KFP6014 KAEDAH TINJAUAN

TUGASAN 2: HISTORY OF RESEARCH, TYPES OF SURVEYS &

MINI SAMPLES

KUMPULAN

PENSYARAH: PROF. MADYA DR. QISMULLAH YUSUF

NAMA

NO ID/MATRIK

NO.TELEFON

EMAIL

PREMA A/P

M20142001713

010-3710655

prema.vijayakumar@yahoo.co

VIJAYAKUMAR

REVATHY A/P

M20142001873

014-9441772

MUNIANDY

thy_reva@yahoo.com

Ques 2: Types of surveys & mini samples of the surveys

Types of samples
The best sampling is probability sampling, because it increases the likelihood of obtaining
samples that are representative of the population.
Probability sampling (Representative samples)
Probability samples are selected in such a way as to be representative of the population.
They provide the most valid or credible results because they reflect the characteristics of the
population from which they are selected (e.g., residents of a particular community, students at
an elementary school, etc.). There are two types of probability samples: random and
stratified.
Random sample
The term random has a very precise meaning. Each individual in the
population of interest has an equal likelihood of selection. This is a very
strict meaning -- you can't just collect responses on the street and have a
random sample.
The assumption of an equal chance of selection means that sources such as a
telephone book or voter registration lists are not adequate for providing a random
sample of a community. In both these cases there will be a number of residents whose
names are not listed. Telephone surveys get around this problem by random-digit
dialing -- but that assumes that everyone in the population has a telephone. The key to
random selection is that there is no bias involved in the selection of the sample. Any
variation between the sample characteristics and the population characteristics is only
a matter of chance.
Stratified sample

A stratified sample is a mini-reproduction of the population. Before

sampling, the population is divided into characteristics of importance
for the research. For example, by gender, social class, education level,
religion, etc. Then the population is randomly sampled within each
category orstratum. If 38% of the population is college-educated, then
38% of the sample is randomly selected from the college-educated
population.
Stratified samples are as good as or better than random samples, but they require a
fairly detailed advance knowledge of the population characteristics, and therefore are
more difficult to construct.
How to Construct a probability (representative) sample
Nonprobability samples (Non-representative samples)
As they are not truly representative, non-probability samples are less desirable than
probability samples. However, a researcher may not be able to obtain a random or stratified
sample, or it may be too expensive. A researcher may not care about generalizing to a larger
population. The validity of non-probability samples can be increased by trying to
approximate random selection, and by eliminating as many sources of bias as possible.
Quota sample
The defining characteristic of a quota sample is that the researcher
deliberately sets the proportions of levels or strata within the sample.
This is generally done to insure the inclusion of a particular segment
of the population. The proportions may or may not differ
dramatically from the actual proportion in the population. The Two of each species
researcher sets a quota, independent of population characteristics.
Example: A researcher is interested in the attitudes of members of different
religions towards the death penalty. In Iowa a random sample might miss
Muslims (because there are not many in that state). To be sure of their
inclusion, a researcher could set a quota of 3% Muslim for the sample.
However, the sample will no longer be representative of the actual proportions
in the population. This may limit generalizing to the state population. But the
quota will guarantee that the views of Muslims are represented in the survey.
Purposive sample
A purposive sample is a non-representative subset of some larger
population, and is constructed to serve a very specific need or purpose.
A researcher may have a specific group in mind, such as high level
business executives. It may not be possible to specify the population -they would not all be known, and access will be difficult. The researcher
will attempt to zero in on the target group, interviewing whomever is

available.
A subset of a purposive sample is a snowball sample -- so named because one
picks up the sample along the way, analogous to a snowball accumulating
snow. A snowball sample is achieved by asking a participant to suggest
someone else who might be willing or appropriate for the study. Snowball
samples are particularly useful in hard-to-track populations, such as truants,
drug users, etc.

Convenience sample
A convenience sample is a matter of taking what you can get. It is
an accidental sample. Although selection may be unguided, it probably is not
random, using the correct definition of everyone in the population having an
equal chance of being selected. Volunteers would constitute a convenience
sample.
Non-probability samples are limited with regard to generalization. Because they do not truly
represent a population, we cannot make valid inferences about the larger group from which
they are drawn. Validity can be increased by approximating random selection as much as
possible, and making every attempt to avoid introducing bias into sample selection.
Examples of nonprobability samples
Self-test #1: Sample types
Self-test #2: Using the random numbers table
Continue on to Sample size

Exploratory Research
Exploratory research is an important part of any marketing or business strategy. Its focus is
on the discovery of ideas and insights as opposed to collecting statistically accurate data. That
is why exploratory research is best suited as the beginning of your total research plan. It is
most commonly used for further defining company issues, areas for potential growth,
alternative courses of action, and prioritizing areas that require statistical research.
When it comes to online surveys, the most common example of exploratory research takes
place in the form of open-ended questions. Think of the exploratory questions in your survey
as expanding your understanding of the people you are surveying. Text responses may not be
statistically measureable, but they will give you richer quality information that can lead to the
discovery of new initiatives or problems that should be addressed.
Descriptive Research
Descriptive research takes up the bulk of online surveying and is considered conclusive in
nature due to its quantitative nature. Unlike exploratory research, descriptive research is
preplanned and structured in design so the information collected can be statistically inferred
on a population.
The main idea behind using this type of research is to better define an opinion, attitude, or
behaviour held by a group of people on a given subject. Consider your everyday multiple
choice question. Since there are predefined categories a respondent must choose from, it is
considered descriptive research. These questions will not give the unique insights on the
issues like exploratory research would. Instead, grouping the responses into predetermined
choices will provide statistically inferable data. This allows you to measure the significance
of your results on the overall population you are studying, as well as the changes of your
respondents opinions, attitudes, and behaviours over time.
Causal Research

Like descriptive research, causal research is quantitative in nature as well as preplanned and
structured in design. For this reason, it is also considered conclusive research. Causal
research differs in its attempt to explain the cause and effect relationship between variables.
This is opposed to the observational style of descriptive research, because it attempts to
decipher whether a relationship is causal through experimentation. In the end, causal research
will have two objectives: 1) To understand which variables are the cause and which variables
are the effect, and 2) to determine the nature of the relationship between the causal variables
and the effect to be predicted.
For example, a cereal brand owner wants to learn if they will receive more sales with their
new cereal box design. Instead of conducting descriptive research by asking people whether
they would be more likely to buy their cereal in its new box, they would set up an experiment
in two separate stores. One will sell the cereal in only its original box and the other with the
new box. Taking care to avoid any outside sources of bias, they would then measure the
difference between sales based on the cereal packaging. Did the new packaging have any
effect on the cereal sales? What was that effect?

Ques 1 :

History of
Research