Annales Mathematicae et Informaticae

41 (2013) pp. 255263

Proceedings of the
15th International Conference on Fibonacci Numbers and Their Applications
Institute of Mathematics and Informatics, Eszterhzy Kroly College
Eger, Hungary, June 2530, 2012

Bridges between different known

integer sequences
Roman Witua, Damian Sota, Edyta Hetmaniok
Institute of Mathematics, Silesian University of Technology, Poland
{roman.witula,damian.slota,edyta.hetmaniok}@polsl.pl
Abstract
In this paper a new method of generating identities for Fibonacci and Lucas numbers is presented. This method is based on some fundamental identities for powers of the golden ratio and its conjugate. These identities give
interesting connections between Fibonacci and Lucas numbers and Bernoulli
numbers, Catalan numbers, binomial coefficients, -Fibonacci numbers, etc.
Keywords: Fibonacci and Lucas numbers, Bernoulli numbers, Bell numbers,
Dobinskis formula
MSC: 11B83, 11A07, 39A10

1. Introduction
The authors fascination with Fibonacci, Lucas and complex numbers has been
reflected in the following two nice identities (discovered independently by Rabinowitz [10] and Witua [7] and, probably, many other, former and future admirers
of the Fibonacci and Lucas numbers):
(1+ + 4 )n = Fn+1 +Fn ( + 4 ) and (1+ 2 + 3 )n = Fn+1 +Fn ( 2 + 3 ), (1.1)
where 5 = 1, C and 6= 1, and Fn denotes the nth Fibonacci number.

2. Basic identities
Let
:= 2 cos

1+ 5

=
5
2

and
255

:= 2 cos

1 5
.
2

256

R. Witua, D. Sota, E. Hetmaniok

Then we have
+ = 1,
n

Fn =

Ln = n + n ,

(2.1)

= 1
n Z,

(2.2)

n = 0, 1, 2, . . . ,

(2.3)

where Ln denotes the nth Lucas number [3, 9].

Then, identities (1.1) can be written in the form
Fn+1 + x1 Fn = xn ,

(2.4)

for every x {, }. In other words, we get the divisibility relation of polynomials

(x2 x 1) | (xn+1 Fn+1 x Fn ).
Similarly (by induction) we can generate the identity
Ln+1 + x1 Ln = (2x 1) xn ,

(2.5)

for every x {, }. This implies the following divisibility relation of polynomials

(x2 x 1) | ((2x 1)xn+1 Ln+1 x Ln ).
Remark 2.1. If the values Fn and Ln were defined for real subscripts n [0, 1)
(see [15]), then from formulae (2.4) and (2.5) we could easily extend these definitions
for any other real subscripts.
In particular, if functions [0, 1] 3 n 7 Fn and [0, 1] 3 n 7 Ln are continuous,
then from formulae (2.4) and (2.5) we could obtain the continuous extensions of
these functions. With this problem also some special problem is connected (see
Corollary 2.6 Dobinskis formula problem).
Immediately from identities (2.4) and (2.5) the next result follows.
Theorem 2.2 (Golden ratio power factorization theorem). Let {kn }
n=1 be a sequence of positive integers. Then the following identities hold true
N
  1 + 5  P
kn
51
n=1
Fkn +1 +
Fkn =
,
2
2
n=1
N

N 
  1 5  P
Y
kn
5+1
n=1
Fkn =
Fkn +1
,
2
2
n=1

N 
Y

or in equivalent compact form

N 
Y

n=1

Fkn +1 + x

Fkn = x

N
P

n=1

kn

257

Bridges between different known integer sequences

P
N 

Y
kn
Lkn + (2x 1) Fkn = 2N xn=1 ,
N

n=1

for every x {, }, and

N
P


N  1 + 5  k n
51
n=1
Lkn +1 +
5
,
Lkn =
2
2
n=1
N

P
N 

Y

N  1 5  kn
5+1
n=1
Lkn +1
Lkn = 5
,
2
2
n=1

N 
Y

or in equivalent compact form

N 
Y

Lkn +1 + x

n=1

Lkn = (2x 1) x

N
P

n=1

kn

for every x {, }. The above identities are called "Golden Gate" relations.

We note that these identities act as links between Fibonacci and Lucas sequences and many other special sequences of numbers, especially many known
linear recurrence sequences. Now we will present the collection of such relations.
First let us consider the Bernoulli numbers Br defined by the following recursion
formula [6, 11]:




 
n
n
n
B0 = 1,
Bn1 +
Bn2 + . . . +
B0 = 0,
n = 2, 3, . . .
n1
n2
0
(we note that B2k+1 = 0, k = 1, 2, . . .). Moreover, Bk (y) denotes here the k-th
Bernoulli polynomial defined by
k  
X
k
Bk (y) =
Bl y kl .
l
l=0

Corollary 2.3 (A bridge between Fibonacci, Lucas and Bernoulli numbers). We

have
N
1 
Y

Fnk +1 + x

Fn k = x 0

n=1

N
1 
Y
n=1

and

N
1 
Y
n=1

for every x {, }.

RN

Bk (y) dy

N 1

Lnk + (2x 1) Fnk = 2

Lnk +1 + x

RN

x0

N 1

Lnk = (2x 1)

,
Bk (y) dy

RN

x0

Bk (y) dy

258

R. Witua, D. Sota, E. Hetmaniok

Proof. The identities result from the following known relation [6, 11]:
N
1
X

n =

n=1

ZN

Bk (y) dy =

k  
X
k

r=0

Br

N kr+1
.
kr+1

Corollary 2.4 (A bridge between Fibonacci numbers, Lucas numbers and binomial
coefficients). We have
b(n+1)/2c 

k=1

b(n+1)/2c 

k=1


F(nk)+1 + x1 F(nk) = xFn ,

L(nk)
k1

b(n+1)/2c 

k=1

k1

k1

b(n+1)/2c

5 F(nk) = 2
k1

 1 5  F n
2


L(nk)+1 + x1 L(nk) = (2x 1)b(n+1)/2c xFn ,
k1

k1

for every x {, }.
Proof. All the above identities follow from relation (see [9]):
Fn =

b(n+1)/2c 

k=1


nk
.
k1

Note that similar and simultaneously more general relations could be obtained
for the incomplete Fibonacci and Lucas pnumbers (see [12, 13]).
Next corollary concerns the Catalan numbers defined in the following way
 
2n
1
Cn :=
, n = 0, 1, . . .
n+1 n
Corollary 2.5 (A bridge between Fibonacci numbers, Lucas numbers and Catalan
numbers). We have
N 
Y

n=0


F1+CN n Cn + x1 FCN n Cn = xCN +1 ,

N 

Y
LCN n Cn + (2x 1) FCN n Cn = 2N +1 xCN +1

(2.6)
(2.7)

n=0

and

N 
Y

n=0


L1+CN n Cn + x1 LCN n Cn = (2x 1)N +1 xCN +1 ,

for every x {, }.

(2.8)

259

Bridges between different known integer sequences

Moreover, if p is prime and p 3 (mod 4), then we have

q
p

r

p2

x2 F1+C p1 + x FC p1 = x
2

F1+ 12 C p2 1 + x1 F 12 C p2 1
2

2+C(p1)/2
p

(2.9)



F1+

p1

( p1 )

+ x1 F

p1

( p1 )
2

=x

1C
+
2 (p2 1)/2

( p1
p1 )
2

p2

(2.10)

for every x {, }.
Proof. Identities (2.6)-(2.8) can be obtained from the recursive relation for Cn
CN +1 =

N
X

n=0

CN n Cn ,

N = 0, 1, . . .

Whereas relations (2.9) and (2.10) result

 from the fact
that if p is prime and
p1
2 1
p 3 (mod 4), then p|(2 + C p1 ) and p | 2 C p2 1 + p1
(see [1]).
2

Next conclusion is connected with the Bell numbers Bn , n = 0, 1, ... [6].

Corollary 2.6 (A bridge between Fibonacci numbers, Lucas numbers and Bell
numbers). We have
N 
Y

n=0

N 
Y

n=0


F(N )Bn +1 + x1 F(N )Bn = xBN +1 ,
n


L(N )Bn + (2x 1) F(N )Bn = 2N +1 xBN +1 ,
n

N 

Y
L(N )Bn +1 + x1 L(N )Bn = (2x 1)N +1 xBN +1 ,

n=0

for every x {, }.
Proof. All the above identities follow from the well known recursive relation
B0 := 1,
BN +1 =

N  
X
N

n=0

Bn ,

N = 0, 1, . . .

We note that for the Bell numbers the following interesting relation, called
Dobinskis formula [6], holds:
BN =

1 X kN
,
e
k!
k=0

N = 0, 1, 2, . . .

260

R. Witua, D. Sota, E. Hetmaniok

In connection with the above formula we formulate a certain problem which can
be expressed in the following way. Is it possible to generalize the definition of
Fibonacci numbers Fn onto real indices (of Lucas numbers Ln , respectively) such
that the following equality will be fulfilled:

Y

F1+ e1 kN + x1 F e1 kN
k!

k=0

k!

= x BN ,

for every x {, } and N N, or

1
L
1 N + x
L e1 kN
Y
1+ e k
k!

k!

2x 1

k=0

= x BN ,

for every x {, } and N N, respectively?

Next corollary concerns the connection with the -Fibonacci numbers defined
by relations (see [14]):
n  
X
n
Fk1 ()k
(2.11)
an () =
k
k=0

and

bn () =

n  
X
n

k=1

for C.

(1)k1 Fk k ,

(2.12)

Corollary 2.7 (A bridge between Fibonacci, Lucas and -Fibonacci numbers).

For positive integers and n we get
n 
Y

k=0
n 
Y

k=1
n 
Y

k=0
n 
Y

k=1
n 
Y
k=0
n 
Y
k=1


F1+(n)Fk1 k + x1 F(n)Fk1 k = xan () ,
k


F1+(n)Fk k + x1 F(n)Fk k = xbn () ,
k


L(n)Fk1 k + (2x 1) F(n)Fk1 k = 2n+1 xan () ,
k
k

L(n)Fk k
k


5 F(n)Fk k = 2n xbn () ,
k


L1+(n)Fk1 k + x1 L(n)Fk1 k = (2x 1)n+1 xan () ,
k


L1+(n)Fk k + x1 L(n)Fk k = (2x 1)n xbn () ,
k

etc., for every x {, }. Moreover, we define here Fn+1 = Fn + Fn1 , n Z.

261

Bridges between different known integer sequences

Let us note that similar relations we have for the incomplete Fibonacci numbers an,r () and bn,s () where
r  
X
n
an,r () :=
Fk1 ()k ,
0 r n,
k
k=0
s  
X
n
bn,s () :=
(1)k1 Fk k , 1 s n.
k
k=1

Now we consider the rgeneralized Fibonacci sequence {Gn } defined as follows

if 0 n < r 1,
0,
1,
if n = r 1,
Gn =

Gn1 + Gn2 + . . . + Gnr , if n r.

Corollary 2.8 (A bridge between Fibonacci, Lucas and classic r-Fibonacci numbers). Let r N, r 2. Then the following identities hold true [8]:


F1+2r1 Gnr + x1 F2r1 Gnr

 r1
Y

k=1

r1
P

1+(

2i1 )Gnrk

+ x1 F

i=k

= xGn ,

r1
P

2i1 )Gnrk

i=k

for every n 2 r 1, and

n
hY

F1+G2k + x1 FG2k

k=0

i

h r1
Y ni
Y

=x

i=2 k=0
Gn Gn+1

F1+Gk Gk+i + x1 FGk Gk+i

,

the special case of which is the following Lucas identity

n 
Y

k=1


F1+Fk2 + x1 FFk2 = xFn Fn+1 ,

for every x {, }.

Corollary 2.9. We have also (x {, }):




FFn+1 +1 + x1 FFn+1 FFn1 +1 + x1 FFn1 = xLn ,


 1 5  L n


,
LFn+1 5FFn+1 LFn1 5 FFn1 = 4


 2
LFn+1 +1 + x1 LFn+1

LFn1 +1 + x1 LFn1 = 5 xLn ,

since Fn+1 + Fn1 = Ln , n N. Furthermore, we have




FLn+1 +1 + x1 FLn+1 FLn1 +1 + x1 FLn1 = x5 Fn ,

i

262

R. Witua, D. Sota, E. Hetmaniok

LLn+1



 1 5  5 F n

,
LLn1 5 FLn1 = 4

 2
LLn+1 +1 + x1 LLn+1 LLn1 +1 + x1 LLn1 +1 = 5 x5 Fn ,
5 FLn+1

since Ln+1 + Ln1 = 5 Fn , n N.

Remark 2.10. Note that Theorem 2.2 is connected, in some way, with the following
very important Zeckendorfs theorem [6]:
For every number n N there exists exactly one increasing sequence 2 k1 <
. . . < kr , where r = r(n) N, such that ki+1 ki 2 for i = 1, 2, . . . , r 1, and
n = Fk1 + Fk2 + . . . + Fkr .
For example, we have
1000 = 987 + 13 = F16 + F7 ,
that is

5 F987 L987
5 F13 L13 = 2 L1000 2 5 F1000 =
 1 5 1000

= L987 5 F987 L13 5 F13 = 4
.
2

3. Final remark
Finally, we note that identities (2.4), considered at the beginning of this paper,
were discussed by many authors. For example, S. Alikhani and Y. Peng [2] basing
on (2.4) have proven that n , for every n N, cannot be a root of any chromatic
polynomial. Furthermore, D. Gerdemann [5] has used the first of identities (2.4)
for analyzing the, so called, Golden Ratio Division Algorithm. Consequently, he
has discovered a semi-combinatorial proof of the following beautiful theorem.
Theorem 3.1. For nonconsecutive integers a1 , . . . , ak , the following two statements are equivalent (for every m N):
m Fn = Fn+a1 + Fn+a2 + . . . + Fn+ak ,
m = a1 + a2 + . . . + ak .
Acknowledgements. The Authors are grateful to the valuable remarks of the
Referee which gave the possibility to improve presentation of the paper.

References
[1] Aebi, C., Cairns, G., Catalan numbers, primes and twin primes, Elem. Math. Vol.
63 (2008), 153164.
[2] Alikhani, S., Peng, Y., Chromatic zeros and the golden ratio, Appl. Anal. Discrete
Math. Vol. 3 (2009), 120122.

Bridges between different known integer sequences

263

[3] Dunlop, R., The golden ratio and Fibonacci numbers, World Scientific, Singapore
(2006).
[4] Eustis, A., Shattuck, M., Combinatorial proofs of some formulas for Lrm , Fibonacci Quart. Vol. 48 (2010), 6267.
[5] Gerdemann, D., Combinatorial proofs of Zeckendorf family identities, Fibonacci
Quart. Vol. 46/47 (2008/2009), 249261.
[6] Graham, R.L., Knuth, D.E., Patashnik, O., Concrete mathematics. A foundation for computer science, Addison-Wesley, Reading (1994).
[7] Grzymkowski, R., Witua, R., Calculus methods in algebra, part one, WPKJS,
Gliwice (2000) (in Polish).
[8] Howard, F.T., Cooper, C., Some identities for rFibonacci numbers, The Fibonacci Quart. Vol. 49 (2011), 231242.
[9] Koshy, T., Fibonacci and Lucas numbers with application, Wiley, New York (2001).
[10] Rabinowitz, S., Algorithmic manipulation of Fibonacci identities, Applications of
Fibonacci Numbers, Vol. 6, eds. G.E. Bergum et al., Kluwer, New York (1996), 389
408.
[11] Rabsztyn, Sz., Sota, D., Witua, R., Gamma and beta functions, Wyd. Pol.
` Gliwice (2012) (in Polish).
Sl.,
[12] Tasci, D., Cetin-Firengiz, M., Incomplete Fibonacci and Lucas pnumbers,
Math. Comput. Modelling, Vol. 52 (2010), 17631770.
[13] Tuglu, N., Kocer, E.G., Stakhov, A., Bivariate Fibonacci Like ppolynomials,
Applied Math. Comp. Vol. 217 (2011), 1023910246.
[14] Witua, R., Sota, D., -Fibonacci numbers, Appl. Anal. Discrete Math. Vol. 3
(2009), 310329.
[15] Witua, R., Fibonacci and Lucas numbers for real indices and some applications,
Acta Phys. Polon. A Vol. 120 (2011), 755758.