
order to get biomass production. However, a good biomass of mushroom culture was obtained with no cost as
the kitchen waste of vegetable peels was used.
Behera & Gupta (2015) 2(1): 0509
.
Table 3. Expenditure occurred in preparation of 50 ml of chemosynthetic media.
S.N. Medium used Expenditure per 50 ml of medium (In rupees)
1 Tien and Kirk medium 1.26
2 Mushroom complete medium 0.84
3 Yeast malt extract medium 2.16
4 Glucose yeast extract peptone medium 1.85
5 Malt extract broth medium 6.77
6 Sabouraud dextrose broth medium 5.118
Since mushrooms are good source of bioactive compounds of anticancer, antifungal and anti-diabetic in
nature, the mycelia may be used for the large scale production of the compounds as mushrooms are seasonal. To
make the bioactive production technology cost effective, present study may be useful in order to obtain more
biomass ultimately to have bioactive compounds in hand. Further standardization regarding quantification of
substrate as nutritional source for biomass production and its cost economics is required to reach more
constructive conclusion
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The financial support from Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt. of India (Project No. 22-24/2010
CS.I) is gratefully acknowledged. Authors are thankful to office in charge AICRP- mushroom for providing
mushroom cultures (Pleurotus sajor-caju, Lentinus tuberregium and Calocybe indica).
REFERENCES
Adebayo-Tayo BC, Jonathan SG, Popoola OO & Egbomuche RC (2011) Optimization of growth conditions for
myelial yield and exopolysaccharide production by Pleurotus ostreatus cultivated in Nigera. African Journal
of Microbiology Research 5: 21302138.
Caglarlrmak N (2007) Analytical, Nutritional & Clinical methods.The nutrient of exotic mushrooms (Lentinus
edodes and Pleurotus species) and an estimated approach to the volatile compounds. Food Chemistry
105:_11881194.
Chang ST (2007) Mushroom cultivation using the "ZERI" principle: potential for application in Brazil.
Micologia Aplicada International 19: 3334.
Crognale S, Federici F &Petruccioli M (2003) -Glucan production by Botryospaeria rhodina on undiluted
olive- mill wastewater. Biotechnology Letters 25: 20132015.
Essien JP, Akpan EJ & Essien EP (2005) Studies on mould and biomass production using waste banana peels.
Bioresource Technology 96: 14511456.
Hamedi A, Vahid H & Ghanati F (2007) Optimization of medium composition for production of mycelia
biomass and exopolysaccharide by Agaricus blazei Murill DPPH 131 using response surface methodology.
Biotecnology 6: 456464.
Howard RL, Abotsi E, Jansen Van Rensburg EL& Howard S (2003) Lignocellulose biotechnology: issue of
bioconversion & enzyme production. African Journal of Biotechnology 2: 602619.
Joshi M, Patel H & Gupte S (2013) Nutrient improvement for simultaneous production of exopolysaccharide
and mycelia biomass production of submerged cultivation of Schizophyllum commune AGMJ-1 using
statistical optimization. Biotechnology 3: 307-318.
Jong SC & Birgmingham JM (1993) Mushroom as a source of natural flavor and aroma compounds. In: Chang
ST, Buswell JA & Chiu W (eds) Mushroom Biology & Mushroom products. The Chinese University press,
Hong Kong, pp. 345366.
Maziero R, Cavazzoni V & Bononi VRC (1999) Screening of basidiomycetes for the production of
exopolysaccharide and biomass in submerged culture. Revista de Microbiologia 30: 7784.
Maziero R, Adami A, Cavazzoni V & Bononi VL (1995) Exopolysaccharide and biomass production in
submerged culture by edible mushrooms. Mushroom Science 14: 887892.
Moore D & Chiu SW (2001) Fungal products as food. In: Pointing SB & Hyde KD (eds) Bioexploitation of
filamentous fungi. Fungal Diversity press, Hong Kong, pp. 223251.
Behera & Gupta (2015) 2(1): 0509
.
Vieira GRT, Liebl M, Tayares LBB, Paulert R & Junior AS (2008). Submerged culture conditions for the
production of mycelial biomass and antimicrobial metabolites by Polyporus tricholoma mont. Brazilian
Journal of Microbiology 39: 561568.
Yang FC & Liau CB (1998) The influence of environmental conditions on polysaccharide formation by
Ganoderma lucidum in submerged cultures. Process Biochemistry 33: 547553.
ISSN (E): 2349 1183
ISSN (P): 2349 9265
2(1): 1016, 2015
Research article
A study of genetic diversity in Oryza rhizomatis D.A. Vaughan

accessions using AFLP markers and morphological traits
G. Rajkumar1,2*, O. V. D. S. J. Weerasena2 and K. K. S. Fernando3
1
Department of Botany, Faculty of Science, University of Jaffna, Sri Lanka
2
Institute of Biochemistry Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, University of Colombo, Sri Lanka
3
Agricultural Biotechnology Centre, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Peredeniya, Sri Lanka
*Corresponding Author: gowrir@jfn.ac.lk & gowri450@yahoo.com [Accepted: 03 February 2015]
Abstract: Oryza rhizomatis is a wild rice species endemic to Sri Lanka and is reported to have
tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses prevailing in the dry zone of the country. Several
morphological differences have been observed in O. rhizomatis grown under different agro-
ecological conditions of Sri Lanka. Therefore, these rice species (accessions) may have genetic
differences to consider them as ecotypes. Morphological and genetic diversity of O.rhizomatis
accessions collected from different locations were carried out to observe genetic differences
among them. Scattered diagram of PCoA of O. rhizomatis accessions, based on morphological
data showed that there were no significant differences among them. According to molecular
analysis by AFLP, all the accessions were genetically similar and Jaccard genetic similarity
coefficient varied with a very narrow range between the accessions (0.915 to 1.000). According to
the results, the O. rhizomatis accessions tested did not show significant morphological and genetic
differences. In this study representative samples from different locations were grown in the green
house, exposing them to the same environmental conditions. This may have contributed to results
obtained with no observable morphological differences. Further studies have to be carried out with
insitu collections from different locations when extreme weather conditions are prevailing to see
the morphological characters are changed as an adaptation and to assess any genetic diversity.
Keywords: AFLP - Oryza rhizomatis - Polymorphism - PCoA.
[Cite as: Rajkumar G, Weerasena OVDSJ and Fernando KKS (2015) A study of genetic diversity in Oryza
rhizomatis D.A. Vaughan accessions using AFLP markers and morphological traits. Tropical Plant Research
2(1): 1016]
INTRODUCTION
Oryza rhizomatis is an endemic wild rice species of Sri Lanka and is reported to have tolerance to biotic and
abiotic stresses. O. rhizomatis plants are grown under different agro-ecological conditions of the island. This
wild rice species studied is growing under different agro-ecological conditions of the island, especially drought,
high temperature (Hambantoda, Anuradhapura), and high salinity areas (Puttalam and Ampara). O. rhizomatis
species may have morphological, biochemical, anatomical etc. adaptations for their survival in the particular
environmental conditions.
Sri Lankan researchers have found several morphological differences among accessions of O. rhizomatis
species collected from different locations of Sri Lanka. There are no documentary evidences to support these
eco-morphological differences. Therefore morphological and molecular comparisons of O. rhizomatis
accessions collected from different locations were carried out by using forty five Morphological Descriptors
(qualitative and quantitative) and Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLP) analysis of DNA followed
by cluster analysis.

Morphological studies of Oryza rhizomatis accessions
Seeds from seven Oryza rhizomatis accessions which have been collected from different locations of Sri
Lanka (Table 1). Seeds were planted in equal diameter pots filled with soil collected from paddy field with five
Received: 17 November 2014 Published online: 28 February 2015
Rajkumar et al. (2015) 2(1): 1016
.
replications for each accession, watered daily and grown under greenhouse conditions at the Plant Genetic
Resources Centre, Gannoruwa, Peredeniya.
Table 1. List of Oryza rhizomatis accessions and their locations used in this study.
Accession Location
WR-AC-85 Inginimitiya (Kurunegala)
WR-AC-20 Anuradhapura
WR-AC-08 Illakattuwa (Puttalam)
WR-AC-51 Tabbowa (Puttalam)
WR-AC-49 Kalladiya (Puttalam)
WR-AC-50 Samagipura (Puttalam)
WR-AC-28 Thambiyiwa (Anuradhapura)
WR-AC-03 Aukana (Anuradhapura)
Note: WR-AC Wild Rice Accession.
Forty five morphological descriptors (both qualitative and quantitative) were used for characterization with
vegetative and seed parameters of primary importance. Evaluations were performed as described for rice plant
by the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) using the scale established for each descriptor and data were
recorded. Mean values for different morphological traits and standard errors were calculated from mean values
of each accession by SPSS version 14 software (SPSS, Inc., Chicago IL). Principal components analysis was
performed using MVSP 3.1 (Kovach 1998).
AFLP analysis of Oryza rhizomatis accessions collected from different locations
Extraction of DNA
Genomic DNA was extracted from rice leaves using CTAB based method as described by Chen et al.
(1999). The extracted DNA was quantified by Agarose gel electrophoresis. Then concentrations of all DNA
samples were adjusted to 300 ng.l-1.
AFLP analysis
AFLP analysis was performed as described by Vos et al. (1995). Briefly; DNA from each sample was
digested with EcoR1 and 5 units of Mse1 enzymes. The digestion sample was incubated at 37oC for 3.5 hours.
To the double digested DNA, EcoR1 adapter (10 pmol.l-1), Mse1 adapter (10 pmol.l-1), 5U of T4 DNA ligase
(New England Biolabs, USA), 10 mM ATP (GE Healthcare Life Sciences, UK), and 1X RL buffer were added
and incubated overnight (~16 h) at 37oC in a water bath. Then 3.0 l of ligated samples were run on 1.5%
agarose gel and visualized under the UV transilluminator to check the ligation.
After the ligation of adapters, 2 l of digested/ligated DNA were preamplified in 25 l of reaction containing
20 pmol of each preamplification primers, 0.5 mM dNTPs, 1U of Taq DNA polymerase (Genscript USA), 1X
PCR buffer containing 1.5 mM MgCl2 (Genscript USA) and sterile water. The PCR amplification was performed
for 30 cycles of denaturation at 94oC for 30 sec, annealing at 56oC for 30 sec, extension at 72oC for 60 sec in
thermal cycler (Eppendorf Master cycler gradient). Then 3.0 l of selective amplified samples were run on
1.5% agarose gel and visualized under the UV transilluminator to check the amplification. The preamplification
product was diluted 20 times with sterile distilled water and used as a template for selective amplification.
The selective amplification reaction was conducted in final volume of 20 l containing diluted
preamplification product, fluorescently labeled EcoR1 primer, Mse1 primer, dNTPs, Taq DNA polymerase,
PCR buffer. Then PCR amplification was carried out. The amplified samples were purified by ethanol
precipitation followed by washing with 70% ethanol. The dried pellets were re-suspended in water and mixed
with ET550-ROX size and deionized formamide. Then the samples were denatured at 95 oC for 2 minutes and
analyzed by capillary electrophoresis on automated MegaBACE 1000 DNA sequencer. AFLP fragment analysis
was performed with Genetic Profiler software.
Data analysis
Peaks in the electropherogram were analyzed and compared by using MegaBACE Genetic Profiler software.
Jaccards similarity coefficients (Jaccard 1901) were calculated using binary data and similarity coefficient
matrix was generated to assess the genetic resemblances among varieties. Then the similarity matrix was used
Rajkumar et al. (2015) 2(1): 1016
.
for cluster analysis by Unweighed Pair Group Method with Arithmetic mean (UPGMA) method and the
dendrogram was generated. The confidence of the UPGMA clusters were assessed by Mantel test (Mantel 1967)
to calculate the cophenetic correlation coefficient (r). Principal Component Analysis (PCoA) was performed to
find out possible relations that could not be visualized in cluster analysis.
RESULTS
Morphological studies of Oryza rhizomatis accessions
Eight accessions of O. rhizomatis species collected from different location of Sri Lanka were differentiated
using thirty nine morphological traits. Significant variation was not observed for fourteen qualitative
parameters; ligule colour, collar colour, auricle colour, internode colour, culm strength, secondary branching,
panicle exsertion, panicle shattering, panicle threshability, awing, apiculus colour, stigma colour, lemma and
Table 2. Means and standard errors for the quantitative traits for eight accessions of Oryza rhizomatis.
Descriptor ( Quantitative traits) Mean SE
Seedling height(mm) 62.901.843
Leaf blade length(mm) 34.021.382
Leaf blade length width (cm) 0.9850.0321
Ligule length (mm) 2.9600.0814
Days to heading 62.000.737
Culm length (cm) 62.630.894
Culm number 4.900.178
Culm diameter (mm) 4.680.145
Panicle Length (cm) 22.7830.2773
100 grain weight (g) 1.2500.0268
Grain length (mm) 6.2120.1562
Grain width (mm) 2.1900.0395
Maturity (days) 110.371.296
Table 3. Scales, means and standard errors for the qualitative traits for eight accessions of Oryza rhizomatis.
Descriptor (qualitative traits) Scale Mean SE
leaf blade pubescence 1-3 (1=glabrous, 3=intermediate) 1.870.096
leaf blade colour 1-7 (1=pale green, 7=purple) 2.250.106
Basal leaf sheath colour 1-4 (1=green, 4=purple) 1.750. 069
leaf angle 1-4 (1=erect, 4=descending) 2.120.053
flag leaf angle 1-4 (1=erect, 4=descending) 3.380. .265
Ligule colour 0-3 (1=absent, 3=purple) 1.000.000
Ligule shape 0-3 (1=absent, 3=turnate) 1.620. 078
Collar colour 1-3 (1=pale green, 3=purple) 1.000.000
Auricle colour 1-3 (1=absent, 3=purple) 1.000.000
Culm angle 1-8 (1=erect, 8=procumbent) 4.500..340
Internode colour 1-4 (1=green, 4=purple) 1.000.000
Culm strength 1-9 (1=strong, 9=very weak) 1.000.000
Panicle type 1-9 (1=compact, 9=open) 7.500.310
Secondary branching 0-3 (0=absent, 3=clustering) 1.000.000
Panicle exsertion 1-8 (1=well exserted 8=enclosed) 1.000.000
Panicle axis 1-2 (1=straight, 2=droopy) 1.38.078
Panicle shaterring 1-5 (1=very low, 5=high) 1.000.000
Panicle threshability 1-3 (1=difficult, 3=easy) 1.000.000
Apiculus colour 1-7 (1=whitet, 7=purple apex) 3.000.000
Stigma colour 1-4 (1=white, 5=purple) 3.000.000
Lemma and Palea colour 0=10 (0=straw, 10=white) 9.000.000
Lemma and Palea pubescence 1-5 (1=glabrous, 5=long hairs) 3.380.078
Sterile lemma colour 1-4 (1=straw, 4=purple) 1.750.208
Sterile lemma length (mm) 1-9 (1=short, 9=asymmetrical) 2.6700.0723
Spikelet sterility 1-9 (1=highly fertile, 9=completely sterile) 3.750.155
Seed coat colour 1-7 (1=white, 7=purple) 4.000.000
Rajkumar et al. (2015) 2(1): 1016
.
palea colour and seed coat colour. Other qualitative traits also showed less variation among the accessions: Leaf
blade pubescence varied from glabrous to intermediate. Leaf blade colour varied from pale green to dark green.
Similarly quantitative traits showed little variations among the accessions. Means and standard errors for the
quantitative traits are listed in table 2. Means, standard errors, scales for each qualitative traits are listed in table
3. There were no significant differences as evident from standard error (SE).
Multivariate Principal Coordinate Analysis (PCoA) of the morphological data indicated that the first, second
and third components accounted for 53.461, 18.442 and 13.810% of the variance among accessions,
respectively. Thus, the first three components explained 85.713% of variance.
Both qualitative and quantitative characters were considered and PCoA was performed. The scattered
diagram of PCoA of eight O. rhizomatis accessions with five replicates based on morphological data obtained is
showed in figure 1.The most important parameters separating accessions in the first component were grain
length (r =-0.758) and sterile lemma length (r = -0.654) and were negatively correlated with the first component.
Culm length, culm diameter, and hundred grain weight were also negatively correlated with the first component,
while other traits were positively correlated with the first component.
Figure 1. Two dimensional PCoA plot of relationships among Oryza rhizomatis accessions based on
thirty nine morphological parameters. Ovale indicate the well- defined group.
Grain width had the highest correlation with the second component (r = 0.805) while the other traits:
Seedling height, leaf blade length, and width, Culm length, panicle Length, grain length were also positively
correlated. Other quantitative characters showed negative correlation with the second components. Replicates of
accession W08 and W50 were grouped together (indicated in oval). But replicates of other accessions did not
group together. All replicates were scattered randomly.
AFLP analysis of Oryza rhizomatis accessions collected from different locations
Polymorphism
Six pairs of primers generated a total of 93 fragments. Of these only 13 fragments were polymorphic
(13.9%) and 80 (86.1%) were monomorphic. The fragments ranged in size from 30 to 550 base pairs. The
number of amplified products generated by individual pair of primer ranged from 13 (E-AA M-G) to 18 (E-AT
M-G) with an average of 15.5 fragments per pair of primers.
Genetic relationship by cluster analysis
All fragments (93) scored were used for genetic diversity studies. The results obtained by the Jaccards
similarity coefficients showed that the genetic similarity varied with a narrow range from 0.915 to 1.000 (Table
4). The accession R-AC-28 and R-AC-49, R-AC-08 and R-AC-20 showed the lowest genetic similarity (0.915)
while the accessions R-AC-08 and R-AC-50 showed the highest genetic similarity (1.000). Similarity matrix
Rajkumar et al. (2015) 2(1): 1016
.
generated for all O. rhizomatis accessions showed less genetic variation among the accessions. The genetic
similarity 0.930 was used to establish a cut off value for cluster generation. At this cut off value in UPGMA
analysis separated O. rhizomatis accessions into two main clusters (Fig. 2) I and II. Cluster I contained 3
accessions while cluster II enclosed 5 accessions.
Table 4. Similarity matrix based on Gower general similarity coefficient for Oryza rhizomatis accessions.
R-AC-50 R-AC-49 R-AC-28 R-AC-85 R-AC-20 R-AC-51 R-AC-08 R-AC-03
R-AC-50 1.000
R-AC-49 0.957 1.000
R-AC-28 0.957 0.915 1.000
R-AC-85 0.936 0.936 0.936 1.000
R-AC-20 0.915 0.915 0.936 0.936 1.000
R-AC-51 0.968 0.947 0.968 0.947 0.926 1.000
R-AC-08 1.000 0.957 0.957 0.936 0.915 0.968 1.000
R-AC-03 0.936 0.936 0.979 0.936 0.957 0.947 0.936 1.000
Figure 2. UPGMA dendrogram showing genetic similarity among Oryza rhizomatis accessions based on Jaccards
similarity coefficient.
The cluster I again subdivided into two as IA and IB at the similarity coefficient of 0.928. Cluster IA
encloses only one accession R-AC-20 and cluster IB encloses two accessions R-AC-03 and R-AC-28. Cluster II
subdivided into two clusters IIA and IIB at the similarity coefficient 0.934. Cluster IIA encloses only one
accession R-AC-85 while cluster IIB subdivided into two clusters at the similarity coefficient 0.952. Accessions
R-AC-08 and R-AC-50 originated from the same node and having highest genetic similarity (1.000).
Principal Coordinate Analysis (PCoA) of 8 O. rhizomatis accessions based on AFLP data obtained from the
similarity matrix constructed by Gower general coefficient is showed in figure 3. The distribution of groups
produced by PCoA analysis confirmed the clustering pattern of the UPGMA analysis. The accession R-AC 50
and R-AC-08 were found at the same position in the scatter diagram as both having 1.000 similarity coefficients.
DISCUSSION
Oryza rhizomatis plants are grown under different agro-ecological conditions of the island. This wild rice
species has got adapted to climatic conditions prevailing in the Hambantota, Kurunegala, Puttalam,
Anuradhapura, Monaragala, and Ampara districts of Sri Lanka (Liyanage 2010). Sri Lankan researchers have
found several morphological differences among accessions of O. rhizomatis species collected from different
locations of Sri Lanka. There are no documentary evidences to support these eco-morphological differences.
Rajkumar et al. (2015) 2(1): 1016
.
Figure 3. Scatter diagram of first three principal cordinates (PCo1, PCo2 and PCo3) of Oryza rhizomatis accessions.
This wild rice species studied is growing under different agro-ecological conditions of the island, especially
drought, high temperature (Hambantoda, Anuradhapura), and high salinity areas (Puttalam and Ampara). O.
rhizomatis species may have morphological, biochemical, anatomical etc adaptations for their survival in the
particular environmental conditions. However, according to our results, there are no prominent morphological
differences observed among the accessions collected from different locations of Sri Lanka. Scattered diagram
(Fig. 1) of PCoA of eight O. rhizomatis accessions developed based on morphological data showed that there
are no significant differences among the accessions. However, accession number 50 and 08 were grouped
together indicating the closeness of these two accessions (indicated as oval in the figure 1). While replicates of
other accessions were scattered among them indicating their morphological dissimilarity. Therefore it is not
possible to arrive of a firm conclusion that the accessions collected from different locations are morphologically
similar. Further studies have to be carried out using collections from different locations when extreme weather
conditions are prevailing to see the consistency of morphological characters.
According to the molecular analysis all the accessions were genetically similar because Jaccard genetic
similarity coefficient varies with a very narrow range from 0.915 to 1.000 between the accessions (Table 4). R-
AC-08 and R-AC-50 showed the highest genetic similarity (1.000). These two accessions were originated from
the same node of the UPGMA dendrogram (Fig. 2) and placed in the same position in the scattered diagram
(Fig. 3). Similarly the replicates of these two accessions were grouped together in the scattered diagram
generated for morphological analysis (Fig. 1). These results indicate that those two accessions were
morphologically and genetically similar. These two accessions were collected from the same area, Puttalam.
However some other two accessions collected from the Puttalam area (AC-51 and AC-49) did not group
together with previous (AC-08 and AC-50) in the scattered diagram of morphological analysis (Fig. 1). Results
of AFLP analysis of these four accessions AC-08, AC-50, AC-51 and AC-49 were clustered together in cluster
IIB in the UPGMA dendrogram (Fig. 2) constructed for the molecular analysis and indicated that all four are
genetically similar. It is suggested to repeat the analysis with more replicates from each location to confirm the
results.
CONCLUSION
The morphological differences of the accessions collected from different locations (Liyanage, Personal
communication) may be due to climatic differences prevailed at the time of collections. In this study
representative samples from different locations were grown under greenhouse conditions, common for all the
accessions. This may have contributed to results with no observable morphological differences. Further studies
Rajkumar et al. (2015) 2(1): 1016
.
have to be carried out with in situ collections from different locations when extreme weather conditions are
prevailing to see the morphological characters are changed as an adaptation and to assess any genetic diversity.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors greatly appreciate the financial support given by the National Research Council of Sri Lanka
(Grant No. 05-61).
REFERENCES
Chen DH & Ronald PC (1999) A Rapid Minipreparation Method Suitable for AFLP and PCR Applications.
Plant Molecular Biology Reporter 17: 5357.
Jaccard P (1901) tude comparative de la distribuition floraledans une portion des Alpes et des Jura. Bulletin de
la Societe vaudoise des sciences naturelles 37: 547579.
Kovach WL (1998) MVSP - A Multivariate Statistical Package for Windows, ver. 3.1. Kovach Computing
Services, Pentraeth, Wales, U.K.
Liyanage ASU (2010) Eco-geographic survey of crop wild relatives, Plant Genetic Resources Centre,
Gannoruwa, Peredeniya, Sri Lanka.
Mantel NA (1967) The detection of disease clustering and a generalized regression approach. Cancer Research
27: 209220.
Vos P, Hogers R, Bleeker M, Reijans M, van de Lee T, Hornes M, Frijters A, Pot J, Peleman J & Kuiper M
(1995) AFLP: a new technique for DNA fingerprinting. Nuclic Acids Research 23: 44074414.
ISSN (E): 2349 1183
ISSN (P): 2349 9265
2(1): 1722, 2015
Research article
Phosphate solubilising bacteria (Bacillus polymyxa) - An

effective approach to mitigate drought in tomato
(Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.)
P. V. Shintu and K. M. Jayaram*
Division of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, Department of Botany, University of Calicut, Kerala, India
*Corresponding Author: jayaramkm@yahoo.co.in [Accepted: 17 February 2015]
Abstract: The main aim of the present investigation is to evaluate the effect of priming of seeds of
tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) with phosphate solubilising bacteria (PSB) during drought
stress condition. The use of phosphate solubilising bacteria as inoculants is found to be
simultaneously increasing the Phosphorus uptake by the plant and crop yield. As the farmers in the
state of Kerala are severely fed up with the water stress condition prevailing in the summer season,
the present attempt may become miniature step to stretch a helping hand to them. In the study, the
seeds of tomato (L. esculentum) cv. Anakha were subjected to priming treatment with 0.5 % and
1% phosphate solubilising bacteria. The parameters like germination percentage, root length, shoot
length, relative water content, amount of chlorophyll, protein, proline and yield were studied.
Inoculation with phosphate solubilising bacteria showed remarkable variation in both
physiological and biochemical parameters of tomato plants. Among the two concentrations tested,
0.5% phosphate solubilising bacteria was found to be effective in mitigating the effect of water
stress, stimulating early flowering and also in increasing yield.
Keywords: Bacillus polymyxa - Germination - Chlorophyll - Protein - Proline.
[Cite as: Shintu PV & Jayaram KM (2015) Phosphate solubilising bacteria (Bacillus polymyxa) - An effective
approach to mitigate drought in tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.). Tropical Plant Research 2(1): 1722]
INTRODUCTION
Water limitation is one of the most important factors to reduce agricultural crop production, which is related
to global climate changes; especially drought and heat stress (Ciais et al. 2005). Drought (water stress) is the
major problem in agriculture and the ability to withstand such stress is of immense economic importance.
Water stress leads to substantial variation in morphology, anatomy, physiology and biochemistry of plants,
which ultimately reflected on yield potentials (Kramer 1969). These physiological and biochemical changes are
appears to be the result of accumulation of compatible solutes and specific proteins that can be rapidly induced
by osmotic stress (Shao et al. 2005). Water stress either short or prolonged, adversely affect photosynthesis and
other metabolic activities of plants and ultimately the growth and productivity of plants.
Phosphobacterium is one among the soil microorganism, which plays an important role in improving the
chemical and physical nature of soil, adding organic matter, solubilising the insoluble phosphate, increasing
availability and utilization of growth and yield (Ravikumar et al. 2010). Most of the Indian soils are deficient in
available form of phosphorus and its requirement is met by the addition of phosphatic fertilizers but the use
efficiency of applied phosphorus rarely exceeds 30% due to its fixation as Fe and Al phosphates in acid soil and
Ca and Mg phosphates in alkaline soils. In this context, phosphate solubilising microorganisms efficiently take
part in the utilization of unavailable native phosphates as well as phosphates (Lagreid et al. 1999). Various
studies showed that priming of seeds with various chemicals or even water can enable the plants to improve the
health and hence such plants may become resistant to water stress (Chivasa et al. 2000, Harris et al. 2004).
Considering these facts the authors made an attempt to study the effect of priming tomato seeds with phosphorus
solubilising bacteria that represents an important ecological adaptation to resist the plants from water stress.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Received: 03 December 2014 Published online: 28 February 2015
Shintu & Jayaram (2015) 2(1): 1722
.
For the present study, seeds of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) cv. Anakha were procured from the
Regional Agricultural Research Station, Palakkad, Kerala. Healthy seeds were selected and were divided in to 2
sets. First set of seeds was non-inoculated (unprimed) and considered as control and the other set was
inoculated/primed with 0.5% and 1% phosphate solubilising bacterium (Bacillus polymyxa) procured from
Agrobiotech Research Centre, Kottayam, Kerala. All the treated as well as untreated control seeds were sown in
garden pots filled with garden mixture. After 21 days of vegetative growth both the experimental and control
plants were divided into two sets each of which one each was subjected to water stress treatment for 3 days and
the other sets were regularly irrigated. After 3 days water stress treatment the plants were irrigated regularly as
in the other case.
The following parameters were studied by using standard procedures: Germination percentage, root length,
shoot length, relative water content (RWC) (Bars & Weatherly 1962), chlorophyll (Arnon 1949), protein (Lowry
et al. 1951), proline (Bates et al. 1973) and number of fruits per plant. All the data were collected as detailed
below: on the previous day of commencement of water stress treatment (0th day), 1st day (24 hrs after water
stress), 2nd day (48 hrs after water stress), 3rd day (72 hrs after water stress) and 24 hrs after re-irrigation (1st day
of recovery) and 48 hrs after re-irrigation (2nd day of recovery).
RESULTS
There was significant changes in both physiological and
biochemical parameters caused by phosphobacterium and water
deficit, which was more pronounced in plants without bacterium
inoculation.
Germination percentage
Seeds treated with 0.5% PSB showed highest rate of germination
percentage (93.3%), compared to untreated control seeds (81.11%),
(Fig 1).
Figure 1. Effect of PSB on germination percentage in Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.).
Root length and shoot length
The root length and shoot length of untreated control plants increased gradually during the study (Table 1).
But this increase was negligible as compared to the 0.5% and 1% PSB treated unstressed plants. Among
treatments, 0.5% PSB treated plants showed a rapid increase in both root and shoot length. However the plants
treated with 1% PSB showed a gradual increase but not as much as 0.5% PSB. Whereas, stressed plants showed
a considerable decrease in root and shoot length. Among this stress conditions, plants treated with 0.5% PSB
showed a significant increase in root and shoot length. It was amazing to note that during re-irrigation the
treated plants showed high rate of recovery.
Table 1. Effect of PSB on root length and shoot length (cm) of Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.)
Treatment & Plant part 0th day 1st day 2nd day 3rd day 1st rec. 2nd rec.
Root 6.30.51 7.40.92 7.90.28 9.60.80 9.70.58 10.80.69
CC
Shoot 18.50.29 22.50.52 23.90.69 24.40.11 24.60.40 27.00.34
Root 6.30.51 6.30.46 7.10.51 7.50.34 7.80.20 9.30.56
CS
Shoot 18.50.29 18.70.23 19.10.87 21.10.46 22.00.52 24.40.17
Root 7.40.81 8.60.79 9.60.40 10.90.11 11.10.75 13.70.23
0.5C
Shoot 20.40.62 22.60.40 27.10.34 28.80.75 31.10.29 31.30.98
Root 7.40.81 6.80.40 6.80.69 7.60.59 9.50.69 10.20.46
0.5S
Shoot 20.40.62 21.00.75 21.90.52 24.20.92 24.60.58 28.10.40
Root 6.230.23 6.80.40 8.60.46 9.90.98 10.40.92 12.10.52
1C
Shoot 18.90.69 22.20.44 26.00.46 27.10.17 28.10.12 26.30.64
Root 6.230.23 6.60.39 7.20.87 7.30.75 8.90.64 9.40.35
1S
Shoot 18.90.69 19.10.52 19.60.23 22.60.69 23.90.92 26.20.81
Note: Control (CC), stress in control (CS), control of 0.5% treatment (0.5C), stress of 0.5% treatment (0.5S), control of 1%
treatment (1C), stress of 1% treatment (1S).
0th day- Without stress; 1st day- 1st day of stress; 2nd day- 2nd day of stress; 3rd day- 3rd day of stress; 1strec.- 1st day of
recovery; 2ndrec- 2nd day of recovery.
Shintu & Jayaram (2015) 2(1): 1722
.
Relative water content (RWC)
The plants under water stress showed a decrease in RWC during 1st and 2nd day of stress and the values
remain unchanged on the 3rd day of stress but in the untreated control plants it was more or less same (Fig. 2A).
Plants treated with 0.5% PSB showed a slight increase in RWC and more or less same level was retained
throughout the period of study; these plants when exposed to water stress exhibited a negligible decrease in
RWC. Identical pattern of results were obtained in plants treated with 1% PSB that exposed to water stress.
Figure 2. Effect of PSB on Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) leaves: A, Relative water content (%); B, chlorophyll content
(mg.g-1). [CC- Control; CS- Stress in control; 0.5C- Control of 0.5% treatment; 0.5S- Stress in 0.5% treatment; 1C- Control
of 1% treatment;1S- Stress in 1% treatment]
Chlorophyll
PSB treated unstressed plants exhibited high rate of chlorophyll content compared to control plants (Fig. 2B)
and it was prominent in 0.5% PSB treatment. Whereas all the stressed plants showed a decreased level of
chlorophyll content in both PSB treated and untreated conditions. During re-irrigation the chlorophyll content
was found increased in PSB treated plants compared to unstressed control plants.
Protein
High rate of protein content was observed in 1% PSB treated plants compared to 0.5% PSB treated and
control plants (Fig. 3A). A low rate of protein content was noticed in stressed control plants but was increased
during the re-irrigation period. Whereas the water stressed plants of both 0.5% and 1% PSB treatment showed a
negligible loss of protein content.
Figure 3. Effect of PSB on Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) leaves: A, Protein content (mg g-1); B, Proline content
(g g-1). [CC- Control; CS- Stress in control; 0.5C- Control of 0.5% treatment; 0.5S- Stress in 0.5% treatment; 1C- Control
of 1% treatment;1S- Stress in 1% treatment]
Proline
It was interesting to note that both PSB treated plants showed high rate of proline content during the stress as
compared to the untreated control of which 0.5% PSB treated plants exhibited highest rate. The PSB treated
water stressed tomato plants and untreated control plants exhibited a decrease in the rate of increase in proline
content during re-irrigation (Fig. 3B).
Shintu & Jayaram (2015) 2(1): 1722
.
Yield
Significant variation in the total number of fruits was found in the study. Tomato seeds treated with PSB
along with water stress showed maximum number of fruits compared to their respective control plants. But the
fresh weight of fruits was lesser in stressed plants (Fig. 4). Among the treatments, the seeds primed with 0.5%
PSB showed maximum yield compared to the other treatment and control.
Figure 4. Effect of PSB on yield of Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.). [CC- Control; CS- Stress in control; 0.5C-
Control of 0.5% treatment; 0.5S- Stress in 0.5% treatment; 1C- Control of 1% treatment;1S- Stress in 1% treatment]
DISCUSSION
Tomato seeds primed or inoculated with phosphobacterium showed an increased percentage of germination
(Fig. 1). Studies conducted by Demir & Mavi (2004) observed a delay in the emergence of radical of unprimed
water melon seeds by 4 days compared to primed seeds. Similar type of results was obtained in osmopriming of
lentil seeds (Ghassemi-Golezani et al. 2008). According to those authors priming was helpful in reducing the
risk of poor stand establishment under drought and permit more uniform growth under drought on saline soils.
Studies conducted by Marulanda et al. (2007) revealed that inoculation of lavender plants with native
beneficial microorganisms might increase drought tolerance of plants growing in arid or semiarid areas. These
micro-organisms seem to have advanced mechanisms to cope up with drought stress. During priming, seeds are
partially hydrated so that pre-germinative metabolic activities proceed, while radicle protrusion is prevented,
then are dried back to the original moisture level (McDonald 2000). Kaya et al. (2006) worked on germination
of sunflower under drought and salt stress reported that hydro-priming improved both rate of germination and
mean germination time. In the present study also, the germination percentage was shown to be maximum in
PSB inoculated seeds and it is presumed that phosphobacterium has a pivotal role in inducing germination by
improved pre-germinative metabolic activities.
The root and shoot length of tomato plants were high in PSB inoculated plants as compared to the control
(Table 1). Similar results were obtained in other crops where seeds treated with Pseudomonas fluorescens have
increased the growth of host plants (Barka et al. 2000, Niranjan et al. 2003). It was also reported that seed
priming with Pseudomonas affected root length, root and shoot dry weight and plant height, significantly (Jalal
et al. 2014). From this we can presume that PSB also have some role in promoting the plant growth.
A gradual decrease in RWC in response to water deficit was observed in the present study (Fig. 2A), which
is in corroboration with the observations of Jing & Huang (2002). According to those authors the inoculated
plants under stress exhibited less decrease in RWC compared to non-inoculated plants under stress condition.
This can be explained by the fact that phosphorous may help in root elongation and the roots of PSB primed
plants may absorb more soil phosphorus which could be in a non-available form during water stress.
It was surprising to note that the plants treated with PSB and subjected to water stress showed high rate of
chlorophyll content than the untreated control plants (Fig. 2B). Similar results were obtained in Fenugreek
plants in which highest amount of total chlorophyll were recorded in PSB treated ones (Singh & Singh 2010).
The higher rate of persistence of chlorophyll content in plants under stress and treated with PSB may be
attributed to decreased chlorophyll degradation and increased chlorophyll synthesis, as reported by Jayakumar
& Thangaraj (1998). According to them, the application of plant growth regulators to groundnut resulted in high
Shintu & Jayaram (2015) 2(1): 1722
.
chlorophyll content without the modification of leaf anatomy and delayed chlorophyll degradation. From our
present study, it is evident that the effect of PSB is beneficial to the non-degradation of chlorophyll pigment and
that may be the reason of high chlorophyll content in PSB treated plants. The increase in the photosynthetic rate
obviously elevate the plant growth and there by the productivity of plants.
In the present study also PSB may cause to enhance the availability of insoluble phosphorus which
ultimately intensifies the accumulation of protein (Fig. 3A). Evidence is increasing in favor of a relationship
between the accumulation of drought induced proteins and physiological adaptations to water limitation
(Riccardi et al. 1998). Radian (1984) suggested that high phosphorus caused stomatal opening and facilitate
plant to accumulate more protein in inoculated plants compared to non-inoculated one.
Since the first report on proline accumulation in wilting perennial rye grass (Kemble & Mac Pherson 1954),
numerous studies have shown that the proline content in higher plants increases under different environmental
stresses. The primary response of drought stress is osmotic adjustment through proline accumulation was well
established in many plants (Raymond & Smirnoff 2002). From our study, it was clear that PSB treated plant
under stress showed excessive proline content to cope up with the drought condition. The rise in the proline
content in the present study may be due to the positive response of PSB on water stress.
In addition to the favorable effect on growth of crop plants, bio-priming is also known to increase the yield
during drought (Casanovas et al. 2003). In the present study also, maximum yield was observed in 0.5% PSB
treated and water stressed plants (Fig. 4). So it is presumed that the increase in grain yield in PSB treated plants
exposed to water stress may be due to the positive impact of PSB on the other physiological and biochemical
parameters studied. So it can be concluded that phosphate solubilising bacterium helped tomato plants to
improve its water status, and thereby tolerate water stress to a certain extend.
CONCLUSION
The present study revealed that PSB have an important role in increasing the yield as well as in
counteracting the effect of drought stress. The plants raised from 0.5% PSB treatment showed remarkable
results in physiological and biochemical parameters, which were followed by 1% PSB treatment, compared to
control plants. So, it can be concluded that priming of tomato seeds with 0.5% PSB can be recommended for
the farming community cultivating tomato plants, as a means to fight against drought stress.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are gratefully acknowledged to the Head, Department of Botany, University of Calicut, for
providing necessary facilities in order to complete the work in time.
REFERENCES
Arnon DT (1949) Copper enzymes in isolated chloroplasts poly phenol oxidase in Beta vulgaris. Plant
Physiology 24: 115.
Barka EA, Belarbi A, Hachet C, Nowak J & Audran JC (2000) Enhancement of in vitro growth and resistance
to gray mold of Vitis vinifera co-cultured with plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria. FEMS Microbiology
Letters 186: 9195.
Bars HD & Weatherly PE (1962) A re-examination of relative turgidity technique for estimating water deficits
in leaves. Australian Journal of Biological Science 15: 413428.
Bates L, Waldren RP & Teare ID ( 1973) Rapid determination of free proline for water stress studies. Plant Soil
39: 205207.
Casanovas EM, Barassi CA, Andrade FH & Sueldo RJ (2003) Azospirillum inoculated maize plants response to
irrigation resistance imposed during flowering. Cereal Research Communication 31: 395402.
Chivasa W, Harris D, Chiduza C, Mashingaidze AB & Nyamudeza P (2000) Determination of optimum on farm
seed priming time for maize (Zea mays L.) and sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) for use to improve stand
establishment in semi arid agriculture. Tanzanian Journal of Agricultural Science 3: 103112.
Ciais PM, Reichstein N, Viovy A & Granier (2005) Europe-wide reduction in primary productivity caused by
the heat and drought in 2003. Nature 472: 529533.
Demir I & Mavi K (2004) The effect of priming on seedling emergence of differentially matured watermelon
(Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum and Nakai) seeds. Scientia Horticulturae 102: 467473.
Shintu & Jayaram (2015) 2(1): 1722
.
Ghassemi-Golezani K, Aliloo AA, Valizadeh M & Moghaddam M (2008) Effects of hydro and osmo-priming
on seed germination and field emergence of lentil (Lens culinaris Medik.). Notulae Botanicae Horti
Agrobotanici Cluj-Napoca 36 (1): 2933.
Harris D, Rashid A, Ali S & Hollington PA (2004) On from seed priming with maize in Pakistan. Proceedings
of 8th Asian regional maize workshop: New technologies for the new millennium held at Bangkok, Thailand,
Cimmyt, Mexico, pp. 316321.
Jalal J, Khalilzadeh R & Khanpaye E (2014) Improving of barley seedling growth by seed priming under water
deficit stress. Journal of Stress Physiology & Biochemistry 10: 125134.
Jayakumar P & Thangaraj M (1998) Physiological and biochemical effects of Mepiquat chloride in ground nut
(Arachis hypogea). Madras Agricultural Journal 85: 2326.
Jiang Y & Hung B (2002) Protein alterations in tall fescue in response to drought stress and abscissic acid. Crop
Science 42: 202207.
Kaya MD, Okcu G, Atak M, Cikili Y & Kolsarici O (2006) Seed treatments to overcome salt and drought stress
during germination in sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.). Europian Journal of Agronomy 24: 291295.
Kemble AR & Mac Pherson HT (1954) Liberation of amino acids in perennial ray grass during wilting.
Biochemical Journal 58: 4659.
Kramer P J (1969) Plant and soil water relationships- A modern synthesis. Mc Graw Hill Book Co. Newyork,
pp. 482.
Lagreid M, Bockman OC & Kaarstad O (1999) Agricultural fertilizers and the environment. CABI Publishing.
Oxon, UK, pp: 294
Lowry OH, Rosenbrough RJ, Farr AL & Randall RJ (1951) Protein measurement with Folin phenol reagent.
The Journal of Biological Chemistry193: 265275.
Marulanda A, Porcel R, Barea JM & Azcon R (2007) Drought tolerance and antioxidant activities in lavender
plants colonized by native drought-tolerant or drought-sensitive Glomus species. Microbial Ecology 54:
543552.
McDonald MB, Black M & Bewley JD (2000) Seed Technology and Its Biological Basis. Sheffield Academic
Press. Sheffield. UK, pp: 287325.
Niranjan Raj S, Chaluvaraju G, Amruthesh KN, Shetty HS, Reddy MS & Kloepper JW (2003) Induction of
growth promotion and resistance against downy mildew on pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) by
rhizobacteria. Plant Disease 87: 380384.
Radian JW (1984) Stomatal response to water stress and abscissic acid in phosphorus-deficient cotton plants.
Plant physiology 76: 392394.
Ravikumar S, Shanthy S, Kalairasi A & Sumaya S (2010) Effect of halophytic phosphobacteria on Avicenia
officinalis seedlings. Annual Biology Research 1: 254260.
Raymond M J & Smirnoff N (2002) Proline metabolism and transport in maize seedlings at low water potential.
Annual Botany 89: 813823.
Riccardi F, Gazeau P & Vienne D (1998) Protein changes in response to progressive water deficit in maize,
quantitative variation and polypeptide identification. Plant Physiology 117: 12531263.
Shao HB, Liang ZS, Shao MA, Sun SM & Hu ZM (2005) Investigation on dynamic changes of photosynthetic
charecteristics of 10 wheat (Triticum aestivum) genotypes during two vegetative-growth stages at water
deficits. Biointerfaces 47:132139.
Singh D & Singh NB (2010) Water stress tolerance in Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.) inoculated
with Bacillus polymyxa, a phosphate solubilizing bacterium. Journal of Indian Botanical Society 89: 8691.
ISSN (E): 2349 1183
ISSN (P): 2349 9265
2(1): 2329, 2015
Research article
Vegetative and reproductive anatomy of Vigna radiata L.

Amir Siahpoosh1, Mahboobeh Ghasemi2*, Ahmad Majd3, Hamid Rajabi
Memari4 and Taher Nejadsattari5
1
Medicinal Plant and Natural Products Research Center, Ahvaz Jundishapour University of
Medical Sciences, Ahvaz. Iran
2
Department of Agriculture, Ramhormoz Branch, Islamic Azad University, Ramhormoz, Iran
3
Factually & Department of Biological Science, Islamic Azad University, North branch, Tehran, Iran.
4
Agronomy and Plant Breeding department, Shahid Chamran University, Ahvaz, Iran
5
Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Tehran Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad
University, Tehran, Iran
*Corresponding Author: ghasemimahboobeh2009@gmail.com [Accepted: 16 February 2015]
Abstract: In this study, anatomical features of the stem, petiole, leaf and flower of Vigna radiata
L. (ML2017 Genotype) belonging to Fabaceae family (Subfamily Papilionoideae) were examined.
Basic structure of a dicotyledonous plant is showed in stem and petiole. Their transverse section
consists of: epidermal and collenchyma layers, cortical layer (parenchyma cells and pericyclic
fiber) and stele (vascular bundles, secretory cells and pith); however there are differences in shape
and position of vascular bundles. In the stem, this bundles located on a continuous ring but in the
petiole are cutting and divided into two large adaxial and three abaxial bundles forming main
folaire trace, above which lie laterally a pair of secondary bundles. In the leaf is important the
number of mesophyll palisadic and spongy layers, stomatal type (paracytic) and stomatal density
(48.3%). The secretory cells are in the stem, petiole and leaf. The flower structure is pantamerous
with 5 sepals, 5 petals (standard, wings and keel) androecium is of diadelphous and gynocium one
carpel and ovary one locule with marginal placentation. In general anatomical charecteristics are
very important and could be used in diagnostic key of taxa at all taxonomic levels.
Keywords: Anatomy - Stem - Petiole - Leaf - Flower - Vigna radiata - Fabaceae.
[Cite as: Siahpoosh A, Ghasemi M, Majd A, Rajabi Memari H & Nejadsattari T (2015) Vegetative and
reproductive anatomy of Vigna radiata L. Tropical Plant Research 2(1): 2329]
INTRODUCTION
The green gram, Vigna radiata L. of Fabaceae family (subfamily Papilionoideae) is one of important pulse
crops in Iran, India, China, Japan, American and Vietnam. It is a protein rich staple food. It contains about 25
percent protein. It supplies protein requirement of vegetarian population of the country. This is consumed in the
form of split pulse as well as whole pulse, which is an important source of human food and animal feed, Green
gram also plays an important role in substaining soil fertility by improving soil physical properties and fixing
atmospheric nitrogen (Mbagwu & Endeoga 2006, Singh et al. 1997). The economic importance Vigna species
exhibits a good grow successfully in extreme environments such as high temperature, low rain fall and pore
soils with few economic inputs (White 1983). Some anatomical and morphological features of the subfamily
Papilionoideae were reported by Webster & Cardina (2004). The variations in polar unit symmetry and
differences in wall sculpture of pollen grains have been used by many authors in the delimitation of various taxa
(Agwu & Uwakwe 1992, El-Ghamery 2003). Metcalfe & Chalk (1950) mentioned that the stems of Lathyrus
and Vicia faba (Fabaceae) have special features. Aim of the work was to provide details stem,petiole, leaf and
flower anatomical of Vigna radiata L. (ML2017 Genotype) for the first time and give a comprehensive
anatomical description of it aerial parts.

The plant samples were collected from Ramhormoz Eslamic Azad University research field (IRAN). The for
cross sections, 2 cm slices from stem, petiole and leaf were chosen and softened in a mixture of
Received: 13 December 2014 Published online: 28 February 2015
Siahpoosh et al. (2015) 2(1): 2329
.
glycerine/ethanol 70% (0.5:0.5) for one week. Cross sections were made with using commercial razor blades.
The sections were stained with methyl blue (0.5 g methyl blue + 1000 cc H2O) and carmine (4 g KAl (So4) +
100 cc H2O + 1 g carmine and boiled for 20 min) and mounted on the slides using Canada balsam. Then they
were photographed with a digital photo-camera attached to light microscope at 10-40X magnifications.
Anatomical characters, which were selected, included outline shape of the cross section, the shape of epidermal
cells, surface trichomes, the number of collenchyma layers, the cambium of vascular bundles, the number of
pericyclic fiber layers, the shape of parenchymatous cells in pith, stomatal type, mesophyll position, stomatal
density, the number of petiole vascular bundles, petiole shape, the secretory cells (Fahn 1990, Hasan &
Heneidak 2006, Mehrabian et al. 2007).
For microtomicsections, flowers collected fixed in absolute FAA (2 cc Formalin 37% + 17 cc ethanol 96% +
0.61.0 cc Acetic acid) washed with fresh water, then they were dehydrated in ethanol series with ulterior
toluene infiltration and embedding in paraffin wax. Sections were cut at 812 mm with a rotary microtome. The
slides were stained in oozine-hematoxilin and mounted in Canada balsam for light microscopy observation. The
flower and anther parts were observed. Pollen grain morphology is showed with SEM, for this work pollen
grains stabilized on aluminium stoks and coated with a thin layer of gold using coating equipments. Then, they
were studied using Scanning Electron Microscope at central laboratory of Ahwaz Shahid Chamran University.
RESULTS
Stem anatomy
Stem anatomical features of the examined sample at the age of six weeks based on transverse sections of
stem are shown in figure 1. The stem transverse section is ribbed. The epidermis layer consists of a single row
of rectangular cells that covered with thin cuticle. The buliform cells are in this layer. These cells are big and
vacuolar. There are single cell trichomes on some of epidermal cells. The circular collenchyma cellsin the row
four is located very close to the epidermis. The cortex consists of parenchymatous oval cells with thin walls.
The pericyclic cells show their transformation into fibers and one layer of fibrous strands are developed. The
stele consists of collateral vascular bundles arranged in a ring that separated from one another by interfascicular
cambium. In per bundle are intrafascicular cambium layers six among of xylem and phloem. Xylem is
composed of protoxylem toward the plant center and metaxylem to the side of plant apical. The secretory cells
are located very close to the phloem that these cells have Glocusidas material. The bundles are relatively
different in size and number. There are six large bundles located opposite ridges. There is also large pith in the
stem center and consists of polygonal parenchymatous cells which tend to decrease in size towards the periphery
small triangular intercellular spaces are visible.
Figure 1. Stem transverse section of Vigna radiata L., ML2017 genotype (objective X10, X40). [p: Pith, sec: Secretory cell,
ep: Epidermis, pc: Cortex parenchyma, t: Trichome, f: Pericyclic fiber, bf: Buliform, co: Collenchyma, ca: Cambium, ph:
Phloem, pxy: Protoxylem, mxy: Metaxylem]
Petiole anatomy
Transverse section taken from the petiole of sample showed the following features (Fig. 2). The petiole has
irregular shape and consists of: The epidermal cells is also uniseriate with rectangular shaped cells and covered
Siahpoosh et al. (2015) 2(1): 2329
.
with simple, unicellular and unbranched trichomes. One layer of circular collenchyma cells is located under the
epidermis. The cortex consists of orbicular parenchymatous cells. The stele is clearly divided into large two
adaxial bundles and smaller three abaxial bundles forming main trace, above which lie laterally a pair of
secondary bundles. Pericyclic fibers two layer are present as a separate layer above the phloem of each bundle
of the main folaire trace only (adaxial and abaxial bundles) while each secondary bundle has its own separate
fiber cap. Petiole vascular bundles is collateral type such as stem. The secretory cells is close of phloem. The
pith is composed of polygonal parenchymatous cells with intercellular space.
Figure 2. Petiole transverse section (objective X10, X40). [T: Trichome, p: Pith, ep: Epidermis, f: Fiber, svb: Secondary
vascular bundles, ph: Phloem, pf: Pericyclic fiber, mxy: Metaxylem, pc: Cortex parenchyma, co: Collenchyma, ca:
Cambium, pxy: Protoxylem]
Leaf anatomy
The upper and lower leaf epidermis layers are composed of uniseriate with rectungicular cells and buliform.
In this layer are stomata that consists of guard cells typically kidney-shaped and ostiole and are located on the
same level relative to the epidermal cells. The type of stomata observed is paracytic (Rubiaceae) and they occur
on the surface of both sides being more abundant on the lower surface. The epidermal cells shape is angular
polygonal. Stomatal density is 48.3 percent. The mesophyll is heterogenous and is composed of four layers of
palisade cells and three layers of spongy cells. The midrib is well developed. The xylem and phloem are
collateral; the xylem (one arches) is towards the upper side, while the phloems on the lower side. In the
secondary rib are spiral vessels.
C
Figure 3. Leaf transverse section (objective X10, X40): A, Midrib; B, Blade; C, Paracytic stomata. [xy: Xylem, ph: Phloem,
ca: Cambium, pac: Palisadic cell, bfc: Buliform cell, st: Stomata, spiv: Spiral vessel, ep: Epidermis, spc: Spongy cell, Sc:
Subsidary cell, Gc: Guard cell, So: Stomataostiole, Ec: Epidemis cell]
Floral bud anatomy

Floral bud transverse section of Vigna radiata L. (ML2017 Genotype) plant is shown in figure 4. It is clear
that sepals of calyxs are united and consists of two epidermal layers and 34 layers of ground tissue in between.
The corolla is papilionaceous with one posterior (the standard or vexillur), two lateral petals (the wings) and two
lower united anterior petals (the keel). The stamens are ten; each stamen consists of a two-lobed tetrasporangiate
Siahpoosh et al. (2015) 2(1): 2329
.
anther born on the filament, a thin stalk with a single vascular bundle. The androecium is diadelphous, since the
posterior stamen is free and other nine stamens are with united filaments from the base to nearly more than half
of their length while the anthers are free. The stamens form an open tube enclosing the long ovary. The
gynocium is composed of single carpel and the ovary is one locule. Placentation is marginal.
Figure 4. Transverse section (objective X10, X40): A, Flower; B, Anther. [F: Filament, A: Anther, Ov: Ovary, O: Ovule, St:
Secretory tapetum, Se: Sepal, S: Standard, W: Wing, K: Keel, te: Temporary, t: Tapetum, Ps: Pollen sac, ep: Epidermis, en:
Endothesium, p: Pollen grain]
Anther anatomy
Microscopic observation showed that anther consists of four compartments or locule, i.e. anthers were
tetrasporangiate (Fig. 4A). The young and mature anther wall, which laid under the single-layered epidermis,
consisted of three layers: endothecium, temporary layer and tapetum (Fig. 4B). The epidermis was present
throughout anther development. However, the temporary layer and tapetum degenerated before or during miosis
leaving only the endothecium and the epidermis (Fig. 5A). The endothecium developed fibrous thickening on
the radial and inner tangential walls when microspore development was at the uninucelate stage and enabled the
mature anthers to dehisce and the pollen to be dispersed. Anther dehiscence started from the broken septum. The
broken wall resulted in an opening through which the pollen grains were released.
Figure 5. A, Anther dehiscence section (objective X40); B, Pollen grain morphology (Zone Mag 1.08KX). [Pg: pollen grain,
Fe: Fibrous endothesium]
Pollen grain morphology

Pollen grain is circular shaped, tricolpate, surface has regulated pattern and surface shows reticulum (Fig.
5B).
Siahpoosh et al. (2015) 2(1): 2329
.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
In this study were investigated stem, petiole, leaf and flower anatomy. The studies proved many valuable
results. There are many unicellular trichomes in our samples stem and petiole transverse section. Trichomes are
hair-like appendages that develop from cells of the aerial epidermis and are produced by most plant species
(Werker 2000). Trichomes can serve protection against damage from herbivores (Levin 1973, Traw & Dawson
2002). The morphology and density of leaf trichomes vary considerably among plant species, and may also vary
among populations and within individual plants. The structure of trichomes can range from unicellular to multi-
cellular, and the trichomes can be straight, spiral, hooked, branched, or un-branched (Southwood 1986, Werker
2000). trichomes may also increase resistance to abiotic stress. They may increase tolerance to drought by
reducing absorbance of solar radiation (Ehrlinger 1984, Choinski & Wise 1999, Benz & Martin 2006). In our
plant were observed pericyclic fibrous, circular collenchyma cells and intrafascicular cambium. These tissues
are in many member Fabaceae families (Fahn 1990, Nassar et al. 2010). Devadas & Brck (1972) and Ataslar
(2004) reported that vascular bundles form a continuous ring. Our results are agreement in this about vascular
bundles which are located on one ring. Petiole anatomy characteristic are showed many results. In our plant
petiole transverse section is vascular bundles in different parts (adaxial, abaxial and secondary bundles in above
of petiole). The number and size of these bundles are different. Shaheen (2006), who reported variations in the
number of secondary vascular bundles in the petioles of some Mimosoid species and was used as a
distinguishing character among the taxa. There are pericyclic fibre, collenchyma cells and cambium in our plant
petiole structure. znur et al. (2011) examined and compared the petiole of 7 taxa belonging to the Lamiaceae
family. They observed some differences in the petiole shape, arrangement and number of vascular, trichome
types and the presence of collenchyma. The number of collenchyma layers and position, which is of taxonomic
importance (Shaheen 2007). The our sample leaf anatomy is showed that epidermis cells shape is rectangular
polygonal whereas in Lathyrus aphaca was characterized by epidermal cells with wavy configuration on both
adaxial and abaxial surfaces, in Vicia faba the epidermal cells on adaxial leaf surface were smooth, longitudinal
and linear in shape while cells with wavy outline were found on abaxial surface. Melilotus indica could be
delimited by highly undulating epidermal cells on adaxial surface and cells with slight undulations abaxially.
Trifolium alexandrianum stays apart by possessing epidermal cells with polygonal configuration. Idu et al.
(2000) described the epidermal morphology and the structure and development of stomata in 10 species of
Fabaceae. According to them the epidermal cells varied from irregular to straight-walled and in some taxa
sinuous patterns were observed. In our sample palisadic layers number is more than spongy cells. The structure
and ontogeny of the stomata has been studied in 26 species of Rubiaceae by Bahadur et al. (2008) in relation to
the irorganographic distribution. The stomata are mostly paracytic on the leaves. In our plant also stomatal type
is paracytic and distribution stomata is on both sides of the leaf. This position is also observed in some species
of Acacia (Shaheen 1995).
Stomatal density is also important. In general, the anatomical features observed on the leaves are consistent
with those of Metcalf & Chalk (1950) and Philipson (1963) for the description of leaf anatomy of Leguminosae
(Fabaceae). However stomatal diversity is useful at all levels of taxonomic hierarchy. The secretory cells are in
stem, petiole and leaf of our examined sample. According to Baran & Ozdemir (2006) secretory cells in the
phloem in the structure of leaves, stem and petiole taxonomic information in grouping the different plant taxa.
Flower
The Vigna radiata L. (ML2017 genotype) has papilionoied corolla. Our findings are in agreement with
Tucker (1987) findings that reported most Fabaceae flowers are papilinoid-type. The anther characteristics of
our sample are those typical of a legume flower. In the early stage of anther wall development, the hypodermal
cells divided periclinally to form the primary parietal and primary sporogenous cells. The sporogenous cells
divided and differentiated into abundant microspore mother cells (microsporocytes) giving rise to a large
number of pollen grains (Barth 1990). Meanwhile, the primary parietal cells divided periclinally to form and
inner secondary parietal cells underwent further division resulting in the endothecium and on temporary layer.
The inner secondary parietal cells developed into the secretory tapetum, the food rich layer of cells (Prakash
1987). In general anatomical charecteristics are very important and this features could be used in diagnostic key
of taxa at all taxonomic levels.
Siahpoosh et al. (2015) 2(1): 2329
.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are acknowledged to Dr. Mohmmadian and Mrs. & Mr. Behdarvand from the Laboratory of
Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Shahid Chamran University, Ahvaz, Iran for their assistance.
REFERENCES
Agwu COC & Uwakwe GO (1992) Melissopalynological study of Abia and Imo States (Nigeria) honey.
Nigerian Journal of Botany 5: 8591.
Ataslar E (2004) Morphological and anatomical investigations on the Saponari akotschyi Bioss.
(Caryophyllaceae). Turkish Journal of Botany 28: 193199.
Bahadur B, Rajagopal T & Ramayya N (2008) Studies on the structural and developmental variation and
distribution of stomata in the Rubiaceae. Botanical Journal of the Linnen Society 64(3): 295310.
Baran P & zdemir C (2006) The morphological and anatomical characters of Salvia Napfolia Jacq. in Turkey.
Bangladesh Journal Botanical 35(1): 7784.
Barth G (1990) Cut flower potential of Sturts Desert Pea. Australian Horticulture 88:4853.
Benz BW & Martin CE (2006) Foliar trichomes, boundary layers, and gas exchange in the species of epiphytic
Tillandsia (Bromeliaceae). Journal Plant Physiology 163: 648656.
Choinski JS &Wise RR (1999) Leaf growth and development in relation to gas exchange in Quercus
marilandica Muenchh. Journal Plant Physiology 154: 302309.
Devadas C & Brck CB (1972) Comparative morphology of the primary vascular systems in some species of
Rosace and Leguminosae. American Journal of Botany 59: 557567.
Ehrlinger J (1984) Ecology and physiology of leaf pubescence in North American desert plants. In: Rodriguez
E, Healey PL, Mehta I (eds) Biology and chemistry of plant trichomes. Plenum Press, New York, USA.
Pp.113132.
El-Ghamery AA (2003) Storage seed protein electrophoretic patterns and spermoderm organizations and their
implications on the species relationships in the genus Crotalaria L. (Leguminosae). Egyptian Journal of
Biotechnology 14: 142163.
Fahn A (1990) Plant anatomy, 4th edition. Pergamon Press, New York, USA.
Hassan AE & Heneidak S (2006) Stem anatomy and nodal vasculature of some Egyptian Vicia species
(Fabaceae). Pakistan Journal of Biological Science 9: 25562563.
Idu M, Olorunfemi DI & Omonhinmin AC (2000) Systematics value of stomata in some Nigerian hardwood
species of Fabaceae. Plant Biosystems Journal 134: 5360.
Levin DA (1973) The role of trichomes in plant defense. The Quarterly Review of Biology 48: 315.
Mbagwu FN & Edeoga HO (2006) Palynological Studies on Some Nigerian Species of Vigna savi. Journal of
Biological Science 6(6): 11221125.
Mehrabian AR, Azizian D, Zarre SH & Podlech D (2007) Petiole Anatomy in Astragalus Sect. Incani DC.
(Fabaceae) in Iran. Iranian Journal of Botany 13: 138145.
Metcalfe CR & Chalk L (1950) Anatomy of Dicotyledons. Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Nassar RMA, Ahmed YM & Boghdady MS (2010) Botanical Studies on Phaseolus vulgaris L. I-Morphology of
Vegetative and Reproductive Growth. International Journal of Botany 6 (3): 207217.
znur EA, zyurt MS & Glcan S (2011) Petiole Anatomy of Some Lamiaceae Taxa. Pakistan Journal of
Botany 43(3): 14371443.
Philipson WR (1963) Vascular patterns in dicotyledons. Botanical Review 29: 382404.
Prakash N (1987) Embryology of the Leguminosae. In: Stirton CH (ed) Advances in Legume Systematics. Royal
Botanic Gardens. Kew, UK, pp. 241278.
Shaheen AM (1995). Morphological and cytogenetical variations in the ecological population of Acacia Mill in
Egypt, Ph. D. Thesis. South Valley University, Aswan Faculty of Science, Egypt.
Shaheen AM (2006) The value of vascular supply of the petiole trace characteristics in the systematic of some
species of subfamily: Mimosoideae-Leguminosae. Assiut University Journal of Botany 35: 193213.
Shaheen ASM (2007) Characteristics of the Stem-Leaf Transitional Zone in Some Species of Caesalpinioideae
(Leguminosae). Turkish Journal of Botany 31: 297310.
Singh BB, Mohan Raj DR & Dashiell KE (1997) Advances in cowpea research. IITA- JIRCAS, Ibadan,
Nigeria.
Siahpoosh et al. (2015) 2(1): 2329
.
Southwood SR (1986) Plant surfaces and insects - an overview. In: Juniper B & Southwood SR (eds) Insects
and the plant surface. Arnold, London, pp. 122.
Traw BM & Dawson TE (2002) Reduced performance of two specialist herbivores (Lepidoptera: Pieridae,
Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) on new leaves of damaged black mustard plants. Environmental Entomology
31: 714722.
Tucker SC (1987) Floral initiation and development in legumes. In: Stirton CH (ed) Advances in Legume
Systematics Part 3. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, UK, pp. 183239.
Webster TM & Cardina J (2004) A review of the biology and ecology of Florida beggerweed (Desmodium
ortuosum) Weed Science 52: 186200.
Werker E (2000) Trichome diversity and development. Advances Botanical Research 31: 135.
White F (1983) The Vegetation of Africa. UNESCO, Paris, pp. 1356.
ISSN (E): 2349 1183
ISSN (P): 2349 9265
2(1): 3035, 2015
Research article
Plant diversity assessment of Sariska tiger reserve in Aravallis

with emphasis on minor forest products
Anil Kumar Dular
Department of Environmental Science
Maharaja Ganga Singh University, N.H 15, Jaisalmer Road, Bikaner, Rajasthan, India
*Corresponding Author: dular_ak@rediffmail.com [Accepted: 17 March 2015]
Abstract: The Sariska tiger reserve in Aravallis has its own importance and specific
characteristics endowed with unique biodiversity. In the present study an attempt has been made to
ascertain the current status of plant species which provides minor forest products or non-timber
forest products which is used for the sustenance of livelihood of local peoples inside and outside
the reserve. Attention is focused on one of the important reserve forest Rajasthan with pace of their
endemism and facing number of challenges. Minor forest product are the part of traditional forest
management, but new demands on forest are leading communities to seek more formal monitoring
processes to guide the allocation and management of their shrinking biological resources. Present
study emphasize on the assessment and management of plant diversity in perspective of a
sustainable harvest of minor forest product of the limited area of the forest. The sustainable harvest
of minor forest products requires a bit more than blind faith in the productive capacity of tropical
plants. The controlled exploitation of minor forest product holds great potential as a method for
integrating the use and conservation of tropical forest.
Keywords: Biodiversity - Aravallis - Sariska tiger reserve - Minor forest product (MFPs).
[Cite as: Dular AK (2015) Plantdiversity assessment of Sariska tiger reserve in Aravallis with emphasis on
minor forest products. Tropical Plant Research 2(1): 3035]
INTRODUCTION
The biodiversity assessment is an essential tool to display the different ecological characteristics that can
make sustainable harvesting and ecological impact of forest utilization on the floristic composition of the forest.
According to the Champion & Seth (1968) the forest of Aravalli region falls under the broad category of Tropical
Dry forests. Sariska Tiger reserve (7414 76 34 N and 25 5 27 3 E) is situated in the Aravalli hill range
(Fig. 1) and lies in the semi-arid part of Rajasthan (Rodgers & Panwar 1988). It became a wild life sanctuary in
1955 and Tiger reserve in 1982. According to Department of Forest, Government of Rajasthan the total area of
the Sariska Tiger Reserve is 866.0 km-2, of which 302.2 km-2 is buffer zone and 497.8 km-2 is core zone. Sariska
core zone is comprised of three isolated; pockets: Core-I (273.8 km-2), II (126.5 km-2.) and III (97.5 km-2). The
status of the Core I has been notified as a National park in 1982. Sariska is undulating to hilly and has numerous
narrow valleys. Kiraska and Kankwari plateau and two large lakes Mansarovar and Somsagar. Silisad lake is
situated just along the north eastern boundary of the reserve. The altitude of Sariska varies from 540 to 777 m
asl. The vegetation of Sariska correspond to Northern tropical dry deciduous forests (sub group 5 B; 5/E I and
5/E2) and Northern tropical thorn forest (Sub Group 6 B) (Champion & Seth, 1968). The forest being scattered
and sparse over a large area on various geological and soil formation and vary greatly in composition. Sariska is
very rich in biodiversity with wide spectrum of flora and ample of wild life. The main economically valuable
species are Dhok (Anogeissus pendula Edgew.), Salar (Boswellia serrata), Khair (Acacia catechu), Bamboos
(Dendrocalamus strictus), Dhak (Butea monosperma), Kair (Capparis decidua), Ber (Ziziphus mauritiana) with
having lot of ground flora comprised of shrubs, herbs, grasses and sedges etc. Several studies so far conducted
in Aravallis like Nair & Nathawath (1957), Dennis et al. (1977), Sharma (1978, 1983), Parmar (1985), Rogers
(1988, 1990, 1991), Khan (1995) which supported checklist of plant diversity in this natural reserve with their
Received: 28 December 2014 Published online: 30 April 2015
Dular (2015) 2(1): 3035
.
economic uses at local. Samant & Dhar (1997), Joshi (2000), Gamble (1884), Ghate (1939), Legris & Meher
(1982) valuated this biodiversity in form of non-timber forest products or minor forest products as the source of
income for the livelihood a long time before. A total number of 403 indigenous and naturalized plant species
belonging to 271 genera under 86 families can be observed in Sariska Tiger Reserve. This also includes four
species of Pteridophytes belonging to three genera and three families, and a species of Gymnosperm. Table 1
includes the number of families, genera and species, under Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons, Pteridophytes and
Gymnosperm. Except for Poaceae (56 species) and Cyperaceae (17 species) the Monocotyledons are poorly
represented. The remaining 16 species of Monocotyledons belong to 10 different families Dular (2004).
Figure 1. Study site: Sariska Tiger reserve, Rajasthan, India.
Table 1. Shows current status of vegetation in Sariska Tiger Reserve.

Families Genera Species
Monocotyledons 13 59 90
Dicotyledons 69 208 308
Total Angiosperm 82 267 398
Pteridophytes 3 3 4
Gymnosperm 1 1 1
Total 86 271 403
The main objective of this study is to give a concise overview of the ecology and exploitation of minor forest
products in term that can be easily understood by non-specialists. This study is useful for green business and
other commercial purposes who are indulge in exploitation of non-timber tropical forest products. The
controlled exploitation of minor forest products has great potential as a method for integrating the use and
conservation of tropical forests. This study attempts to narrow the gap between the potential and the reality of
this land-use practice. It is also required that minor forest products as a source of livelihood for the indigenous
peoples, the exploitation of the minor forest products have a measurable impact on the structure and the
dynamics of the tropical plants population.
Dular (2015) 2(1): 3035
.
Personal observations were taken in the field by visiting the study area and its different landforms. Plant
samples (leaf, flower etc.) were brought to Indira Gandhi Centre for Human Ecology, Environmental and
Population Studies, herbarium sheets for important species were prepared and help and cooperation was sought
from the Herbarium of Department of Botany, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur for finding out their feasibility of
uses as non-timber forest products. Interview has been taken for counter check of their utility by local dwellers
inside or outside the reserve. The inventorisation of such species and their parts utilize checked by literature
(Dular 2004). During the study potential useful sources include both published and unpublished grey literature
about the region and species of interest. Review of plant specimens at departmental herbarium provide
information on the distribution, habitat, flowering and fruiting phenology of different species of non- timber
product use.
RESULTS
Analysis of interview schedule has revealed that there is large number of plant species with economic value
termed as minor forest products. Plant species are utilized for variety of purposes. Table 2 includes a list of
twenty nine plants species which are providing edible fruits. Table 3 includes twenty one plant species utilized
as fodder. Table 4 includes name of fourteen plant species yielding gum, resins, tannins and dyestuff. Table 5
includes name of fifteen plant species which are providing some other minor forest produce.
Table 2. Includes the list of plant species which are providing edible fruits in Sariska Tiger Reserve.
S.No. Name of the species Families Local name
1. Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd. Mimosaceae Rijua
2. Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr. Rutaceae Bel
3. Alangium salvifolium (L.f.) Wang. Alangiaceae Ankol
4. Annona squamosa L. Annonaceae Sitaphal
5. Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Meliaceae Neem
6. Carissa spinarum L. Apocynaceae Karamda
7. Capparis decidua (Forsk.) Edgew. Capparaceae Kair
8. Cordia gharaf (Forsk.) Ehrenb. Ehretiaceae Gondi
9. Cordia dichotoma Forsk. Ehretiaceae Lasoora
10. Diospyros melanoxylon Roxb. Ebenaceae Timbru
11. Feronia limonia (L.) Swingle Rutaceae Kutbel
12. Grewia asiatica L. Malvaceae Phalsa
13. Grewia tenax (Forsk.) Fiori Malvaceae Chabeni
14. Holarrhena pubescens Wall. ex Dc. Apocynaceae -
15. Holoptelea integrifolia (Roxb.) Planch. Ulmaceae Kanju
16. Madhuca longifolia (Koenig ex L.) Macbre. Sapotaceae Mahva
17. Mangifera indica L. Anacardiaceae Aam
18. Mimusops hexandra (Roxb.) Dubard Sapotaceae Khirni
19. Moringa oleifera Lam. Moringaceae Sainjana
20. Pandanus odorifer (Forssk.) Kuntze Pandanaceae Kavedo
21. Phyllanthus emblica L. Phyllanthaceae Ambla
22. Prosopis cineraria (L.) Druce Mimosaceae Khejari
23. Rhus mysorensis G. Don Anacardiaceae Dasni
24. Sapindus emarginatus Vahl Sapindaceae Ritha
25. Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels Myrtaceae Jamun
26. Tamarindus indica L. Caesalpiniaceae Imli
27. Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. Combretaceae Bahera
28. Ziziphus nummularia (Burm. f.) Wight & Arn. Rhamnaceae Bordi
29. Ziziphus xylopyrus (Retz.) Willd. Rhamnaceae Ghat Bor
Dular (2015) 2(1): 3035
.
Table 3. Includes the list of plant species utilized as fodder in Sariska Tiger Reserve.
S.No. Name of the species Families Local name Purpose

1. Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd. Mimosaceae Rijva Green leaf twigs
2. Acacia nilotica (L.) Del. Mimosaceae Babul Green leaf twigs
3. Acacia senegal (L.) Willd. Mimosaceae Kumta Green leaf twigs
4. Ailanthus excelsa Roxb. Simaroubaceae Ardu Green leaf twigs
5. Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. ex DC.) Wall. ex Combretaceae Dhavdo Green leaf twigs
Guillem. & Perr
6. Boswellia serrata Roxb. ex Colebr. Burseraceae Salar Green leaf twigs
7. Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub. Paplionaceae Palas Dried leaves
8. Capparis decidua (Forsk.) Edgew. Combretaceae Kair Green leaf twigs
9. Capparis sepiaria L. Combretaceae Kanthari Green leaf twigs
10. Delonix elata (L.) Gamble. Caesalpiniaceae Sanderso Green leaf twigs
11. Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight & Arn. Leguminosae Goyakhair Green leaf twigs
12. Ehretia laevis Roxb. Ehretiaceae - Green leaf twigs
13. Firmiana simplex (L.) W.Wight Malvaceae Kadayo Green leaf twigs
14. Grewia flavescens Juss. Tilaceae - Green leaf twigs
15. Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth. Mimosaceae Jungle Jalebi Green leaf twigs
16. Prosopis chilensis (Molina) Stuntz Mimosaceae - Green leaf twigs
17. Prosopis cineraria (L.) Druce Mimosaceae Khejari Green leaf twigs
18. Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz Lythraceae Dalia Green leaf twigs
19. Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. Rhamnaceae Bordi Green leaf twigs
20. Ziziphus nummularia (Burm. f.) Wight & Arn. Rhamnaceae Pala Dried leaves
21. Ziziphus xylopyrus (Retz.) Willd. Rhamnaceae Ghatbor Green leaf twigs
Table 4. Includes the list of plant species yielding gum, resins, tannin and dye stuff in Sariska Tiger Reserve.
S.No. Name of the species Families Local name Use

1. Acacia catechu (L.f.) Willd. Mimosaceae Khair Exudate
2. Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd. Mimosaceae Rijva Exudate
3. Acacia nilotica (L.) Del. Mimosaceae Babul Exudate
4. Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. ex DC.) Wall. ex Combretaceae Dhavdo Exudate
Guillem. & Perr
5. Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Meliaceae Neem Exudate
6. Boswellia serrata Roxb. ex Colebr. Burseraceae Salar Exudate
7. Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub. Paplionaceae Palar Petals as dye stuff
8. Cassia auriculata L. Caesalpiniaceae Anwal Bark
9. Commiphora wightii (Arnott.) Bhandari Burseraceae Guggal Exudate
10. Garuga pinnata Roxb. Burseraceae Ghogar Leaf gall
11. Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth Mimosaceae Jungal jalebi Leaf gall
12. Sterculia uren Roxb. Malvaceae Kadayo Leaf gall
13. Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. Combretaceae Bahera Leaf gall
14. Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. Rhamnaceae Bor Wood
Dular (2015) 2(1): 3035
.
Table 5. Includes the list of plant species providing some minor forest produce in Sariska Tiger Reserve.
Vernacular
S.No. Name of the species Families Economic value
name
1. Acacia catechu (L.f.) Willd. Mimosoceae Kair Katha
2. Acacia nilotica (L.) Del. Mimosoceae Bawal Katha
3. Ailanthus excelsa Roxb. Simaroubaceae Ardu Gum, match stick
4. Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Delile Zygophyllaceae Hingot Soap making
5. Bombax ceiba L. Malvaceae Seemal Match stick
6. Cassia fistula L. Caesalpiniaceae Amaltas Pulp of pod
7. Dendrocalamus strictus (Roxb.) Nees. Poaceae Bans Basket, hut making
8. Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr. Anacardiaceae Madhol Match stick
9. Madhuca longifolia (Koenig ex L.) Macbr. Saptoaceae Madhuvo Crude liquor
10. Mangifera indica L. Anacardiaceae Aam Fruits (seed oil)
11. Melia azedarach L. Meliaceae Bakain Leaves used to make
plates and saucers
12. Phyllanthus emblica L. Phyllanthaceae Aonla Fruit pulp in soap
making
13. Sapindus emarginatus Vahl Sapindaceae Areetha Fruit/Fuit shell for
soap making
14. Terminalia belerica Roxb. Combretaceae Bahera Bark, fruit
15. Wrightia arborea (Dennst.) Mabb. Apocynaceae Dudhi Dyes from leaves blue
dye from seeds
CONCLUSION
In this study emphasis was laid on the floral diversity with their uses as minor forest products or non-forest
timber product for the subsistence of local dwellers inside and outside the Sariska Tiger Reserve. The study
revealed that the loss biodiversity of the study area due to anthropogenic activities leads in scarcity of such
minor forest products, which is basis of livelihood of local peoples. Due to the human interference in reserve
will lead to deterioration of so many species which have great importance to generate economy for local
peoples, and uses of such minor products relieve biotic stress on reserve so far.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Author has deep sense of gratitude to his supervisor Director Indira Gandhi centre for Human Ecology and
Population studies, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur for their able guidance during the research tenure and also
thankful to Dept. of forest, Government of Rajasthan and field director to Sariska and other staff members.
REFERENCES
Champion HG & Seth SK (1968) A revised survey of the forest type of India. Government of India Press, Delhi.
Dennis TJ, Billore KV & Mishra KP (1997) Pharmacognostic study on gum-oleo-resin of Boswellia serrata
Roxb. ex Colebr. Reprint Bulletin 1(3): 353360.
Dular AK (2004) Study of Biodiversity of Sariska Tiger Reserve in Aravallis with particular emphasis on
Anthropogenic activities and Conservation measures, Ph. D. Thesis. University of Rajasthan, Jaipur, India.
Gamble JS (1884) A Short account of the forests of Northern Forest Circle, Madras Presidency. Indian Forester
10: 543553.
Ghate N S (1939) Forests of Godavari district. Indian Forester 65: 760764.
Joshi HC, Arya SC & Samant SS (2000) Diversity, distribution and indigenous uses of plant species in Pindari
area of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve-II. Indian Journal of Forestry 24(4): 514536.
Khan TI (1995) Tropical deforestation and its consequences with reference to biodiversity in India. The
International Journal of Environmental Education and Information 14(1): 3144.
Dular (2015) 2(1): 3035
.
Legris P & Meher-Homji VM (1982) The Eastern Ghats: Vegetation and Bioclimatic aspects. In: Anonymous
(ed) Proceedings of National seminar on research, development and environment in Eastern Ghats. Andhra
University, Waltair India, pp. 118.
Nair NC & Nathawat GS (1957) Vegetation of Harshnath, Aravalli hills. The Journal of the Bombay Natural
History Society 54(2): 91106.
Parmar PJ (1985). A contribution to the flora of Sariska Tiger Reserve, Alwar District Rajasthan. Bulletin
Botanical Survey India 27(1-4): 2940.
Rodgers WA & Panwar HS (1988) Planning a wildlife protected area network in India, Vol. I & II. Wildlife
Institute of India, Dehradun.
Rodgers WA (1990) A preliminary ecological survey of Algual spring, Sariska Tiger Reserve, Rajasthan.
Journal of Bombay Natural History Society 87(2): 201210.
Rodgers WA (1991) A preliminary ecological survey of Algual spring, Sariska Tiger Reserve Rajasthan.
International Journal of Sustainable Development 7: 201209.
Samant SS & Dhar U (1997) Diversity endemism and economic potential of wild edible plants of Indian
Himalaya. International Journal of Sustainable Development and World Ecology 4: 179191.
Sharma S (1978) Studies in floral composition of Jaipur District, Rajasthan. Indian Forester 104(1): 4149.
Sharma S (1983) A contribution to the Botany of Ranthambore Tiger Reserve National park. Department of
Environment, Government of India, New Delhi.
ISSN (E): 2349 1183
ISSN (P): 2349 9265
2(1): 3646, 2015
Research article
Diversity and tree population structure of tropical dry evergreen

forests in Sivagangai district of Tamil Nadu, India
SM. Sundarapandian* and S. Subbiah
Department of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, School of life sciences,
Pondicherry University, Pondicherry, India
*Corresponding Author: smspandian65@gmail.com [Accepted: 10 April 2015]
Abstract: Vegetation structure and species composition were studied in the four selected
undocumented sacred groves (tropical dry evergreen forest patches) in the Karaikudi taluk of
Sivagangai district of Tamil Nadu, India. A total of 106 plant species were recorded in all the
sacred groves. The number of species and diversity indices of trees and understory (which includes
tree seedlings and saplings, climbers and shrubs) community showed greater values in site III
(Thiruparkkadal Chellayae Amman Kovil sacred grove) compared to other study sites. In contrast,
a reverse trend was observed in the case of herbaceous community. Albizia amara was the
dominant tree species in site I (Vidathudaiyar kovil sacred grove) and site IV (Aakkamudaiyar
kovil sacred grove) followed by Acacia leucophloea. In site II, (Koodaiyakkaruppar kovil sacred
grove), Drypetes sepiaria was the dominant tree species. Ficus benghalensis is the dominant
species in site III. The understory community was dominated by Acacia leucophloea in sites I, II
and III, whereas in site IV, Randia spinosa was dominant. Tephrosia purpurea was the dominant
species in the herbaceous community in site I while in site II, grasses were dominant. Leucas
aspera was the dominant species in the herbaceous community of site III and site IV. These sacred
groves still possess a sizable proportion of the regions characteristic flora. They also have rich
cultural tradition associated with them. These sacred groves should be protected to conserve the
regional flora adjacent to human habitats as well as to sink carbon during global warming.
Keywords: Sacred groves - Plant diversity - Traditional practices - Tropical forest - Floristic
composition.
[Cite as: Sundarapandian SM & Subbiah S (2015) Diversity and tree population structure of tropical dry
evergreen forests in Sivagangai district of Tamil Nadu, India. Tropical Plant Research 2(1): 3646]
INTRODUCTION
The growing threat of biodiversity loss in the world receives more attention from ecologists and
conservationists who seek effective ways to conserve biodiversity. One of the approaches that have received
great attention in the recent past is the role of traditional, cultural practices and beliefs in protecting and
managing biodiversity (Byers et al. 2001, Ineld 2001, Fabricius 2004, Berkes & Davidson 2006, Garnett et al.
2007, Gao et al. 2013, Kandari et al. 2014, Tamalene et al. 2014, Daye & Healey 2015). Sacred groves are
small or large patches of natural virgin vegetation protected or conserved by the indigenous community or local
people. The sacred groves are reported to have both social functions and ecological services not only in India
but throughout the world (Jim 2003, Bhagwat & Rutte 2006, Wassie et al. 2010, Hu et al. 2011, Tamalene et al.
2014, Daye & Healey 2015, Shrestha et al. 2015). Generally, most of the groves represent the vegetation in its
climax stage of that area. These groves are the store houses or shelter of many rare and endemic flora and fauna
and a veritable gene pool (Mgumia & Oba 2003, Khan et al. 2008, Swain et al. 2008, Rawat et al. 2011, Kibet
2011). The values of the sacred groves are manifold: aesthetic, ecological, economic and socio-cultural.
Despite being at various stages of decline and degradation, sacred groves still have one or more of these values.
The sacred groves have been preserved and maintained for several decades or even centuries all over the
world (Ramakrishnan et al. 1998) and particularly in wide variety of habitats in 33 countries (Bhagwat & Rutte
Received: 11 January 2015 Published online: 30 April 2015
Sundarapandian & Subbiah (2015) 2(1): 3646
.
2006). Approximately 13720 sacred groves have been documented from all over India so far and experts
estimate that the actual number could be much higher in the range of 100000150000 (Malhotra et al. 2007,
Pandey 2010). A list of 528 sacred groves of Tamil Nadu with their location, area and deities in each district
was prepared by Amirthalingam (1998). The sacred groves selected in the present study are not in the above-
mentioned list. No published documentation is available on plant biodiversity and socio-cultural aspects of these
sacred groves. In recent years, significance of biodiversity maintenance, management and socio cultural
perspectives of sacred groves have been widely discussed (Mgumia & Oba 2003, Soury et al. 2007, Salick et al.
2007, Hu et al. 2011, Wassie et al. 2010) particularly in Africa and Asia (Wadley & Colfer 2004, Chun & Tak
2009, Luo et al. 2009, Yuan & Liu 2009, Page et al. 2010, Gao et al. 2013, Khandari et al. 2014, Shrestha et al.
2015). Vegetation analysis of sacred groves in many parts of India has been carried out by many workers (Khan
et al. 2008, Page et al. 2010, Agnihotri et al. 2010, Rawat et al. 2011; Singh et al. 2011, Kumar et al. 2011,
Parthasarathy et al. 2012, Ray et al. 2014, Bawri et al. 2015). Tree diversity in the sacred groves of Tamil Nadu
has been studied by Parthasarathy & Karthikeyan (1997), Swamy et al. (1998), Swamy et al. (2003), Kumar
(2006) and Sukumaran & Jeeva (2008). The objective of the present study was to generate data on the
vegetation structure and plant species diversity of four undocumented and unexplored sacred groves found in
Karaikudi taluk, Sivagangai District of Tamil Nadu.

Study Area
Four tropical dry evergreen forests (sacred groves) selected for the present study are in the Sakkottai Union,
Karaikudi taluk of Sivagangai district of Tamil Nadu. Vidathudaiyar kovil sacred grove (Site I; N 1005785
E7849466) is near Puliankudiiruppu and Mullangkadu villages. The total area of the sacred grove is 10 ha. A
well-built temple is present on one side of the sacred grove around which about 20 m area has been cleared.
However, more than 9 ha are covered by natural vegetation. The sacred grove is maintained by family trustee of
Kattayan, Pottukkathan and Kovilpattiyan groups. The main deity in the sacred grove is Vidathudaiyar.
Koodaiyakkaruppar kovil sacred grove (Site II; N 1013546 E7887260) is near Puliankudiiruppu. The total
area of the sacred grove is 22 ha. It is a catchment area for the adjacent water reservoir. Koodaiyakkaruppar is
the main deity of this sacred grove. Thiruparkkadal Chellayae Amman Kovil sacred grove (Site III;
N1013486 E7887654) has an area of 2.5 ha. The sacred grove is maintained by family trustee of
Chinnavidaththan groups. The main deity in this sacred grove is Chellayae Amman. Aakkamudaiyar kovil
sacred grove (Site IV; N1011196 E7890836) in Peerkkalaikadu village has an area of 2.7 ha. The
sacredness is associated with a small pond in the grove. The grove is maintained by family trustee of
Puliayankaruppan and Kuttiyan groups. The main deity in this grove is Aakkamudaiyar.
Climate
The average annual rainfall was 2043 mm. Maximum rainfall occurred during October to December.
Average maximum and minimum temperatures were 40C and 26C during summer and 29C and 22C in
winter. Soil is of sandy loam type in sites I to III, but in site IV, it is more clayey. Based on Champion and Seth
(1968) classification, the vegetation of these sacred groves comes under tropical dry evergreen forests.
Sampling
One hectare plot was sampled for density, frequency and basal area measurement of trees [individuals with
>30 cm girth at breast height]. Twenty quadrats (55 m2) were laid to enumerate shrubs and lianas (climbers of
all sizes) whose base inside the quadrats. The same number of quadrats (11 m2) was laid down randomly
within the plot to study the herbs at each site. Vegetation analysis was done during the month of October and
November 2010, which is the rainy season, during which herbaceous growth is maximum. Important value
index was calculated as the summation of relative density, relative basal area and relative frequency. The plant
samples were identified in the field with the help of Gambles (1925) and Matthews (1988) floras and
confirmed with BSI, Coimbatore. The diversity indices were calculated using PAST software.
RESULTS
A total of 106 species were recorded from the four selected sacred groves in Sivagangai district of Tamil
Nadu. The number of species was greater in sites III and IV compared to other study sites (Table 1). Understory
.
population showed greater number of species in study site III followed by site IV and site I. However,
herbaceous community contribution was greater in site IV compared to other study sites. The diversity index of
tree community showed greater value in site III compared to other study sites. A similar trend was observed in
the case of understory community also. However, a reverse trend was observed in the case of herbaceous
community with reference to diversity index. The dominance index was greater in study sites, I and II compared
to other study sites for both tree community and understory species. However, the dominance index of
herbaceous community was greater in the study sites III and IV compared to other study sites.
Table 1. Consolidated details of phytosociological analysis of the selected sacred groves in the Karaikudi taluk of
Sivagangai District, Tamil Nadu, India.
Site I Site II Site III Site IV
No. of species
Trees (No./ha) 14 8 15 12
Understory (No./0.05 ha) 25 19 29 27
Herb (No./20 m2) 33 33 31 38
Total no. of species 65 55 68 68
Density
Trees (No./ha) 162 144 126 154
Understory (No./25 m2) 15.4 16.3 20.2 21.7
Herb (No./m2) 22.1 20.1 31.1 27.9
Shannon index
Trees 1.90 1.69 2.33 2.28
Understory 2.91 2.68 3.03 3.03
Herb 2.87 3.09 2.68 2.69
Dominance index
Trees 0.22 0.23 0.13 0.12
Understory 0.07 0.08 0.06 0.06
Herb 0.09 0.07 0.12 0.13
Tree basal area (m2.ha-1) 7.72 6.55 12.31 6.87
Albizia amara was the dominant tree species in sites I and IV followed by Acacia leucophloea (Table 2). In
site II, Drypetes sepiaria was the dominant species followed by Acacia leucophloea, Dalbergia sissoo and
Azadirachta indica. Ficus benghalensis is the dominant species in site III followed by Acacia leucophloea,
Prosopis juliflora and Acacia arabica. The understory plant community was dominated by Acacia leucophloea
in sites I, II and III, whereas in site IV, Randia spinosa was dominant. Tephrosia purpurea was the dominant
species of herbaceous community in site I and is followed by Croton sparsiflorus and Leucas aspera while in
site II, grasses were dominant. Leucas aspera was the dominant species in the herbaceous community of site III
and site IV followed by Tephrosia purpurea and Croton sparsiflorus.
Table 2. Importance value index of different life forms (tree, understory and herbs) in the four selected sacred groves in the
Karaikudi taluk of Sivagangai District of Tamil Nadu, India.
Name of the species Site I Site II Site III Site IV
Tree community
Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd. 86.20 53.57 65.77 48.17
Acacia arabica (Lam.) Willd. - - 24.55 -
Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr. 2.82 - - -
Albizia amara Willd. 101.81 15.18 - 64.88
Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth. - - 16.81 -
Atalantia monophylla (L.) Corr. - 3.92 - -
Azadirachta indica A. Juss. 21.99 34.22 23.74 26.30
Chloroxylon swietenia DC. 6.65 - - 29.31
Crataeva religiosa Forst. - - 3.74 -
Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. ex DC. - 50.74 - 7.82
Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) W & A 17.60 4.76 10.74 -
Drypetes sepiaria Roxb. - 115.36 3.66 22.64
Eucalyptus globulus Labill. 3.70 - - -
Feronia elephantum Corr. 2.56 - - -
Ficus benghalensis L. 14.70 - 58.72 -
.
Ficus racemosa L. 3.08 - - -
Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr. - - 4.96 22.76
Madhuca longifolia L. - - - 4.70
Morinda pubescens J.E. Smith 4.19 22.26 12.97 14.27
Prosopis juliflora L. 25.16 - 35.57 30.32
Senna polyantha (Collad.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby 6.72 -
Senna siamea (Lam) H.S.Irwin & Barneby 17.97 13.18
Syzygium cuminii (L.) Skeels - - 7.46 -
Tamarindus indica L. - - 8.03 -
Tectona grandis L.f. 2.82 - - -
Thespesia populnea (L.) Soland. ex Correa - - - 15.66
Thevetia peruviana (Pers.) K. Schum - - 5.33 -
Understory community
Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd. 31.42 48.01 45.47 28.70
Acacia speciosa Willd. 3.70 - - -
Acacia tomentosa Willd. - - 5.29 -
Adenanthera pavonia L. 2.52 3.45 - -
Adhatoda vasica Nees - - 8.11 -
Albizia amara Willd. 29.22 - - 28.19
Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth. - - - 7.71
Argemone mexicana L. 3.18 - - 5.56
Atalantia monophylla (L.) Corr. - - 3.04 -
Azadirachta indica A. Juss. 12.92 28.88 6.73 4.18
Calotropis gigantea (L.) R. Br. - - 13.84 -
Carissa carandas L. 12.35 4.28 - -
Cassia auriculata L. 23.85 14.10 13.14 8.65
Cassia fistula L. 6.24 8.75 3.93 11.88
Cassia sp. - - 13.05 -
Chloroxylon swietenia DC. 6.04 - - 13.21
Coccinia indica W. & A. 2.52 2.93 7.80 8.21
Crotalaria laburnifolia L. - - 2.43 -
Datura metel L. 3.66 - 4.18 2.21
Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) W. & A. 17.70 7.96 3.85 4.02
Drypetes sepiaria Roxb. - 26.47 - 13.73
Euphorbia antiquorum L. 24.64 20.03 15.35 5.57
Ficus benghalensis L. - - 6.35 -
Gloriosa superba L. 2.27 2.89 0.33 -
Jasminum sp. - - - 3.67
Jatropha glandulifera Roxb. 6.66 - 4.17 4.48
Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr. - - - 3.74
Mangifera indica L. - - - 3.00
Memecylon umbellatum Burm.f. 20.26 22.30 2.43 10.57
Morinda pubescens JE Smith 8.74 19.21 16.18 11.55
Nerium odoratum Lam. - - 10.67 6.11
Pandanus tectorius Soland. ex. Parkinson - - 15.11 -
Pavetta indica L. 12.53 25.69 4.78 16.77
Phoenix sylvestris Roxb. 6.00 5.16 12.18 -
Prosopis juliflora L. 22.23 20.15 28.76 20.70
Randia spinosa (Thunb.) Poir. 2.61 20.59 - 38.28
Scoparia dulcis L. - - 2.95 -
Thespesia populnea (L.) Soland. ex Correa - - - 4.53
Toddalia asiatica (L) Lam. 2.38 - 6.87 -
Torenia asiatica L. - - 3.12 15.56
Vitex negundo L. 28.04 14.85 24.11 12.18
Ziziphus jujuba L. 8.33 4.31 15.78 7.02
Herbaceous community
Abrus precatorius L. - 2.02 - -
Abutilon indicum G. Don. 2.99 3.57 - -
Acalypha indica L. 14.07 10.34 7.77 25.51
.
Achyranthes aspera L. 5.38 10.47 5.40 1.99
Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f. - - 3.38 2.13
Amaranthus sp. 8.85 16.28 7.77 13.03
Aristolochia bracteata Retz. 2.33 - - -
Asparagus racemosus Willd. 3.06 2.02 1.40 3.01
Boerhaavia diffusa L. 4.85 7.32 1.96 4.99
Borreria hispida (L.) K. Sch. - 5.43 1.40 -
Borreria ocymoides (Burm.f.) DC. - 2.37 - -
Cassia sp. 8.77 8.04 2.42 -
Chloris barbata Sw. 2.75 4.13 - 2.34
Cissus quadrangularis L. - 3.57 - 1.72
Cleome viscosa L. 2.33 - 1.60 -
Clitoria ternatea L. 1.93 2.60 - 1.30
Crotalaria retusa L. - - - 1.51
Croton sparsiflorus Mor. 44.36 14.22 20.34 38.90
Cyperus sp. - - 7.86 -
Digitaria marginata Link - 2.02 - 1.51
Duranta repens L. 1.75 7.13 - 1.51
Echinops echinatus Roxb. 4.99 - - 1.54
Euphorbia sp. 7.20 5.43 2.80 4.73
Evolvulus alsinoides L. 5.27 4.85 3.37 4.23
Grasses (unidentified) 19.85 49.65 11.84 4.82
Haplanthus verticillaris Nees 1.66 - - 1.46
Heliotropium strigosum Willd. 3.46 - 1.40 1.51
Indigofera enneaphylla L. 5.26 2.37 1.59 1.51
Justicia betonica L. 4.99 2.37 2.60 3.85
Kyllinga brevifolia Rottb. - 10.21 - -
Lactuca sativa L. 1.39 2.37 4.20 1.30
Leucas aspera Spr. 44.23 30.79 81.12 81.94
Malva sylvestris L. - - - 1.30
Mimosa pudica L. 5.79 5.84 2.91 4.46
Mollugo nudicaulis Lam. 4.99 6.42 4.20 4.73
Ocimum basilicum L. - - .40 -
Ocimum sanctum L. 7.75 4.59 10.15 5.24
Oldenlandia umbellata L. - - 2.80 1.51
Phyllanthus maderaspatensis L. 12.11 15.30 19.46 7.41
Physalis minima L. - - 6.02 1.30
Pilea microphylla (L.) Liebm. - - - 1.51
Polycarpea corymbosa Lam. - - - 3.98
Sida acuta Burm.f. 2.90 5.86 8.43 5.58
Sida cordifolia L. 2.79 - - 1.69
Solanum trilobatum L. 2.37 6.02 - 1.99
Solanum xanthocarpum Sch. & Wendl. 3.86 - 2.41 2.59
Tephrosia purpurea (L.) Pers. 54.07 26.33 51.36 43.81
Tridax procumbens L. 1.66 5.43 9.18 6.61
Typha angustata B. & Ch. - 14.70 - -
Unidentified - - 12.44 -
With increasing tree size classes, species richness (number of species per hectare) decrease in sites I and II
while sites III and IV did not show any specific trend (Table 3). Similarly, density also didnt show any specific
trend. The size class distributions of dominant tree species in the study sites are presented in figure 14. Few
species showed L-shaped curves. The L-shaped curves represent a good regeneration status of those species.
Some species showed J-shaped curves and they are at moderate levels in terms of regeneration status.
However, several species didnt show any specific pattern.
Similarity index values among the study sites in different life forms are presented in Table 4. The study site
IV showed more than 50% similarity in tree community with all other study sites. Study site II showed lower
similarity values with sites I and III. Understory plant community showed greater similarity among the study
sites than that of tree community. However, herbaceous community showed greatest similarity among all the life
.
forms. Site I showed more than 7279% similarity with other study sites. Lower similarity was observed
between site II and site IV.
Table 3. Diameter class-wise (DBH) species richness (no. of species) and density (No./ha) of trees (>10 cm DBH) in
the four selected sacred groves in the Karaikudi taluk of Sivagangai district of Tamil Nadu, India.
Diameter Number of species Density
class (cm) Site I Site II Site III Site IV Site I Site II Site III Site IV
1020 10 7 10 13 92 40 64 98
2030 9 6 6 10 37 64 11 49
3040 3 6 3 1 4 30 4 2
4050 3 4 7 4 27 9 18 7
5060 - 1 7 4 - 1 26 6
6070 - - - - - - - -
7080 1 - - - 1 - - -
8090 1 - - 1 1 - - 1
90100 - - 1 - - - 3 -
Figure 1. Diameter class wise (DBH) distribution of some dominant species in the selected sacred grove (Site I) in
the Karaikudi taluk of Sivagangai District, Tamil Nadu, India.
Table 4. Similarity index of tree (T), understory (U) and herbaceous (H) community in the
selected sacred groves in the Karaikudi taluk of Sivagangai District, Tamil Nadu, India.
Site I Site II Site III Site IV
Site I - 0.455T 0.482T 0.518 T
0.739U 0.654U 0.717 U
0.746H 0.718H 0.794H
Site II - 0.435T 0.571T
0.612U 0.638U
0.677H 0.649H
Site III - 0.500T
0.607U
0.704H
Site IV -
.
Figure 2. Diameter class wise (DBH) distribution of some dominant species in the selected sacred grove (Site II) in
Figure 3. Diameter class wise (DBH) distribution of some dominant species in the selected sacred grove (Site III) in
.
Figure 4. Diameter class wise (DBH) distribution of some dominant species in the selected sacred grove (Site IV) in

A total of 106 plant species were recorded from the four selected tropical dry evergreen forests (sacred
groves) in the Sivagangai District of Tamil Nadu. Similarly, 83 species were identified in Nakuleshwar sacred
groves (Singh et al. 2011). A total of 189 plant species were recorded in 6 selected sacred groves of Tamil Nadu
(Kumar 2006). Ramanujam & Kadamban (2001) reported 74 species in Oorani sacred grove (Pondicherry) and
136 species in Olagapuram sacred grove (Pondicherry). The number of tree species (species richness) >30 cm
GBH in all the study sites ranged from 815 ha-1 and this is at lower side of the range when compared to other
sacred groves of several other regions in Tamil Nadu and Kerala. The species richness in Thirumanikuzhi sacred
grove was 38 and Kuzhanthaikuppam sacred grove was 52 (Parthasarathy & Karthikeyan 1997), in Puthupet
sacred grove 52 (Parthasarathy & Sethi 1997), in three sacred groves of Kerala 20-23 (Chandrashekara &
Sankar 1998) and in six sacred groves of Tamil Nadu 1117 (Kumar 2006), in Ayyanar Kovil sacred groves of
Madurai district 56 (Ganesan et al. 2009), in 10 sacred groves in Chittoor district of Andhra Pradesh 4266 ha-1
species (Rao et al. 2011). The tree diversity index (Shannon index) in the present study was in the range of 1.7
2.3, which is comparable to Thirumanikuzhi and Kuzhanthaikuppam sacred groves (Parthasarathy &
Karthikeyan 1997). However, the tree species diversity is higher than Puthupet sacred grove (Visalakshi 1995,
Parthasarathy & Sethi 1997). The low value of tree species richness in the present study may be attributed to
anthropogenic pressures such as lopping, extraction of minor forest produce (fruits, seeds etc.) and cattle
grazing. These attributes may also be some of the reasons that might have resulted in poor tree regeneration
through seedling recruitment and also stunted growth in lopped trees, thus leading to small openings in the
canopy of sacred groves studied. Invasion by Prosopis juliflora in the periphery of the sacred grove inhibits the
regeneration of native species due to allelopathic effect which is also one of the reasons. The dominance index
value of trees in the present study was from 0.120.23 which is comparatively lesser than the dominance index
recorded in Kuzhanthaikuppam sacred grove (Parthasarathy & Karthikeyan 1997) and Puthupet sacred grove
(Parthasarathy & Sethi 1997). However, the dominance index value is comparable to that of Thirumanikuzhi
sacred grove (Parthasarathy & Karthikeyan 1997). The higher dominance value in the present study is due to the
dominance of single species in the sacred groves. Lower number of herbaceous species in the present study may
be due to grazing, trampling, edaphic and climatic factors. Herbs which grow immediately after monsoon
seasons become the victims of anthropogenic and adverse climatic factors.
.
Tree density in the present study ranges from 126162 ha-1 which is comparable to the density of
Marakkanam reserve forest near Pondicherry (Visalakshi 1995). However, the tree density range recorded in the
present study is at lower range when compared to the sacred groves of Thirumanikuzhi sacred grove and
Kuzhanthaikuppam sacred grove (Parthasarathy & Karthikeyan 1997), Puthupet sacred grove (Parthasarathy &
Sethi 1997), and Chittoor sacred groves, Andhra Pradesh (929 1018 ha-1, Rao et al. 2011). Such low density of
tree species in the present study is governed by a complex array of environmental factors besides human
interferences as suggested by Visalakshi (1995). Ground clearing and ground fires occur during occasional
rituals and annual festivals (by the visiting devotees) and these may influence the tree density of the sacred
groves. Man-made disturbances such as cattle grazing, criss-crossing foot path, lopping of small branches for
fodder may also be reasons for low tree density. The canopy gaps were invaded by exotic weed like Prosopis
juliflora, thus influencing the course of natural regeneration of sacred groves (Ramakrishnan et al. 1998).
Menace of invasion by alien weeds was also reported in many sacred groves in India (Parthasarathy &
Karthikeyan 1997, Ramakrishnan et al. 1998, Ramanujam & Kadamban 2001, Swamy et al. 2003).
In the present study, Ficus benghalensis was found to be the keystone species in the sacred groves because it
supports birds and insects. Similarly, Ficus benghalensis in sacred groves at Suriampettai play the role of a
keystone species providing a niche for the large number of birds and plants (King et al. 1997). In addition to
that, several (more than 7) honey combs were present in a single tree of Ficus benghalensis at the study site III.
Gloriosa superba and Asparagus racemosus were found to be threatened plants as they are tuber-bearing
climbers and are of medicinal importance. Uprooting these threatened plants for medicinal uses will make them
disappear from these sacred groves.
These sacred groves still possess a sizable proportion of the regions characteristic flora. They also have rich
cultural tradition associated with them. Peoples changing attitudes, erosion of traditional beliefs and faiths, and
cattle grazing have caused degradation of sacred groves over the years. These sacred groves would be protected
to conserve the regional flora adjacent to human habitats as well as to sink carbon during global warming. This
study also suggests that reduction of grazing and restriction of ground clearance during the festival times are
essential to enhance the regeneration potential of these sacred groves.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors express sincere thanks to UGC, New Delhi for providing the financial assistance. We also thank
Dr. Karuppusami Assistant Professor, Madurai College, Madurai, and Scientist BSI, Coimbatore for their help
in identification of plant materials.
REFERENCES
Agnihotri P Sharma S, Dixit V, Singh H & Husain T (2010) Sacred groves from Kumaon Himalaya. Current
Science 99: 8997.
Amirthalingam M (1998) Sacred groves of Tamil Nadu. CPR Environmental Education Centre. Chennai, 190 p.
Bawri A, Gajurel PR, Paul A & Khan ML (2015) Diversity and distribution of Primula species in western
Arunachal Pradesh, eastern Himalayan region, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 7(1): 67886795.
Berkes F & Davidson IJH (2006) Biodiversity, traditional management systems, and cultural landscapes:
Examples from the boreal forest of Canada. International Social Science Journal 58: 3547.
Bhagwat SA & Rutte C (2006) Sacred groves: potential for biodiversity management. Frontiers of Ecology and
Environment 4: 519524.
Byers BA, Cunliffe RN & Hudak AT (2001) Linking the conservation of culture and nature: a case study of
sacred forests in Zimbabwe. Human Ecology 29: 187218.
Champion HG & Seth SK (1968) A revised survey of the forest types of India. Manager of Publication, New
Delhi, India, 404 p.
Chandrashekara UM & Sankar S (1998) Ecology and management of sacred groves in Kerala, India. Forest
Ecology and Management 112: 165177.
Chun YW & Tak KI (2009) Songgye, a traditional knowledge system for sustainable forest management in
Choson Dynasty of Korea. Forest Ecology and Management 257: 20222026.
Daye DD & Healey JR (2015) Impacts of land-use change on sacred forests at the landscape scale. Global
Ecology and Conservation 3: 349358.
.
Fabricius C (2004) Rights, resources and rural development: community-based natural resource management in
Southern Africa. Earthscan, London.
Gamble JS (1925) Flora of Presidency of Madras, Vol. 13. Adlard and Son. London, 2017 p.
Ganesan S, Ponnuchamy M, Kesavan L & Selvaraji A (2009) Floristic composition and practices on the selected
sacred groves pallapatty village (Reserved forest) Tamil Nadu. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge 8:
154162.
Gao H, Ouyang Z, Chen S & Koppen CSA (2013) Role of culturally protected forests in biodiversity
conservation in Southeast China. Biodiversity and Conservation 22: 531544.
Garnett ST, Sayer J & DuToit J (2007) Improving the effectiveness of interventions to balance conservation and
development: a conceptual framework. Ecological Society 12: 2.
Hu L, Li Z, Liao W & Fan Q (2011) Values of village fengshui forest patches in biodiversity conservation in
The Pearl River Delta, China. Biological Conservation 144: 15531559.
Ineld M (2001) Cultural values: a forgotten strategy for building community support for protected areas in
Africa. Conservation Biology 15: 800802.
Jim CY (2003) Conservation of soils in culturally protected wood lands in rural Hong Kong. Forest Ecology
and Management 175: 339353.
Kandari LS, Bisht VK, Bhardwaj M & Thakur AK (2014) Conservation and management of sacred groves,
myths and beliefs of tribal communities: a case study from north-India. Environmental Systems Research 3:
16. [DOI: 10.1186/s40068-014-0016-8].
Khan ML, Khumbongmayum AD & Tripathi RS (2008) The sacred groves and their significance in conserving
biodiversity an overview. International Journal Ecology and Environmental Sciences 34 (3): 277291.
Kibet S (2011) Plant communities, species diversity, richness, and regeneration of a traditionally managed
coastal forest, Kenya. Forest Ecology and Management 261: 949957.
King IEDO, Viji C & Narasimhan D (1997) Sacred groves: Traditional ecological heritage. International
Journal of Ecology Environmental Sciences 23: 463470.
Kumar K, Manhas RK & Magotra R (2011) The Shankaracharya sacred grove of Srinagar, Kashmir, India.
Current Science 101: 262263.
Kumar M (2006) Ecological studies on the selected sacred groves of Tamil nadu. Ph.D. thesis submitted to
Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai, 140 p.
Luo Y, Liu J & Zhang D (2009) Role of traditional beliefs of Baima Tibetans in biodiversity conservation in
China. Forest Ecology and Management 257: 19952001.
Malhotra KC, Gokhale Y, Chatterjee S & Srivastava S (2007) Sacred groves in India: An overview. Aryan
Books International, New Delhi, 170 p.
Matthew KM (1988) Flora of Tamil Nadu Carnatic, Vol. IIV. St. Joseph College Thiruchirapalli, 915 p.
Mgumia FH & Oba AG (2003) Potential role of sacred groves in biodiversity conservation in Tanzania.
Environmental conservation 30(3): 259265.
Page NV, Qureshi Q, Rawat GS & Kushalappa CG (2010) Plant diversity in sacred forest fragments of Western
Ghats: a comparative study of four life forms. Plant Ecology 206: 237250.
Pandey HN (2010) Sacred Forests: Their Ecology and Diversity. Regency Publications, New Delhi, 197 p.
Parthasarathy N & Karthikeyan R (1997) Plant biodiversity inventory and conservation of two tropical dry
evergreen forests on the Coromandel Coast, South India. Biodiversity and Conservation 6: 10631083.
Parthasarathy N & Sethi P (1997) Trees and liana species diversity and population structure in a tropical dry
evergreen forest in South India. Tropical Ecology 38: 1930.
Ramakrishnan PS, Saxena KG & Chandrashekara UM (1998) (Eds.) Conserving the Sacred for Biodiversity
Management. Oxford and IBH publications. New Delhi, 480 p.
Ramanujam MP & Kadamban D (2001) Plant biodiversity of two tropical dry ever green forests in the
Pondicherry region of South India and the role of belief system in their conservation. Biodiversity and
Conservation 10: 12031217.
Rao BR, Sureshbabu MV, Reddy MS, Reddy AM, Rao VS, Sunitha S & Ganeshaiah KN (2011) Sacred Groves
in southern Eastern Ghats, India: Are they better managed then forest reserves. Tropical Ecology 52(1): 79
90.
.
Rawat M, Vasistha HB, Manhas RK & Mridula N (2011) Sacred forest of Kunjapuri Siddha peeth, Uttarakhand,
India. Tropical Ecology 52(2): 219221.
Ray R, Chandran MDS, Ramachandra TV (2014) Biodiversity and ecological assessments of Indian sacred
groves. Journal of Forestry Research 25(1): 2128.
Salick J, Amend A, Anderson D, Hoffmeister K, Gunn B & Zhendong F (2007) Tibetan sacred sites conserve
old growth trees and cover in the eastern Himalayas. Biodiversity and Conservation 16: 693706.
Shannon CI & Weiner W (1963) The mathematical theory of communication. University of Illinois press,
Urbana iii. USA.
Shrestha LJ, Devkota M & Sharma BK (2015) Phyto-sociological Assessment of Sacred Groves in Kathmandu,
Nepal. International Journal of Plant & Soil Science 4(5): 437444.
Simpson EH (1949) Measurement of diversity. Nature 163: 688.
Singh HP, Agnihotri PC, Pande & Husain T (2011) Biodiversity conservation through a traditional beliefs
system in Indian Himalaya: A case study from Nakuleshwar sacred groves. Environmentalist 31: 246253.
Soury A, van Koppen K, Tchibozo MS & Cotonou B (2007) Sacred forests: a sustainable conservation
strategy? The case of sacred forests in the Oue me valley, Benin. Wageningen University, Wageningen.
Sukumaran S. & Jeeva S (2008). A floristic study on miniature sacred groves at Agastheeshwaram, Southern
peninsular India. Eurasian Journal of Biological Science 2 (8): 6672.
Swain PK, Sivaramakrishna I & Murty LN (2008) Scared Groves Their distribution in Eastern Ghats region.
EPTRI ENVIS New letter, 144 p.
Swamy PS, Kumar M & Sundarapandian SM (2003) Spirituality and Ecology of sacred groves of Tamil Nadu.
Unasylva 54: 5358.
Swamy PS, Sundarapandian SM & Chandrasekaran S (1998) Sacred groves of Tamil Nadu. In: Ramakrishnan
PS, Saxena KG & Chandrashekara UM (eds.) Conserving the sacred for biodiversity management, Oxford
and IBH publications. New Delhi, pp. 357361.
Visalakshi N (1995) Vegetation analysis of two tropical evergreen forests in Southern India. Tropical Ecology
36: 117127.
Wadley RL & Colfer CJP (2004) Sacred forest, hunting, and conservation in West Kalimantan, Indonesia.
Human Ecology 32: 313338.
Wassie A, Sterck FJ & Bongers F (2010) Species and structural diversity of church forests in a fragmented
Ethiopian High land landscape. Journal of Vegetation Science 21: 938948.
Whittaker RH (1969) Evolution and diversity of plant communities. In: Woodwell GM & Smith HM (eds)
Diversity and stability in ecological system. Brookhaven Symposium on biology No. 22 U.S. Department of
Commerce. Springfield, Virginia, pp. 17993.
Yuan J & Liu J (2009) Fengshui forest management by the Buyi ethnic minority in China. Forest Ecology and
Management 257: 20022009.
ISSN (E): 2349 1183
ISSN (P): 2349 9265
2(1): 4750, 2015
Research article
ehT study of Nano silica effects on the total protein content

and the activities of Catalase, Peroxidase and Superoxid
Dismutase of Vicia faba L.
Ghffar Roohizadeh*, Sedigheh Arbabian, Golnaz Tajadod, Ahmad Majd and
Fahimeh Salimpour
Department of Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, North-Tehran Branch, Islamic Azad University,
Tehran, Iran
*Corresponding Author: groohizadeh@yahoo.com [Accepted: 14 April 2015]
Abstract: Silica is the second common element of soil content which has positive effects on the
resistance of plants against biotic and abiotic stresses. This element can increase the yield,
decrease the evaporation and perspiration and moreover, causes increasing of production of
antioxidant enzymes, and less sensitivity to some fungal diseases. In the present study, the effects
of silica on the total protein content and activity of some antioxidant enzymes in Vicia faba L.
were studied. The seeds of plant were treated by 0 (as control), 1.5 and 3 mM of Nano silica. There
were three repeats for all treatments. The result showed that 1.5 mM treatment did not significantly
increase the total protein content in comparison to control samples. The activity of Peroxidase in
the 1.5 and 3 mM treatments of Nano silica was significantly increased. In 3 mM treatments of
Nano silica also increased the activity of Superoxide Dismutase and Peroxidase significantly.
Based on the results, it can be concluded that Nano silica particles can increase the activity of
some antioxidant enzymes in broad bean, which in turn, brings about less damages caused by
reactive oxygen species, and protects the plants physiological processes against stresses.
Keywords: Antioxidant enzymes - Total protein - Nano silica - Vicia faba L.
[Cite as: Roohizadeh G, Arbabian S, Tajadod G, Majd A & Salimpour F (2015) ehe study of Nano silica
effects on the total protein content and the activities of Catalase, Peroxidase and Superoxid Dismutase of Vicia
faba L. Tropical Plant Research 2(1): 4750]
INTRODUCTION
Vicia faba L. is one of the Fabaceae. This plant is annual grass, with 80110 cm height. The flowers of
broad bean are white with black or purple spots. The seeds are sheathed and the fruits, seeds and flowers have
medical usages. Vicia faba L. is hetero fertilized with 2n=12. Because of possessing of high percentage of
proteins (3034%), this plant is alimentary- worth. Environmental stress causes reduction of balance between
reactive oxygen species and antioxidant defence of plants (Bai & Sui, 2006). Superoxide Dismutase as one of
the metalloproteins, can catalyse 2O20- o2 + O20- (Kakkar & Sawhney 2002). SOD indeed, produces H2O2.
(Elkahoui et al. 2005). Catalase (CAT) is one of the H2O2 scavenger which can catalyse the reaction of 2H2O2
2H2O+O2 as a metalloprotein (Garnczarska 2005). After an smooth increasing of catalase activity which is
associated with shortage of water in root and leaves, this activity in leaves would be stable at constant level, and
is reduced in heavy shortage of water in root, that may bring about inactivation of catalase (Feierabend et al.
1992). After oxygen, silica is the second structural element in the earth which is non-mobile in the plants.
Although silica is not necessary for plants, most of the higher plants need it to have optimum growth (Richmond
& Sussman 2003, Ma et al. 2004, Currie & Perry 2007). The most effect of silica on plants is related to the
resistance against biotic and abiotic stress (Ma & Yamaji 2006, Liang et al. 2007). As the cell wall of plants
prevents the entrance of elements into cells, the Nano particles which have less diameter than the pores of cell
wall, therefore can easily cross the pores. Nano particles in the leaves surface enter the plants through the
stomata and or base of hairs, and then transported to the different organs. Silica plays important role in the
Received: 15 January 2015 Published online: 30 April 2015
Roohizadeh et al. (2015) 2(1): 4750
.
tolerance against salt stress (Zhu et al. 2003), manganese toxicity (Shi et al. 2005), boron toxicity (Gunes et al.
2007) and cadmium toxicity (Vaculik et al. 2009, Shi et al. 2010) via changing the activity of antioxidant
enzymes. In the present study, silica was used as Nano particles with 14 nm diameter (1.5 and 3 mM
concentrations) to assay the effects of Nano particles of silica on some antioxidant enzymes such as catalase,
peroxidase and superoxide dismutase changes, and the yield of broad bean plant.
In order to assess the effects of silica nanoparticles, on antioxidant activity of broad bean (Vicia faba), the
samples were grown in greenhouse. Before cultivation, the impact seeds were sterilized in 5% hypochlorite
sodium solution. The seed then were washed up by deionised water. In each pot 2 seeds were cultivated.
Solution containing 0 (as control), 1.5 and 3 mM of nanoparticle of silica, were used for treating. The
temperature of greenhouse was adjusted to 222 C (at night) and 252 C (at day). The relative humidity was
44 %. The samples were treated for 65 days and the fresh leaves of them kept in liquid nitrogen for enzyme
assay.
Total protein
The Bradford (1976) method was used for total protein assay. 1 mL of Bradford solution was mixed with 100
L of enzyme extract, and then the absorption was recorded in 595 nM wave length. The protein concentration
was expressed as mg.ml-1
Catalase activity
The activity of catalase was measured by Aebi (1984) method. CAT activity was determined as the rate of
disappearance of H2O2 at 240 nm, for 1 minute. Reaction mixture (3 ml) included 50 mM potassium phosphate
buffer (pH 7), and the activity was expressed as mol.min-1.mg-1 protein.
Peroxidase activity
Koroi (1998) method was used to assay the activity of peroxidase. The mixture of 2 mL acetate buffer (pH
4.8), 0.2 mL hydrogen peroxide 3% was used. The change in absorbance was determined at 590 nm (FW OD
min-1.g-1).
Superoxide dismutase activity
The activity of superoxide dismutase was assayed by Giannopolitis & Ries (1977). Reaction mixture
containing 50 mM potassium phosphate buffer (pH 7.8), 1.3 M riboflavin, 0.1 mM EDTA. 13 mM methionine,
63 M NBT, 0.05 M sodium carbonate (pH 10.2) and enzyme extract was used. The photo-reduction of NBT
was measured at 560 nm.
Statistic analyze
SPSS ver16. Was used for comparing of the means using duncan test at P<0/05, level of significance. The
diagrams were plotted using Excel software.
RESULTS
Total protein
0.010
b The result showed that the protein content in 1.5
ab
0.008
c mM treatment of nano silica has no significant
(g / g FW )
protein content
0.006 different to control sample. But this content in 3

mM treatment of nano silica was reduced in range of
0.004
9% compared to control. This rage was about 7% in
0.002 comparison with 1.5 mM of nano silica treatment
0.000 (Fig. 1).
3
l
5
tr
1.
N
C
treatment
Figure 1. The effect of nano silica particles on total protein content of broad bean leaves. (Means SE and P < 0.05. The
letters show significance of differences)
.
Peroxidase activity
The result showed that in the leaves of broad bean, 1.5 and 3 mM treatments of nano silica, significantly
increased the activity of peroxidase in range of 25 and 27 % compared to control samples respectively (Fig. 2A).
Catalase activity
The assessment of catalase activity indicated that in 1.5 mM treatment of nano silica the activity of this
enzyme in leaves was significantly decreased in a range of 29% compared to control samples. However, the
increasing of catalase activity was not significant in 3 mM treatment (Fig. 2B).
Superoxide dismutase activity
The result showed that the activity of superoxide dismutase in leaves of broad bean plant, has highest level
in 3 mM treatment in comparison to control (71 % higher). There was no significant difference between control
sample and 1.5 mM silica treatment. However this difference was significant between 1.5 and 3 nm silica
treatments (Fig. 2C).
Catalase Activity ( mol/min/g FW )
10
bc
A 20
ac c B 3 c C
Superoxid Dismutase Activity

c
8
(mol / min / g FW )
(unit / mg protein )
15
Peroxidase Activity
a b 2
6
10
4
1
ab b
2 5
0
0 0
3
l
5
ro
1.
3
l
3
l
5
tr
tr
nt
1.
1.
N
N
N
C
C
co
N
treatment treatment treatment
Figure 2. The effect of nano silica particles on total protein content of broad bean leaves: A, Peroxidase; B, Catalase; C, Superoxide
dismutase. (Means SE and P < 0.05. The letters show significance of differences)
DISCUSSION
The total protein content if 1.5 mM treatment of nano silica showed no significant increasing compared to
control sample. When plants cell is under stress signalling pathway in corporation with calcium send signals to
nucleus of cell. Due to this signalling, genes expression undergoes changes and because of increasing or
decreasing of some genes, plant can resist against stress. The result of this change in the genetics, changes in the
amount and type of special proteins (Amini et al. 2007).
Watanabe et al. (2001) showed that treatment of selenium can cause increasing of amino acid content,
especially Asp in rice. The assessment of changes pattern of total protein content shows that under silica stress
some new proteins can be generated, or the amount of some others can be increased or decreased. Treatment of
rice plant with silica brought about activity of catalase and Glycine betaine (Biglari et al. 2012).
Silica and nanoparticles of that, can act as a stressgen factor in leaves and as a result, the activity of
antioxidant enzymes would be increased. These enzymes protect plants against toxicity and damages of reactive
oxygen (Van Breusegem et al. 1999). Catalase and ascorbate peroxidase can scavenge H2O2 in plant and
therefore, the increasing of superoxide dismutase is also predictable. The activity of ascorbate peroxidase was
increased in nano silica treatment. Miao et al. (2010) indicated that silica can compensate the effect of
potassium shortage in soy bean. Kiani et al. (2012) reported that treatment of rice with nano silica increased the
activity of catalase and ascorbate peroxidase.
CONCLUSION
The result of present study conclude that silica prevent oxidant damages via increasing of antioxidant
enzymes activity and decreasing of free radicals. Due to the lack of information about the main mechanism of
silica effects is yet unknown, more studies are needed to assay the uptake and transportation of nanoparticles in
plants.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are thankful of all laboratories personnel Mahmoodieh Islamic Azad University Tehran North
Iran, who contributed to this research.
.
REFERENCES
Aebi H (1984) Catalase in vitro. Methods in Enzymology 105: 121126.
Amini F, Ehsanpour AA, Hong QT & Shin JSh (2007) Protein Pattern Changes in Tomato under In Vitro Salt
Stress. Russian Journal of Plant Physiology 54(4): 464471.
Bai L & Sui F (2006) Effect of soil drought stress on leaf of maize. Pedosphere 16: 326332.
Biglari F, Hadad R & Sotude A (2012) Assessment of silica treatments on glycine changes and catalase, in rice,
in drought stress. In: Second conference of plant physiology at Iran.
Braford MM (1976) A rapid sensitive method for the quantitation of microgram quantities of protein utilizing
the principle of protein dye binding. Analytical Biochemistry 72(12): 248254.
Currie HA & Perry C (2007) Silica in plants: Biological, biochemical and chemical studies. Annals of Botany
100(7): 13831389.
Elkahoui S, Hernandez JA, Abdelly C, Ghrir R & Limam F (2005) Effects of salt on lipid (peroxidation and
antioxidant enzyme activities of Catharanthus roseus suspension cells. Plant Science 168: 607613.
Feierabend J, Schaan C & Hertwig B (1992) Photoinactivation of catalase occurs under both high and low
temperature stress conditions and accompanies photoinhibition of photosystem II. Plant Physiology 100:
15541561.
Garnczarska M (2005) Response of the ascorbate-glutathione cycle to reaeration following hypoxia in lupine
roots. Plant Physiology and Biochemistry 43(6): 583590.
Giannopolitis CN & Ries SK (1977) Superoxide dismutase Occurrence in higher plants. Plant Physiology 59:
309314.
Gunes A, Inal A & Bagic EG (2007) Silicon mediated changes of some physiological and enzymatic parameters
symptomatic for oxidative steress in spinach and tomato grown in sodic B toxic soil. Plant soil 290: 103
114
Kakkar RK & Sawhney VK (2002) Polyamine research in plants-a changing perspective. Plant Physiology 116:
281292.
Kiani Z, Abdolzadeh A & Sadeghipour H (2012) Assessment of silica treatment on shortage of iron in rice.
Iranian biology magazine 4: 6171.
Koroi SAA (1989) Gelek trophers tissue and spectral photometric chon under change Zomein fiussdr
temperature and stracture Peroxidase isoenzyme. Physiolgy Vegetation 20: 1522.
Liang Y, Sun W, Zhu Y & Christie P (2007) Mechanisms of silicon-mediated alleviation of abiotic stresses in
higher plants- a review. Environmental Pollution 147: 422428.
Ma JF & Yamaji N (2006) Silicon uptake and accumulation in higher plants. Plant Science 11: 392397.
Ma JF, Mitani N, Nagao S, Konishi S &Yano M (2004) Characterization of the silicon uptake system and
molecular mapping of the silicon transporter gene in rice. Plant Physiology 136: 32843289.
Miao BH, Han XG & Zhang WH (2010) The ameliorative effect of silicon on soybean seedlings grown in
potassium-deficient medium. Annals of Botany 105: 967973.
Richmond KE & Sussman M (2003) Got silicon? The non-essential beneficial plant nutrient. Current Opinion in
Plant Biology 6(3): 268272.
Shi G, Cai Q, Liu C & Wu L (2010) Silicon alleviates cadmium toxicity in peanut plants in relation to cadmium
distribution and stimulation of antioxidative enzymes. Plant Growth Regulation 61: 4552.
Shi XH, Zhang CC,Wang H & Zhang FS (2005) Effect of Si on the distribution of Cd in rice seedling. Plant and
Soil 273: 5360.
Vaculik M, Lux A, Luxova M, Tanimoto E & Lichtscheidl I. (2009) Silicon mitigates cadmium inhibitory
effects in young maize plants. Environmental and Experimental Botany 67: 5258.
Van Breusegem F, Slooten L & Stassart JM (1999) Overproduction of Arabidopsis thaliana Fe SOD confers
oxidative steress tolerance to transgenic maize. Plant Cell Physiology 40: 515523.
Watanabe S, Fujiwara T, Yoneyama T & Hayash H (2001) Effects of silicon nutrition on metabolism and
translocation of nutrients in rice plants. Plant Nutrition Developments in Plant and Soil Sciences 92: 174
175.
Zhu JK (2003) Regulation homeostasis under salt steress. Current Opinion in Plant Biology 6(5): 141-145.
ISSN (E): 2349 1183
ISSN (P): 2349 9265
2(1): 5157, 2015
Research article
Technical feasibility and effectiveness of vermicomposting at

household level
K.I.M. Perera* and A. Nanthakumaran
Department of Bio Science, Faculty of Applied Science, Vavuniya Campus, University of Jaffna, Sri Lanka
*Corresponding Author: isharap0@gmail.com [Accepted: 17 April 2015]
Abstract: Understanding the value of vermicompost, an attempt was made to study the technical
feasibility and effectiveness of vermicomposting at household level and to analyze and compare
the performance of the crops grown using vermicompost. The study was carried out during April
(2013) to January (2014) at Madampe in Puttlam, Sri Lanka. Initially three vermicomposting units
were established separately using six plastic bins with 45 cm diameter and 40 cm height each. The
locally available earthworm species, Eisenia fetida and Eisenia andrei were used to prepare
vermicompost using shredded paper as the bedding material. Five treatments with five replicates
of control (T1), inorganic fertilizer (T2), vermicompost (T3), garden compost (T4), and a
combination of vermicompost + inorganic fertilizer (50:50) (T5) were tested with potted okra
(Abelmoschus esculentus) using randomized block design. The growth parameters and the yield
characteristics were recorded during the period of six to fifteen weeks of planting. The data were
statistically analyzed using ANOVA and LSD test. Results revealed that the average marketable
fruit yield per plant for T3 was the highest among five treatments. The results indicated that there
was a significant difference between vermicompost and other treatments on the average
marketable yield of okra. The average yield of T3 showed 63%, 50% and 37% increase compared
to that of T1, T2 and T4 respectively. It also showed 18% increase of yield in T5 when compared
to T2. Vermicomposting provide an environmental friendly way of increasing the crop yield. Use
of local earthworms to the typical process of vermicomposting could be a successful and a
sustainable win-win solution to protect the environment.
Keywords: Vermicompost - Earth worm - Environment - Degradable waste - Crop yield.
[Cite as: Perera KIM & Nanthakumaran A (2015) Technical feasibility and effectiveness of vermicomposting at
Household level. Tropical Plant Research 2(1): 5157]
INTRODUCTION
Earthworms digest the organic matter accumulated on earth through the process of vermicomposting and
produce vermicompost. It is an environmental friendly way of minimizing degradable waste generated by day-
to-day activities.
Vermicomposting is a novel technique, applying the concept of using earthworms to turn "garbage" into
"black gold. The worms consume the waste materials and excrete them in the form of worm castings. The
worms coat the organic material with their mucous excretions which contain micro-organisms. After the
microbial pre-decomposition the worms convert the pre-fermented compost material into worm humus, along
with mineral substances (Dekoff et al. 2012). Vermicomposting can be practiced anywhere, even on a small
scale, and easily integrated into any agricultural system. A properly designed vermicomposting system
processes organic waste into vermicompost within 23 months. This self-aerated process does not require
mechanical aeration or mixing.
Home-gardening is a common practice at Madampe, in Puttlam district of Sri Lanka. Application of
chemical fertilizers over a period could result in poor soil health, reduction in productivity, and increase in
incidences of pest and disease and cause environmental pollution (Ansari et al. 2010, Abafita et al. 2014). But,
using vermicompost as a fertilizer could create a significant change in the field of organic agriculture by
Received: 05 February 2015 Published online: 30 April 2015
Perera & Nanthakumaran (2015) 2(1): 5157
.
minimizing environmental hazards. Vermicompost is a complete, balanced, natural feed for all types of plants,
and could safely be used for vegetables, flowers, fruit trees and foliage and field crops. The application of
vermicompost to the field contributed towards the maintenance and improvement of soil fertility (Chaoui 2010).
Understanding the value of this cost-effective product of vermicompost, an attempt was made to study the
technical feasibility of producing vermicompost at household level, to study the effectiveness of vermicompost
for the potted vegetable crops at home garden and to compare the performance of the crops grown with
vermicompost, garden compost, inorganic fertilizer and the combination of vermicompost + inorganic fertilizer.
The study was carried out during April, 2013 to January, 2014 at household level in Madampe, located at the
Puttlam district of Sri Lanka and initially three vermicomposting units were established separately using six
plastic bins with 45 cm diameter and 40 cm height each, at household level. The locally available earthworm
species, Eisenia fetida L. and Eisenia andrei L. were used for the purpose of vermicompost preparation. Two
bins were used to prepare one bin system. Large holes about three centimetres in diameter were drilled around
the upper bin to facilitate air circulation and about 12 to 16 holes of 5 millimetre in diameter were drilled at the
bottom of the upper bin to facilitate the drainage of excess water retain in the bed to maintain the moisture level
inside of the upper bin and another bin was placed underneath to collect the drained water. The bin system was
designed in such a way to enable vermicompost collection from the upper bin and vermiwash from the lower bin
as by-product.
Three vermicomposting bins namely bin 01; bin 02 and bin 03 were prepared using shredded paper as the
bedding material. The paper materials were torn into small pieces moistened and filled about 1718 cm of the
bin. Then a handful of soil from worms original habitat and about sixty local earthworms per each bin were
added. After adding earthworms another thin layer of paper was laid above.
Water was added to those units to keep them moist. At the beginning a very small amount of grit material
and a small amount of vegetable matter, coffee filters, and fruit leftover were added. Gradually the amount of
food added was increased. The product of vermicompost was harvested after 90 days. A homogenized
vermicompost sample was obtained and then it was subjected to physiochemical characterization. To analyse the
effectiveness of the prepared vermicompost, the okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L.) was grown with the
following treatments (Table 1).
Table 1. The treatments used during the experiment.
Treatment Abbreviations Quantity/plant
Control [CON] No additions
Inorganic fertilizer [CHE] Urea-5.4 g , TSP -10.8g , MOP-2.7 g
Vermicompost [VC] 270 g
Compost [COM] 215 g
Vermicompost + Inorganic [CHE + VC] 135g of vermicompost and Urea-2.7 g , TSP -5.4g ,
fertilizers (50:50) MOP-1.35 g
The pot experiments were placed using a randomized block design with five replicates for each treatment.
The pots were filled with sterilized dry soil (5 kg) with other supplements, according to the treatments used as
shown in table 1. The Initial soil samples and garden compost were subjected to physiochemical analysis. The
growth parameters such as average plant height (cm), average number of leaves per plant, average stem
circumference (cm), average inter nodal distance at the harvesting stage (cm), average root height (cm), average
number of pods per plants, average length of pods at the harvesting stage (cm), average width of pods at the
harvesting stage (cm), average marketable fruit yield (g), average number of diseased leaves per plant at the
harvesting stage, average number of days taken for flowering, average number of days plant bare pods and
average number of days taken the pods to mature after plucking were recorded during the period of 615 weeks
of planting.
The results were recorded and the means for each treatment were compared statistically using ANOVA with
the help of the MINITAB 15 software.
RESULTS
Around 6150 g of vermicompost and 575 ml of vermiwash were produced using about 4200 g of raw
material. The temperature change during vermicomposting was observed and shown in figure 1.
.
Figure 1. Temperature change during Vermicomposting.

The physiochemical properties of vermicompost, garden compost and the soil used were listed in table 2.
While various growth parameters of okra plants were shown in table 3 to 5.
Table 2. Physiochemical properties of vermicompost, soil and garden compost.
Parameter Vermicompost Compost Soil
OM 17.77% 76.90% 20.72%
N 0.91% 1.15% 0.48%
P 0.14% 0.17% 0.11%
K 0.2% 0.6% 0.5%
C 9.90% 44.35% 11.95%
C/N ratio 10.87 38.56 24.85
pH 6.98 7.21 7.25
EC 1.1 0.2 0.4
Moisture content 15.58% 12.20% 11.64%
Bulk density 0.5 g cm-3 1.3 g cm-3 1.6 g cm-3
Particle density 2.49 g cm-3 2.50 g cm-3 2.68 g cm-3
Porosity 0.76 0.48 0.40
Table 3. The Effect of different treatments on average plant height and number of leaves per plant at 50th day, 65th day and 80th
day from the date of planting (MeanSD).
Average plant height (cm) Average number of leaves per plant
S.N. Treatment
At 50 days At 65 days At 80 days At 50 days At 65 days At 80 days
1 CON 12.42.6 34.24.6 45.84.7 5.40.5 7.81.3 10.81.3
2 CHE 21.42.5 54.29.1 65.48.3 7.00.7 9.60.5 14.21.3
3 VC 17.41.5 37.46.9 59.63.2 6.01.2 8.81.0 12.60.5
4 COM 17.22.0 36.85.6 46.85.2 6.01.2 8.41.1 11.41.1
5 CHE + VC 20.01.4 49.64.5 48.67.4 6.40.5 9.01.2 13.20.8
Table 4. The effect of different treatments on average number of pods, fruit length, fruit width, fruit weight and marketable
fruit yield per plant (MeanSD).
Average Average length of Average width Average weight of Average
S.N. Treatment number of pods pods at harvest of pods at pods at harvest marketable fruit
per plant (cm) harvest (cm) (g) yield per plant (g)
1 CON 7.60.8 13.31.5 5.40.8 26.61.5 202.223.8
2 CHE 8.41.5 15.91.4 6.80.4 32.63.9 273.849.4
3 VC 14.81.3 16.41.1 7.00.7 37.21.9 550.648.5
4 COM 11.41.3 15.63.8 5.90.8 30.24.7 344.340.5
5 CHE + VC 9.20.4 16.40.8 6.80.5 36.25.9 333.016.9
.
Table 5. The effect of different treatments on number of days taken for flowering, number of days plants bear fruits and
number of days taken for the pods to mature after plucking per plant (MeanSD).
Average number of days Average number of days Average number of days taken for
S.N. Treatment
taken for flowering a plants bear pods the pods to mature after plucking
1 CON 67.22.3 35.63.8 3.40.5
2 CHE 61.85.9 40.03.4 4.60.5
3 VC 42.24.9 53.06.9 5.40.5
4 COM 46.67.7 47.61.8 4.00.7
5 CHE + VC 56.67.9 40.26.1 4.40.5
The means of treatments did not differ significantly (P<0.05) for the average number of leaves at 50 days per
plant, the average number of leaves at 65 days per plant , average length of pods at harvest. Whereas for the
other parameters such as average plant height at 50 days (cm),average plant height at 65 days (cm),average plant
height at 80 days (cm),average number of leaves per plant at 80 days, average number of pods per plant, average
width of pods at harvest (cm), average weight of pods at harvest (g), average marketable yield per plant (g),
average number of days taken for flowering per plant, average number of days a plant effectively bear pods,
number of days taken for the pods to mature after plucking per plant investigated, the means of treatments
showed statistically significant differences.
The least significant difference test (LSD) was applied to the selected parameters to find out the differences.
The calculated LSD values and significant mean differences for each parameter obtained during statistical
analysis were given in table 6.
Table 6. LSD values and mean differences at 5% significance level.
S.N. Parameter LSD Mean difference
1 Average plant height at 50 days 2.74 9 (T1 T2),5 (T1 T3), 4.8 ( T1- T4), 7.4 (T1 T5), 4 ( T2
(cm) T3), 4.2 (T2 T4)
2 Average plant height at 65 days 8.47 20.2 (T1 T2),15.4 (T1 T5), 17 ( T2- T3), 17.6 (T2
(cm) T4),12.2( T3 T5), 12.8 (T4 T5)
3 Average plant height at 80 days 8.01 19.6(T1 T2),13.8(T1 T3), 18.6( T2- T4), 16.8 (T2
(cm) T5),12.8( T3 T4), 11 (T3 T5)
4 Average number of leaves per 1.40 3.4 (T1 T2), 1.8 (T1 T3), 2.4 (T1 T5), 1.6 (T2 T3),
plant at 80 days 2.8 (T2 T4),1.8 (T4 T5)
5 Average number of pods per 1.53 7.2 (T1 T3), 3.8 (T1 T4), 1.6 (T1 T5), 6.4 (T2 T3),
plant 3.0 (T2 T4), 3.4 (T3 T4), 5.6 (T3 T4), 2.2 (T4 T5)
6 Average width of pods at 0.95 1.4 (T1 T2), 1.56 (T1 T3), 1.44 (T1 T5), 1.04 (T3 T4)
harvest (cm)
7 Average weight of pods at 5.26 6 (T1 T2), 10.6 (T1 T3), 9.6 (T1 T5), 7.0 (T3 T4), 6.0
harvest (g) (T4 T5)
8 Average marketable yield per 50.2 71.6(T1 T2), 348.4 (T1 T3), 142.1 (T1 T4), 130.9 (T1
plant (g) T5), 276.8 (T2 T3), 129.5 (T2 T4), 59.3 (T2 T5), 206.3
(T3 T4), 217.4 (T3 T5)
9 Average number of days taken 7.80 25.0 (T1 T3), 20.4 (T1 T4), 10.6 (T1 T5), 19.6 (T2
for flowering per plant T3), 15.2 (T2 T4), 14.4 (T3 T5), 10.0 (T4 T5)
10 Average number of days a plant 9.14 16.4 (T1 T3), 12.0 (T1 T4), 15 (T2 T3), 12.8 (T3 T5)
effectively bear pods
11 Number of days taken for the 0.76 1.2 (T1 T2), 2.0 (T1 T3), 1.0 (T1 T5),0.8 (T2 T3), 1.4
pods to mature after plucking (T3 T4), 1.0 (T3 T5)
per plant

Temperature change during vermicomposting was observed at the beginning of the experiment as shown in
figure 1. Initially the temperature of the substrate was high and then decreased gradually as the composting
process progressed. During the first phase of vermicomposting process the heat released by the oxidative action
of intense microbial activity and earthworm activity on the organic matter may be the reason for the high
temperature. When compost maturation stage occurred, the compost temperature dropped to that of the ambient
and then decreased with the progress of the composting process which was probably due to the decreased
.
earthworm activity resulted by full conversion of waste into degradable material. It may also be attributable to
regular sprinkling of water.
The C content and the N content of vermicompost were 9.90% and 0.91% respectively (Table 2). The values
were same as with the study done by TNAU agriculture portal (2014) and with the findings of Ansari & Sukhraj
(2010). The reduction of C was 77.6% higher in vermicomposting compared to the ordinary composting
process, which may be due to the fact that earthworms could have a higher assimilating capacity. Slightly high
N level was identified in the prepared vermicompost than garden soil (Table 2). The enhancement of N in
vermicompost was probably due to mineralization of the organic matter containing proteins and the conversion
of ammonium-nitrogen into nitrate (Suthar 2008). The N level was 54.2% higher in vermicompost than soil but
N content was 8.6% lower than that of garden compost.
The C: N ratio of vermicompost was 10.87:1 and that was in a range that could make the nutrients easily
available to the plants. The lower the C/N ratio, the higher is the efficiency level of mineralization. A
comparatively lower C/N ratio in vermicompost implied that there was an enhanced organic matter
mineralization than that of garden compost (Table 2).
pH was 6.98 and the value being around seven emphasized that it was in a neutral range, which promotes the
availability of plant nutrients like NPK. EC of vermicompost was higher than garden compost and soil (Table
2).
As the bulk density and particle density are important measures of porosity, the results indicated that
vermicompost had an increased porosity which could facilitate the availability of nutrients to crop growth. The
porosity was 36% and 47% higher than that of the garden compost and soil respectively. The moisture content
of prepared vermicompost was also 21% and 25% higher than the garden compost and soil respectively (Table
2).
The other physiochemical characteristics including the dark black color of vermicompost and the absence of
foul odor indicated that the decomposition of waste was a complete process.
Samaranayake et al. (2010) reported that vermicompost appeared to be generally superior to conventionally
produced compost as it had high levels of bio-available nutrients, high level of beneficial soil microorganisms,
rich in growth hormones, humic acids which promote root growth and increase the nutrient uptake. It was free
of pathogens, free of toxic chemicals and thus vermicompost could protect plants against various pests and
diseases. According to Singha et al. (2009) the earthworm humus contained the essential nutrients of nitrogen
(N), phosphorus (P) and potash (K) in much larger quantities than those present in the soil or in comparable
compost.
The statistical analysis revealed that there was a significant difference between the treatments for the
parameters given in Table 6.Average plant height observed during the trial at 50 days and 65 days were
maximum for plants treated with T2 [CHE] followed by T5 [CHE + VC], T3 [VC],T4 [COM] and T1 [CON]
respectively (Table 3). It was maximum for plants treated with T2 [CHE] followed by T3 [VC], T5 [CHE +
VC], T4 [COM] and T1 [CON] respectively at 80 days (Table 3).
Average number of leaves per plant observed after 50 days and 65 days did not differ statistically and at 80
days of planting it was maximum for plants treated with T2 [CHE], followed by T5 [CHE + VC], T3 [VC], T4
[COM] and T1 [CON] respectively (Table 3).
The maximum number of leaves observed with T2 [CHE] could be accounted by the fact that chemical
fertilizers were high in nitrogen, which was responsible for rapid plant growth. According to Lazcano et
al.(2011), the enhanced plant growth of the plants treated with vermicompost may be attributed to various direct
and indirect mechanisms, including biologically mediated mechanisms such as the supply of plant-growth
regulating substances, and improvements in soil biological functions.
The average number of pods per plant observed were maximum for plants treated with T3 [VC] followed by
T4 [COM], T5 [CHE + VC], T2 [CHE] and T1 [CON] respectively (Table 4). Average width of the pods at
harvesting was maximum for plants treated with T3 [VC] followed by almost the same amount for T5 [CHE +
VC] and T2 [CHE], T4 [COM] and T1 [CON] respectively (Table 04). The average fruit weight per plant
observed during harvesting was maximum for plants treated with T3 [VC] followed by T5 [CHE + VC], T2
[CHE], T4 [COM] and T1 [CON] respectively (Table 4).
The average marketable fruit yield per plant for T3 [VC] was recorded as 550.6 g and it was the highest. The
amount of fruit yield thereafter reduced in the order of T4 [COM], T5 [CHE + VC], T2 [CHE], and T1 [CON]
.
respectively (Table 4). Yield is the most important parameter which would broach the importance of the whole
process of cultivation. The significant effect of vermicompost compared to those with other treatments, indicate
that there was significant difference between vermicompost and control (T3-T1), vermicompost and chemical
fertilizers (T3-T2), vermicompost and garden compost (T3-T4), and also between vermicompost and the
mixture of chemical fertilizer + vermicompost (T3-T5) on the average marketable yield production (Table 4).
As the soil condition was much more enhanced while using vermicompost there was no wonder of having
the highest significant difference between vermicompost and control. The average yield of okra during the trial
showed significantly greater response in comparison with the control by 63%. It was proved that soil enriched
with vermicompost provides additional substances that were not found in chemical fertilizers (Ansari & Ismail,
2008).
Results clearly indicated a better performance of okra using the vermicompost rather than that of chemical
fertilizers by 50%. Chemical analysis of vermicompost and compost (Table 2) showed that vermicompost
prepared was superior to the garden compost. Hence the yield was higher in vermicompost by 37% than that of
garden compost. However results showed using a mixture of chemical fertilizers and vermicompost was also
giving a good yield than using chemical fertilizers alone by 18%.
The average number of days taken for flowering per plant observed was minimum for plants treated with T3
[VC] followed by T4 [COM], T5 [CHE + VC], T2 [CHE] and T1 [CON] respectively (Table 5). The average
number of days plant effectively bear pods was maximum for plants treated with T3 [VC] followed by T4
[COM], T5 [CHE + VC], T2 [CHE] and T1 [CON] respectively (Table 5). The average number of days taken
for the pods to mature observed after harvesting was maximum for plants treated with T3 [VC] followed by T2
[CHE], T5 [CHE + VC], T4 [COM] and T1 [CON] respectively (Table 5). These results indicated that by using
vermicompost the okra pods could be harvested earlier as well as for a longer period compared to the other
treatments.
The results of the mean comparisons together with LSD (Table 6) confirmed that there was a large variation
in fertilizer effects depending on the type of fertilizer used. It indicated that the applications of vermicompost
had an emphatic effect on plant growth and production. Vermicomposting provided an environmental friendly
way of increasing the crop yield.
The nutrient content of the prepared vermicompost and its effect on the productivity of okra implied that it is
effective to practice in the field instead of applying chemical fertilizers. Organic manure provides a very
effective solution for increasing organic waste fraction. It was possible to adopt the technique of
vermicomposting in terms of reducing household waste at the source of production. Use of local earthworms to
the typical process of vermicomposting seems to be a success and it would result the balanced vermicompost to
protect the environment balance. Therefore it could be concluded that vermicomposting was ideal for an
efficient sustainable management of the environment and the economy.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors express their gratitude to the Department of Biological Science, Vavuniya Campus of the
University of Jaffna for providing laboratory facilities and all sort of support rendered for the successful
completion of the research study.
REFERENCES
Abafita R, Shimbir T & Kebede T (2014) Effectsof different rates of vermicompost as potting media on growth
and yield of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) and soil fertility enhancement. Sky Journal of Soil Science and
Environmental Management 3(7): 7377.
Aggie horticulture (2013) Texas A & M University System, home Worm Production, from Texas A & M
Agrilife research. Available from: http://aggie-horticulture.tamu.
edu//plantanswers/publications/worm/worm.html (accessed: 10 Sept. 2013).
Ansari AA & Ismail SA (2012) Role of Earthworms in Vermitechnology. Journal of Agricultural Technology
8(2): 403415.
Ansari AA & Sukhraj K (2010) Effect of vermiwash and vermicompoat on soil parameters and productivity of
Okra in Guyana, Guyana. African Journal of Agricultural Research 5(14): 17941798
.
Chaoui H (2010) Vermicasting (or Vermicomposting): Processing Organic Wasted through Earthworms.
Available from: http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/engineer/facts/10-009.pdf (accessed: 06 July 2013).
DeKoff JP, Lee BD & Mickelbart MV (2012) Home &Environment - Household Composting with Worms.
Purdue University, Purdue Extension, Information literacy. Available from: http://www.ces.purdue.edu/new
(accessed: 20 June 2013).
Department of Agriculture (2006) Okra - Plantation recommondation: Recommended Varieties. Available
from: http://www.agridept.gov.lk/index.php/en/crop-recommendations/994 (accessed: 17 July 2013).
Lazcano C & Domnguezb J (2011) The use of vermicompost in sustainable agriculture, impact on plant growth
and soil fertility, how vermicompost influences plant growth, effects and proposed mechanisms. Available
from: http://webs.uvigo.es/jdguez/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/the-use-of-vermicompost.pdf (accessed: 25
Sept. 2013).
Samaranayake JWK & Wijekoon S (2010) Effect of selected earthworms on soil fertility :plant growth and
vermicomposting. Tropical Agricultural Research and Extension 13(2): 3340.
Sinha RK, Herath S, Valani D & Chauhan K (2009) Earthworms Vermicompost: A Powerful Crop Nutrient
over the Conventional Compost & Protective Soil Conditioner against the Destructive Chemical Fertilizers
for Food Safety and Security. American-Eurasian J. Agric. & Environ. Science 5 (S): 01-55: 1417.
Suthar S (2008) Development of a novel epigeic-anecic-based polyculture vermireactor for efficient treatment of
municipal sewage water sludge. International Journal of Environment and Waste Management 2(1/2): 84
101.
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University (2014) TNAU AGRITECH PORTAL- Organic farming: Compost:
Vermicompost. Available from: http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/org_farm/ orgfarm_vermicompost.html (accessed:
20 June. 2013).
ISSN (E): 2349 1183
ISSN (P): 2349 9265
2(1): 5863, 2015
Research article
A note on Aroids Ethnobotany in Hau River, Vietnam

Duong Minh Truyen*, Mashhor Mansor and Amir Shah Ruddin
School of Biological Sciences, University Sains Malaysia, 1180 Penang, Malaysia
*Corresponding Author: dmtruyen88@gmail.com [Accepted: 22 April 2015]
Abstract: Araceae family is the member of Order Arales. This family is best characterized by
flowering plants, which have inflorescence in the spadix. Nowadays, Araceae becomes the most
familiar plants to humans and also catogarized as an economic group. A large amount of Araceae
has been largely planted, especially in Vietnam, a densely populated country. In Mekong Delta of
Vietnam, the demands of using aroid species are increasingly popular. An investigation into use
values of Araceae is conducted along Hau River, one of two largest branches of Mekong River in
Vietnam. Households living along river banks are interviewed through questionnaires. From the
result, there are 18 species of Araceae which role as decorative and ornamental plants such as
Dieffenbachia maculata, Anthurium andreanum and Aglaonema nitidum. Another six species are
cultivated as food plants for human as same as for feeding cattle, such as Alocasia, Colocasia and
Xanthosoma. In medical field, 10 aroid species are used by locals, but some treatments have not
been scientifically verified. Only five species been used for feeding cattle.
Keywords: Araceae - Aroid species - Ethnobotany - Hau River.
[Cite as: Truyen DM, Mansor M & Ruddin AS (2015) A note on Aroids Ethnobotany in Hau River, Vietnam.
Tropical Plant Research 2(1): 5863]
INTRODUCTION
The family Araceae is one of the common monocotyledonous flowering plants in the world and has a total of
117 genera and more than 3790 species (Nauheimer 2012). According Mansor et al. (2012), Araceae is also one
of the largest families in the world after the orchids, grasses and sedges. Most of the species are found in
tropical areas. Nowadays, Araceae is becoming more familiar to humans and recognized as an important source
of food, ornamental plants (Truyen 2015) in proceeding). The local inhabitants have used aroid early in cooking,
religious ceremony and medical purposes. Some species rich in carbohydrate have provided crucial food for
million people in the world (Truyen 2015) in proceeding). The Colocasia species have been used for fermenting
vegetable, feeding to fish and pigs (Nunes et al. 2012). Pemberton & Liu (2009) stated that Araceae has large
beneficial commercial values, especially for ornamental industry. This family has been used widely in
horticultural industries and home decorations such as Xanthosoma sagittiffolium, Alocasia denudate. Based on
Henderson (1954), Aglaonema species been used in decorations. In addition, species of Araceae has been
utilized for medicinal purposes, as mentioned by Chilpa & Estrada (1995).
In Vietnam, some species have been found to have curative values. For example, Dan (2011) stated that local
people use Alocasia macrorhizos to treat gout, flu and beriberi, Typhonium trilobatum to cure asthma and
vomiting and snakes (Fang et al. 2012). Lasia spinosa can cure hepatitis, malaria, rheumatism, backache,
arthritis, orchitis and cough (Hai 2012). On the other hand, another useful value of aroid species is identified
from the chemical constituents of Typhonium flagelliforme, an indigenous plant of Malaysia that is often used as
an essential ingredient of herbal remedies for alternative cancer therapies (Choo et al. 2001). This plant has anti-
proliferative properties towards human cancer cell lines and has been used to treat cancer (Lai et al. 2010).

Hau River is located in Mekong Delta in Vietnam, which is the lowest part of Mekong River with an
extremely high human population and highly disturbance (Fig. 1). Mekong Delta alone has about 18 million
inhabitants (40,000 km2). Hau River reflects a highly modified environment by human intensive agricultural
Received: 08 February 2015 Published online: 30 April 2015
Truyen et al. (2015) 2(1): 5863
.
activities. The survey of aroids ethnobotany along Hau Rivers conducted in order to record the usages of Aroid
species as economic plants such as for decoration, foods and medical utilization in the different riverine
communities. This will provide a supplement to future research in Mekong Delta in the next years.
Figure 1. Location of study area.

The information on the documents of the Araceae family of Ho (1991), Mansor et al. (2012) and the map of
the Mekong Delta in 2009 was used to survey the ethnobotany of aroid species along Hau River. Using the line
transect to survey. The line selected must go through the habitats of species (Nguyen et al. 2010, Nguyen &
Bushnell 2010). The main line goes along the Hau River, through 3 cities with different populations (lowly
populated, middle populated and highly populated areas) (Fig. 2).
Figure 2. The 3 different populated areas along the Hau River, Mekong Delta, Vietnam. (Source:
http://www.wisdom.caf.dlr.de/en/content/population-density-districts-2004.html)
Survey from brackish water area to fresh water area based on the salinity map of the Mekong Delta in 2009
and survey from high land along the riverbanks (not flooded) to the low land (deep flooded), from alluvium soil
to alum soil based on the soil map of the Mekong Delta in 2000. Use the GPS to mark the locations where find
the aroid species. At each location, collect the plants (leaf, flower and roof) and take the photos of the plant to
Truyen et al. (2015) 2(1): 5863
.
identify the scientific names in the laboratory. Interview the local people at surveyed location by using the
conducted questionnaires about the use values of the species.
RESULTS
The selected three populated zones of Hau River shows the different percentages of use values (Fig. 3).
Generally, there is a significant difference between five use values such as for food, medicine, ornamental,
wastewater purification and feeding in Hau River. Based on the results, aroid species are widely used for
ornamentation while wastewater purification purpose is not observed. In lowly populated zone, the highest
percentage is 39.6% for ornamental purpose whereas the smallest is 8% for medical purpose. Aroid species were
also used for food with 34.8% and feeding with 31.3% in low populated zone. These numbers changed in
moderately populated zone, the highest percentage is 44% for medicine. Feeding purposes were noticed more than
ornamental purposes, with 37.5% in compared to 34.9%. In highly populated zone, aroids were used for food and
medical purposes (41.3% and 48% respectively). Ornamentation was the last one with 25.5% in highly populated
zone.
Food Medicine Ornamentation Wastewater purification Feeding cattle Natural growth
50 48.2 48
44
41.3 42.4
39.6
40 37.5
34.8 34.9
31.3 31.3
30
25.5
23.9
%
20
9.4
10 8
0 0 0
0
Lowly populated zone Moderately populated zone Highly populated zone
Figure 3. The total percentage of aroid using values in Hau River based on three different zones.
From the results of aroid ethnobotany in Hau River as shown in table 2, the number of aroid species in
ornamentation reaches the peak of 18 plants. Furthermore, the high number of aroid species for medical purpose is
10, followed by food and feeding cattle with 6 and 5 aroid species respectively (Table 1). There is no aroid species
which is used for wastewater purification purpose in Hau River.
Table 1. Aroids ethnobotany in Hau River.
Wastewater Feeding
No. Species Food Medicine Ornamentation
purification cattle
1 Acorus verus - + - - -
2 Aglaonema commutatum - - + - -
3 Aglaonema hybrid - - + - -
4 Aglaonema nitidum - - + - -
5 Alocasia macrorrhizos - + + - +
6 Amorphophallus konjac - + + - -
7 Anthurium andreanum - - + - -
8 Caladium bicolor - + + - -
9 Colocasia antiquorum + - - - -
10 Colocasia esculenta + - - - +
Truyen et al. (2015) 2(1): 5863
.
11 Colocasia gigantea + - - - +
12 Cryptocoryne ciliata + - - - +
13 Dieffenbachia amoena - + + - -
14 Epipremnum giganteum - - + - -
15 Epipremnum pinnatum - - + - -
16 Lasia spinosa + + - - -
17 Philodendron erubescens - - + - -
18 Pistia stratoides - + + - +
19 Pseudocracontium lacourii - - + - -
20 Scindapsus officinalis - + + - -
21 Spathiphyllum patinii - - + - -
22 Syngonium macrophyllum - - + - -
23 Syngonium podophyllum - - + - -
24 Typhonium flagelliforme - + - - -
25 Typhonium trilobatum - + - - -
26 Xanthosoma sagittifolium + - - - -
27 Zamioculcas zamiifolia - - + - -
Total 6 10 18 0 5
Note: +, Present; -,Absent.
Aglaonema hybrid: Aglaonema hybrid Silver Queen (Aglaonema curtis x Aglaonema treubii).
Based on the results in table, some aroid species have been used for more than one purpose. Only Alocasia
macrorrhizos and Pistia stratoides were used for three use purposes, such as medicine, ornamentation and
feeding. Besides, Lasia spinosa was used for food and medical purposes. There are some aroid species exploited
for medicine and ornamentation, namely Alocasia macrorrhizos, Amorphophallus konjac, Caladium bicolor,
Dieffenbachia amoena and Scindapsus officinalis. Moreover, three aroid species were used for food and feeding
cattle, namely Colocasia esculenta, Colocasia gigantea and Cryptocoryne ciliata. However, out of 27 aroid
species in Hau River as shown in table 2, Acorusverus, Typhonium flagelliforme and T. trilobatum were only
used for medical purposes. For food, there were only 5 species mentioned, such as Colocasia antiquorum, C.
esculenta, C. gigantea, C. ciliata and Xantho somasagittifolium (Fig. 4). In these species, except X.
sagittifolium, four aroid species mentioned above have also used for feeding cattle.
Figure 4. Some aroid species: A, Colocasia esculenta; B, Typhonium trilobatum; C, Colocasia gigantea; D, Caladium
bicolor.
Truyen et al. (2015) 2(1): 5863
.
DISCUSSION
Out of 27 species reported in Hau River, Colocasia esculenta distributes widespread from upstream to
downstream in many different niches and be found with high frequency of appearance. C. esculenta been used as
food, feeding cattle and medicine, the number of natural growing species decreased significantly.
The corms of C. esculenta are taken as starch in every meal. Locals steam, peel and mash corms with water.
Then, it can be used when fresh or kept for one or two days at room temperature. In addition, the young leaves of
C. esculenta are used as vegetables and cooked with meat and fish. Another way to cook C. esculenta is the stems
as a snack. Stems are also soaked in vinegar and fermented for use as vegetables. Alocasia maccrorrhizos and X.
sagittifolium are also used like C. esculenta. According to Schultes (1984), the corms of C. esculenta contain high
carbohydrates but low in fat and protein. Nevertheless, this species also has calcium oxalate, which causes toxic
reactions to the throat if the calcium oxalate is not removed before eating. That is why in preparation for eating, the
local communities boil, wash and mash the corms to reduce oxalate content.
Araceae has become more and more important in people diet nowadays. C. esculenta, a tuberous plant whose
tuber is the 14th most consumed food crop in the world (Nunes et al. 2012). Monsteradeliciosa is also a valuable
species for food (Berlingeri & Crespo 2012). Some species are esteemed as food plants (Heng & Zhi-Ling 2006)
such as A. macrorrhizos, Amorphophallus paeoniifolius, Amorphophallus xiei, C. esculenta and X. sagittifolium.
These are cultivated as sources of carbohydrate foods (Chen et al. 2007). Many genera are used for feeding cattle
(Zarate et al. 2012).
Araceae has a good nutrients profile, and may be used as fish food components and used in some local
communities replace costly commercial feed. With its potentiality as fish food component the utilization of
Araceae in the preparation of fish, feed is an opportunity for livelihood improvement to rural people, since
aquaculture is now one of the fastest growing sectors in agriculture (Mandal et al. 2010). Moreover, Schultes
(1984) has also stated that fresh taro corms and leaves and stems can be used as an animal feed, although half of
fresh weight of this plant is not utilized.
Other use values of aroids are for ornamental purposes. This includes the giant taro, A. macrorrhizos, and
Chinese taro, Alocasia cucullata, both of which are important ornamentals (Nauheimer et al. 2012). In addition,
many other genera in the Araceae which are used as ornamental plants are Aglaonema, Caladium,
Dieffenbachia, Epipremnum and Nephthys genera (Stanly et al. 2012). Moreover, the genus Philodendron that
plays an important role in the rainforest ecosystems are also used interior decoration of homes and offices.
Aroids are used in medicine in many traditional cultures. This important characteristic of aroids has not been
fully appreciated (Chen et al. 2007). X. sagittifolium Schott. is a medicinal species used in traditional Brazilian
medicine to prevent and treat osteoporosis and bone diseases (de Oliveira et al. 2012). Hundreds years ago, in
India, Indonesia and China, Acorus calamus L. has been used as medicine for diabetes in traditional folk
medicine (Wu et al. 2009). A valuable source for glycosidase inhibitors is Aglaonema treubii that is used as
anti-diabetic, anti-metastatic, antiviral, and immunomodulatory agents (Chen et al. 2007).
CONCLUSION
Aroids are widely used in Mekong Delta particularly for food, feeding, medical treatment and ornamental
purposes. In which, ornamentation is concerned the most, followed by medical purpose. Besides, aroid species
are used popularly in highly populated zone more than in two other zones.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would also like to show our gratitude to the University Sains Malaysia for sharing their pearls of wisdom
with us during the course of this research.
REFERENCES
Berlingeri C & Crespo MB (2012) Inventory of related wild species of priority crops in Venezuela. Genetic
Resources and Crop Evolution 59(5): 655681.
Chen J, Henny RJ & Liao F (2007) Aroids are important medicinal plants. Proceedings of the International
Symposium on Medicinal and Nutraceutical Plants 756: 347353.
Chilpa RR & Estrada MJ (1995) Chemistry of Antidotal Plants. Interciencia 20(5): 257.
Truyen et al. (2015) 2(1): 5863
.
Choo CY, Chan KL, Sam TW, Hitotsuyanagi Y & Takeya K (2001) The cytotoxicity and chemical constituents
of the hexane fraction of Typhonium flagelliforme (Araceace). Journal of Ethnopharmacology 77(1): 129
131.
Dan H (2011) Ray dai - Alocasia macrorhiza Schott. In: Medicinal Plants and Herbs in Vietnam.
de Oliveira, GL, Andrade LDC & de Oliveira AFM (2012) Xanthosoma sagittifolium and Laportea aestuans:
Species used to prevent osteoporosis in Brazilian traditional medicine. Pharmaceutical Biology 50(7): 930
932.
Fang S, Lin C, Zhang Q, Wang L, Lin P, Zhang J & Wang X (2012) Anticancer potential of aqueous extract of
alocasia macrorrhiza against hepatic cancer in vitro and in vivo. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 141(3):
947956.
Hai HD (2012) Pymply Lasia. In: Wild Vegetables.
Henderson MR (1954) Malayan Wild Flowers. Monocotyledons. The Malayan Nature Society. Kuala Lumpur 2:
1356.
Heng L & Zhi-Ling D (2006) A new species of Amorphophallus (Araceae) from Yunnan, China. Novon 16(2):
240243.
Ho PH (1991) Cay co vietnam = An illustrated flora of Vietnam. California: Pham Hoang Ho.
Lai CS, Mas RHMH, Naira NK, Mansor SM & Navaratnam V (2010) Chemical constituents and in vitro
anticancer activity of Typhonium flagelliforme (Araceae). Journal of Ethnopharmacology 127(2): 486494.
Mandal RN, Datta AK, Sarangi N & Mukhopadhyay PK (2010) Diversity of aquatic macrophytes as food and
feed components to herbivorous fish - a review. Indian Journal of Fisheries 57(3): 6573.
Mansor M, Boyce PC, Othman AS & Sulaiman B (2012) The Araceae of Peninsular Malaysia. Glugor, Pulau
Pinang: Penerbit Universiti Sains Malaysia. MPH Distributors.
Nauheimer L (2012) Global history of the ancient monocot family Araceae inferred with models accounting for
past continental positions and previous ranges based on fossils. [Historical Article. Research Support, Non-
U.S. Gov't]. New Phytology 195(4): 938950.
Nauheimer L, Boyce PC & Renner SS (2012) Giant taro and its relatives: a phylogeny of the large genus
Alocasia (Araceae) sheds light on Miocene floristic exchange in the Malesian region. [Research Support,
Non-U.S. Gov't]. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 63(1): 4351.
Nguyen LD, Minh NT, Thy PTM, Phung HP & Huan HV (2010) Analysis of Changes in the Riverbanks of
Mekong River - Vietnam by Using Multi-Temporal Remote Sensing Data. Networking the World with
Remote Sensing 38: 287292.
Nguyen NQ & Bushnell LG (2010) Modeling and LQR Control of Salinity in the Mekong Delta. In: 49th Ieee
Conference on Decision and Control (Cdc), pp. 37843789.
Nunes RSC, Pinhati FR, Golinelli LP, Reboucas TNH, Paschoalin VMF & da Silva JT (2012) Polymorphic
microsatellites of analysis in cultivars of taro. Horticultura Brasileira 30(1): 106111.
Pemberton RW & Liu H (2009) Marketing time predicts naturalization of horticultural plants. Ecology 90(1):
6980.
Schultes RE (1984) Taro - a Review of Colocasia esculenta and Its Potentials. Economic Botany 38(1): 154
154.
Stanly C, Bhatt A, Sulaiman B & Keng CL (2012) Micropropagation of Homalomena pineodora Sulaiman &
Boyce (Araceae): a new species from Malaysia. Horticultura Brasileira 30(1): 3943.
Truyen DM (2015) The distribution of Aroids along Hau River, Vietnam. Journal of Science and Engineering.
(in proceeding).
Wu HS, Zhu DF, Zhou CX, Feng CR, Lou YJ, Yang B & He QJ (2009) Insulin sensitizing activity of ethyl
acetate fraction of Acorus calamus L. in vitro and in vivo. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 123(2): 288292.
Zarate NAH, Vieira MD, Tabaldi LA, Gassi RP, Kusano AM & Maeda AKM (2012) Agroeconomic yield of
Taro clones in function of number of hilling operation. Semina-Ciencias Agrarias 33(5): 16731680.
ISSN (E): 2349 1183
ISSN (P): 2349 9265
2(1): 6471, 2015
Research article
Lichen flora of Jammu and Kashmir State, India: An updated

checklist
Reema Goni*, Ajay K. P. Raina, Rani Magotra and Namrata Sharma
Department of Botany, Jammu University, Jammu & Kashmir, India
. *Corresponding Author: phyllanthus@rediffmail.com / reemagoni@gmail.com [Accepted: 24 April 2015]
Abstract: Jammu and Kashmir is one of the lichen rich regions of Himalayas and often called as
Hot Spot of lichen diversity in India. However, very little information is available regarding lichen
flora of this region. In present study an attempt has been made to provide an updated checklist of
lichen flora of the region. The study is based on previous literature available from the region.
Keywords: Diversity - Lichen - Flora - Jammu and Kashmir.
[Cite as: Goni R, Raina AKP, Magotra R & Sharma N (2015) Lichen flora of Jammu and Kashmir State, India:
An updated checklist. Tropical Plant Research 2(1): 6471]
INTRODUCTION
Jammu and Kashmir lying between the coordinates 3217' and 3658' North Latitudes and 7326' and 8030'
East Longitudes covers an area of 2,22,236 Km2 with an altitude varying from 3006500 m above mean sea
level. The state falls in the lichenogeographic zone constituting of mountainous to semi mountainous plains,
Shiwalik ranges, mountains of Kashmir valley, Pir Panjal range of Ladakh and Kargil. Including Jammu and
Kashmir the Himalaya is often called the Hot Spot of lichen diversity in India. The climate in the state varies
from tropical, subtropical to alpine, the annual precipitation ranges from 107650 mm, with an average of 600
mm of snow during winter. The temperature fluctuation during summer is 15C to 43C and in winter -3C to
26C. This varied climate together with varied altitudinal range provides different kinds of substrates and niches
for colonization and growth of lichens. The lichen collection in the state started during early thirties of last
century where Smith (1931) identified and published some lichen species collected by Kashyap. A
comprehensive account of lichen diversity was made by Sheikh et al. (2006a). In addition, an enumeration of 48
species from Pulwama, Budgam and Jammu districts (Sheikh et al. 2006b), 30 species from Mansar-Surinsar
Wildlife Sanctuary (Sheikh et al. 2009), 18 species from Ramnagar Wildlife Sanctuary (Solan et al. 2010), 38
species from cold deserts of Ladakh (Kumar et al. 2012, Kumar et al. 2014), 77 species from Kishtwar, Rajouri
and Jammu districts (Sheikh et al. 2013), 18 species from Nandini Wildlife Sanctuary (Goni et al. 2013) and 25
species from Kargil district (Rahim et al. 2014) have been made for the area. This communication is an effort to
reveal the complete and updated checklist of lichens from Jammu and Kashmir.

The following checklist of lichens is based on the literature available from various sources.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The present checklist of lichen flora of Jammu and Kashmir revealed the occurrence of 356 species of
lichens belonging to 35 families and 91 genera (Table 1). In terms of taxa, the most diversified family is
Parmeliaceae with 24 genera and 65 species. This is followed by Physciaceae (11 genera and 57 species),
Lecanoraceae (4 genera and 46 species), Teloschistaceae (2 genera and 34 species). Families Cladoniaceae,
Megasporaceae, Collemataceae, Verrrucariaceae, Peltigeraceae, Ramalinaceae, Caliciaceae, Acarosporaceae,
and Umbilicariaceae are represented by 17, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7 and 6 species respectively. Least represented
families are Bacidiaceae (5 species), Candelariaceae (5 species), Lecidiaceae (5 species), Usneaeceae (5
species), Catillariaceae (4 species), Pertusariaceae (4 species), Rhizocarpaceae (4 species), Stereocaulaceae (4
species), Thelotremataceae (4 species), Lichinaceae (3 species), Agyriaceae (2 species), Chrysothricaceae (2
species), Nephromataceae, (2 species), Ochrolechiaceae (2 species), Peltulaceae (2 species), Porpidiaceae (2
Received: 05 December 2014 Published online: 30 April 2015
Goni et al. (2015) 2(1): 6471
.
species), Graphidaceae (1 species), Melaspileaceae (1 species), Opegraphaceae (1 species), Porinaceae (1
species), Psoraceae (1 species) and Tephromelataceae (1 species). This enlisting confirms the wide diversity of
lichens in Jammu and Kashmir. More explorations are required to this hilly range of Jammu and Kashmir to
bring forth the lichen wealth of the state.
Table 1. List of lichen taxa from the state of Jammu and Kashmir, India.
S.No. Family Name of species Reference
1. Acarosporaceae Acarospora badiofusca (Nyl.) Th. Kumar et al. 2012
Acarospora bullata Anzi Sheikh et al. 2006a
Acarospora smaragdula (Wahlenb.) A.Massal. Kumar et al. 2012
Acarospora nitrophila H. Magn. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Acarospora strigata (Nyl.) Jatta Sheikh et al. 2006a
Pleopsidium flavum (Bell.) Korb. Kumar et al. 2012
Sarcogyne privigna (Ach.) A. Massal Sheikh et al. 2006a
2. Agyriaceae Xylographa parallela (Ach.Fr.) Behlen & Desberg Singh & Sinha 2010
Xylographa parallela (Ach.) Fr. Sheikh et al. 2006a
3. Bacidiaceae Bacidia arnoldiana Korber Sheikh et al. 2013
Bacidia incongruens (Stirton) Zahlbr. Sheikh et al. 2013
Bacidia phacodes Korber Sheikh et al. 2006a
Bacidia psorina Goni et al. 2013
Lecania fuscella (Schaerer) Korber Sheikh et al. 2006a
4. Caliciaceae Amandinea montana (H. Magn.) Marbach Singh & Sinha 2010
Amandinea polyspora (Willey) E. Lay & P. May in Sheard & P. May Singh & Sinha 2010
Amandinea punctata (Hoffm.) Coppins & Scheid. Singh & Sinha 2010
Baculifera curtisii (Tuck.) Marbach Singh & Sinha 2010
Baculifera remensa (Stirt.) Marbach Singh & Sinha 2010
Calicium abietinum Pers. Singh & Sinha 2010
Calicium glaucellum Ach. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Dirinaria aegialita (Afz. in Ach.) Moore Sheikh et al. 2013
5. Candelariaceae Candelaria concolor (Dicks.)B Stein Sheikh et al. 2006a
Candelariella aurella (Hoffm.) Zahlbr. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Candelariella grimmiae Poelt & Reddi Sheikh et al. 2006a
Candelariella nepalensis Poelt & Reddi Kumar et al. 2012
Candelariella vitellina (Ehrh.) Mll. Arg Sheikh et al. 2006a
6. Catillariaceae Catillaria erysibiodes (Nyl.) Th. Fr. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Catillaria pulverea (Borrer) Lettau Sheikh et al. 2006a
Toninia sedifolia (Scop.) Timdal Singh & Sinha 2010
Toninia coeruleonigricans (Lightf.) Th. Fr. Sheikh et al. 2006a
7. Chrysothricaceae Chrysothrix candelaris (L.) J.R. Laundon Sheikh et al. 2006a
Chrysothrix chlorina (Ach.) J.R. Laundon Sheikh et al. 2006a
8. Cladoniaceae Cladonia acuminata (Ach.) Norrl. in Nyl. & Norrl. Singh & Sinha 2010
Cladonia awasthiana Ahti & Upreti Sheikh et al. 2006a
Cladonia cartilaginea Mll. Arg. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Cladonia cenotea (Ach.) Schaer. Singh & Sinha 2010
Cladonia chlorophaea (Flrke ex Sommerf.) Spreng. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Cladonia coniocraea (Flrke) Spreng. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Cladonia corniculata Ahti & Kashiw. in Inoue Sheikh et al. 2006a
Cladonia farinacea (Vain.) A. Evans Singh & Sinha 2010
Cladonia fimbriata (L.) Fr. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Cladonia humilis (With.) J.R. Laundon Singh & Sinha 2010
Cladonia mongolica Ahti in Huneck & al. Singh & Sinha 2010
Cladonia ochrochlora Flrke Sheikh et al. 2006a
Cladonia pocillum (Ach.) Grognot Sheikh et al. 2006a
Cladonia pyxidata (L.) Hoffm. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Cladonia ramulosa (With.) J.R. Laundon Singh & Sinha 2010
Cladonia rei Schaer. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Cladonia subulata (L.) F.H. Wigg. Singh & Sinha 2010
9. Collemataceae Collema flaccidum (Ach.) Ach. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Collema furfuraceum Du Rietz Singh & Sinha 2010
Goni et al. (2015) 2(1): 6471
.
Enchylium limosum (Ach.) Otlora Sheikh et al. 2006a
Enchylium polycarpon (Hoffm.) Otlora, Sheikh et al. 2006a
Collema pulchellum Ach. var. subnigrescens (Mll. Arg.) Degel. Singh & Sinha 2010
Collema rugosum Kremp. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Collema subflaccidum Degel. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Collema subnigrescens Degel. Singh & Sinha 2010
Leptogium burnetiae C.W. Dodge Sheikh et al. 2006a
Leptogium cyanescens (Pers..) Krb. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Leptogium pedicellatum P.M. Jrg. Singh & Sinha 2010
Leptogium saturninum (Dicks.) Nyl. Sheikh et al. 2006a
10. Graphidaceae Graphis granulata Fe Singh & Sinha 2010
11. Lecanoraceae Carbonea vitellinaria (Nyl.) Hertel Sheikh et al. 2006a
Lecanora achroa Nyl. Sheikh et al. 2013
Lecanora albescens (Hoffm.) Flrke in Flot. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Lecanora argentata (Ach.) Degel. Singh & Sinha 2010
Lecanora bolcana (Pollini) Poelt Singh & Sinha 2010
Lecanora campestris (Schaer.) Hue Sheikh et al. 2006a
Lecanora carpinea (L.) Vain. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Lecanora chlarotera Nyl. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Lecanora cinereofusca H. Magn. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Lepraria ecorticata (Laundon) Kukwa Sheikh et al. 2013
Lecanora dispersa (Pers.) Sommerf. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Lecanora flavidofusca Mll. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Lecanora flavidomarginata de Lesd. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Lecanora frustulosa (Dicks.) Ach. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Lecanora garovaglii (Krb.) Zahlbr. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Lecanora hellmichiana Poelt Sheikh et al. 2006a
Lecanora himalayae Poelt Sheikh et al. 2006a
Lecanora indica Zahlbr. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Lecanora insignis Degel. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Lecanora intricata (Ach.) Ach. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Lecanora intumescens (Rebent.) Rabenh. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Lecanora iseana Rsnen Singh & Sinha 2010
Lecanora japonica Mll. Singh & Sinha 2010
Lecanora kirra Poelt & Grube Sheikh et al. 2006a
Lecanora meridionalis H. Magn. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Lecanora muralis (Schreb.) Rabenh. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Lecanora muralis var.dubyu (Mull. Arg.) Poelt. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Lecanora perplexa Brodo Sheikh et al. 2006a
Lecanora phaeodrophthalma Poelt Sheikh et al. 2006a
Lecanora polytropa (Ehrh.) Rabenh. Singh & Sinha 2010
Lecanora praesistens Nyl. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Lecanora rugosella Zahlbr. Singh & Sinha 2010
Lecanora secernens Magnusson Sheikh et al. 2006a
Lecanora subpraesistens Nayaka & al. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Lecanora subrugosa Nyl. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Lecanora tropica Zahlbr. Rahim et al. 2014
Lecanora warmingii Mll. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Lecanora xylopphila Hue Sheikh et al. 2006a
Lecidella alaiensis (Vain.) Hertel Sheikh et al. 2006a
Lecidella carpathica Krb. Singh & Sinha 2010
Lecidella caesioatra (Schaerer) Kalb. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Lecidella euphorea (Flrke) Hertel in D. Hawksw. & al. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Lecidella flavosorediata (Vzda) Hertel & Leuckert Sheikh et al. 2006a
Lecidella stigmatea (Ach.) Hertel & Leuckert Singh & Sinha 2010
Rhizoplaca chrysoleuca (Sm.) Zopf Sheikh et al. 2006a
Rhizoplaca melanophthalma (DC.) Leuckert & Poelt Sheikh et al. 2006a
12. Lecideaceae Lecidea auriculata Th. Fr. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Lecidea confluens (Weber) Ach. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Goni et al. (2015) 2(1): 6471
.
Lecidea granifera (Ach.) Vain. in Hiern & al. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Lecidea plana (J. Lahm) Nyl. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Lecidea secernens H. Magn. Singh & Sinha 2010
13. Lichinaceae Peccania coralloides (Massal.) Massal. Kumar et al. 2012
Phylliscum abuense Awasthi & Singh Sheikh et al. 2006a
Phylliscum indicum Upreti Sheikh et al. 2006a
14. Megasporaceae Aspicilia almorensis Rsnen Singh & Sinha 2010
Aspicilia alphoplaca (Wahlenb. in Ach.) Poelt & Leuck. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Aspicilia caesiocinerea (Nyl. ex. Malbr.) Arnold Sheikh et al. 2006a
Aspicilia calcarea (L.) Sommerf. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Aspicillia cinereorufescens (Ach.) Massal. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Aspicillia contorta (Hoffm.) Krempelh. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Aspicilia griseocinerea Rsnen Sheikh et al. 2006a
Aspicillia hartilana Hue Sheikh et al. 2006a
Aspicilia maculata (H. Magn.) Oksner in Kopach. & al. Kumar et al. 2012
Aspicilia praeradiosa (Nyl.) Poelt and Leuck. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Aspicillia radiosa (Hoffm.) Poelt and Leuck. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Lobothallia alphoplaca (Wahlenb. ex Ach.) Hafellner Kumar et al. 2012
Lobothallia praeradiosa (Nyl.) Hafellner Singh & Sinha 2010
15. Melaspileaceae Melaspilea gemella (Eschw.) Nyl. Sheikh et al. 2006a
16. Nephromataceae Nephroma expallidum (Nyl.) Nyl. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Nephroma parile (Ach.) Ach. Sheikh et al. 2006a
17. Ochrolechiaceae Ochrolechia pallescens (L.) A. Massal. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Ochrolechia rosella (Mll. Arg.) Verseghy Sheikh et al. 2006a
18. Opegraphaceae Opegrapha dimidiata Mll. Arg. Sheikh et al. 2006a
19. Parmeliaceae Allocetraria stracheyi (C. Bab.) Kurok. & Lai Singh & Sinha 2010
Bryoria fuscescens (Gyeln.) Brodo & D. Hawksw. Singh & Sinha 2010
Canoparmelia texana (Tuck.) Elix & Hale Sheikh et al. 2006a
Cetraria potaninii Oxner Sheikh et al. 2006a
Cetrelia braunsiana (Mll. Arg.) Culb. & Culb. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Cetrelia cetrarioides (Delise ex Duby) Culb. & Culb. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Evernia divaricata (L.) Ach Sheikh et al. 2006a
Evernia prunastri (L.) Ach. Sheikh et al. 20006a
Everniastrum cirrhatum (Fr.) Hale ex Sipman Sheikh et al. 2006a
Flavoparmelia caperata (L.) Hale Sheikh et al. 20006a
Flavopunctelia flaventior (Stirt.) Hale Sheikh et al. 2006a
Flavopunctelia soredica (Nyl.) Hale Sheikh et al. 2006a
Hypogymnia physodes (L.) Nyl. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Hypogymnia vittata (Ach.) Gasilien Sheikh et al. 2006a
Lethariella cashmeriana Krog Sheikh et al. 2006a
Melanelia acetabulum (Neck.) Essl. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Melanelia disjuncta (Erichsen) Essl. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Melanelia elegantula (Zahlbr.) Essl Sheikh et al. 2006a
Melanelia infumata (Nyl.) Essl. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Melanelia panniformis (Nyl.) Essl. Singh & Sinha 2010
Melanelia sorediata (Ach.) Goward & Ahti in Ahti & al. Singh & Sinha 2010
Melanelixia fuliginosa (Fr. ex Duby) Blanco & al. Singh & Sinha 2010
Melanelixia glabra (Schaer.) Blanco & al. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Melanelixia subargentifera (Nyl.) Blanco & al. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Melanelixia subaurifera (Nyl.) Blanco & al. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Melanelixia villosella (Essl.) Blanco & al. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Melanohalea elongatula (Zahlbr.) Blanco & al. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Melanohalea exasperatula (Nyl.) Blanco & al. Singh & Sinha 2010
Melanohalea infumata (Nyl.) Blanco & al. Singh & Sinha 2010
Menegazzia pertusa (Schrank.) Stein Sheikh et al. 2006a
Nepromopsis nephromoides (Nyl.) Ahti & Randl. Kumar et al. 2012
Parmelia saxatilis (L.) Ach. Singh & Sinha 2010
Parmelia hypoclysta (Nyl.) em. Klem. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Parmelia scortea (Ach.) Ach. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Goni et al. (2015) 2(1): 6471
.
Parmelia sulcata Taylor in Mackay Sheikh et al. 2006a
Parmelina pastilifera (Harmand) Hale Sheikh et al. 2013
Parmelina tiliacea (Hoffm.) Hale Sheikh et al. 2006a
Parmelinopsis minarum (Vain.) Elix & Hale Singh & Sinha 2010
Parmotrema austrosinense (Zahlbr.) Hale Sheikh et al. 20006a
Parmotrema crinitum (Ach.) Choisy Singh & Sinha 2010
Parmotrema cristiferum (Taylor) Hale Sheikh et al. 2006a
Parmotrema direagens (Hale) Hale Sheikh et al. 2006a
Parmotrema hababianum (Gyeln.) Hale Sheikh et al. 2006a
Parmotrema nilgherrense (Nyl.) Hale Sheikh et al. 2006a
Parmotrema praesorediosum (Nyl.) Hale Sheikh et al. 2009
Parmotrema pseudoreticulatum (Tav.) Hale Singh & Sinha 2010
Parmotrema reticulatum (Taylor) Choisy Singh & Sinha 2010
Parmotrema sancti-angelii (Lynge) Hale Singh & Sinha 2010
Parmotrema subtinctorium (Zahlbr.) Hale Singh & Sinha 2010
Parmotrema tinctorum (Despr. ex Nyl.) Hale Sheikh et al. 2006a
Pleurosticta acetabulum (Neck.) Elix & Lumbsch Singh & Sinha 2010
Punctelia borreri (Sm.) Krog Sheikh et al. 2006a
Punctelia neutralis (Hale) Krog Sheikh et al. 2013
Punctelia rudecta (Ach.) Krog Sheikh et al. 2006a
Punctelia subrudecta (Nyl.) Krog Sheikh et al. 2006a
Sulcaria sulcata (Lv.) Bystrek ex Brodo & Hawksw. Singh & Sinha 2010
Xanthoparmelia australasica Galloway Sheikh et al. 2006a
Xanthoparmelia conspersa (Ach.) Hale Sheikh et al. 2006a
Xanthoparmelia coreana (Gyeln.) Hale Sheikh et al. 2006a
Xanthoparmelia mexicana (Gyeln.) Hale Kumar et al. 2012
Xanthoparmelia somlonsis (Gylen.) Hale Sheikh et al. 2006a
Xanthoparmelia stenophylla (Ach.) Ahti & Hawksw. Kumar et al. 2012
Xanthoparmelia taractica (Kremph.) Hale Sheikh et al. 2006a
Xanthoparmelia tinctina (Maheu & Gillet) Hale Sheikh et al. 2006a
Xanthoparmelia verruculifera (Nyl.) Blanco & al. Singh & Sinha 2010
20. Peltigeraceae Peltigera canina (L.) Willd. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Peltigera dolichorrhiza (Nyl.) Nyl. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Peltigera elisabethae Gyeln. Singh & Sinha 2010
Peltigera horizontalis (Huds.) Baumg. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Peltigera malacea (Ach.) Funck Singh & Sinha 2010
Peltigera microphylla (Anders) Gylen. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Peltigera polydactylon (Neck.) Hoffm. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Peltigera praetextata (Flrke) Zopf. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Peltigera rufescens (Weiss) Humb. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Solorina bispora Nyl. Sheikh et al. 2006a
21. Peltulaceae Peltula euploca (Ach.) Poelt in Pisut Sheikh et al. 2006a
Peltula patellata (Bagl.) Swinscow & Krog Sheikh et al. 2006a
22. Pertusariaceae Pertusaria albescens var. albescens (Huds.) M. Choisy & Werner in Werner Sheikh et al. 2006a
Pertusaria melastomella Nyl. Sheikh et al. 20013
Pertusaria tropica Vain. in Hiern & al. Singh & Sinha 2010
Pertusaria quassiae (Fe) Nyl. Sheikh et al. 2006a
23. Physciaceae Anaptychia ciliaris (L.) Krb. in Massal. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Anaptychia kaspica Gyeln. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Anaptychia pseudoroemeri Awasthi & Singh Sheikh et al. 2006a
Buellia alboatra (Hoffm.) Th. Fr. Singh & Sinha 2010
Buellia alboatrior (Nyl.) Zahlbr. Singh & Sinha 2010
Buellia betulinoides R. Schub. & Klem. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Phaeocalicium curtisii (Tuck.) Tibell Sheikh et al. 2006a
Buellia montana H. Magn. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Diplotomma pharcidium (Ach.) M. Choisy Singh & Sinha 2010
Buellia polyspora (Willey in Tuck.) Vainio Sheikh et al. 2006a
Buellia punctata (Hoffm.) Mass Sheikh et al. 2006a
Buellia sorediata (Tuck.) H. Magn. Singh & Sinha 2010
Goni et al. (2015) 2(1): 6471
.
Diplotomma alboatrior (Nyl) Szat. ex Awasthi & Singh Sheikh et al. 2006a
Diplotomma sorediatum (Tuck.) Singh & Awasthi Sheikh et al. 2006a
Heterodermia boryi (Fe) Singh & Singh Singh & Sinha 2010
Heterodermia dendritica (Pers.) Poelt, Singh & Sinha 2010
Heterodermia diademata (Taylor) Awasthi Sheikh et al. 2006a
Heterodermia hypoleuca (Ach.) Trevis. Singh & Sinha 2010
Heterodermia incana (Stirt.) Awasthi Sheikh et al. 2006a
Heterodermia indica (H. Magn.) Awasthi Sheikh et al. 2006a
Heterodermia isidiophora (Nyl.) Awasthi Singh & Sinha 2010
Heterodermia obscurata (Nyl.) Trevis. Singh & Sinha 2010
Heterodermia speciosa (Wulfen) Trevisan Sheikh et al. 2006a
Hyperphyscia adglutinata (Flrke) Mayrhofer & Poelt Sheikh et al. 2006a
Hyperphyscia syncolla (Tuck. ex Nyl.) Sheikh et al. 2013
Phaeophyscia constipata (Norrl. & Nyl.) Moberg Sheikh et al. 2006a
Phaeophyscia endococcina (Krb.) Moberg Sheikh et al. 2006a
Phaeophyscia hirsuta (Mereschk.) Essl. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Phaeophyscia hispidula (Ach.) Moberg Sheikh et al. 2006a
Phaeophyscia kairamoi (Vain.) Moberg Sheikh et al. 2006a
Phaeophyscia nepalensis (Poelt) Awasthi Sheikh et al. 2006a
Phaeophyscia nigricans (Florke) Moberg. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Phaeophyscia orbicularis (Neck.) Moberg Sheikh et al. 2006a
Phaeophyscia pyrrhophora (Poelt) Awasthi & Joshi Singh & Sinha 2010
Physcia adscendens (Fr.) Olivier Singh & Sinha 2010
Physcia aipolia (Ehrh. ex Humb.) Frnr. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Physcia caesia (Hoffm.) Frnr. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Physcia dilatata Nyl. Sheikh et al. 2013
Physcia dubia (Hoffm.) Lettau Sheikh et al. 2006a
Physcia integrata Nyl. Singh & Sinha 2010
Physcia leptalea (Ach.) Dc. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Physcia semipinnata (Gmel.) Moberg Singh & Sinha 2010
Physcia stellaris (L.) Nyl. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Physcia tribacia (Ach.) Nyl. Sheikh et al. 2013
Physconia detersa (Nyl.) Poelt Sheikh et al. 2006a
Physconia distorta (With.) Laundon Singh & Sinha 2010
Physconia enteroxantha (Nyl.) Poelt Sheikh et al. 2006a
Physconia grisea (Lam.) Poelt Sheikh et al. 2006a
Physconia muscigena (Ach.) Poelt Sheikh et al. 2006a
Physconia perisidiosa (Erichsen) Moberg Sheikh et al. 2006a
Physconia pulverulenta (Schreb.) Poelt Sheikh et al. 2006a
Physciopsis adglutinata (Florke) Choisy Sheikh et al. 2006a
Pyxine petricola Nyl. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Pyxine subcinerea Stirt. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Pyxine cocoes (Sw.) Nyl. Sheikh et al. 2009
Rinodina badiella (Nyl.) Th. Fr. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Rinodina turfacea (Wahlenb.) Krb. Sheikh et al. 2006a
24. Porinaceae Porina glabra Zahlbr. Sheikh et al. 2006a
25. Porpidiaceae Porpidia crustulata (Ach.) Hertel & Schwab Sheikh et al. 2006a
Porpidia macrocarpa (DC.) Hertel & Knoph in Hertel Sheikh et al. 2006a
26. Psoraceae Psora decipiens (Hedwing) Hoffm. Sheikh et al. 2013
27. Ramalinaceae Catinaria atropurpurea (Schaer.) V zda & Poelt in Poelt & Vzda Singh & Sinha 2010
Frutidella caesioatra (Schaer.) Kalb Singh & Sinha 2010
Ramalina baltica Lettau Sheikh et al. 2006a
Ramalina conduplicans Vain. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Ramalina confusa Awasthi Sheikh et al. 2006a
Ramalina obtusata (Arnold) Bitter Sheikh et al. 2006a
Ramalina pollinaria (Westr.) Ach. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Ramalina sinensis Jatta Sheikh et al. 2006a
Ramalina subampliata (Nyl.) Fink Singh & Sinha 2010
28. Rhizocarpaceae Rhizocarpon disporum (Naeg ex Hepp) Mll. Arg. Kumar et al. 2012
Goni et al. (2015) 2(1): 6471
.
Rhizocarpon geographicum (L.) DC. Kumar et al. 2012
Rhizocarpon macrosporum Rsnen Singh & Sinha 2010
Rhizocarpon sublucidum Rsnen Sheikh et al. 2006a
29. Stereocaulaceae Lepraria lobificans Nyl. Sheikh et al. 2009
Lepraria membranacea (Dicks.) Vain. Singh & Sinha 2010
Squamarina cartilaginea (With.) James Sheikh et al. 2006a
Stereocaulon glareosum (Savicz) Magn. Sheikh et al. 2006a
30. Teloschistaceae Caloplaca bassiae (Willd. ex Ach.) Zahlbr. Goni et al. 2013
Caloplaca biatorina (A. Massal.) Steiner Sheikh et al. 2006a
Caloplaca brebissonii (Fe) J. Sant. ex Hafellner & Poelt Sheikh et al. 2006a
Caloplaca cerina var. stillicidiorum (Vahl) Th. Fr. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Caloplaca cerina var. muscorum (A. Massal.) Jatta Sheikh et al. 2006a
Caloplaca cerinelloides (Erichsen) Poelt Sheikh et al. 2006a
Caloplaca cirrochora (Ach.) Th. Fr. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Caloplaca citrina (Hoffm.) Th. Fr. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Caloplaca decipiens (Arnold) Blomb. & Forssell Singh & Sinha 2010
Caloplaca diphyodes (Nyl.) Jatta Sheikh et al. 2006a
Caloplaca elegans (Link.) Th. Fr. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Caloplaca flavocitrina (Nyl.) H. Olivier Singh & Sinha 2010
Caloplaca flavovirescens (Wulfen) Dalla Torre & Sarnth. Sheikh et al. 2013
Caloplaca haematites (Chaub.) Zwackh Sheikh et al. 2006a
Caloplaca himalayana Joshi & Upreti Joshi et al.2009
Caloplaca holocarpa (Hoffm.) Wade Sheikh et al. 2006a
Caloplaca insularis Poelt Sheikh et al. 2006a
Caloplaca juniperi Poelt & Hinter Sheikh et al. 2013
Caloplaca kashmirensis Joshi & Upreti Sheikh et al. 2009
Caloplaca malaensis (Rasanen) Awasthi Sheikh et al. 2006a
Caloplaca muscorum (Massal.) Choisy & Werner Singh & Sinha 2010
Caloplaca obliterans (Nyl.) Blomb. & Forssell in Points-forteckning Singh & Sinha 2010
Caloplaca oasis (Massal.) Szatala Sheikh et al. 2006a
Caloplaca saxicola (Hoffm.) Norden Kumar et al. 2012
Caloplaca subsoluta ( Nyl.) Zahlbr Sheikh et al. 2009
Caloplaca variabilis (Pers.) Mll. Kumar et al. 2012
Xanthoria candelaria (L.) Th. Fr. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Xanthoria elegans (Link) Th. Fr. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Xanthoria fulva (Hoffm.) Poelt & Petutschnig Sheikh et al. 2006a
Xanthoria parietina (L.) Th. Fr. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Xanthoria polycarpa (Hoffm.) Th. Fr. ex Rieber Sheikh et al. 2006a
Xanthoria substellaris var. subsorediosa Rsnen Sheikh et al. 2006a
Xanthoria sorediata (Vain.) Poelt Sheikh et al. 2006a
Xanthoria ulophyllodes Rsnen Sheikh et al. 2006a
31. Tephromelataceae Tephromela atra (Huds.) Hafellner in Kalb Sheikh et al. 2006a
32. Thelotremataceae Diploschistes actinostomus (Pers. ex Ach.) Zahlbr. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Diploschistes candidissimus (Kremp.) Zahlbr. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Diploschistes muscorum (Scop.) Sant. Singh & Sinha 2010
Diploschistes scruposus (Schreb.) Norman Sheikh et al. 2006a
33. Umbilicariaceae Lasallia pertusa (Rassad.) Llano Singh & Sinha 2010
Umbilicaria jingralensis Nagarkar & Patw. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Umbilicaria krascheninnikovii (Savicz) Zahlbr. Singh & Sinha 2010
Umbilicaria nepalensis Poelt Singh & Sinha 2010
Umbilicaria vellea (L.) Ach. Kumar et al. 2012
Umbilicaria virginis Schaer. Sheikh et al. 2006a
34. Usneacea Usnea esperantiana P. Clerc Singh & Sinha 2010
Usnea subfloridana Stirt., Sheikh et al. 2006a
Dolichousnea longissima (Ach.) Articus Sheikh et al. 2006a
Usnea perplexans Stirt. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Usnea subfloridana Stirt. Sheikh et al. 2006a
35. Verrucariaceae Dermatocarpon meiophyllizum Vain Sheikh et al. 2006a
Dermatocarpon miniatum (L.) W. Mann. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Goni et al. (2015) 2(1): 6471
.
Dermatocarpon moulinsii (Mount.) Zahlbr. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Dermatocarpella squamulosum (Ach.) H. Harada Sheikh et al. 2009
Dermatocarpon vellereum Zschacke Sheikh et al. 2006a
Endocarpon rosettum Ajay Singh & Upreti Sheikh et al. 2009
Endocarpon subrosettum Ajay Singh & Upreti Sheikh et al. 2006a
Staurothele fissa (Taylor) Zwack. Sheikh et al. 2013
Verrucaria acrotella Ach. Sheikh et al. 2009
Verrucaria aethiobola Wahlb. in Ach. Sheikh et al. 2006a
Verrucaria coerulea (Ram.) DC. Sheikh et al. 2013
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are grateful to the Director, CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute, Dr. D.K. Upreti, Head,
Lichen Lab, CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow and Department of Botany, University of
Jammu for providing necessary laboratory facilities.
REFERENCES
Goni R, Raina AKP & Magotra R (2013) Lichen diversity in Nandini Wildlife Sanctuary, Jammu (J&K).
Phytotaxonomy 13: 106108.
Kumar J, Khare R, Rai H, Upreti DK, Tayade A, Hota S, Chaurasia OP & Srivastava RB (2012) Diversity of
lichens along altitudinal and land use gradients in the Trans Himalayan cold desert of Ladakh. Nature and
Science 10(4): 19.
Kumar J, Rai H, Khare R, Upreti DK, Dhar P, Tayade AB, Chaurasia OP & Srivastava RB (2014) Elevational
controls of lichen communities in Zanskar valley, Ladakh, a Trans Himalayan cold desert. Tropical Plant
Research 1(2): 4854.
Rahim A, Raina AK & Hussan A (2014) Lichen diversity of Kargil town and its adjoining areas, J&K,
International Journal of Current Research 5(14): 14.
Sheikh MA Raina AK & Upreti DK (2009) Lichen Flora of Surinsar-Mansar Wildlife Sanctuary, Jammu and
Kashmir. Journal of Applied and Natural Science 1(1): 7981.
Sheikh MA Upreti DK & Raina AK (2006b) Lichen Diversity in Jammu and Kashmir, India. Geophytology
36(1&2): 6985.
Sheikh MA, Raina AK & Hussan A (2013) A preliminary observation of lichen flora in three districts of Jammu
& Kashmir. International Journal of Current Research 5(4): 96668.
Sheikh MA, Upreti DK & Raina AK (2006a) An enumeration of Lichens from three Districts of Jammu and
Kashmir, India. Journal of Applied Biosciences 32(2): 189191.
Singh KP & Sinha GP (2010) Indian Lichens: Annotated Checklist. Botanical Survey of India, Kolkata, India.
Solan S, Mehta KA & Magotra R (2010) A catalogue of lichens of Ramnagar Wildlife Sanctuary, Jammu
(J&K). Phytotaxonomy 10: 134138.

Volume 2, Issue 1 (2015) Tropical Plant Research

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Volume 2, Issue 1 (2015) Tropical Plant Research

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

ISSN (E): 2349 1183

ISSN (P): 2349 9265

Impact of lopping on tree species of tropical Indian forests

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Figure 1. Map of Hojai reserve forest, Assam, India.

Figure 2. Photographs showing cut stumps in the study site.

Utilization of vegetable waste for biomass production of some

MATERIAL AND METHODS

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Table 1. Biomass production of Russula spp. under different liquid media.

A study of genetic diversity in Oryza rhizomatis D.A. Vaughan

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Phosphate solubilising bacteria (Bacillus polymyxa) - An

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Vegetative and reproductive anatomy of Vigna radiata L.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Floral bud anatomy

Pollen grain morphology

Plant diversity assessment of Sariska tiger reserve in Aravallis

Figure 1. Study site: Sariska Tiger reserve, Rajasthan, India.

Table 1. Shows current status of vegetation in Sariska Tiger Reserve.

S.No. Name of the species Families Local name Purpose

S.No. Name of the species Families Local name Use

Diversity and tree population structure of tropical dry evergreen

MATERIALS AND METHODS

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

ehT study of Nano silica effects on the total protein content

0.006 different to control sample. But this content in 3

Superoxid Dismutase Activity

Technical feasibility and effectiveness of vermicomposting at

Figure 1. Temperature change during Vermicomposting.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

A note on Aroids Ethnobotany in Hau River, Vietnam

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Figure 1. Location of study area.

Food Medicine Ornamentation Wastewater purification Feeding cattle Natural growth

Lichen flora of Jammu and Kashmir State, India: An updated

MATERIALS AND METHODS

You might also like