Diction ary of

Transac tional
Analysi s
TonyTilney
Thanet Centre for Psychotherapeu tic Studies
Birmingham
Consulting Editor: Professor Wmdy Dryden
Goldsmiths College, University of London

w
.

Whurr Publishers Ltd

London

 1998 Whurr Publishers

First published 1998 by
Whurr Publishers Ltd
19b Compton Terrace, London N1 2UN, England
Reprinted 1999, 2001, 2004 and 2005

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be

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the prior permission of Whurr Publishers Limited.
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A catalogue record for this book is available from the
British Library.

10-digit ISBN: 1 86156 022 2

13-digit ISBN: 978 1 86156 022 3

Printed and bound in the UK by Athenaeum Press Ltd,

Gateshead, Tyne & Wear

Co nte nts
_,

Aclmow ledgeme nts

vi

Introdu ction

vii

The dictiona ry

Append ix 1: reading list

137

Append ix 2: winners of the Eric Berne Memori al Award

139

Append ix 3: codes of ethics

142

Referen ces

147

i
I

r
v

Introduction

Using this dictionary

Words printed in capitals indicate that more information can be obtained by looking
under that heading in the dictionary. Note that the dictionary entry may not be identical with the capitalised word, as the latter has to conform to the grammatical requirements of the sentence in which it occurs (for example, you will find information on
TRANSACTING under transactions).
If you have had little previous contact with transactional analysis you will find it helpful to look first at the following entries:
Berne, Eric
ego-states
transactions
games
script
methodology of transactional analysis
language of transactional analysis
theoretical stance of transactional analysis
philosophy of transactional analysis
history of transactional analysis
message format
schools of transactional analysis
literature of transactional analysis
Dictionaries are usually thought of as providing definitions. A technical dictionary
like this also needs to provide explanations. These are not always the same thing. An
explanation is designed to build understanding. A definition sets boundaries to the
term so that a decision can be made as to what does and what does not fall into the
category. A definition does not become meaningful until the explanation has been
understood. Sometimes both functions can be held in one process; a clear explanation
clarifies boundaries, a good definition conveys the essence of the idea. Sometimes the
tasks of explaining and defining have to be addressed separately. I hope I have kept a
proper balance between the two.
~
Transactional analysis presents unique problems in selecting words to include in a dictionary. These problems derive from its unusual history. Transactional analysis grew out
of psychoanalysis, in which Eric Berne trained. He and the other founders set out to eliminate any terms that were unessential and to find, wherever possible, specifiable behaviours that could be linked to the terms. There was therefore a major shift in the direction
of behavioural definitions; for example, the H~rm transference almost disappeared but
many behaviour patterns that involved transference were named (such as games, scripts,
rackets, drivers, rubberbanding, complementary transactions). The theory thus became
less abstract and more accessible and 'user friendly'. At the same time TA expanded in a
number of fields: education, organisations, self-help groups, counselling and psychotherapy. Its concrete and straightforward style made it successful in the first three. However, in psychotherapy it sought to establish itself as a depth psychology and increase the
range of psychological conditions it was prepared to address. As this occurred it found
itself increasingly cramped by the discarding of intrapsychic language. Two approaches
were adopted to address this problem: an elaboration of transactional analysis theory to
fill the gap and borrowing from psychoanalysis. The latter has become increasingly important, particularly drawing on those areas of psychoanalysis that had expanded or originat-

Introduction
ed after TA split off in the 1960s, namely object relations and self psychology. A significant
point was when Carlo Moiso was given the Eric Berne Memorial Scientific Award in 1987
for his article on Ego-states and transference (Moiso, 1985), integrating TA and psychoanalytic concepts. This was followed by an increasing number of articles written from an
integrative standpoint (such as Clark, 1991). There was another obvious change: before
1985 TA tended to look inwards and articles were almost exclusively ll!ferenced to other
TA articles. Now, looking through the Transactional Analysisjournal, J;D.any of the references are to sources outside TA. 1an Stewart (1996a) has called this process 'the psychoanalytic renaissance'. It has sometimes generated tensions among transactional analysts,
some of whom fear that TA may lose its crispness and objectivity if it veers too fur towards
psychoanalysis, whereas others believe that too close an adherence to past patterns may
impede growth. A dictionary ofTA must reflect the field as a whole. I have therefore
included the major concepts ofTAbut have also provided resources needed to read a contemporary advanced article by one of the major integrative writers such as Richard Erskine. This involved including a substantial number of non-TA words. The criterion I have
used for selecting these words is to include:
Words used by Eric Berne (who trained as a psychoanalyst) and which are therefore
essential to understrnding the core literature ofTA. An example is ego-dystonic.
Words borrowed by transactional analysts and in widespread use- and therefore
essential if the dictionary is to enable a reader to make sense of the current literature
e.g. Gestalt, attachment, holding, containment.
Words from other disciplines relating to ideas that have been, or are:being, integrated
into transactional analysis (e.g. depressive position, projective ide'ntification). The
non-TA origin of all these words is clearly indicated.

,
i

--- ..

-l
j

.. J.
Writing this dictionary focused my attention on how problematicis the function of
words in conveying meaning. The setting out of a word suggests thah1ere is a precise
meaning that can be conveyed to the reader, but the ultimate source of all meaning is
experience (including experience of other meaning structures) and the reader may lack
this. As Willred Bion, the object relations theorist, pointed out, a function of terminology
is to create spaces into which meaning may enter. He wrote: 'the advantage of employing a
sign ... is that it at least indicates that the reader's comprehension of my meaning should
contain an element that will remain unsatisfied until he meets the appropriate realisation.'
For example, a dictionary may contain a definition of the word 'elephant'. However good
this is, it can give little idea of what the experience of seeing an elephant would be like.
However, the definition is good enough if, after reading it, anyone seeing an elephant for
the first time thinks immediately 'that must be an elephant'. It is a tempting for the dictionary-maker to labour overmuch at defining elephants. I hope I have avoided this.

,"''""r'
I

Acknowledgem.ents

l
'
f

-~

L...

I should like to thank Adrienne Lee for giving me access to previously unpublished
material and pre-publication access to her chapter on process in Contracts in
Counselling (Lee, 1997), Ian Stewart for giving me pre-publication access to his chapter on the history of transactional analysis in Developments in Psychotherapy,
Historical Perspectives (Stewart, 1996a), Mairi Evans and Andy Fookes for the entry on
Gestalt therapy, Andy Fookes for the entry on person-centred therapy, Paul Richards
for the entry on NLP and to Ann Smith for her ideas on the 'drowning person' diagram. I am also grateful to Mairi Evans for constructive criticism and helpful advice.
My thanks also go to Chris Davidson who did an outstanding job in creating the diagrams.
I am grateful to the copyright holders for permission to reproduce the following material which forms part of this book.
The Institute of Transactional Analysis, the European Association for Transactional
Analysis and the International Transactional Analysis Association for the use of their codes
of ethics.
From the Transactional Analysis Joumal (rAJ) and the Transactional Analysis Bulletin
(fAB).
John Dusay for the Egogram: TAJ (1972) 2:3.
Franklin Emst for the OK corral. TAJ (1971) 1:4.
Richard Erskine and Marilyn Zalcman for the Racket System: TA] (1979) 9:1.
Taibi Kahler PhD for the Miniscript: TA] (1974) 4:1.
Stephen Karpman for the Drama Triangle: TAB (1968) 7:26.
Ken Mellor for Impasses: a developmental and structural understanding: TAJ (1980)
10:3.
Ken Mellor and Eric Sigmund for the Discount Matri:x: TA] (1975) 5:3.

vi

Introduction

Understanding what transactional analysis is about

To understand transactional analysis it is essential to know something of its history.
Eric Berne, its founder, after qualifying as a psychiatrist, decided to train in psychoanalysis. This approach concentrates on intrapsychic (within the mind) changes and
gives little weight to interactions between people.
Psychoanalysis, like many other psychotherapeutic approaches, is essentially a oneperson psychology. In his work as a psychiatrist, Berne became increasingly interested in
the interpersonal dimension. Harry Stack Sullivan (1953) had started to look at this from a
position somewhat outside the mainstream of psychoanalysis. Berne's original objective
was to extend psychoanalysis into the interpersonal field and he published a series of
papers on this topic in professional journals. As he developed his ideas they met increasing resistance from psychoanalysts. He eventually decided to terminate his training in psy
choanalysis and establish a new school, which he called transactional analysis (he had
already chosen the term transaction for the unit of interpersonal interaction). This added
the analysis of interpersonal interactions to the analysis of intrapsychic processes and
integrated the two viewpoints- people's private experiences and how they behaved
towards each other- to create a two-person psychology. He thus brought together the
insights of the psychoanalysts with the objectivity of the behaviourists. He developed
new theory, in particular concerning ego-states, which made this integration possible. He
added a third element, his personal philosophical position rooted in humanistic values.
He sought to value and empower his patients (a central principle of transactional analysis
is that everyone can think and make decisions for themselves) and so set up relations with
them that were open, respectful and authentic. To this end he set out to turn theory into a
shared resource that can be used by both client and therapist. This involved clarifying,
demystifying and fmding simple ways of representing key elements.
He set out his theories in a brilliant book Transactional Analysis in Psychotherapy
(Berne, 1961) which had little immediate impact. He then wrote a book on one aspect of
his ideas, games theory. Games People Play (Berne, 1964) became a worldwide best
seller and transactional analysis had a meteoric start unique in psychotherapy. This early
success brought both fame and misunderstanding as this book contains only a brief outline of transactional analysis theory. Games People Play remains the book by which Berne
and transactional analysis are best known but games theory developed rapidly after its
publication and much of this book is now seriously out of date.

A uyman's Guide to Psychiatry and

Psychoanalysis Eric Berne's first
book, originally published under the
title mE MIND IN AciTON in 1947 and SO
predating the emergence of transactional analysis as a separate discipline.
This looked ma.inly at classical (DRIVE
TiiEORY) PSYCHOANALYSIS but is enlivened
by Berne's lucid, friendly and humorous style. Revised editions incorporating some transactional analysis were
published under the title The
Layman's Guide to Psychiatry and
Psychoanalysis in 1957 and 1967, the
latter edition also incorporating contributions from other transactional
analysts.
abreaction a release of emotion occurring (usually) in the course of therapy
or counselling as a result of contacting Child ego-state experiences.
accreditation recognition by a professional organisation. For transactional
analysts in the UK this body is the
Institute of Transactional Analysis
(ITA), which is affiliated to the
European Association for Transactional
Analysis (EATA). Accredited transactional analysts are known as certified
transactional
analysts
(eTA).
Certification may be obtained in different specialities (clinical, organisational,
educational, counselling). Certified

transactional analysts in the UK may

apply for professional membership of
the lnstirute of Transactional Analysis.
As the ITA is a member organisation
of the United Kingdom Council for
Psychotherapy (the major governing
body for psychotherapy in the UK),
transactional analysts with clinical speciality become UKCP registered psychotherapists. Most national and
regional transactional analysis associations are linked by a system of agreements with the International Transactional Analysis Association (ITAA)
and as a result there is murual recognition of qualifications worldwide.
acting out expressing unresolved psychological issues through behaviour.
This brings some relief from psychological pain by providing a channel for
repressed feelings but maintains the
denial so the issues remain unresolved. Acting out often involves the
expression of RACKET feelings and is
central to GAMES.
activities one of the six modes of TIME
snwcruruNG (Berne, 1964) that are used
tO satisfy STRUCTURE HUNGER, the others
being withdrawal, rituals, pastimes,
games and intimacy in order of increasing potentialities for stroking and also
of increasing risk of rejection. Unlike
the other forms of time structuring,

adaptation
activities are primarily directed to the affect emotion, feeling. Transactional
achievement of goals in the here and
analysis recognises four AUTHENTIC FEELnow. The predominant ego-state tends
INGS: sadness, anger, happiness ('sad,
to be Adult and since the goals are
mad, glad') and fear. Each of these, in
often material rather than social,
the right context, can lead to dealing
stroking and social risk are variable.
constructively with life issues
(although they can also be expressed
adaptation adapting to the perceived or
inappropriately or manipulatively in a
fantasised needs of others (initially the
RACKETY way). Other feelings are more
parents). See ADAPTED CHilD.
complex and include cognitive elements. For example, guilt involves
adapted Child (often written Adapted
beliefs about moral failure, or shame
Child) the Child ego-state functioning
about shortcomings being known to
in response to Parent demands rather
others.
than its own needs. It may be compliant or rebellious. The adapted Child affirmation a positive statement (often a
does not represent a separate internal
self-statement) used to raise self (interpsychic) structure but is one of
esteem and to reinforce new and more
the ways the Child ego-state shows
positive ways of thinking, feeling and
itself in behaviours. This concept is
behaving. Affirmations intervene in the
therefore most useful when we are
SCRlPT SYSTEM by changing beliefS about
viewing the person mainly from a
self and also by promoting non-scripty
behavioural perspective, e.g. analysing
fantasies in place of fantasies which
transactions. See EGO-STATES FUNCTIONAL
supported script.
MODEL and FALSE SELF.
agenda a list of things to be dealt with. In
Adult ego-state often written Adult. The
therapy the client (and sometimes the
ego-state that deals with 'here and now'
therapist) may have a hidden agenda of
reality. Some transactional analysis writ
assumptions, intentions and wishes
ing offers a somewhat limited and
that are not made explicit (and may not
mechanistic model of the Adult, which
even be consciously acknowledged).
is compared to a computer. However,
One of the main functions of CONTRACTany response that is appropriate to curING is to make hidden agendas explicit.
rent reality is an Adult response and
Contracting is thus not only a prelude
this can include emotions.
to the therapeutic process but is an
important therapeutic technique to
adult survivor an adult who suffered
which one may have to tum repeatedly
sexual, physical or emotional abuse in
as therapy proceeds. Transactional
childhood.
analysis therapy is a contractual
process and in the process the theraadvantages of games (reasons for playpist constantly makes explicit what is
ing games) see GAMES, ADVANTAGES OF.
being done and invites the client's consent, so in addition to the macro
advocacy the therapeutic approach in
process in which a formal therapy conwhich the therapist becomes the advotract is negotiated, contracting is going
cate of the Child in the client against
on at the micro level.
his or her persecuting Parent ego-state.
The psychoanalyst Alice Miller (1983, agitation one of the FOUR PASSIVE BEHAV1985) has written extensively about
IOURS (Schiff and Schiff, 1971). This is
this approach. Also see All.IANCE.
shown by repeated purposeless behav-

..,

almost II script
iours. It occurs when there has been a
build-up of undischarged tension
because of failure to act to have needs
met. This is a passive behaviour
because the energy is discharged in a
way that is not directed to solving the
problem. An example would be fidgeting because a lecturer is inaudible
instead of directing the energy into
asking him to speak up.
alcoholism addiction to, abuse of, alcohol. This is regarded by some as a disease, the view taken by Alcoholics
Anonymous. Transactional analysis
regards alcoholism and other forms of
SUBSTANCE ABUSE as involving the ACTING
('playing GAMES') of underlying psychological problems. These may
involve unresolved SYMBIOSIS, an
attempt by the person to become
looked after as he or she was (or
sought to be) as a child. See Steiner
(1971). See also CODEPENDENCY.

om

Be Perfect

You're good enough as

you are

Please Others Please Yourself

Be Strong

Be open and express

your wants

Hurry Up

Take yol:IT time

Try Hard

Do it.

Drivers form part of the COUNTERSCRIPT,

which is mainly responsible for how
people behave while the SCRIPT PROPEr
holds the major damage in the form o.
the INJUNCTIONS. Drivers therefore fom,
a very obvious part of people's problems and it might seem that gening ri<'
of the drivers will solve them
However drivers also have a defensive;;
function: they are a way of gening an
OK feeling to counter the negativ<
effect of the injunctions. In therapy i
is bener to leave the drivers in place
until there is sufficient PROTECTION to
counter the negative effect of injunc
tions when they are removed. Th1
DROWNING PERSON DIAGRAM illustrateS the
protective function of drivers. The
removal of a driver message by decid
ing to act differently constitutes tho
resolution of a type 1 impasse. See

alliance a therapeutic technique in

which the therapist or a projection of
some figure from the client's past
experience acts as the Child's ally in
dealing with a persecuting Parent. This
may be done using GUIDED FAi'ITASY in
REDECISION SCHOOL, IMPASSE.
which the client is invited to remember an incident from his or her past almost I script a PROCESS SCRIPT (Berne
and bring in the ally or by CUSHION
1970, 1972) type in which success is
woRK in which the client is invited to
almost achieved but is sabotaged at th~
project parts of himself or herself, e.g.
last moment (e.g. work hard to achiev
the child of a certain age that he or she
promotion and then mess up the inte1
once was, incorporated or introjected
view). The almost I script may also be
figures ('people they ca.rry inside
expressed in unfinished projects. Th"-'
themselves') on to cushions and
characteristic driver pattern is Pleas
become each of them in turn by sining
Others + Try Hard.
on the cushion. See also ADVOCACY.
The positive relationship between almost II script a PROCESS S~RIPT (Berne
the client and therapist which is the pre1970, 1972) type in which success i
requisite of therapy is known as the
achieved but never satisfies, so a highe._
THERAPEUTIC ALLIANCE.
goal is immediately substinit;ed for the
previous one (e.g. decide you war.
allowers these are the opposites ('antia degree, work hard to get it, decid
dotes') to DRIVER messages (Kahler and
that a first degree does not count an....
Capers, 1974). They are:
enrol for a PhD, climb the ladder in a

always script
univers ity to a profess orship, this also
does not satisfy and you set your heart
on becom ing a Fellow of the Royal
Society and so on). The charac teristic
driver pattern is Please Others + Be
Perfect.
alway s script a PROCES S SCRIPT (Berne ,
1970, 1972) type in which the same
pattern occurs over and over. People
with this script type keep getting into
the same type of situati on (e.g. relationsh ip failure s) and althou gh they
may think each time that they understand what went wrong and will not
make that mistak e again, someh ow, in
a new set of circum stance s, they do.
This is charac teristic ally associ ated
with a Try Hard driver.
anal stage (psych oanaly sis) in Freudi an
develo pment al theory the stage that
occurs betwee n the ages of two and
four and involv es the invest ment of
LIBIDO in the anus. Conce rn with the
contro l of defeca tion may form the
basis of later contro l and obsess ional
proble ms. The obs~ssive compu lsive
and passive aggress ive PERSONALITY ADAP
TATIONS are establi shed at this stage.

etc. The feeling s expres sed may be

Or RACKET FEELING S. Feeling s
are often 'stacke d' with the most heav
ily defen ded at the bottom so the
client may move throug h anger into
other feeling s such as sadnes s. The
most accessi ble feeling s are often racket feeling s so there is a dange r that
anger work will constit ute strokin g a
racket and will theref ore reinfo rce
script and be counte r-thera peutic .
Some take the view that the expres sion
of anger is itself cathart ic and therefo re
benefi cial. It is impor tant that the
client has PERMISS ION to feel and to
express his or her feelings approp riately,
and the taking of this permis sion will
often remov e blocks to therap eutic
change . It is doubtf ul wheth er the
expres sion of anger is in itself helpful .
Like other therap eutic interve ntions,
anger work should only be undert aken
within the fran1.ework of a treatm ent
plan. Clients doing anger work need
PROTECT ION from the possibl e punitiv e
respon se of the INTROJECT, which is the
target of the anger (SCRIPT BACKlASH).
anore xia nervo sa an eating disord er
charac terised by grossly inadeq uate
food intake and misper ception of body
image (an emacia ted body may be seen
as obese) . It occurs mainly in young
women . For a transac tional analysi s
approa ch to workin g with anorex ics
see Achimo vich (1985), Maine (1985)
and Fukaza wa (1977).
AUTHEN TIC

anger an emotio n elicited by obstru ction,

to the satisfac tion of one's needs and'
wishes by others and also by threats to
the self or aspects of the self (e.g. from
a physica l attack to a slightin g remark ).
Used approp riately , anger genera tes
from ANOREXIA NERVOSA.
an active and asserti ve approa ch to, anorex ic sufferin g
solving interpe rsonal proble ms and is
opposi te of what the
a useful signal to others. Anger is often antiscr ipt doing the
from a rebelli ous
ibes
prescr
script
repres sed as a result of being disaldisagre ement
some
is
There
n.
positio
anger
sed
lowed by parent s. Repres
see Berne (1972);
t,
concep
this
about
and
self
the
against
ted
redirec
may be
c.f. the psycho analyti c concep t of REAC
is then the source of many psycho logiFORMATION.
TION
depres
of
lar
particu
in
cal proble ms,
sion and low self-est eem. Anger is one
antiso cial person ality adapta tion a perof the FOUR AUTHENTIC FEELINGS.
sonali ty structu re charac terised by
manipu lative and irrespo nsible behav
in
ue
anger work a therap eutic techniq
iour. The person often presen ts as
s
e."'Cpres
to
invited
is
client
which the
ing. There is usually a weak,
charm
anger by strikin g cushio ns, shouti ng

atrunement
crazy or excluded Parent. See

PERSONALI-

rr ADAPTATION, WARE SEQUENCE.

anxiety a state of enhanced sensitivity to
threat. Unlike fear, which is focused on
a specific threat or threats and subsides when these are dealt with, anxiety is characterised by a constan(
search for sources of threats and high
and persistent AUTONOMIC AROUSAL

appropriate boundaries and insists on

being heard and responded to.
Assertiveness comes from Adult and is
to be distinguished from aggressiveness which usually comes from Parent
or Child (although aggressiveness in
self-defence could come from Adult).
Assertiveness training teaches techniques of assertive behaviour and is
particularly directed towards people
who have been trained to be overadaptive and submissive in childhood.
See OVERADAPTATION, PLEASE DRIVER, GOOD

appropriate behaviour behaviour that

leads to problem solving and needs
being met is appropriate. Inappropriate
CHILD SYNDROME.
behaviour may be due to DISCOUNTING of
some aspects of current reality, e.g. attachment the tendency to form an
interpreting the world according to
emotional bond with a specific person.
rules learned in the family as a child and
This may be shown by a need for physwhich were never appropriate or were
ical closeness and dependency on the
only appropriate to a child of a specific
other. The attachment theory of
age in that family. This would involve
Bowlby (1969) stresses the importance
reality being interpreted within a disof the attachment to the mother in the
torted FRAME OF REFERENCE. Inappropriate
first year of life and relates adult insebehaviour may be due merely to ignocurity and ANXIETI in relation to loss to
rance of aspects of current reality but
failures in the mother-baby bond.
usually indicates that the person is in
Bowlby's views on the need for a bond
script. Stewart and Joines (1987) define
with one person have been questioned
script as that part of the frame of refer(Rutter, 1972).
ence that involves discounting.
Transactional analysis stresses the
importance of relationships with others
archeology in transactional analysis a
through the concepts of RECOGNITION
GAME in which therapist and client
HUNGER (Berne, 1961) and STROKING
become involved in extensive investi(Berne, 1964) and their crucial imporgation of the client's early experience
tance for healthy child development. It
without any clear therapeutic objecalso recognises the importance of the
tives and so avoid dealing with signifiearly relationship with the primary carecant issues. In psychoanalysis this is
taker (usually the mother) through the
known as the flight into history.
concept of healthy SYMBIOSIS.
archeopsyche in Berne's original formu- attribution a script message given as a
lation of transactional analysis theory
statement about who the child is e.g.
(Berne, 1961) a PSYCHIC ORGAN which
'You're stupid' (direct) or 'He's not
manifests itself phenomenologically as
very strong' (indirect).
the Child ego-state.
attunement the sense of being fully
assertiveness verbal or non-verbal
aware of the other person's sensations,
behaviour in which a person clearly
needs or feelings and the communicaexpresses his or her needs and wishes
tion of that awareness to the other
and deals positively and actively with
person (Erskine, 1993). It requires
the responses of others, e.g. maintains
an awareness of developmentally

authentic feeling

i Autonomic arousal refers to this prepabased needs and feelings, a kinesthetration of the body for action.
ic and emotional sensing of the other
but also requires the therapist to
remain aware of the boundary autonomy the ability to act in response
to here-and-now reality and the indibetween him- or herself and the
vidual's own needs, wishes and view of
client. Erskine regards this as a key
reality and not to be controlled by
factor in effective therapy. See also
script beliefs, the demands of an interEMPATifY, l-TIIOU, INTERSUBJECI1VITY.
nal Parent ego-state or the views of
others. Autonomous behaviour is charauthentic feeling a feeling that is felt
acterised by an awareness of self, othspontaneously and without internal
ers and the world, spontaneous behavcensoring and so is congruent with
iour, open expression of AUTIIENTIC FEELexperience and helpful in dealing with
INGS and a willingness to enter into
reality. See FOUR AUTHENTIC FEEllNGS.
INTIMACY by forming respectful real:real
relationships with others. Autonomy is
authority diagram see CONTRACT, TIIREE
a central concept in transactional
CORNERED.
analysis since the achievement of
autonomy indicates release from
autonomic arousal (psychology) the
SCRIPT. Treatment CONTRACTS aim to proautonomic nervous system deals with
mote autonomy-related goals.
fight/flight responses to danger. It has
two branches, the sympathetic and the
parasympathetic. The sympathetic pre- awareness the terms conscious, unconscious, preconscious and subconscious
pares the body for flight or fight,
are little used in transactional analysis.
adrenaline enters the blood, digestion
Instead the distinction is made
is inhibited so that more blood is availbetween what is in or out of awareness
able to the muscles, the heartbeat is
at a given time without postulating the
speeded up and the blood vessels that
existence of specific zones of the mind
supply the muscles are dilated. The
as in Freudian and jungian theory.
parasympathic reverses this process.

BAC British Association for Counselling.

directs that 'OKness' can be achievec
The major organisation governing
only by getting everything right; c.f. m
counselling in the .UK. It operates an
STRONG. TRY HARD, PLEASE, HURRY UP.
ACCREDITATION scheme that is eclectic
and is based on the evaluation of expe- Be Strong one of the five DRIVERS (Kahlel
rience, practice and training. This
and Capers, 1974), defensive behav
scheme is therefore open to transaciour patterns which relate to DRNER MEStional analysts who have completed
SAGES. These are recipes"for pleasing
their training.
parents, devised in chiidhood anc
used in adult life to obt.ilin positivi
banal script in Steiner's (1974) classificafeelings and to counter the negative
effects of INJUNCTIONS. The.' drivers form
tion of scripts it is a negative script
an important componeni'"of the couN
(Mindless, Loveless or Joyless) that
does not proceed to a dramatically bad
TERSCRIPT. The Be Strong drive
outcome. Unlike tragic scripts, banal
involves the person distancing himself
scripts usually go unnoticed because
or herself from feeling (which his or
the banality of everyday life is so comher parents had not wanted to dea
mon. These are scripts of lost opportuwith). Expression of feeling is avoided.
nity. Banal scripts have first or second
statements about the self are generalised (e.g. 'it is cold' rather than 'I fee 1
degree PAYOFFS. Those who have banal
scripts will be unhappy and unfulfilled
cold') and feelings are disowned e.g
'you made me angry' rather than 'I fel
but apparently living 'normal' lives.
angry when you said that'; c.f. BE PER
See also HAMARTIC SCRIPT.
FECI, TRY HARD, PLEASE, HURRY UP.

basic life positions the existential positions most often taken in relation to behavioural diagnosis of ego-states thlego-state is an internal (intrapsychic)
the value of the self and others. See
UFE POSITIONS.
structure but gives external signs of it
presence and activity. Eric Bernt
Be Perfect one of the five DRIVERS (Kahler
(1961) described four major ways il,
which ego-states can be di,agnosed:
and Capers, 1974). This driver is characterised by a group of behaviours
behavioural (what does the perso1
do?), social (what responses do the.
including extreme precision of speech,
looking upward and counting points
evoke?), historical (does their behavon the fingers. The DRIVER MESSAGE
iour correspond to some aspect of

behaviourism
their personal history?) and phenome- beliefs about self, others and the world
are an important part of the FRAME OF
nological (what is their experience?).
REFERENCE (Schiff et al., 1975), the total
For a reliable diagnosis several of these
pattern of meanings that we use to
are needed, but behavioural cues are
interpret our experience. The SCRIPT is
highly indicative of ego-state and can
the distorted part of this pattern of
be monitored from moment-tomeanings and so includes script
moment, making behavioural diagnosis
beliefs, beliefs that were perhaps once
a very valuable technique. Observations
true for the child we were in the family
can be made of words, tone and speed
we were in then, or more likely were
of speech, gestures, postures, facial
never true but were the best sense we
expressions etc. A level tone, a steady
could make of our world then.
rate of speech, well-chosen words and
Associated with these beliefs will be
relaxed facial muscles would indicate
DECISIONS about how we must behave if
Adult. However, all the cues may not
these beliefs are true. The.terms belief
be congruent. Adult speech patterns
and decision are used extensively in
with an awkward body posture or a
transactional analysis. These are cognifJXed smile would probably indicate
tive terms easily expressed in words;
adapted Child. A diagnosis that is purehowever, the script does not consist
ly behavioural will be of the FUNCTIONAL
purely of words and thoughts, it is also
EGO-STATE (the ego-state as it shows itself
held in behaviours, feelings and the
externally).
body (see BODY SCRIPTING and BODYWORK). The earlier the script element
behaviourism a system of psychology,
was acquired, the larger the non-verbal
and a therapeutic technique based on
element it will contain. Transactional
it, which concentrates on behaviour
analysts are now giving more emphasis
rather than intrapsychic states.
to the early acquisition of script than
Classical behaviourism treated the
did Eric Berne (they are shifting from a
mind as a 'black box' whose internal
mainly Freudian position to a more
processes do not need to be considKleinian position).
ered as long as we understand the
relationship between input and output. Modern behaviourism does tak~ Berne, Eric, founder of transactional
analysis. He was born in Montreal,
some account of mental states, and
Canada in 1910, the son of a doctor.
classical behaviourism has given way
After qualifying as a doctor in 1935, he
to a cognitive-behavioural approach.
moved to the US where he qualified in
Behaviourism had significant influpsychiatry. As well as practising psychience on the development of transacatry he began training as a psychoanational analysis. Its strength lay in its
lyst in 1941 \\-ith Paul Federn, who was
concern with what could be directly
developing the concept of ego-states.
observed, which gave it an objectivity
World War II soon interrupted his
that psychoanalysis lacked. Classical
training and in 1943 Eric Berne, who
behaviourism discounted the imporby then had become an American cititance of intrapsychic processes, howzen, joined the US Army Medical
ever. Through the concept of EGO
Corps. Army service exposed him to a
STATES transactional analysis links
very different culture to his psychoanaobservable behaviours with intrapsylytic training. Psychoanalysis is a very
chic processes and is therefore able to
slow process involving hundreds of
integrate both concepts. See CONDIhours of contact with each client. In
TIONED REFLEX, UNCONDITIONED REFLEX,
the army he had to make judgements
REINFORCEMENT.
8

Berne, Eric
about men in little more than a
minute. He discovered how much
could be found out, even by such brief
contact, through the use of intuition.
He became interested in intuition and
published a series of papers on it in
professional journals. What he had discovered was that there are many cues,
including body posture, tone of voice,
movements, etc. that could be read to
infer mental state. Psychoanalysis, with
its lack of face-to-face contact and its
emphasis on words, missed these. This
connection between the directly
observable and the internal mental
state was to form the basis of transactional analysis. Berne's psychiatric
e:xj,erience had e114bled him to make
these connections but at this stage
they were not yet fully available to him
as conscious knowledge that could be
passed on verbally. In 1947, just after
the end of the war, Berne resumed his
training in psychoanalysis, this time
working with Erik Erikson. Like his
previous training analyst Paul Fedem,
Erikson was an ego psychologist, that
is he belonged to a school of psychoanalysis that stressed the importance
of the way in which the client related
to the outside world through the ego.
DRIVE THEORY psychoanalysis, which preceded ego psychology, had laid greater
emphasis on internal conflicts. Erikson
was particularly interested in the
development of the individual, which
he saw as a lifelong process, and the
societal framework in which this takes
place. These were ideas he was to
bring together in his major work
Childhood and Society (1950).
Berne began to combine these ideas,
intuition, ego-states, behavioural clues
to internal states and Erikson's developmental and social perspectives, into a
system that was soon to become transactional ana.Iysis. He also read very widely
and as the system developed in his mind
he incorporated ideas from many
sources. He wrote a series of papers for

professional journals. These set out on a

highly innovative path. From the early
1950s he conducted regular evening
seminars that brought together a group
of professionals interested in social psychiatry (looking at psychological disturbances not purely as an individual but
also as a social issue). These provided an
ideal medium for developing and refining the emerging theories of the new
approach that was to become transactional analysis. Meanwhile, he continued to practise as a psychiatrist and to
pursue his training as a psychoanalyst.
In 1956 he applied for accreditation by
the American Psychoanalytic Institute
but was refused. He was invited to continue with his training and reapply for
membership of the Institute but decided instead to set off on a new course, to
develop a new system of psychotherapy,
free from what he saw as the shortcomings of psychoanalysis. By 1958 he had
published articles setting out all the
major transactional analysis concepts
that were to be the basis of his subsequent work, but it was not until1961
that he published his major work on the
subject, Transactional Analysis in Psychotherapy. This remains one of the
most important works in the literature
of transactional analysis, giving a lucid
and comprehensive account of the system, its theory, its terminology, its practice and its roots in psychoanalytic
theory. In his subsequent writing Berne
opened up important new areas but did
not continue to set out his theory with
such thoroughness. Unfortunately, it is
through his later writings that he is best
known, so in the absence of the theoretical base and the perspective that Transactional Analysis in Psychotherapy
could supply, these have often been
misinterpreted.
In his next book, Tbe Structure and
Dynamics of Organizations and
Groups (1963), he moved away from
transactional analysis to a review of theoretical frameworks for understanding

bioenergetics
central focus of transactional analysis.
groups including new theory which he
Again, he chose a colloquial title and a
had developed. He returned to tranSaclight, witty style to reach a mass audiGames
with
tional analysis in 1964
ence, but he was also setting out his
People Play. This was aimed at a small
most advanced thinking. Even when
group of professionals who were beginbeing scholarly as in Transactional
ning to use transactional analysis. It
Analysis in Psychotherapy, The Strucincluded a brief outline of basic theory
ture and Dynamics of Organizations
together with new thinking on a develand Groups and Principles of Group
oping area of transactional analysis; the
Treatment he was lucid and witty, and
theory of GAMES (repetitive patterns of
when he was aiming at a wide audieven
unexCompletely
social interactions).
ence as in Sex in Human Loving and
pectedly, the book soon became a best
What Do You Say After You Say Hello?
seller. Perhaps it was because of the
he could be profound.
combination of Berne's friendly and
Eric Berne has produced a radical
lucid style and his keen sense of humour.
in attitudes to psychotherapy. His
shift
success,
The book was an extraordinary
influence goes far beyond his own
being serialised in mass circulation magschool. He established an original and
azines, translated into 15languages and
potent approach to psychotherapy and
going though many editions. Transacraised public awareness of psychologitional analysis was propelled from a
cal issues. He was charismatic and
little-known derivative of psychoanalygreat innovator and communicator.
sis to a topic of mass interest, and its
Through his writings and his personality
founder, Eric Berne, to an international
he gave transactional analysis a metethrough
book
the
Moreover,
celebrity.
oric start, unique in the history of psywhich it was becoming known was not
chotherapy. At his death problems
written for a mass audience and conremained for those who continued to
tained only a sketchy outline of the genuse and develop transactional analysis.
eral theory. This had a profound effect
These included issues of identity and
on the development of transactional
focus, of balancing the professional
analysis and in particular on the way in
with the popular and the achievement
which it is perceived by other profesof full professional maturity and recogsionals: Games theory was developeci
nition. In the quarter century since then
rapidly by Berne and other transactional
has been achieved.
much
People
Games
analysis professionals.
Play quickly became out of date but it
continued to represent what transac- bioenergetics a method of psychotherapy developed by Alexander Lowen
tional analysis is about to most people.
based on the work of Wilhelm Reich.
Berne's next book, Principles ofGrou.f?
Reich stressed the importance of the
Treatment (1966), was another major
body in holding psychological disturwork embracing transactional analysis
bance, in particular through body
and other theoretical approaches to
armouring, the tightening of blocks of
working with groups. It was followed by
muscles to create defensive structures.
Sex in Human Loving in 1970, the year
He developed methods of working
of his early death at the age of 60. This is a
directly on the body and an energy thewitty but rather lightweight exploration
ory to explain his findings. Lowen has
of sexual relationships in terms of transmodified and extended Reich's ideas.
actional analysis theory. His last book,
Bioenergetics has influenced the conWhat Do You Say After You Say Hello?,
of BODY SCRIPTING in transactional
cept
1972
in
posthumously
was published
analysis (Cassius, 1975, 1977, Childsfrom manuscripts edited after his death.
Gowell and Kinnaman, 1978).
Its main theme is script theory, by then a

bond
Blackstone, Peg transactional analyst.
Given an Eric Berne Memorial Award
in 1996 for work in the area of comparison and/or integration of transactional analysis theory or practice with
other theories or practices by bridging
transactional analysis and current
developmental psychologies (object
relations and self-psychology). See
Blackstone (1993).
blamer the third position in the MINT
scRIPT in which the other person is
blamed from an 'I'm OK, You're not
OK' position while a corresponding
racket feeling (e.g. righteous indignatior:) is felt. In Taibi Kahler's original
formulation of the miniscript this position was known as vengeful Child,
however the functional ego-state may
be negative controlling Parent (critical
Parent) as well as negative adapted
Child.

what the client is prepared to disclose. To this can be added information from other non-verbal sources
such as paralioguistics, e.g. speed,
pitch, tone and loudness of speech.
ERIC BERNE in his early work on intuition drew attention to this rich
source of information that is largely
left untapped by psychoanalysis.
Transactional analysis traces many
connections between behaviour,
thinking and feeling and looks for
INCONGRUITIES in Which differing mes
sages are transmitted simultaneously
through different channels. Body language passes in both directions; the
client is also reading the therapist.
This may be used therapeutically but
can also be antitherapeutic if the therapist is transmitting, out of awareness,
some of their personal material. For a
detailed account of the transactional
analysis theory of body language, see
Steere (1982).

Blemish a GAME initiated from a persecuting controlling Parent position in body scripting the defensive use of the
which the other participant is underbody so that elements oftlie script are
mined by constant fault finding.
stored within parts oFthc body,
enabling thoughts, feelings, memories
Board of Certification (BOC) the body
etc. to be kept out of awareness. This
within the International Transactional
is discussed by Cassius (1975, 1977)
Analysis Association (ITAA) responsible
and Childs-Gowell and Kinnaman
for the control of examinations. The
(1978). For a psychoanalytic approach
corresponding body in the European
to this topic, see McDougall (1989).
Association for Transactional Analysis
See also BIOENERGETICS.
is known as the COC (Council of
Certification).
body work working directly on the body
of clients, by massage, manipulation,
body armouring the tensing of parts of
or inviting them to be aware of or
the body such as muscle blocks as a
move certain parts of their body to
release BODY SCRIPTING. When this is
psychological defence. A form of BODY
SCRIPTING.
done there may be a release of feeling
or previously inaccessible memories
body language the way in which feelmay be contacted. Body work forms a
ings and states of mind are unconmajor part of the technique of
sciously expressed by the posture and
Reichian therapies such as BIOENERGETmovement of the body. This is an
ICS and Radix.
important source of information for
the counsellor or therapist since it is bond a strong emotional connection
difficult to disguise and enables the
between two individuals which forms
therapist's insight to move ahead of
when they enter into ATIACHMENT.

bonding
bonding the setting-up of an emotional bn1imia nervosa an eating disorder in
bond by, for example, seeking proximity
which there is gross overeating often
or dose contact, sharing activities, etc.
followed by purging or self-induced
vomiting. Bulimics have often been
ANOREXIc. Unlike anorexics, bulimics
bound energy in Berne's energy theory
(Berne, 1961) there is energy associated
often maintain normal body weight so
with each ego-state: this may be availthe condition is less obvious. A transable (unbound) and then contributes
actional analysis approach to working
to the energisation (or CAlHEXIS) of that
with bulimics is discussed by Goode
ego-state. However, it may be bound,
(1985) and Vognsen (1985).
that is potentially but not immediately
available. In addition to bound and British Association for Counselling see
BAC.
unbound energy there is also FREE
ENERGY that is able to move freely
between ego-states. At any given hull's eye transaction a TRANSACTION
(especially by a therapist) that impacts
moment the ego-state that has the
greatest amount of free energy is
on all three ego-states (Karpman, 1971).
experienced as self. However the egostate that has executive power is the
one that has the greatest amount of
available energy, and here the
s. /
/
unbound energy counts too, so it is
s, / /
possible for the sense of self to be in
an ego-state that is not actually running things (not in executive). For
R,
' '
example, if we put most of our free
Sc
energy into Adult, so we experience
ourself coming from there but the
remaining free energy goes to Parent
and tops up the unbound energy
there to the point where it takes exec- Figure 1 Bull's eye transaction (Karpman,
utive power, we may watch ourselv~s 1971). S, the stimulus to the Adult ego-state also
acting in response to Parent com- stimulates the Parent and Child ego-states.
mands, while knowing from Adult
that they are inappropriate.
business contract that part of the
therapy or counselling contract that
boundaries limits set on behaviour
relates to the practicalities of how the
regarded as acceptable from others. In
sessions should be conducted (time,
the counselling or therapy situation
place, duration, frequency of sessions,
fees, etc). See CONTRACTING.
these might be on such matters as confidentiality, timekeeping, etc. Many
clients have difficulty in setting bound- bystander (Clarkson, 1987, 1992, 1997).
aries. Boundaries need to be set by
A fourth DRA.\:!A TRIANGLE role is that of
Adult although healthy Parent is a usethe bystander who watches the action
ful support. Angry Parent is likely to
and does nothing to change what is
set rigid and inappropriate boundaries
happening. By denying their responsi
while the Child, particularly if the his
bility and their power to act they are
torical child was engulfed or abused,
having a significant impact on the sysmay be unable to set or defend boundtem. Without bystanders, oppressive
aries.
systems would fmd it hard to operate.
12

catharsis a release of emotion. The term change a movemen t from one state
to
cor;nes from the Greek meaning 'to
another. Clients come into counsellin g
purge' and carries the implicatio n that
or psychothe rapy seeking change but
the process has a healthful, cleansing
they are often unclear about what
function. Such emotiona l releases may
changes are possible or might be helpoccur spontaneo usly during therapy or
fuL Transactio nal analysis is a contracmay be actively sought as in ANGER
tual process in which client and theraWORK. They often signify importan t
pist work together with mutual respect
points in therapy although transactio nand agreemen t. In the early stages conal analysis warns against stroking distracts may refer mainly to a joint
plays of RACKET FEELINGS and thereby
process of exploratio n through which
reinforcin g SCRIPT. See also ABREACTION.
an understan ding of the client's dilemma is developed . This then makes concathect to invest an intrapsyc hic structracts for change possible that can be
ture e.g. an ego-state, with psycholog iclearly specified in terms of outcomes .
cal energy.
See CONTRACT.
cathexis see

Child When written with a capital this

indicates the Child ego-state . When
written with a lower case 'c' it indiCathexis School the school of transaccates a real child.
tional analysis developed by Jacqui Lee
Schiff and her co-worke rs .. This cen- child developm ent transactio nal analytred around the therapeu tic use of
sis contains many developm ental conREPARENTING. Other important concepts
cepts (the second and third order
developed within the Cathexis School
structura l analysis of ego-state s, the
include DISCOUNT ING, the DISCOUNT
concept of the developin g symbiotic
MAT~ REDEFINL'IG, SYMBIOSIS, the FRAME OF
relationsh ip with the parents, etc.) but
REFERENCE and the FOUR PASSIVE BEHAVit has produced only one comprehe nIOURS.
sive theory of developm ent, that of
PAMELA LEVIN (1982, 1988), Develchairwor k see CCSHION WORK.
opmental issues are profound ly relevant to the ego-state model and the
character disorder see AJ'ITJSOCIAL PERSONscript concept. The Child ego-state is
AliTY ADAPTATION.
not a unitary structure but an accumuTHEORY.

PSYCHIC ENERGY, SCHIFFIAN

Child ego-state
and disturbances within this ego-state
lation of records of earlier patterns of
likely to be reflected in somatic disare
relating
behaving
and
feeling
thinking,
orders. This ego-state is involved in the
to various developmental stages. The
type 2 IMPASSE.
timing of significant events relative to
developmental stages is therefore very
ego-state proper representa
significant in terms of ego-state struc- c. the Child
childhood (about seven
later
of
tive
therefore
and
ture and script formation
ego-state is involved in
This
onwards).
has profound implications for the indiIMPASSE.
1
type
the
vidual. Berne (1961) illustrates this idea
in terms of bent pennies that leave the C3 this term is sometimes used to indicate
pile permanently skewed. Transactional
a Child ego-state within the Parent.
analysis is an integrative approach that
is able to draw on other disciplines and
transactional analysts draw on a wide
range of theories of child development,
notably those of Freud, Mahler (1975)
and, most recently, Stem (1985).

Child ego-state the ego-state which holds

the thinking feeling and behaviour of
childhood. The transactional analysis
concept of the Child ego-state has been
widely influential and has been taken
up by psychotherapists working within
other disciplines, e.g. by the psychoanalyst Alice Miller, who usually refer to it
as the inner child. The concept represents a major extension of psychotherapeutic theory by conceptualising the
residues of earlier experience in personal form, almost as if they function as
internal OBJECTS. There is not a single
Child ego-state but a set of ego-states
of the
representing different developmental Figure 2 Third-order structural analysis
version
earlier
an
includes
C,
ego-state.
Child
levels. This is represented diagrammativersion C,.
cally in higher order analysis of ego- C, which includes a still earlier
states by the C2 , C, and C0 ego-states.
See also EGO-STATES.
C0 the earliest version of the Child ego- childhood memories memories of events
state corresponding to birth and p~e
in childhood provide important inforbirth issues. In SECOND ORDER STRUCTURAL
mation on the way SCRIPT has been
ANALYSIS this is shown within C, the
formed and provide points of connecearly or somatic Child. According to
tion into unassimilated early experience
Mellor (1986), C0 is involved in the
which are important in therapeutic
type 3 IMPASSE.
techniques such as REDECISION.
Memories may take many forms. Often
C, the early Child ego-state shown in SECthere may be DISSOCIATION from imporC,
within
A.'IALYSIS
OND ORDER STRUCTURAL
tant aspects of the original experience.
the Child ego-state proper. This egoDistressing events may be remembered
the
as
state is sometimes referred to
without access to the original feelings
somatic Child as it represents a time
or clients may have EXPERIENTIAL MEMORIES
when body issues were very important

cognitive-behavioural therapy

.::;

in the form of body sensations or clinical one of the four SPECIAL FlEWS of
moods that correspond to early experitransactional analysis. Clinical transacences but are not accompanied by visutional analysts work psychotherapeutial or auditory memories. The obsessive
cally with clients who present with
search for childhood memories without
emotional, psychological, behavioural
a clear therapeutic objective constirutes
or relationship difficulties.
the game of ARCHEOLOGY.
Certified Transactional Analyst see CTA.
child sexual abuse (sometimes abbreviated to CSA) the exposure of chil- COC see COMMISSION OF CERTIFICATION.
dren to sexual experiences that are, or
might be, damaging to their normal code of ethics and practice a document
psychological development, usually for
prepared by a professional body such as
the gratification of an adult. This may
the Instirute of Transactional Analysis
extend from incest to exposure to
that specifies standards of clinical and
pornographic material. Child sexual
professional practice. Reported breaches
abuse may (and often does) have proof the code can result in the implemenfound and complex psychological
tation of a complaints procedure. A
effects. It has implications for developclear and demanding code and effective
ment and for relationships and may
complaints procedure are important for
leave the Child ego-state deeply conthe protection of the c:lient. Uke every
fused and set up powerful script
client of a professional, the client of a
INJUNCI10NS, in particular Don't Exist.
psychotherapist needS to be able to rely
on the therapist's expertise, skills and
Clarke, Jean illesley transactional anaintegrity; however, the psychotheralyst. Won an Eric Berne Memorial
pist's client often contacts him or her at
Award in 1996 for her contributions to
a time of particular V1Jlnerability. An
applying transactional analysis to parexacting code is also of impor..ance to
ent education. See Clarke (1978).
the professional for maintaining public
Classical School the work of Eric Berne
confidence. For examples of transacand his close associates. It also
tional analysis codes of ethics (ITA, EATA
includes later work developed from or
and rrAA) see Appendix 3.
closely related to this work. This
includes many of the major concepts codependency a siruation in which a part
of transactional analysis e.g. EGO-STATES,
ner, consciously or, more often, out of
SCRIPT, GAMES, STROKING and RACKETS.
awareness, supports a dysfunctional
behaviour (e.g. alcohol dependence) in
client the name now preferred for somethe other. By doing this they maintain
one who seeks the help of a counsellor
the relationship in a dysfunctional way
or psychotherapist. Eric Berne used the
to satisfy their own dependency needs.
medical term 'patient' but transactional
This
is characteristic of the GAMES played
analysts along with counsellors and
by
alcoholics
(Steiner, 1971). Both partmany psychotherapists in other disciners
in
a
codependent
relationship are
plines feel that this does not reflect
attempting to maintain SYMBIOSIS.
accurately the balanced and mutually
respectful therapeutic relationship that
cognitive-behavioural therapy theraBerne did so much to promote.
peutic approaches derived from cognitive therapy and behavioural therapy.
client-centred therapy or counselling a
They stress the dose relation between
name formerly used for: Rogerian
Therapy. See PERSON-CENTRED CO!JNbeliefs and behaviour and hold that by
SELUNG AND THERAPY.
changing irrational beliefs it is possible

cold pricklies
to reduce dysfunctional behaviour
and thus achieve relief from dysfunctional feelings. The techniques of the
cognitive-behavi oural therapies correspond closely to what is known in
transactional analysis as DECONTAMINA
TION.
cold pricklies in Steiner's (1974)
imagery in A Fuzzy Tale these symbolise negative strokes.

resulting in large numbers of games

being named and many practitioners
stressed confrontations aimed at
changing the communication pattern
only rather than dealing also with the
underlying psychological motivation.
Currently the balance is swinging
towards the intrapsychic leaving
some of those attached to CLASSICAL
SCHOOL theory concerned that insights
that communicatio n theory contributed to transactional analysis may
be lost.

collusion the therapist or counsellor

unawarely joining with the client in
complaints procedure the procedure
supporting scruPT.
followed by a professional body when
a complaint is made about an alleged
come on a provocation into script behavbreach of the CODE OF ETHICS AND PRAC
iour, often internal - 'the Parent whisby a counsellor or therapist. See
TICE
often
is
It
ear'.
Child's
the
in
pering
Appendix 3.
identifiable through the GALLows that
frequendy accompanies it.
complementary transaction see TRANSAC
TION, COMPLEMENTARY.
Commission of Certification (COC) the
examination
the
oversees
that
body
and certification processes in the compound decision linked early decisions, e.g. 'I can exist as long as I do not
European Association for Transactional
get close to people'. In this example
Analysis (EATA). The corresponding
one INJUNCTION (Don't Be Close)
body of the International Transactional
defends against another (Don't Exist).
Analysis Association (ITAA) is called the
Board of Certification (BOC).
con the ULTERJOR TRANSACTION that invites
another person into a GAME by hooking
communication the passage of info~a
their GIMMICK (the aspect of their pertion between individuals. Transactiorlal
sonality structure that makes them vulanalysis also sees this process occurring
nerable to this particular psychological
intrapsychically between ego-states
message). For example, the con may
(see INTERNAL DIALOGUE). The theory of
contain an overt or covert request for
TRANSACTIONS is essentially a theory of
help that hooks the gimmick of somecommunication, and communicati\)n
one who seeks strokes by being helptheory is implicit in much of the ci.A.Ssr.
ful. The game then starts in the
CAL SCHOOL of transactional analysis
Rescuer and Victim positions on the
and also plays an important role in the
DRAMA TRIANGLE.
work of post-classical transactional
analysts such as Taibi Kahler. Eric
Berne maintained the balance conditional stroke a STROKE with a specified or implied condition, e.g. 'I like
between the behavioural! communicayou when you smile' or 'you look
tions and intrapsychic approaches that
good in that red dress'.
is the unique stance of transactional
analysis. After his death the behavioural/communicatio ns approach became conditioned :reflex (behaviourism )
now usually termed conditioned
dominant for a time. There was
response. A recurring response to a
interest in the fine detail of games
;J

1()

congruence
specific stimulus that is the result of
experience in which the
qesponse was reinforced (e.g. a pigeon
. being trained to operate a lever by
being given food whenever it does so).
This concept influenced the develop, - -ment of the transactional analysis concept of STROKING.

'~'''r.~,,.-,vi

their thinking and behaviour, using

information previously obtained in
therapy. According to Berne (1966)
this throws the psyche off balance and
causes a redistribution of cathexis. He
warns that this may strengthen the
inappropriate ego-state if the confrontation is ill timed or inappropriately
worded. A heavy handed confrontation
of a client, especially if there is insufficient HOlDING, is likely to push the client
in the direction of not-OK adapted
Child. There was a vogue for a highly
confrontative style in transactional
analysis in certain quarters during the
1970s. This was possibly because of
two factors; the rise in the coMMUNICATION theory approach to transactional
analysis, with a consequent neglect of
intrapsychic processes, and the success
the Schiffs claimed using high confrontation methods with seriously disturbed clients in therapeutic communities. The latter discounted important
aspects of the Schiffs' work e.g. that it
had been designed specifically for seriously disturbed clients who had little
available Adult ego-state and that it
was delivered in an exceptionally supportive environment.

confidentiality an agreement that the

content of therapy is private and will
not be disclosed. Such an agreement is
a prerequisite of the trust between
counsellor or therapist and client that
is essential for the creation of a THERA
PEunc AUJANCE. The boundaries of confidentiality need to be clearly established in the CONTllACT that is made
with the client. The client should be
informed that the counsellor or therapist might need to disclose certain
matters in the course of SUPERVISION and
appropriate boundaries placed around
that process. There may be other
exceptions but these must be clearly
specified and agreed. If the counselling or therapy is conducted on
behalf of an agency a THREE-CORNERED
CONTRACT may be needed in which each
of the three relationships: client -.
counsellor, counsellor ...., agency and
agency - client is contracted for.
confusion model a model of psychological disturbance in terms of confusion
conflict model a model of the psyche in
at some level within the psyche. The
which different parts are seen as in
concept of confusion of the Child egoconflict with each other. It is one of
state is central to transactional analysis
the most influential approaches to
theory. Confusion about the nature of
understanding psychological_ problems
reality also occurs because of CONTAMJand is inherent in much transactional
NATION of the Adult ego-state. See
analysis thinking e.g. INTERNAL DIALOGUE,
Clarkson (1992), also MODELS, REDECIIMPASSES (see Clarkson, 1992). Freud's
SION, STAGES OF THERAPY.
original PSYCHIC ORGAN model in which
the ego had to mediate between the confusion racket a RACKET in which conconflicting demands of the ID, the
fusion is experienced substituting for a
SUPEREGO and the outside world is a
feeling that the individual does not
conflict model. See also MODELS.
have a PERMISSION to feel.
confrontation literally 'bringing face to congruence in transactional analysis this
face with'. One of Berne's THERAPEUTIC
corresponds to unanimity between
OPERATIONS. It involves inviting clients
ego-states so that the social message
to be aware of inconsistencies e.g. in
(from Adult) and the psychological

consciousness
message (from Child or Parent) are 1 ous types of interruption to contact.
consistent. Lack of congruence indiThis concept has been introduced
into transactional analysis by Richard
cates an ULTERIOR TRANSACTJON. What
will be observable will be inconsistenErskine (Erskine and Moursund,
cies between channels of communica1988).
tion (smiling while looking scared,
remaining impassive while talking containment (psychoanalysis, object
about something sad). It is important
relations school) the therapist's taking on whatever the client offers,
to check for congruence when closing
ESCAPE HATCHES. If it is absent the cloopenly or out of awareness, and
being able to deal with it safely from a
sure is likely to be sabotaged by
mature and caring position, however
Child. The term congruence is also
used in person-centred therapy where
disturbing it may be to them. This
concept was used extensively by Bion.
it designates one of Rogers' CORE CONDlTIONS. The meaning here is genuineIn Kleinian imagery it may be seen as
ness (in transactional analysis this is
the therapist providing a safe container
for the client's PROJECTIVE IDENTIFICATION.
called authenticity). By relating
This is closely allied to Winnicott's
authentically, the therapist models
concept of HOLDJNG. In transactional
the behaviour and invites the client to
do likewise. Authenticity involves an
analysis terms this may be seen as
inward contact by the counsellor or
referring to the POTENCY of the therapist.
therapist with their own thoughts,
feelings and body states as well as an
outward contact with the client. It constant Adult a condition in which only
involves a level of risk taking, and a
the Adult ego-state is cathected in
transactions. Similarly constant Child
willingness to speak as well as understand MARTIA!'II.
and constant Parent. See EXCLUSION,
EGO-STATES.

consciousness psychoanalysis presents

what is essentially a topographical contamination contents of the Child or
view of the psyche in which the conParent ego-states becoming confused
scious, preconscious and unconscious
with Adult ego-state contents (Berne,
1961). This results in current reality
may be seen as zones overlapping the
boundaries of the PSYCHIC ORGANS.
(the concern of the Adult) becoming
confused with a past state, either a
Transactional analysis traditionally has
Child experience or a Parent direction
avoided using language that implies
such divisions, so usually refers to psyor idea. This might result in an adult
person feeling inadequate because that
chic content (thoughts, feelings etc.) as
person still felt he or she had the limitbeing in or out of awareness. However,
ed intelligence and knowledge of a
it is an integrative approach so transacchild, or stating an idea of a parent as
tional analysts sometimes choose to use
if it were established fact ('you can't
the psychoanalytic terms.
trust people with green eyes').
Contamination may be single (Child or
contact (Gestalt psychotherapy) conParent contamination) or double (both).
tact between the person and his or
The first stage of transactional analysis
her own environment (personal and
therapy is decontamination of the
material) is seen as the basis of
Adult to provide a resource to work
healthy functioning in the Gestalt
alongside the therapist in deconfusing
approach. Psychopathology can therethe Child.
fore be interpreted. in terms of vari10

contract
Contamination

(a)

(b)

(a) Child contamination of Adult - e.g. Child belief 'spiders are scary' contaminates Adult to cause
spider phobia. (b) Parent contamination of Adult - e.g. Parent belief 'all Scotsmen are mean'
contaminates Adult to cause prejudice. (c) Double contamination of Adult- e.g. Parent belfei'
'you
a rotten kid', plus. Child belief 'I am a rotten kid'.

are

Figure 3 Contamination (Berne, 1961).

content the material brought by the

client to the psychotherapy or counselling session. What is talked about in
the session. This may be clearly relevant but it also may be defensive, serving to obscure important issues and
create diversion. It is important to take
account also of the PROCEss, i.e. what
happens in the session.

.~

contract a negotiated agreement between

the client and the therapist or counsellor. This may refer to business (e.g.
fees, times of sessions), process (how
the work is to be carried out) or outcomes (what the client seeks from the
therapy). Transactional analysis is a
contractual method; it stresses the
importance of openness, clear communication and mutual respect. This is
only possible if hidden agendas on the
part of the client and the therapist are
brought out and addressed. Contracting may be undertaken formally
with time set aside in the session to
arrive at a contract. It may also take
place moment by moment in the
process. This involves the therapist
making frequent checks that he or she

and the client are travelling toget.l'ter, in

an agreed directiof11.(Lee, 1997). The
therapist does not have to accept the
contract requested by the client; clients
commonly request-contracts to reinforce defences such as DRIVER BEHAVIOURS.
However, the contract finally arrived at
needs; to be agreed by both parties
without the client experiencing pressure to change in ways which the therapist believes to be 'right'. It is legitimate
for the therapist to set rules that are not
negotiable (e~g.. no violence). These set
the boundaries within which the theraPY will take place and need to be clear
and specific and not jUst assumed. The
client agrees to them or does not con
tract to work with the therapist.
Transactional analysis stresses the
importance of outcome contracts in
imparting clarity to the contracting
process and of specifying observable criteria by which the achievement of the
contract may be assessed .. The most specific criteria will be behaviqural so,
where possible, the OUTCOME CONTRA:CT
specifies behaviours that will indkate
the achievement of the agreed objectives. SeealsoouTCOMEFANTASrES..

contract, three-cornered
Steiner (1974) pointed out the simi- , core conditions (person-centred connselling) those qualities expressed
larities betwt:en the therapeutic process ,
within the counsellor-client relationof contracting and legal concepts of contract. Contracts require mutual consent,
ship that are necessary for effective
work. Rogers (1951), within the pervalid consideration (both parties beneson-centred school of counselling,
fit) and competency (not only for the
identified three main core conditions
therapist who needs to be suitably
which he termed, empathy, unconditrained and experienced, but also the
tional positive regard and congruclient needs to have enough available
ence. Transactional analysis stresses
Adult to participate actively in the
the I'm OK: You're OK position and
change process). Also the contract must
authenticity which closely correspond
have a lawful object (it must not have as a
to Rogers' unconditional positive
goal anything that contravenes the law
regard and congruence. See CONGRU
or the accepted ethical principles govENCE, THERAPEUTIC ALLIANCE, PERSON-CENerning the practice of psychotherapy).
TRED COUNSELLING.
See COVERT AGENDA.
contract, three-cornered in certain situa- corralogram a diagram that indicates the
tions a third party may have an interest
amount of time spent in each of the
in the contract e.g. where counselling
four LIFE POSITIONS over a period of
time, usually a day (Ernst, 1971). A
or psychotherapy is done within an
organisation. Each of the contracts
shape is drawn in the centre of an OK
CORRAL diagram. The area covered in
needs to be made clear, e.g. client each quadrant indicates the proportherapist, client - organisation, theration of time spent in that life position.
pist - organisation. This is known as a
three-cornered contract (English,
I+ U+
1975). In certain situations the position
1-U+
is still more complex, especially if a
number of individuals or bodies exercise authority but are not parties to the
contracting. In this case Berne (1966)
recommends the drawing-up of an
authority diagram to define the space
in which contracting takes place.
I+U-

1- Ucontrolling Parent (often written

Controlling Parent) the Parent egostate functioning in a controlling Figure 4 Corralogram (Ernst, 1971). The area
mode. See FUNCTIONAL EGO-STATES.
of the outline falling in each quadrant of the

OK Corral indicates the proportion of each day

Cops and Robbers a GAME of pursuits spent in that life position.

and evasions. Berne (1964) suggested
that the person who is 'it' secretly corrective emotional e..'Cperience prowants to be caught, like the child who
viding, within the therapy, an experihides in Hide and Seek.
ence whose lack in childhood has led
to a developmental failure and thus
cop-out finding a crooked way out of a
facilitating the readdressing of the
difficult situation. Berne (1971) sees
developmental issue. This is rejected
this as a function of the Uttle Professor
by some psychodynamic theorists who
assert the primacy of achieving
(A,) in making the Child's adaptation
to the Parent less onerous.
intrapsychic restructuring by analysis.
20

counterscript cure
Classical transactional analysis is closer
mainly of a restructuring of currently
to this original Freudian position than
available resources while 'psychothe Cathexis and redecision schools.
therapy' involves deeper level interThe emphasis in classical transactional
ventions to make additional resources
analysis in on empowering the Adult,
available.
who can then cooperate with the therapist is deconfusing the Child (i.e. the counterinjunctions 'messages' acquired
emphasis is on restructuring rather
in later childhood that specify behavthan 'healing'). REPAR.fu'<TING is based on
iours which the developing child
the concept of the corrective emotionbelieved would gain the approval (and
al experience.
perhaps love) of their parents.
Resorting to these behaviours from an
counselling currently (1997) there is a
adapted Child position generates a
lack of agreement among transactional
spurious sense of OKness that helps to
analysis and counselling organisations
defend against negative elements in
on the exact definition of counselling.
the personality such as INJUNCTIONS. The
A number of definitions have been
five DRNER MESSAGES are important counproposed (e.g. ITM, 1995). What seems
ter-injunctions that occur widely.
to be agreed is that it is a helping activCollectively the counterinjunctions
ity that involves talking to others and
constitute the COUNTERSCRIPT. See
facilitating them in processing their
INJUNCTIONS, SCRIPT MATRIX, DRIVERS, MES
experience and making desired
SAGE FOR1\1AT.
changes in their feeling, thinking and
behaviour. Usually psychological theo- counterfeit strokes a stroke that is not
ries are applied within this facilitation
what it at first appears to be - for
process. Likewise, there is no agreeexample a negative stroke presented as
ment that a clear distinction can be
a positive ('What an unusual dress! Did
made between counselling and psyyou get it secondhand?')
chotherapy. The British A.~sociation for
Counselling (1990), the major profes- counterscript the defensive aspect of the
sional body for counselling in the UK,
script made up Of the COUNTERJNJUNCdoes not make a distinction between
TIONS. The counterscript has a major
the two activities. This is a significant
effect on the way the script is played
issue for transactional analysis as the
out since it clearly specifies behaviours
qualification of Certified Transactional
(originally behaviours that the child
Analyst is awarded in SPECIAl. FIELDS of
believed would gain his or her parents'
application, which include psychotherapproval). The PROCESS SCRIPT type is
apy and counselling. The European
therefore closely related to the counAssociation for Transactional Analysis
terscript and in particular to the princi(EATA, 1997) specifies the counselling
pal DRIVER MESSAGES. See also SCRIPT
special field as being appropriate for
MATRIX.
transactional analysts whose activities
aim at the development and growth of counterscript cure an apparent cure in
people and their frame of reference
which the client has incorporated meswithout these activities corning under
sages from the therapist on how to be
the clinical, organisational or educaa 'good' client into his or her !=Ountertional fiefd. In general those who do
script (Clarkson, 1992). The person is
see a difference between counselling
acting as if change at a deep structural
and psychotherapy tend to place it in
level has occurred (see FLIGHT INTO
the level of intrapsychic restructuring
HEAJ.:rn). The client has OVERADAPTED to
involved: 'counselling' consisting
the therapist. This should not be taken

countertransference
at its face value but may represent a creative dreamer alternative term for
the schizoid PERSONALITY ADAPTATION.
significant stage in therapy in that the
client may cease destructive behaviours and become open to the good critical Parent (often written Critical
Parent) the Parent ego-state functionthinking of the therapist. See also PASing in a critical mode. This is now
SIVE BEHAVIOURS.
regarded as the negative aspect of the
controlling Parent ego-state (-CP). See
countertransference originally the therFUNCTIONAL EGO-STATES.
apist's reaction to the TRANSFERENCE of
the client (e.g. if the client is projecting his or her father on to the thera- crossed transaction see TRANSACTION,
CROSSED.
pist he or she will elicit a response in
the therapist to the psychological
manoeuvres he or she has carried for- Crossman, Pat received the Eric Beme
Memorial Scientific Award in 1976 for
ward from the original situation).
her work on PERM.!SSION and PROTECTION.
Awareness of countertransferenc e
yields important insights (e.g. social
diagnosis of ego-states). If it is missed crossup see FORMU1.A G.
by the therapist then the client and
therapist can be drawn into a replay of crying expressing emotion through the
release of tears, often with sobbing.
the original situation with the parent or
This may be expressive of sadness,
other projected figure. This is often the
pain or sometimes joy. Tra.."lSactional
cause of therapy becoming stuck and is
analysts believe that the expression of
an issue addressed in SUPERVISION.
AUTIIENTIC FEEUNGS is always helpful and
Clarkson (1992) refers to this as reacshould be supported. However, crying,
tive countertransference . The term
along with other forms of emotional
countertransference is also used to
expression, may represent the expresdescribe the therapist's transference on
sion of RACKET FEELINGS. Clients Will
to the client (i.e. the projection on to
sometimes move through the racket
the client of a significant figure from
feelings into authentic feeling, but the
the therapist's past). Clarkson calls this
STROKING of a prolonged or habitual
pro-active countertransference.
release of racket feelings is countertherapeutic.
Courtroom a GAME in which two parties
competitively seek to secure a third
person (often the therapist) as an ally crystallisation see THERAPEUTIC OPERATIONS.
against the other. Often played when
CTA certified transactional analyst. A procouples are being counselled.
fessional qualification entitling the person holding it to practise transactional
covert agenda beliefs about desired or
analysis awarded by the relevant pronecessary outcomes that are held by
fessional body (in Europe this is EATA,
either the client or the therapist and
the European Association for
not made explicit. If not dealt with
Transactional Analysis). The CTA can
these will give rise to UJ.TERIOR TRANSAC
be awarded in four SPECIAL FIEillS: clininoNs in which divergent messages are
cal, organisational, educational or
given simultaneously at the social
counselling. In the UK the award of
(ostensible) and psychological (real)
clinical leads to registration as a
CTA
cONTRAcrthe
of
function
major
A
levels.
psychotherapist by the UK Council for
ING process is to make these agendas
Psychotherapy (UKCP).
open and specific.
?.?

cyclothymic
cure restoration to a state of health. This
has a dear meaning in medical settings
but in psychology is more problematic.
An intervention to reinstate defensive
systems may enable the client to
resume previous levels of functioning
but not be in that client's long-term
interests as defensive systems are limiting. A better outcome may be to help
the client to function without the need
for the defences. Berne (1971)
stressed the importance of cure and
the need to focus on the key issue and
deal with it without being distracted by
peripheral consequences of the
pathology (he compared this to withdrawing a splinter in the toe as
opposed to dealing l\'ith the limp that
resulted from it). The concept of cure
may be seen to run counter to the
humanistic approach, which assumes
an innate tendency to develop in the
way that is uniquely appropriate for
the individual. This humanistic perspective is also part of the philosophical position of transactional analysis. If
cure is a return to (or movement
towards) 'normality', who decides
what is normal? The transactional
analysis answer is 'the client'. In the
process of coNTRACTING, client and therapist agree positive outcomes for the
therapy and the ways in which these
can be verified. These have to be freely
agreed between them. The therapist
does not seek to impose his or her
view on the client but may decline to
work towards an outcome that he or
she believes would not be in the
client's interests. See also PHYSIS.

social control, in which the client takes

control from Adult even though the content of the Parent and Child ego-states
may remain unchanged. This may be
achieved at an early stage of therapy.
symptomatic relief, in which changes
have begun to occur in the Child and/or
Parent ego-states so there is less internal
pressure to engage in scripty behaviours.
transference cure A stage in which the
therapist has been introjected as a good
Parent. This will remain stable only if the
client can maintain the introject ('keep
the therapist in his or her head'). While it
lasts this can give considerable relief
from SCRIPT. REDECISION therapy encourages the client to stay out of TRANsFERENCE.
script cure was originally called 'psychoanalytic cure' by Berne (1961). This
involves a fundamental change in the
Child ego-state with Adult support so
that script issues can finhlly be resolved.
See REDECISION.
curse term sometimes used for the PAYOFF
of the script.
cushion work a clinic~! technique in
which the client agrees to project an
internal structure such as an INTROJECT
or an EGO-STATE on to a cushion so that
the internal process can be externalised. Alternatively, an empty chair
may be used in which case the term
'chair work' is used. See PROJECTION,
REDECISION, S11JNTZ MULTIPLE CHAIR WORK.

cyclothymic subject to mood swings

between elation and depression but
not of such a magnitude as to lead to a
diagnosis of MANIC DEPRESSIVE. The
underlying ego-state structure is probcure, four phases of Berne (1961, 1972)
ably similar. For a transactional analyproposed that there are four phases of
sis therapeutic approach, see Loomis
cure.
and Landsman (1980).

-l

Dashiel, Sharon awarded the Eric Berne

Memori al Award in Transac tional
Analysis in 1994 for her work on the
Parent resoluti on process (Dashiel ,
1978). Ooint award.)

states so that the Adult is free from

intrusive Child or Parent material and
consequ ently is freed from a distorted
view of current reality. See TIIERAPEUTIC
OPERATIONS.

(psycho analysis ) a
decisio n in transact ional analysis this defence mechan ism
by the EGO to conused
process
mental
means a choice to act or respond in a
internal element s
resist
or
divert
trol,
r
whateve
particul ar way made with
that may give rise to stress or anxiety
mental resource s were available at the
('cause neurosis '). COUNTERJ NJUNCTIO NS
time. This term is applied to very early
an example of a defence mechaare
intuitive
ly
essential
were
that
choices
nism since they placate the internal
selection of what seemed to work best
and so reduce Parent pressure
Parent
that
ns
as well as to later decisio
on the Child. Defence s are almost
involved cognitive weighing of alternaalways associate d with DISCOUNTING.
tives. See also EARLY LIFE DECISION and
SCRIPT.

deficit a lack of somethin g. This concept

offers an alternati ve to trauma (damtranof
aim
ultimate
deconfu sion the
age) conflict and confusio n theories of
sactiona l analysis is the deconfu sion
psychopa thology. A problem may arise
1961,
of the Child ego-stat e (Berne,
not from specific harm that the person
saw
(1961)
Berne
,
Initially
1972).
but from the lack of somereceived
this stage as not always necessar y and
experien ce or process) , nec(an
thing
psychy,
necessar
if
suggest ed that,
essary for healthy developm ent.
analysis could be used to achieve it.
With the develop ment of script
gical
theory, transact ional analysis devel- deficit model a model of psycholo
key
of
lack
the
of
terms
in
nce
disturba
oped its own approac hes and deconin
s
resource
l
persona
or
ces
experien
as
seen
be
to
carne
fusion of Child
comto
failure
to
leading
d
childhoo
central to achievin g full script cure.
plete developm ental processe s satisfacSee CURE, STAGES OF, THERAPEU TIC OPERAtorily (Clarkso n, 1992). See MODELS.
TIONS.
associate d
deconta minatio n therape utic proce- degree the level of patholog y
(GAME or
pattern
ur
behavio
a
with
dures to remove CONTA.\i!NATJON, that is
g
damagin
the
by
d
measure
as
SCRIPT)
egobetween
to firm up boundar ies

depressive position
. _nature of the outcome. Games played
at the first degree level result in nothing more than social embarrassment;
:at the second degree level there are
:serious consequences such as loss of a
: :job or divorce and at the third degree
. Jevel they may result in psychiatric hospitalisation, imprisonment, serious
physical harm or even death. See GAMES
and SCRIPT.

mally. This is a reality in childhood. A

psychologically healthy adult possesses
a high degree of independence but
nevertheless has emotional and social
needs that must be met through others. Fairbairn (1952) distinguishes
between infantile and mature dependence. In this usage, mature dependence is the opposite of NARCISSISM
rather than of self-reliance. For transactional analysis models of dependency see SYMBIOSIS, SECOND ORDER SYMBIOSIS,

deliberate self-harm harm to the body

CODEPENDENCY.
done in awareness (as opposed to setting up, out of awareness, to have an
accident). This may extend from self- depersonalisation a sense of personal
mutilation to suicide. In transactional
unreality. This is an indicator of msso.
analysis self-harm is regarded as one of
CIATION. See also DEREAIJSATION.
the i:hree ESCAPE HATC~ that represent
ultimate and extremely damaging depression a transient mood or chronic
default strategies, which may be trigfeeling state characterised by hopelessgered if defences fail to hold. Closure
ness, despair, sadness, a sense of
of escape hatches (a decision from
meaninglessness, low self-esteem and
uncontaminated Adult not to use the
apathy. Psychiatrists distinguish
escape hatch whatever the circumbetween reactive depression, which
stances) must therefore precede major
has an identifiable external cause such
therapy in which important defence
as a loss, and endogenous depression
mechanisms are addressed. The client
where no such cause is identifiable
needs to take account of the possibility
and which seems to arise from internal
of acting out without awareness and
sources. In depression people are
maintain Adult awareness to prevent
often passive and inactive. Agitated
depression is characterised by restlessthis.
ness and since the sufferer has more
delusion a false belief that persists
energy the risk of self-harm is higher.
Depression is always associated with a
despite argument, persuasion or
Don't Exist injunction. Other injuncindeed clear contrary evidence and
which is not consistent with the client's
tions that are often present are Don't
Be Important (Don't Have Needs)
educational, cultural or religious backDon't Be You and Don't Be Well. See
ground. A delusion will involve DISCOUNTING and indicates CONTA.\1INATION
also MANIC DEPRESSIVE.
of the Adult ego-state, usually by Child.
depressive position (Kleinian psychodenial a DEFENCE MECHANISM in which a
analysis) the position reached when
painful experience or an EGO DYSTONIC
the child (or client in therapy) leaves
aspect of the self is denied. As with
the PARANOID-SCHIZOID position in which
other defence mechanisms, this will be
there was splitting of both the EGO
(self) and OBJECT representati.on (the
characterised by the use of
DISCOUNTING.
way the mother is perceived) into
good and bad parts, to a more realistic
dependency the state of needing (or
position in which there is awareness
believing that one needs) the support
that both love and hate were directed
to the same object. The client becomes
of another in order to function nor-

depth psychology
aware of the ambivalence of the loved
object (mother) and becomes concerned to make reparation for the
damage he or she imagines his or her
hate has done. See OBJECT CONSTANCY.
This Kleinian concept influenced the
transactional analysis concept of UFE
rosmaN. See also OK CORRAL.

organisation passed through from

birth to maturity. Two widely used systems are the psychosexua l stages of
Freud and Erik Erikson's stages.
Development may be adversely affected
by DEFICITS (lack of necessary experiences) or TRAUMA (damaging experiences), which may lead to FIXATIONS
(points of arrested development that
may lead later to age-inappro priate
thinking, feeling or behaviour).
Fixations also have implications for the
satisfactory completion of later developmental stages. Eric Berne compared
them to bent pennies that skew the
rest of the stack of coins. Transactional
analysis includes many development al
concepts, e.g. the archaic nature of the
Child and Parent ego-states, second
order analysis of ego-states, Mellor's
model of the three types of IMPASSE.
The most extensive developmen tal
model within transactional analysis is
that of PAMElA LEVIN.

depth psychology a psychology that

seeks to understand psychologic al
problems by exploring unconscious
aspects of the psyche. Psychoanalysis is
such an approach. Initially transactional analysis placed major emphasis on
behavioural aspects of psychologica l
problems although its roots have
always been psychoanaly tic. In his
early writings Berne suggested that
psychoanaly sis might be needed if
deeper level interventions were necessary. As it has developed, transactional
analysis has extended its field from relatively brief interventions (usually in a
group) to include the full range of
depth work. This has been accompa- diagnosis the identification of a specific
illness or psychologica l disturbance.
nied recently by an incorporatio n of
Accurate diagnosis can lead to effective
additional psychoanalyt ic theory, parTREATM&'IT PlANNING; however, diagnosis
ticularly later (post-Bernian ) developcan also lead to labelling in which
Ian
psychology.
self
ments such as
unique aspects of the client's situation
Stewart (1996a) has referred to this as
are missed and attributes that they do
a 'psychoanalyt ic renaissance'.
not have but that are associated with
the label are attributed to them.
derealisatio n a sense that the external
Psychiatric diagnosis is based on an
world is unreal. Like DEPERSONAUSATION,
analogy with physical medicine: there
this indicates DISSOCL~TION.
are specific mental illnesses (e.g. schizophrenia) rather than a great variety of
destrudo (psychoanal ysis) the energy
problems arising from the interaction
associated with the death instintt or
of pathological factors. The overall
Thanatos. Berne alludes to these conapproach in transactional analysis is
cepts in A Layman's Guide to
one of micro-diagno sis (Feltham and
Psychiatry and Psychoanal ysis
Dryden, 1993), the identificatio n of
influhave
may
they
and
1957)
(Berne,
units of pathology such as a Don't
enced his concept of the script payoff.
Exist INJUNCTION. Since transactiona l
See also UBIDO.
analysis stresses the close connection
between mental states and behaviours,
developmen t advancing through stages
these units of pathology can often be
to a more complex or complete state.
related to specific behaviours (e.g. Be
Theories of psychologica l developStrong DRIVER behaviours). Transactional
ment describe, classify and seek to
analysis also has a syndrome-b ased
explain the stages of psychologica l

discount matrix
system of diagnosis, Paul War~'s concept of PERSONALI1Y ADAPTATIONS which is
.based on six characteristic patterns of
: ,diagnostic elements.

imising or ignoring some aspect of

himself, others or the reality situation
. . . Discounting is not operationally
observable, however we can see . . .
external manifestations of discounting'
(Schiff et al., 1975). Discounting is an
important process in maintaining the
scRIPT and dealing with threats to the
FRAME OF REFERENCE. It can be manifested
through PASStvE BEHAVIOURS, REDEFINING,
ULTERIOR TRANSACTIONS and behaviours
from DRAMA TRIANGLE positions. Garnes
begin with a discount (implicit in the
coN and the GIMMICK) and discounting
is implicit in DRIVERS. There are many
readily observable indicators of discounting, although discounting is not
directly observable. Discounting indicates the operation of DEFENCE MECHANISMS. The discount concept is characteristic of the use of micro-conceptualisation, identifying s~_all behavioural
indicators, which is aJeature of transactional analysis. The ..psychoanalytic
concept of defence m_echanism (e.g.
the defensive use of d~nial or projection) refers to complex patterns
employing many discounts and is
therefore more difficult to relate to
specific behaviours.

when the counsellor or therapist is controlling or guiding the client

he or she is described as being directive. The danger lies in missing the
client because the agenda has become
largely that of the therapist. This also
undermines the AUTONOMY of the client
and contravenes the philosophical
basis of transactional analysis, r:.~ OK.
YOU'RE OK. The use of CONTRACTING, not
only having a treatment contract and
session contracts but contracting within
the.process (e.g. sayipg 'are you willing
to . . . ') is standard practice in transactional analysis therapy and helps to
maintain a balanced process. It is not
desirable and probably not possible for
the therapist or counsellor to be truly
non directive. The term was once used
to describe Rogerian counselling but
has now been superseded by personcentred counselling in recognition of
problems in being wholly non directive.
The client has a right to expect the therapist to actively pursue the therapeutic
process using his or her resources fully,
but also that this should be done discounting, levels of (Cathexis school
respectfully and with MUTUALITY. For a
of transactional analysis) discounting may occur at the level of existence,
time in the 1970s after Berne's death, a
directive version of transactional analysignificance, change possibilities and
personal abilities. See DISCOUNT MATRIX.
sis centring on communication theory
became fashionable in certain quarters.
This was often associated with high lev- discount matrix (Cathexis school of
transactional analysis) a table that
els of CONFRONTATION. Some of th~ pracshows the relationship between distices of Schiffian reparenting therapy
were highly directive and disquiet
counts in terms of generality or speciabout these contributed to the break
ficity. Working to change more specific
between Jacqui Schiff and the transacdiscounts will be ineffective if more
general discounts (which implicitly
tional analysis movement. As a result of
these historical factors transactional
include the specific discount) are still
analysis is sometimes rnisperceived as a
in place. Discounts can be classified in
four ways. There are three areas in
highly directive approach.
which discounting may occur: self,
others and the external world (consen-
discounting (cathexis school of transactional analysis ) 'an internal mechsua! reality). There are three types of
anism which involves a person mindiscounting: of stimuli, of problems
?7

dissociation (also disassociation)

and of options for change. In addition
in which there is a breakdown in the
there are four modes in which each
usual integrated functions of contype of discounting may occur: the
sciousness. EXCLUSION in which an egoexistence of stimuli etc, their signifistate is unavailable to Adult is also a
cance, the change possibilities and the
form of dissociation. The ego-state
'person's (self or other) ability to act or
model may be considered to represent
react differently. Within each area of
a degree of dissociation that occurs in
discounting these factors interact. A
normal functioning. Berne (1971) condiscount matrix table refers to dissidered the final stage of personal
counting in one area only. The most
development to involve an integrated
general discounts are situated towards
Adult ego-state into which valuable
the top left of the table, the most specomponents of the former Parent and
Child ego-states are incorporated.
cific to the bottom right. The discounts
are interconnected along a diagonal
(each is implied by the others). In plan- Do Me Something a GAME characterised
ning therapy it is necessary to identify
by an appeal for help from a passive
the highest level of discounting (the
position.
highest diagonal going towards the top
left-hand corner of the matrix) and Don't...... messages see INJUNCTIONS.
work downwards diagonal by diagonal.
doors to therapy Paul Ware (1983) idendissociation (also disassociation) a
tified Six PERSONALITY ADAPTATIONS each
process in which thoughts, feelings,
representing a syndrome of characteretc. become separated from the rest of
istic behaviours that were compatible
the personality. A mild form of this
with normal life but could be dysfuncmay involve the recall of memories
tional. Each adaptation has features in
without their emotional component.
common with recognised psychologiExtreme forms of dissociation constical disorders as described in DSM-IV,
tute dissociative disorders such as MPD
and the names Ware chose for the
mode or level
(aspect discounted)

,.

type (what is discounted)

existence

significance

change
possibilities

personal

abilities

person's ability
to react

differently

person's ability
to solve
problems

person's ability
to act on
options

Figure 5 Discount matrix (Mellor and Sigmund., 1975). Discounting can occur in three areasself, others and the world. A discount matrix diagram relates only to one area.
?Q

drive theory
adaptations were based on the naming
Perrecutor .;::::======~ Rescuer
of these disorders (Vann Joines has
since proposed other names that are
not associated with psychopathol ogy.
The original names used by Paul Ware
are still widely used, however). For
each he identified a pattern of reaction
to feeling, thinking and behaviour.
One of these would be very accessible
(the open door), one would be the
most productive area to concentrate
Victim
on in therapy (the target door), and
one would be heavily involved with Figure 6 Drama rriangle (Karpman, 1968).
defensive systems and so less accessible and a potential source of trouble if dreams Spontaneous imagery occurring
during sleep, which may be accompaaddressed too early in therapy (the
nied by other sensory modalities (heartrap door). See WARE SEQUENCE.
ing, touch, smell, propriocept ion).
Freud saw them as the coded expresdrama triangle (also known as Karpman
sion of unconscious processes (in partriangle) a diagram devised by
ticular repressed conflicts) and
Stephen Karpman (1968) on to which
described them as 'the royal road to
many patterns of interpersonal interacthe unconscious'. In various approachtion (in particular GAMES) can be
es dreams are also seen as residues of
mapped. At the three corners are the
daytime experience, contact with the
three drama triangle positions or roles:
collective unconscious or some other
Persecutor, Rescuer and Victim. Each is
deep creative level of the self or even
spelled with a capital letter to indicate
indications of the future. Berne (1972)
that a drama triangle role is indicated
regarded them as a mechanism for
which may differ from the everyday
dealing with after-burn (the conseusage of the words. Each position is
quences of previous stress) and reachunauthentic and involves discounting.
back (concern over future events).
This is obvious for the Persecutor but
Many transactional analysts work with
the Rescuer is discounting the autonodreams, often using techniques
my of the Victim and their power to
derived from other modalities such as
help themselves (as also is the Victim).
Gestalt or Psychosynthes is.
Rescuers are often also GRANDIOSE about
their power to help others and the
need for their services. Positions may be dreamer see CREATIVE D~'\1ER.
covert; it is possible to persecute from
what is ostensibly a Victim position. drive theory (psychoanal ysis) in the
classical Freudian model of the psyche,
Some people really need help and othbiological instincts (e.g. sex, selfers are prepared to give it from a caring
preservation) give rise to drives that
and respectful position. These authenare forms of psychologic al energy
tic victims and rescuers are not on the
directed to seeking satisfaction of the
drama triangle. As the action unfolds
instinct. Neurosis results from the failthe participants may move round the
ure of the EGO to deal with the contriangle, Persecutor and Victim may
flicts engendered by the pressures of
change roles or the Rescuer become a
drives operating via the ID and the
Victim, etc. This movement around the
constraints of both the SUPEREGO and
triangle is characteristic of GAI\1ES. See
the outside world. In his later theories
also BYSTAI'iDER.

drive theory

Counterinjunctions (the main ones

are called drivers). These are given
in later childhood and tell you that
you are OK if you do certain things,
i.e., they give you conditional
OKness. They come from the
Parent ego-states of your parents.

~0

Don't Grow Up

Figure 7 Drowning person (Adrienne Lee, 1988a) see page 31.

Injunctions are given in early

childhood, usually non-verbally.
They come from your parents'
Child ego-stares, i.e., their
unresolved childhood issues.
Often both the giving and
receiving of these messages
occurs out of awareness

DSM-N
drive theory - continued
sages from early childhood) by engag
.Freud postulated two major drives
ing in behaviours which were oncL
related to the life and death instincts
reinforced by parents. The process is
(Eros and Thanatos). The object relaessentially one of gaining conditiona
tions theorists shifted attention to
OKness by adapting to the interna:
relationships with others, in parrictiParent. See also DRIVER MESSAGE. Driver.,
Iar the mother, and internal represenand driver messages share the same
tations of others (OBJECTS and INTERNAl.
names, which are: BE PERFECT, BE STRONG
OBJECTS). Ego psychology, the school
PLEASE OTHERS, TRY HARD and HURRY UP.
of psychoanalysis in which Eric Berne
trained, places greatest emphasis on Drowning person diagram a term often
the struggles of the EGO to deal with
used to refer to Adrienne Lee'!
the internal and external worlds.
'Scriptbound' diagram (Lee, 1988a) se(
Berne makes occasional references 0
page 30. This is a diagram illustrating
drive theory concepts in his writing
the dynamic between COUNTERINJUNC
and it may have influenced his thinkTIONS (in particular DRIVER MESSAGES) an(
ing On HUNGERS. Also the idea of SCRIPT
INJUNCTIONS in maintaining script. She
moving towards a _negative payoff is
was influenced by an idea of Taibi
reminiscent of death instinct theory.
Kahler. A person is shown as attempting to stay afloat despite the weight o;
driver behaviour the behavioural maniconcrete blocks (representing INJUNC
festation of a DRIVER. The word driver
noNs - negative messages from the
usually implies the driver behaviour.
past). To do this the person is clinging
to balloons that represent strategies fm
driver messages the implicit psychologiobtaining
approval learned in childcal message associated with a DRIVER.
hood. These give them conditional
Although it is presented in MESSAGE FOR
OKness ('you are oK:if you do this').
MAT this does not imply that it is incorThe
balloons symbolise COUNTERINJUNC
porated as a verbal message. Driver
TIONS and the messages on them are
messages are COUNTERINJUNCTIONS, that is
the five commonest counterinjunction
they form part of the COUNTERSCRJPT and
messages. These five messages are also
therefore have a profound effect on the
known as DRIVER MESSAGES as they are
way the script is expressed in behav
associated with behavioural pattern;iours (see SCRIPT, PROCEss). In Steiner's
called DRIVERS. The diagram symbolises,
(1971) model of the SCRIPT MATRIX they
in a vivid and accessible way, the mosr
are shown as given by the Parent egoimportant elements of the scruPT MATRIX.
states of the parents to the Parent egostate of the client and represent beliefs
about ways of achieving conditional DSM-IV the Diagnostic and Statistical
Manual of Mental Disorders. A widely
OKness by behaving in ways that might
used diagnostic manual published b)
bring the parents' approval. See also
the American Psychiatric Association. It
ALLO\VER.
contains an elaborate numerical and
drive:;s brief observable behaviours, idendescriptive system for classifying men
tified by Taibi Kahler (Kahler and
tal disorders on the basis of the!=
symptomatology. By concentrating on:
Capers, 1974), which are indicative of
underlying defensive processes. They
symptoms this provides a sy~tem that
is, to a considerable extent, indepenrepresent responses to the couNTER
dent of theories of pathology and therescRIPT and carry the process of the script
fore offers a system of diagnosis that
forwards. When a person is in driver
facilitates communication between prothey are dealing with internal stress
fessionals who have trained in differing
arising from INJUNCTIONS (negative mes-

Dusay,John
modes of psychotherap y. For this reason it is usual to include a DSM-N diagnosis in the case study submitted as
part of the examination for Certified
Transactional Analyst.

chological processes, which sees them

in terms of the interplay of internal
forces on the EGO (which is also
exposed to pressures from the external world).

Dusay, John transactiona l analyst. dysfunctiona l functioning in a way that

has damaging consequences .
Awarded the Eric Berne Memorial
Scientific Award in 1973 for his work
dystonic perceived as incongruen t,
on EGOGRAMS (Dusay, 1972).
inconsistent or unacceptable . See EGO
DYSTONIC.
dynamic relating to forces. An example is
Freud's psychodynam ic model of psy-

early life decision a decision taken durbinge eating followed by vomiting or

ing early childhood about the self,
purging. Eating disorders are more
otli.er people or th~ world that is not
common in women. For transactional
subsequently revised in the light of
analysis approaches to treatment, see
growing understanding and so
individual entries.
becomes a basis for script formation.
The word 'decision' does not imply eclectic therapy a therapy that draws on
that a high level of thinking went into
a number of theoretical models. The
the process; rather, the child needed
term INTEGRATIVE THERAPY is now often
to make choices about how to underpreferred since the term eclectic does
stand and deal with their world and
not exclude approaches made of randid this with whatever mental faculties
dom selections without an overall thewere available. Children can make
ory governing selection and use.
decisions from the moment of birth
Transactional analysis is an integrative
and perhaps before. If early experiapproach drawing on many sources
ences are stressful there is less likelibut placing them within an overall
hood that decisions will be revised
coherent theory.
since it often feels better to have a
decision that is working badly but ego a term used in psychoanalysis for
seems to enable one to survive than to
that part of the PSYCHE or total personrisk discarding it. Berne placed the key
ality which deals with the outside
world and endeavours to find comproage of script formation at around five
to seven years, following Freud's view.
mises between the demands of the m
Many transactional analysts now agree
(the source of instinctual drives such
with Melanie Klein's stress on the sigas sex), the strictures of the SUPEREGO
nificance of processes of personality
(laying down what must and must not
formation that are occurring in the
be done) and what is possible in the
first year of life.
social world in which the individual
finds him or herself. Classical Freudian
eating disorder a psychological disorder
psychoanalysis stresses instinctual
in which_ there is a disturbance to nordrives. The psychoanalysts with whom
Eric Berne trained, Erik Erikson and
mal eating patterns. Eating disorders
include ANOREXIA NERVOSA, in which
Paul Federn, were ego psychologists,
there is obsession with avoiding
that is they focused on ego functionweight gain leading to gross undernuing. Berne was also influenced by the
trition, and BliUMIA, in which there is
British Object Relations School, espe-

ego dystonic
cially by Ronald Fairbairn. Fairbairn ,
ing and identifying change strategies.
(1952) divided the ego into three
It was developed by JACK DUSAY (1972)
parts: one responded to instinctual
who received the Eric Berne Memorial
drives, another opposed them, while a
Scientific Award for his work in 1973.
third, the central ego, dealt with the
outside world. Thus the functions of ego-state Eric Berne (1964) defined an
Freud's three psychic organs were
ego-state as 'a consistent pattern of feelgathered together in the ego. This
ing and experience directly related to a
corresponding consistent pattern of
model probably influenced Berne.
behaviour'. Paul Federn, who originated
Transactional analysis is an ego psythe idea of the ego-state, viewed it as
chology that provides a description of
the totality of a person's experience of
the functioning of the personality in
himself or herself and the external
terms of ego functioning.
world at a given moment. He suggested
ego dystonic a thought, feeling or behavthat past ego-states were stored in memiour is ego dystonic if it causes discomory as totalities. Berne recognised that
there were three types of ego-state: egofort and is experienced as inconsistent
states relating to past experiences of the
with one's conception of oneself. See
self which he called Child ego-states;
EGO SYNTONIC.
ego-states relating to past experiences
of powerful significant others which he
egogram a bar graph indicating the relative amounts of time spent in the five
called Parent ego-states; and current
FUNCTIONAL EGO-STATES; Controlling
ego-states relating to current experiences of here-and-now reality. He called
Parent, Nurturing Parent, Adult,
these Adult ego-states. People would
Natural Child (Free Child) and
Adapted Child. As these are functional
often reconnect with past ego-states and
manifestations of ego-states this refers
when they did they behaved as if these
to behaviours, not to internal processes
archaic ego-states were part of current
reality. When they did so they behaved
(which would need to be represented
in characteristic ways that can be
in terms of STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS). It may
observed. It is therefore possible to infer
therefore not be consistent across
internal mental processes directly from
environments (e.g. it may be different
obseroable behaviours. This discovery
for home and work) but it is a us'eful
way of describing personality function-

Parent ego-state

,---

CP

NP

Adult ego-state

,--

I FC l

AC

CP - controlling Parent NP - nurturing Parent

A -Adult FC - free Child (or natural Child)
AC - adapted Child
Figure 8 Egogram (Dusay, 1972).

Child ego-state

Figure 9 PAC (first-order structural analysis of

ego-states) (Berne, 1961).

ego-state -

s.
~)

u
n
1a
)f
d

s
)f
Ll
d
1-

Lt
)-

e
s
e
lt

l-

d
d
d
e
t
j

became the basis of transactional analysis. Berne represented each of the populations of ego-states by a circle to create
a diagram of personality structure.
At any given moment CATHEXIS (psychological energy) will be directed
mainly into contacting one ego-state so
the person will be in a Child ego-state,
a Parent ego-state or contacting 'here
and now' reality through an Adult egostate and will demonstrate this through
characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling and behaviour. If a Child ego-state
is contacted it will be a child of a specific age and likewise if a Parent ego-state
is contacted it will be an experience
with a specific parent figure at a specific
time. However, one~ Child ego-states
are selected there is a tendency to stay
with them and move around between
different ones in the same general area.
As a 'shorthand' way of refening to this
transactional analysts are inclined to say
that individuals are in their Child egostate or the Child ego-state or even 'in
Child'. This is acceptable as long as one
keeps in mind that it is not theoretically
accurate. Usually the word 'ego-state' is
omitted and the three types referred to
as Parent, Adult and Child.

r
1

ego-state diagnosis Berne (1961) listed

four ways of identifying ego-states:

second-order analysis

behavioural diagnosis
social diagnosis
historical diagnosis
phenomenologic al diagnosis
Behavioural diagnosis is the most important
as it is the most accessible, Certain behaviours are characteristic of each ego-state,
e.g. diffident behaviour usually indicates
Child, dominant, controlling behaviour
Parent and rational, practical behaviour
Adult, although each can be indicated in
many other ways. Social diagnosis looks at
the responses evoked in others (e.g. if these
are parental the person is usually in Child).
Historical diagnosis asks 'was there a
historical child or parent figure who
responded in this way?' Phenomenologic al
diagnosis asks 'what does it feel like to be
in this state? Does this correspond to a past
feeling state?' It is rarely possible to make a
complete diagnosis on all four criteria so
diagnosis is usually made mainly on behavioural grounds, using any of the other techniques that are available as checks. If diagnosis is made solely on behavioural
grounds it will be of the FUNCDONAL MODEL
OF EGOSTATES.

ego-state - second-order analysis the

Child and Parent ego-states are subdivided in second-order analysis. A
number of parent figures will have

introject of another significant person (e.g. grandfather)

Father introject
Mother introject
together these constitute the Parent ego state

, Adult ego-state

Parent in the Child (magical Parent)

Adult in the Child (little Professor)
Child in the Child (somatic Child)
Figure 10 Second-order structural analysis.

p2

ego-state - functional analysis

own mental state). See also FUNCllONAL
been introjected. Each of these is shown
MODEL OF EGO-STATES.
separately. Moreover, each one was a
complete person with Parent, Adult and
Child ego-states. These are also shown ego syntonic a thought, feeling or behaviour is ego syntonic if it is experienced
separately. The Child is subdivided to
as consistent with one's conception of
indicate early developmental stages that
oneself and therefore feels comforthave contributed to its structure. It had
able.
funtasies about parental behaviour and
how to have needs met by parents (corresponding to early Parent), intuitive, electrode name used in some earlier TA
literature for the Parent in Child (P,)
but not yet logical problem solving skills
since internal messages from this usu(early Adult) and basic child needs and
ally produce a strong reaction.
wants (early Child).
ego-state - functional analysis in their empathic transactions empathic transactions involve the therapist's expresbehavioural manifestations the Parent
sion of understanding of the client's
and Child ego-states can show up in difexperience and the client's confirmaferent ways. The Parent can seek to contion that she or he has been undertrol others (Controlling Parent) or to
stood. This concept is inherent in the
look after them (Nurturing Parent). The
complementary transaction but had
Child can respond to the demands of its
not been clearly stated in classical
parents (Adapted Child) or to its own
transactional analysis. According to
inner needs and wants (Natural ChildClark (1991) the continuous use of
also sometimes called Free Child). This
empathic transactions creates an
is shown by dividing the ego-state circles
empathic bond between the therapist
on the diagram. However, the division is
and the client, making it possible for
between types of behaviour and not
the client to feel secure enough to
within the ego-states themselves. In the
revive unmet needs and aborted develfunctional model the observer is exteropment. The therapist is then able to
nal (the person identifying the ego-state
reach different developmental levels of
structhe
In
else).
someone
at
is looking
the Child tO effect DECONFUS!ON.
tural model the observer is internal
(introspectively observing his or 'her
empathy the power of imaginatively
entering another's experience by using
verbal and non-verbal information and
intuition and conveying this back to
the client to create a shared space in
which client and therapist can work
together. Empathy is stressed in person-centred counselling and is one of
Rogers' CORE CONDITIONS. It is inherent
in the transactional analysis concept of
authenticity and AliTONOMY that implies
open awareness of self and others. See
also EMPATHIC TRA.t'ISACTIONS, THERAPEUTIC
AlliANCE, !NTERSUBJECTIVITY.

Figure l i Functional analysis (Berne, 1961). CP

- controlling Parent NP - nurturing Parent A - energy psychological energy is also
referred to as CATHEXIs. Berne distinAdult AC - adapted Child FC - free Child (free
guished between three types of
Child is somtimes called natural Child- NC).

i.

:>,(}

escape hatch
psychological energy. Free energy is Erskine, Richard received the Eric Berne
. energy that can be consciously and wilMemorial Scientific Award in 1982
fully directed to any chosen ego-state.
jointly with MARILYN ZALCMAN for their
work on the RACKET sYSTEM and racket
Each ego-state also has its own potential or bound energy. Thls energy cananalysis. Richard Erskine has also
not be used until it is unbound. The
worked extensively on integrating
ego-state with the most available energy
transactional analysis with other therawill be in executive (i.e. be in charge of
peutic modalities, in particular self
behaviour). This can be a mixture of
psychology and object relations psyfree and unbound energy but the egochoanalysis and also Gestalt therapy.
state that is experienced as real self will
See Erskine and Moursund (1988) and
have the most free energy (i.e. you will
Erskine and Trautmann (1993).
have chosen to give it the most energy).
escape hatch the Child's three options 'if
English, Fanita transactional analyst. She
things get bad enough I can always;kill
received the Eric Berne Memorial
myself/blame someone else and kill
Scientific Award in 1978 for her work
them/go crazy' are called the three
on RACKETS, real feelings and the substiescape hatches (Holloway, 1973;
tution factor (English, 1971, 1972).
Cowles-Boyd, 1980). While these
remain open there is the risk that the
episcript a negative script message that
script will lead to a tragic outcome at
the parent passes on to the child seeksome crisis point. While energy
ing by doing so to release themselves
remains invested in them they are also
from the influence of the message a major obstacle to script change since
e.g. a Don't Exist injunction is passed
they represent a mechanism for evadon to the child by a parent. Such transing responsibility for making life
mission can cascade down several genchanges (at the back of the mind there
erations. Also called a 'hot potato'
is the thought 'if things get bad enough
(English, 1969). This can be considered
I could always ... '). Psychotherapy
involves the dismantling of defensive
a form of PROJECTNE IDENTIFICATION.
structures such as COUNTERlNJUNCTIONS
Eric Beme Memorial Awards the Eric
or INJUNCTIONS that form part of a COM
POUND DECISION. This may expose damBerne Memorial Scientific Award was
established in 1971 in memory of Eric
aging early decisions such as 'I have no
right to exist' and increase the risk of
Berne who had died the previous year.
It was given annually to the originator
tragic outcomes. Transactional analysts
of a new scientific concept in transactherefore consider it essential to close
tional analysis. In 1990 the title and
escape hatches before doing major
scope of the award was changed. It is
change work such as REDECISION.
now known as the Eric Berne
Closure involves the client deciding
Memorial Award in Transactional
from Adult to give up the escape hatch
Analysis and is awarded annually for
options with the therapist acting as a
witness. Promising to close escape
published contributions to transactionhatches is an adapted closure that is
al analysis theory or practice, or the
integration or comparison of transacunlikely to hold under stress. Escape- ~
tional analysis theory or practice with
hatch closure is an important way i~\)
other the.rapeutic modalities.
which clients are given PROTECTION.
Sometimes clients are unwilling to
Ernst, Franklin received the Eric Berne
close escape hatches but are able to
decide to do so for a limited period.
Memorial Scientific Award in 1981 for
This may be sufficient for essential
his work on the OK coRRAL (Ernst, 1971)

ethics
e, which is able to
. work to be done safely. Time limited ' e..xecnt ive the ego-stat
s actions is said to
person'
a
ine
determ
es
sometim
is
hatches
closure of escape
In Berne's (1961)
e.
executiv
be in the
referred to as soft closure.
ENERGY theory the ego-sta te that has
the largest total of unboun d and free
ethics the philoso phy of moral behavenergy is in the executi ve. Howev er,
iour. The system of princip les and
the sense of self rests with the egoutes
constit
rules that specify what
state which has the largest amount of
A
not.
does
what
and
ur
behavio
good
energy; therefo re people somefree
to
rule is specific and therefo re easier
behave in ways that they pertimes
rigid.
and
narrow
apply but may prove
ceive as EGO DYSTONIC.
Principl es are more general and closer
to underly ing philoso phy but are more
y a memor y that
difficu lt to apply in specifi c cases. experi ential memor
body states,
through
itself
ts
manifes
Profes sional bodies such as the
moods withor
nces
experie
al
emotion
forAnalysis
Institut e of Transac tional
y compo nents
auditor
or
visual
out
onprofessi
and
ethics
of
codes
mulate
necess arily being involve d. See
al practice to guide their practiti oners
UNTHOUGJIT KNOWN.
of
mixture
d
which contain a balance
es
exampl
the
See
es.
principl
and
rules
TIC OPERATIONS.
of codes of major transact ional analysis explan ation see THERAPEU
3.
ix
Append
in
organis ations
exterop syche in Berne's (1961) theory
Of ego-sta tes the PSYCHIC ORGAN that
who
past
the
euhem erus a figure from
manifes ts itself phenom enologi cally as
sigpositive
lar
particu
a
d
acquire
has
Parent ego-sta te. See also ARCHEO
the
nificanc e for a group (Berne, 1963).
NEOPSYCHE.
PSYCHE,
tional
transac
in
role
Berne has this
analysis.
e....::trovert Oungia n analytic psychol ogy) A
persona lity type charact erised by a tenegoone
which
in
n
situatio
a
e..xclusion
dency to direct energie s outwar ds to
state (Parent, Adult or Child) constan tly
the physica l and social environ ments.
ped,
stereoty
a
in
g
domina tes, resultin
People with this type of persona lity are
predict able attitude , which is maindescrib ed as lively and outgoin g.
often
tained as long as possible in any threatINTROVERT. In Paul Ware's peralso
See
The
1961).
,
(Berne
n
ening situatio
the extrove rt is likely to
theory
sonality
domina nt ego-sta te is referre d to as
HISTIUON!C PERSONALITY
the
in
placed
be
seen
be
may
excludi ng Parent, etc. This
ADAPTATION.
in terms of DISSOCIATION or of concent ration of CATHEXIS in a single ego-state and

has a defensiv e function .

s
).

l
)

,.'
)

facilitator someone who enables a

process to occur more readily. Often
used in preference to 'therapist' for
the person taking the active role in a
group or workshop where the objective is personal development rather
than intrapsychic change.

tain the script (see SCRIPT SYSTEM) e.g. by

being used tO elicit RACKET FEELINGS

without involvement with here-andnow reality. All plans for the future are
fantasies and our ability to fantasise is
enormously valuable. Positive fantasies, e.g. of feeling ipd behaving differently, are useful aid~ for change. See
also AFFIRMA110NS, PHAl'lTXsY.

Fairtairn, Ronald Scottish psychoanalyst

of the Object Relations school. His
work was known to Berne and proba- father the male parent or anyone who
bly influenced him.
takes the paternal rok (who may not
be biologically related'. to the child, or
false self (psychoanalysis - object
even not male). Although, like the
relations) term used by Winnicott
mother, this is a nurturing role
(1971) to describe a situation where a
towards the child, the father has an
child does not grow to acknowledge
important role in supporting the
and respond to his or her own feelmother as she takes the major role in
caring for the child. In the past, in
ings. Because the mother has failed to
\Vestern society, the father was often
respond to them the child has had to
shift from being centred on his or her
seen as the parent with me strongest
own being and needs to be concerned
links into society outside me family.
for the mother from whom help is
The object relations theorist Donald
needed. This creates a flaw in the
Winnicott used the term NURSING TRIAD
structure of the self and a false self that
for the system of father, mother and
is centred on the needs and expectachild. Failure to create this supportive
tions of others. This closely resembles
system can result in the momer turnthe transactional analysis concept of
ing to the child for emotional support,
the ADAPTED CHILD; however, this is a
thus Setting up SECOND-ORDER SYMBIOSIS.
functional concept (i.e. it relates to
observable behaviours and not neces- fear one of the FOUR AUTHENTIC FEELINGS
sarily to intrapsychic structure). See
recognised by transactional analysis
(an authentic feeling is one mat moti-
also SECOND-ORDER SYMBIOSIS, PLEASE DRIVER.
vates the individual to deal wim cursy internal imagery and story
rent life problems). Fear is a feeling
telling. Fantasies may be used to mainthat motivates me individual to avoid

39

Fedem, Paul
therapist in which each gives somedanger. Unlike anxiety, fear is valuable.1
It differs in being focused on to specifthing of value to the other. See CONTRACT.
ic dangers, thus motivating present
action to avoid future harm. Anxiety is
an unfocused state of arousal that Ferenczi, Sandor
psychoanalyst.
Although close to Freud he advocated
seeks unspecified threats. Appropriate
a much more involved style of working
arousal in dangerous environments is
which took account of the fuct that the
useful but anxiety is often disabling
therapy situation is a two-person sysand may not relate to current dangers.
tem in which both TRANSFERENCE and
By focusing on specific dangers, fear
COUNTERTRANSFERENCE are significant. He
leads to problem solving but anxiety
believed that the client reacted to the
does not.
real personality of the analyst
(Freudian psychoanalysis advocated
Federn, Paul American psychoanalyst
that the analyst be distant and serve as
with whom Berne trained from 1941
a 'blank screen' to receive projecto 1943. Both he and Erik Erikson, the
tions). He saw therapy as giving the
training analyst with whom Berne
client the opportunity to relive his or
worked subsequently, adopted an 'ego
her experiences in a more permissive
psychology' approach that stressed the
and supportive atmosphere. As
function of the ego in dealing with the
Melanie Klein's analyst he influenced
outside world over the internal struggle
with instinctual drives which was centhe OBJECT REUTIONS SCHOOL and he may
have been an influence on Berne as
tral to classical DRIVE THEORY psychotransactional analysis is one of the few
analysis. Both the ego psychology
two-person approaches to psychotherapproach and Fedem's concept of the
ego-state were important influences
apy and is practised in an involved and
supportive style.
on Berne.
feeling also called emotion or affect. first-order diagram a diagram of the ego
that shows it divided into Parent, Adult
Transactional analysis distinguishes
and Child ego-states but is not further
between AUTHENTIC FEEUNGS, which lead
subdivided. It is sometimes called the
to engagement with current life issues,
and RACKET FEELINGS, which involve
PAC diagram.
replaying past issues and adaptations.
It recognises FOUR AUTHENTIC FEEUNGS.
feeling loop a system developed by
Moiso (1984) for analysing the processing of feeling that integrates many
ideas including rackets, games, instinctual processes, neurological systems
and the tendency to seek closed

Parent ego-state

Adult ego-state

GESTALTEN.

fees agreement on fees forms part of the

BUSINESS CONTRACT between the client
Child ego-state
and the therapist. In Steiner's (1974)
terms (based on the legal concepts of
contracting) fees constitute a vali(i
consideration and serve to symbolise
an equal exchange between client and Figure 12 PAC (Berne, 1961).

40

Fedem, Paul
therapist in which each gives somedanger. Unlike anxiety, fear is valuable.1
It differs in being focused on to specifthing of value to the other. See CONTRACT.
ic dangers, thus motivating present
action to avoid future harm. Anxiety is
an unfocused state of arousal that Ferenczi, Sandor
psychoanalyst.
Although close to Freud he advocated
seeks unspecified threats. Appropriate
a much more involved style of working
arousal in dangerous environments is
which took account of the fuct that the
useful but anxiety is often disabling
therapy situation is a two-person sysand may not relate to current dangers.
tem in which both TRANSFERENCE and
By focusing on specific dangers, fear
COUNTERTRANSFERENCE are significant. He
leads to problem solving but anxiety
believed that the client reacted to the
does not.
real personality of the analyst
(Freudian psychoanalysis advocated
Federn, Paul American psychoanalyst
that the analyst be distant and serve as
with whom Berne trained from 1941
a 'blank screen' to receive projecto 1943. Both he and Erik Erikson, the
tions). He saw therapy as giving the
training analyst with whom Berne
client the opportunity to relive his or
worked subsequently, adopted an 'ego
her experiences in a more permissive
psychology' approach that stressed the
and supportive atmosphere. As
function of the ego in dealing with the
Melanie Klein's analyst he influenced
outside world over the internal struggle
with instinctual drives which was centhe OBJECT REUTIONS SCHOOL and he may
have been an influence on Berne as
tral to classical DRIVE THEORY psychotransactional analysis is one of the few
analysis. Both the ego psychology
two-person approaches to psychotherapproach and Fedem's concept of the
ego-state were important influences
apy and is practised in an involved and
supportive style.
on Berne.
feeling also called emotion or affect. first-order diagram a diagram of the ego
that shows it divided into Parent, Adult
Transactional analysis distinguishes
and Child ego-states but is not further
between AUTHENTIC FEEUNGS, which lead
subdivided. It is sometimes called the
to engagement with current life issues,
and RACKET FEELINGS, which involve
PAC diagram.
replaying past issues and adaptations.
It recognises FOUR AUTHENTIC FEEUNGS.
feeling loop a system developed by
Moiso (1984) for analysing the processing of feeling that integrates many
ideas including rackets, games, instinctual processes, neurological systems
and the tendency to seek closed

Parent ego-state

Adult ego-state

GESTALTEN.

fees agreement on fees forms part of the

BUSINESS CONTRACT between the client
Child ego-state
and the therapist. In Steiner's (1974)
terms (based on the legal concepts of
contracting) fees constitute a vali(i
consideration and serve to symbolise
an equal exchange between client and Figure 12 PAC (Berne, 1961).

40

formulaS
refined his definition of a game. As the
concept became more clearly specified, behaviour patterns previously
classified as games were excluded .
.Many of the games described in Games
People Play are in this category.
Formula G was Berne's final definition
of a game and appears in his last book,
What Do You Say After You Say Hello?
(Berne, 1972). Formula G states that in
a game the following sequence of
events will be observable:
CON + GIMMICK = RESPONSE _,.
SWITCH_,. CROSSUP _,.PAYOFF
or expressed as a formula
C+G=R-o-S...,.X-P
The con is the invitation given by the
person who makes the first move. The
gimmick is the aspect of the other
party that makes him or her vulnerable to the con. The response is the
social process that ensues, most of
which is ostensibly Adult although
involving ULTERIOR TRANSACTIONS. This
may continue for seconds, hours, days
or years but if the sequence is a rrue
game at some stage there will be a
series of rapid changes. At the switch
each player (there may be more than
two) changes ego-state and drama :triangle position, e.g. the Rescuer may
start to persecute, there will be a
moment of confusion (the crossup)
and each participant will experience
RACKET FEELINGS (the payoff). The last
three stages may be, in effect, simultaneous.
formula S a formula suggested by Berne
to outline the main features of SCRIPT.
It has been largely superseded by later
developments in script theory.
four myths Taibi Kahler (1978) suggested that four myths underlie DRIVERS and
RACKETS. These comprise two pairs of a

negative Parent message and an adapted Child response:

(-NP) I can make you feel good by
doing your thinking for you.
(AC) You can make me feel good by
doing my thinking for me.
(-(;P) I can make you feel bad by what I
say to you.
(-AC) You can make me feel bad by
what you say to me.
When we get into drivers and rackets while communicating we are
replaying these internally.
four passive behaviours Schiff et al.
(1971) describe four passive behaviours. Each involves avoiding problem
solving in the here-and-now (although
energy may be discharged inappropriately). They DISCOUNT the individual's
ability to act positively to have their
needs met. The four passive behaviours are:
doing nothing
overadaptation (this involves complying with a Child belief about
what the other person wants without checking)
agitation (purposeless, repetitive
behaviour to discharge tension)
incapacitation or violence (energy
is turned inward against the self or
outwards against others instead of
being put into problem solving).
When working with passive clients,
inviting them into overadaptation may
offer a route forward in that the client
becomes actively responsive to the
therapist who can then invite them
into authentic behaviour.
four authentic feelings sadness, anger,
happiness and fear ('sad, mad, glad,
scared') are feelings which, if
expressed in a healthy and supportive

formulaS
refined his definition of a game. As the
concept became more clearly specified, behaviour patterns previously
classified as games were excluded .
.Many of the games described in Games
People Play are in this category.
Formula G was Berne's final definition
of a game and appears in his last book,
What Do You Say After You Say Hello?
(Berne, 1972). Formula G states that in
a game the following sequence of
events will be observable:
CON + GIMMICK = RESPONSE _,.
SWITCH_,. CROSSUP _,.PAYOFF
or expressed as a formula
C+G=R-o-S...,.X-P
The con is the invitation given by the
person who makes the first move. The
gimmick is the aspect of the other
party that makes him or her vulnerable to the con. The response is the
social process that ensues, most of
which is ostensibly Adult although
involving ULTERIOR TRANSACTIONS. This
may continue for seconds, hours, days
or years but if the sequence is a rrue
game at some stage there will be a
series of rapid changes. At the switch
each player (there may be more than
two) changes ego-state and drama :triangle position, e.g. the Rescuer may
start to persecute, there will be a
moment of confusion (the crossup)
and each participant will experience
RACKET FEELINGS (the payoff). The last
three stages may be, in effect, simultaneous.
formula S a formula suggested by Berne
to outline the main features of SCRIPT.
It has been largely superseded by later
developments in script theory.
four myths Taibi Kahler (1978) suggested that four myths underlie DRIVERS and
RACKETS. These comprise two pairs of a

negative Parent message and an adapted Child response:

(-NP) I can make you feel good by
doing your thinking for you.
(AC) You can make me feel good by
doing my thinking for me.
(-(;P) I can make you feel bad by what I
say to you.
(-AC) You can make me feel bad by
what you say to me.
When we get into drivers and rackets while communicating we are
replaying these internally.
four passive behaviours Schiff et al.
(1971) describe four passive behaviours. Each involves avoiding problem
solving in the here-and-now (although
energy may be discharged inappropriately). They DISCOUNT the individual's
ability to act positively to have their
needs met. The four passive behaviours are:
doing nothing
overadaptation (this involves complying with a Child belief about
what the other person wants without checking)
agitation (purposeless, repetitive
behaviour to discharge tension)
incapacitation or violence (energy
is turned inward against the self or
outwards against others instead of
being put into problem solving).
When working with passive clients,
inviting them into overadaptation may
offer a route forward in that the client
becomes actively responsive to the
therapist who can then invite them
into authentic behaviour.
four authentic feelings sadness, anger,
happiness and fear ('sad, mad, glad,
scared') are feelings which, if
expressed in a healthy and supportive

frogs into princes (and princesses)

frogs into princes (and princesses)i
according to Berne (1972), all children
are born princes or princesses but negative parental influences often turn
them into frogs. It is the business of
the psychotherapist to help break the
spell.
functional (model of) ego-states a
model of ego-states that stresses the
ways in which they manifest in interpersonal interactions. The emphasis
is on the external social frame rather
than the internal intrapsychic frame
that is dealt with by using the STRUC
TURAL MODEL. The Parent and Child
ego-states are able to function in distinctive ways. The Parent ego-state
may be controlling, demanding certain behaviours, setting limits, stating
rules, being critical, etc. or it may be
nurturant, offering support, care and
protection. The Child ego-state may

Figure 14 Functional analysis (Berne, 1961).

CP- controlling Parent NP- nunurant Parent
A- Adult AC - adapted Child FC - free Child
(free Child is sometimes called narural Child NC).

44

be free, natural and spontaneous,

expressing feelings and seeking to get
its own needs met, or it may be
adapted, responding to the demands
and needs (real and imagined) of parents or other significant people (see
also FALSE SELF). Each of these states
tends to be fairly stable and is represented on the functional ego-state
diagram as subdivisions of the Parent
and Child ego-states. Controlling
Parent is abbreviated CP, nurturing
Parent NP, free Child FC (also sometimes written natural Child NC) and
adapted Child AC.
Other tenns used to describe functional ego-states are:
Critical Parent: this is now referred
to as negative controlling Parent.
Rebellious Child: this was often
treated as a separate functional
ego-state but is now regarded as a
subdivision of the adapted Child.
Behaviour is still regulated by
perceived Parent messages but the
response is negative instead of
positive. The positive response can
be specified as compliant Child.
There is some confusion in the transactional analysis literature as to
whether functional ego-states are true
ego-states. Some authors appear to
treat them as if they are, for example
Karpman (1971) and Goulding and
Goulding (1979) in their formulation
of the type three impasse. This confusion probably derives from the integrative nature of transactional analysis
that has integrated both behavioural
(external observer) and intrapsychic
(internal observer) viewpoints. The
concept of functional ego-states is an
extremely useful tool for describing

frogs into princes (and princesses)

frogs into princes (and princesses)i
according to Berne (1972), all children
are born princes or princesses but negative parental influences often turn
them into frogs. It is the business of
the psychotherapist to help break the
spell.
functional (model of) ego-states a
model of ego-states that stresses the
ways in which they manifest in interpersonal interactions. The emphasis
is on the external social frame rather
than the internal intrapsychic frame
that is dealt with by using the STRUC
TURAL MODEL. The Parent and Child
ego-states are able to function in distinctive ways. The Parent ego-state
may be controlling, demanding certain behaviours, setting limits, stating
rules, being critical, etc. or it may be
nurturant, offering support, care and
protection. The Child ego-state may

Figure 14 Functional analysis (Berne, 1961).

CP- controlling Parent NP- nunurant Parent
A- Adult AC - adapted Child FC - free Child
(free Child is sometimes called narural Child NC).

44

be free, natural and spontaneous,

expressing feelings and seeking to get
its own needs met, or it may be
adapted, responding to the demands
and needs (real and imagined) of parents or other significant people (see
also FALSE SELF). Each of these states
tends to be fairly stable and is represented on the functional ego-state
diagram as subdivisions of the Parent
and Child ego-states. Controlling
Parent is abbreviated CP, nurturing
Parent NP, free Child FC (also sometimes written natural Child NC) and
adapted Child AC.
Other tenns used to describe functional ego-states are:
Critical Parent: this is now referred
to as negative controlling Parent.
Rebellious Child: this was often
treated as a separate functional
ego-state but is now regarded as a
subdivision of the adapted Child.
Behaviour is still regulated by
perceived Parent messages but the
response is negative instead of
positive. The positive response can
be specified as compliant Child.
There is some confusion in the transactional analysis literature as to
whether functional ego-states are true
ego-states. Some authors appear to
treat them as if they are, for example
Karpman (1971) and Goulding and
Goulding (1979) in their formulation
of the type three impasse. This confusion probably derives from the integrative nature of transactional analysis
that has integrated both behavioural
(external observer) and intrapsychic
(internal observer) viewpoints. The
concept of functional ego-states is an
extremely useful tool for describing

gallows see GAllOWS LAUGH.

How does ir start?

What happens next?
And then what happens?
How does it end?
And how do you feel after it ends?

o
gallows laugh laughing when making a
statement about something unpleasant.
o
The laugh is incongruent with the content of the words and invites the listenExploration of eacl1 of these issues leads
er to reinforce a script belief by joining
to identification of DRAMA TRIANGLE switchin the laugh. For example a person who
es and FORMUlA G stages of the game.
tells the story of a mistake he or she
made and ends by saying with a laugh games Repetitive patterns of social behav'that's just like me, 1 never get things
iour which are characterised by ULTERIOR
right'. He or she is inviting the listeners
TRANSACTIONS (transactions operating at
to join in the amusement and confirm
two levels, an acknowledged social
his or her script belief: 'I can't think'.
level and an unacknowledged psychoAlso gallows smile and gallows translogical level) and ending with the paraction. These terms are often abbreviatties feeling 'bad' (i.e. experiencing RACKed to gallows. Gallows is indicativ~ of
ET FEEUNGS) (Berne, 1964). ln psychodyDiscouNTING. The origin of the term is
namic terms they involve TRANSFERENCE
the highwayman who dies laughing at
and the ACTING OUT of unresolved archahis own misfortune and is in effect sayic issues. The concept of games evolved
ing internally: 'Well, mother, you preover time and this is reflected in a varidicted I would end up on the gallows
ety of definitions in the literature
and here I am!' See also LAUGHTER.
although all fall within the criteria given
above. In Berne's writings the definioame formula a formula that sets out
tion increased in detail and precision so
"' the characteristic sequence of events in
that his final definition (a sequence that
a GAME. See FORMUL'- G.
includes all the stages of FORMULA G)
excludes many of the patterns labelled
game plan a systematic procedure for
as games in Games People Play. Some
elucidating games developed by John
contemporary transactional analysts
James (1973). In outline it consists in
prefer a more general definition of
finding answers to the following quesgames than this version; however,
tions:
Berne's early definition did not include
the switch and therefore failed to distinWhat keeps happening over and
guish game playing from RACKETEERING.
over again?

.f.
.,_

gallows see GAllOWS LAUGH.

How does ir start?

What happens next?
And then what happens?
How does it end?
And how do you feel after it ends?

o
gallows laugh laughing when making a
statement about something unpleasant.
o
The laugh is incongruent with the content of the words and invites the listenExploration of eacl1 of these issues leads
er to reinforce a script belief by joining
to identification of DRAMA TRIANGLE switchin the laugh. For example a person who
es and FORMUlA G stages of the game.
tells the story of a mistake he or she
made and ends by saying with a laugh games Repetitive patterns of social behav'that's just like me, 1 never get things
iour which are characterised by ULTERIOR
right'. He or she is inviting the listeners
TRANSACTIONS (transactions operating at
to join in the amusement and confirm
two levels, an acknowledged social
his or her script belief: 'I can't think'.
level and an unacknowledged psychoAlso gallows smile and gallows translogical level) and ending with the paraction. These terms are often abbreviatties feeling 'bad' (i.e. experiencing RACKed to gallows. Gallows is indicativ~ of
ET FEEUNGS) (Berne, 1964). ln psychodyDiscouNTING. The origin of the term is
namic terms they involve TRANSFERENCE
the highwayman who dies laughing at
and the ACTING OUT of unresolved archahis own misfortune and is in effect sayic issues. The concept of games evolved
ing internally: 'Well, mother, you preover time and this is reflected in a varidicted I would end up on the gallows
ety of definitions in the literature
and here I am!' See also LAUGHTER.
although all fall within the criteria given
above. In Berne's writings the definioame formula a formula that sets out
tion increased in detail and precision so
"' the characteristic sequence of events in
that his final definition (a sequence that
a GAME. See FORMUL'- G.
includes all the stages of FORMULA G)
excludes many of the patterns labelled
game plan a systematic procedure for
as games in Games People Play. Some
elucidating games developed by John
contemporary transactional analysts
James (1973). In outline it consists in
prefer a more general definition of
finding answers to the following quesgames than this version; however,
tions:
Berne's early definition did not include
the switch and therefore failed to distinWhat keeps happening over and
guish game playing from RACKETEERING.
over again?

.f.
.,_

games, bilateral nature of

stage there may be the maximum level
of escalation in an attempt to force the
other back into interaction. The limits
set by the participants to escalation
determine the DEGREE (level of manifest
pathology) of the game. In this view,
successful confrontation of games will
depend on there being sufficient CONTAINMENT for the issue that was being
defended by the projective identification. RACKETEERING can similarly be
understood as ongoing projective identification.

that games that were expressed in significantly different behavioural pat-

terns were given different names. This
resulted in the naming of a large
number of games. Emphasis has shifted to underlying processes and the
identification of a relatively small
number of game patterns that are
given the name of a typical member
(e.g. NIGYYSOB is a typical Persecutor
game). The names chosen have been
colloquial and humorous, often vividly
and simply portraying the process of
the game. This has made them easy to
remember and use. The names can
also sound disparaging. The word
'game' itself can also be heard in this
way with its associations with conscious manipulation (although it is
not used in this sense in transactional
analysis).

games, bilateral nature of Hine (1990)

pointed out that game analysis in
terms of FORMULA G is focused on the
initiator of the game. Although Berne
(1964) defined games as 'an ongoing
series of complementary transactions'
this one-sided view of games has
sometimes obscured the fact that both
participants are playing a game and Games People Play Eric Berne's second
these are different and complemenbook on transactional analysis first
tary games. For example, if one is
published in 1964. It followed his
gaming from a Persecutor position, at
major work Transactional Analysis in
the same time the other must be gamPsychotherapy and contains a brief
ing from a Victim position. Hine foraccount of transactional analysis folmulated an alternative version of forlowed by an exposition of the then
mula G to represent this. She also pronewly developing field of game theory.
posed tl).at the discharge of negative
It was designed to enlighten (and
energy that occurs in the payoff is
amuse) a small group of professionals,
likely to initiate fresh gaming so' that
but thanks to Berne's lucid, accessible
the gaming process is both bilateral
and engaging style it had an extraordiand ongoing.
nary success, achieving best-seller status in many countries. This brought
games, degrees of games are classified
transactional analysis to the attention
as first, second or third degree ao;:ordof a very wide public. Regrettably, it is
ing to level of social damage involved
often the only book on transactional
in the payoff. A first degree game will
analysis that many people know, but as
cause social embarrassment, a second
it contains only a brief exposition of
degree game will have major consegeneral theory and games theory has
quences such as the loss of one's job
developed extensively since it was
whereas a third degree game will
written, its success has brought both
result in such consequences as major
fame and misunderstanding to transacviolence, hospitalisation or imprisontional analysis.
ment.
games, relation to script games involve
games, naming of in the early develop
the reinforcement of many aspects of
ment of games theory there was an
script e.g. script beliefs, life position,
emphasis on behavioural analysis so
drivers, rackets, patterns of discount-

48

games, bilateral nature of

stage there may be the maximum level
of escalation in an attempt to force the
other back into interaction. The limits
set by the participants to escalation
determine the DEGREE (level of manifest
pathology) of the game. In this view,
successful confrontation of games will
depend on there being sufficient CONTAINMENT for the issue that was being
defended by the projective identification. RACKETEERING can similarly be
understood as ongoing projective identification.

that games that were expressed in significantly different behavioural pat-

terns were given different names. This
resulted in the naming of a large
number of games. Emphasis has shifted to underlying processes and the
identification of a relatively small
number of game patterns that are
given the name of a typical member
(e.g. NIGYYSOB is a typical Persecutor
game). The names chosen have been
colloquial and humorous, often vividly
and simply portraying the process of
the game. This has made them easy to
remember and use. The names can
also sound disparaging. The word
'game' itself can also be heard in this
way with its associations with conscious manipulation (although it is
not used in this sense in transactional
analysis).

games, bilateral nature of Hine (1990)

pointed out that game analysis in
terms of FORMULA G is focused on the
initiator of the game. Although Berne
(1964) defined games as 'an ongoing
series of complementary transactions'
this one-sided view of games has
sometimes obscured the fact that both
participants are playing a game and Games People Play Eric Berne's second
these are different and complemenbook on transactional analysis first
tary games. For example, if one is
published in 1964. It followed his
gaming from a Persecutor position, at
major work Transactional Analysis in
the same time the other must be gamPsychotherapy and contains a brief
ing from a Victim position. Hine foraccount of transactional analysis folmulated an alternative version of forlowed by an exposition of the then
mula G to represent this. She also pronewly developing field of game theory.
posed tl).at the discharge of negative
It was designed to enlighten (and
energy that occurs in the payoff is
amuse) a small group of professionals,
likely to initiate fresh gaming so' that
but thanks to Berne's lucid, accessible
the gaming process is both bilateral
and engaging style it had an extraordiand ongoing.
nary success, achieving best-seller status in many countries. This brought
games, degrees of games are classified
transactional analysis to the attention
as first, second or third degree ao;:ordof a very wide public. Regrettably, it is
ing to level of social damage involved
often the only book on transactional
in the payoff. A first degree game will
analysis that many people know, but as
cause social embarrassment, a second
it contains only a brief exposition of
degree game will have major consegeneral theory and games theory has
quences such as the loss of one's job
developed extensively since it was
whereas a third degree game will
written, its success has brought both
result in such consequences as major
fame and misunderstanding to transacviolence, hospitalisation or imprisontional analysis.
ment.
games, relation to script games involve
games, naming of in the early develop
the reinforcement of many aspects of
ment of games theory there was an
script e.g. script beliefs, life position,
emphasis on behavioural analysis so
drivers, rackets, patterns of discount-

48

good child syndrome

vulnerable to the coN or invitation

from the other party. See FORMUlA G.

involves the other. If I discount my own

power and see myself as powerless, I
also see others :is. having power over
me (i.e. I am grandiose about their
power). If I am grandiose about my
power I discount the power of others.

good child syndrome a term used by

Weiss and Weiss (1984) to describe a
situation in which a person seeks to
have his or her needs met by being
'good' (seeking to please others by groundedness the state of being connected to current reality. In transacguessing what they want and giving it
tional analysis terms, being in uncontato them without their having indicated
minated Adult ego-state.
that they want it). The person seeks,
by this manoeuvre, to get others to
look after him or her and satisfy the grounding a procedure for increasing
GROUNDEDNESS. One such procedure
needs he or she has not expressed. See
consists of concentrating attention
OVERADAPTATION.
alternatively on an experience of the
external world and on a body experigood enough (psychoanalysis) the
ence and repeating this several times.
famous phrase of Donald Winnicott
(1964) who referred to the 'good
enough mother'. The good enough group apparatus the functions of maintaining the group involving dealing
mother is able to create a facilitating
with extemal aspects (telephone, furenvironment in which the child's
niture, etc.) or internal aspects such as
needs for healthy SYMBIOSIS are met and
keeping the group in order. The group
there is enough HOLDING to contain
leader often functions as the internal
anxiety and ward off threat. In
and external apparatus but Berne
Christopher Ballas' terms, the mother
(1966) stresses the importance of
functions as a TRAl'lSFORMATIONAL OBJECT.
keeping these functions clearly distinct
from the function of therapist.
Goulding, Mary transactional analyst.
With her husband Robert, she founded
the REDECISJON SCHOOL of transactional group dynamics the study of the psychological forces that operate within a
analysis. In 1975 she received the Eric
group. This has often been studied
Berne Memorial Scientific Award for
through membership of a Bion
this work jointly with her husband.
(Tavistock) group in which the facilitator makes few interventions and conGoulding, Robert transactional analyst.
fines these to interpretations of the
With his wife Mary, he developed redegroup process. This raises an;'{iety and
cision therapy and founded the REDECIleads to projection and acting out by
SION SCHOOL, one of the three major
group members, which is interpreted
schools of transactional analysis (see
by the facilitator. The underlying
TRANSACTIONAL Al'IALYSIS, SCHOOLS OF). He
process is therefore much nearer to
received the Eric Berne i\iemorial
psychoanalysis, on which it is based,
Scientific Award jointly with Mary in
than the much more supportive style
1975 for this work.
adopted in transactional analysis
groups.
grandiosity an exaggeration of some
aspect of reality (Schiff et al., 1975).
Grandiosity is the obverse of DISCOUNT- group imago a mental picture of what a
group is or should be like. The image of
ING. Discounting involves the underthe group held by each group member.
valuing or failing to take account of
This will vary between group members
some aspect of reality. Each process

good child syndrome

vulnerable to the coN or invitation

from the other party. See FORMUlA G.

involves the other. If I discount my own

power and see myself as powerless, I
also see others :is. having power over
me (i.e. I am grandiose about their
power). If I am grandiose about my
power I discount the power of others.

good child syndrome a term used by

Weiss and Weiss (1984) to describe a
situation in which a person seeks to
have his or her needs met by being
'good' (seeking to please others by groundedness the state of being connected to current reality. In transacguessing what they want and giving it
tional analysis terms, being in uncontato them without their having indicated
minated Adult ego-state.
that they want it). The person seeks,
by this manoeuvre, to get others to
look after him or her and satisfy the grounding a procedure for increasing
GROUNDEDNESS. One such procedure
needs he or she has not expressed. See
consists of concentrating attention
OVERADAPTATION.
alternatively on an experience of the
external world and on a body experigood enough (psychoanalysis) the
ence and repeating this several times.
famous phrase of Donald Winnicott
(1964) who referred to the 'good
enough mother'. The good enough group apparatus the functions of maintaining the group involving dealing
mother is able to create a facilitating
with extemal aspects (telephone, furenvironment in which the child's
niture, etc.) or internal aspects such as
needs for healthy SYMBIOSIS are met and
keeping the group in order. The group
there is enough HOLDING to contain
leader often functions as the internal
anxiety and ward off threat. In
and external apparatus but Berne
Christopher Ballas' terms, the mother
(1966) stresses the importance of
functions as a TRAl'lSFORMATIONAL OBJECT.
keeping these functions clearly distinct
from the function of therapist.
Goulding, Mary transactional analyst.
With her husband Robert, she founded
the REDECISJON SCHOOL of transactional group dynamics the study of the psychological forces that operate within a
analysis. In 1975 she received the Eric
group. This has often been studied
Berne Memorial Scientific Award for
through membership of a Bion
this work jointly with her husband.
(Tavistock) group in which the facilitator makes few interventions and conGoulding, Robert transactional analyst.
fines these to interpretations of the
With his wife Mary, he developed redegroup process. This raises an;'{iety and
cision therapy and founded the REDECIleads to projection and acting out by
SION SCHOOL, one of the three major
group members, which is interpreted
schools of transactional analysis (see
by the facilitator. The underlying
TRANSACTIONAL Al'IALYSIS, SCHOOLS OF). He
process is therefore much nearer to
received the Eric Berne i\iemorial
psychoanalysis, on which it is based,
Scientific Award jointly with Mary in
than the much more supportive style
1975 for this work.
adopted in transactional analysis
groups.
grandiosity an exaggeration of some
aspect of reality (Schiff et al., 1975).
Grandiosity is the obverse of DISCOUNT- group imago a mental picture of what a
group is or should be like. The image of
ING. Discounting involves the underthe group held by each group member.
valuing or failing to take account of
This will vary between group members
some aspect of reality. Each process

guided fantasy (imagery)

of ADJOURNtNG and added this as a fifth
stage. Clarkson (1992) has integrated
Berne's group theories with this work.
The following summarises her
approach.

adjourning, Lacousiere (1980)

mourning). Berne identified only
four stages of group development
but stated that the real aim of most
dynamic psychotherapy groups is to
clarify the group imagos of the individual members. If the group experience has been successful in this
final stage members will achieve a
higher level of functioning and
integration. The group has also to
face its termination and deal with
goodbyes and grieving.

" Stage 1. Provisional GROUP IMAGO

(Tuckman'sfo77ning). Before entering the group, potential members
form a unique preconscious expectation of what the group will be
like based on fantasies and previous experiences with groups.
Stage 2. Adapted group imago
(Tuckman's sto77ning). The group guided fantasy (imagery) the therapist
or counsellor tells a story and invites
imago is superficially modified in
the client or clients to fantasise what is
accordance with the member's estidescribed. Discussion of the fantasies
mate of the confronting reality. At
often yields important information
this stage conflict and polarisation
about internal processes and fantasies
are likely to occur around interperbe used to evoke therapeutic
can
resissonal issues, thus setting up
change through symbolism, avoiding
tance to group influence and task
the interference of conscious cognitive
requirements.
processes. Such imaginative styles of
Stage 3. Operative group imago
are valuable in contacting the
working
(Tuckman's nomzing ). The operaChild ego-state and are particularly
tive group imago is further modieffective when working with the
fied in accordance with the memPERSONAIJTY ADAPTATION.
SCHIZOID
fits
s/he
how
of
ber's perception
into the leader's imago. Ingroup
feeling and cohesiveness develop, gut feeling an intuitive feeling, sometimes accompanied by body sensanew standards evolve and new roles
tions, thus the name. It is important
are adopted.
that the therapist or counsellor should
Stage 4. Secondarily adjusted group
be open to his or her own INTUITION,
imago (Tuckman's performing).
which is often a useful guide and sigThe interpersonal structure of the
nals the activity of the UTILE PROFESSOR,
group becomes the tool of task
the Adult in Child ego-state A" but
activities and group energy is directneeds to be contained within the thered into the task.
apist's understanding of the process.
Stage 5. Clarified group imago
(Tuckman and Jensen (I977)

52

guided fantasy (imagery)

of ADJOURNtNG and added this as a fifth
stage. Clarkson (1992) has integrated
Berne's group theories with this work.
The following summarises her
approach.

adjourning, Lacousiere (1980)

mourning). Berne identified only
four stages of group development
but stated that the real aim of most
dynamic psychotherapy groups is to
clarify the group imagos of the individual members. If the group experience has been successful in this
final stage members will achieve a
higher level of functioning and
integration. The group has also to
face its termination and deal with
goodbyes and grieving.

" Stage 1. Provisional GROUP IMAGO

(Tuckman'sfo77ning). Before entering the group, potential members
form a unique preconscious expectation of what the group will be
like based on fantasies and previous experiences with groups.
Stage 2. Adapted group imago
(Tuckman's sto77ning). The group guided fantasy (imagery) the therapist
or counsellor tells a story and invites
imago is superficially modified in
the client or clients to fantasise what is
accordance with the member's estidescribed. Discussion of the fantasies
mate of the confronting reality. At
often yields important information
this stage conflict and polarisation
about internal processes and fantasies
are likely to occur around interperbe used to evoke therapeutic
can
resissonal issues, thus setting up
change through symbolism, avoiding
tance to group influence and task
the interference of conscious cognitive
requirements.
processes. Such imaginative styles of
Stage 3. Operative group imago
are valuable in contacting the
working
(Tuckman's nomzing ). The operaChild ego-state and are particularly
tive group imago is further modieffective when working with the
fied in accordance with the memPERSONAIJTY ADAPTATION.
SCHIZOID
fits
s/he
how
of
ber's perception
into the leader's imago. Ingroup
feeling and cohesiveness develop, gut feeling an intuitive feeling, sometimes accompanied by body sensanew standards evolve and new roles
tions, thus the name. It is important
are adopted.
that the therapist or counsellor should
Stage 4. Secondarily adjusted group
be open to his or her own INTUITION,
imago (Tuckman's performing).
which is often a useful guide and sigThe interpersonal structure of the
nals the activity of the UTILE PROFESSOR,
group becomes the tool of task
the Adult in Child ego-state A" but
activities and group energy is directneeds to be contained within the thered into the task.
apist's understanding of the process.
Stage 5. Clarified group imago
(Tuckman and Jensen (I977)

52

history of transactional analysis

could be taught. He was developing a
new discipline in which behavioural
and intrapsychic information could be
used together so as to be mutually reinforcing. This new approach required
new theory. Eric Berne read very widely
and transactional analysis has been an
integrative approach from its beginnings, drawing on many sources (see
INTEGRATIVE THERAPY) although these were
not always referenced. Berne disliked
the way in which the practice of psychiatry as he had seen it tended to depower the patient. He decided that theory
needs to be a shared resource between
client and therapist. He therefore set
out to find ways of making theory clear,
vivid and accessible. Out of this fusion
of the behavioural and the intrapsychic
with its accessible theory and humanistic belief in the self-actualising potential
of the patient, transactional analysis was
born. A group of enthusiastic professionals, meeting in the San Francisco
Social Psychiatry Seminars, gathered
around Berne and many of the ideas of
transactional analysis were worked out
there.
Transactional analysis had already
had an unusual history. One more event
was to transform it in ways that were to
have profound positive and negative
consequences for the discipline. 'Eric
Berne wrote a masterly account of his
theory, Transactional Analysis in Psychotherapy (Berne, 1961). Regrettably,
few people read it. He went on to write
an account of a new aspect he W"aS v..;orking on, which he called games theory.
He included a brief and simple outline
of transactional analysis theory. He
called the book Games People Play
(Berne, 1964). To his surprise it became
a worldwide best seller, and transactional analysis acquired a reputation as a
pop psychology. Garnes theory was new
and what he had written about games
was quickly out of date. The outline of
transactional analysis theory in Li-J.e book
was insufficient for it to be properly

understood. Games People Play has

contributed at least il5 much to the
perception of trarisactional analysis as it
has to its reputation.
Eric Berne died in 1970 at the early
age of sixty but transactional
has continued to develop rapidly. Its
roots, like most of the major psychotherapies, are Freudian, but it has
also absorbed an extraordinarily wide
range of other influences, from the
humanistic to the behavioural, and
through the genius of Eric Berne and his
co-workers and successors these have
been integrated into a practical and
accessible system. Because of its
breadth and accessibility, it has flowed
out of the usual confines of the psychotherapies into other fields such as
management and education, while
some see it as an important tool for
independent personal development or
for use in self-help groups and may
approach it more as a philosophy than a
therapy. Each of these fields has developed its own literature and approaches
and its own way of interpreting the core
literature of transactional analysis. The
psychotherapeutic field has given rise to
several schools of psychotherapy that,
following its integrative tradition, transactional analysis has accepted into the
main body of theory and practice. Transactional analysis contains examples of
both assimilatory integration (in which
the imported ideas are fitted within the
confines of the existing system) and
additive integration (in which the ideas
are imported along with the matrix of
theory out of which they grew). Integration on the scale that Berne undertook
could not have been achieved without
extensive use of the assimilatory
approach with its consequent losses.
One of the trends of contemporary
transactional analysis is reintroducing
material from other disciplines additively, especially modern psychoanalysis, to
enrich the brilliantly conceived framework that Berne has left us.

history of transactional analysis

could be taught. He was developing a
new discipline in which behavioural
and intrapsychic information could be
used together so as to be mutually reinforcing. This new approach required
new theory. Eric Berne read very widely
and transactional analysis has been an
integrative approach from its beginnings, drawing on many sources (see
INTEGRATIVE THERAPY) although these were
not always referenced. Berne disliked
the way in which the practice of psychiatry as he had seen it tended to depower the patient. He decided that theory
needs to be a shared resource between
client and therapist. He therefore set
out to find ways of making theory clear,
vivid and accessible. Out of this fusion
of the behavioural and the intrapsychic
with its accessible theory and humanistic belief in the self-actualising potential
of the patient, transactional analysis was
born. A group of enthusiastic professionals, meeting in the San Francisco
Social Psychiatry Seminars, gathered
around Berne and many of the ideas of
transactional analysis were worked out
there.
Transactional analysis had already
had an unusual history. One more event
was to transform it in ways that were to
have profound positive and negative
consequences for the discipline. 'Eric
Berne wrote a masterly account of his
theory, Transactional Analysis in Psychotherapy (Berne, 1961). Regrettably,
few people read it. He went on to write
an account of a new aspect he W"aS v..;orking on, which he called games theory.
He included a brief and simple outline
of transactional analysis theory. He
called the book Games People Play
(Berne, 1964). To his surprise it became
a worldwide best seller, and transactional analysis acquired a reputation as a
pop psychology. Garnes theory was new
and what he had written about games
was quickly out of date. The outline of
transactional analysis theory in Li-J.e book
was insufficient for it to be properly

understood. Games People Play has

contributed at least il5 much to the
perception of trarisactional analysis as it
has to its reputation.
Eric Berne died in 1970 at the early
age of sixty but transactional
has continued to develop rapidly. Its
roots, like most of the major psychotherapies, are Freudian, but it has
also absorbed an extraordinarily wide
range of other influences, from the
humanistic to the behavioural, and
through the genius of Eric Berne and his
co-workers and successors these have
been integrated into a practical and
accessible system. Because of its
breadth and accessibility, it has flowed
out of the usual confines of the psychotherapies into other fields such as
management and education, while
some see it as an important tool for
independent personal development or
for use in self-help groups and may
approach it more as a philosophy than a
therapy. Each of these fields has developed its own literature and approaches
and its own way of interpreting the core
literature of transactional analysis. The
psychotherapeutic field has given rise to
several schools of psychotherapy that,
following its integrative tradition, transactional analysis has accepted into the
main body of theory and practice. Transactional analysis contains examples of
both assimilatory integration (in which
the imported ideas are fitted within the
confines of the existing system) and
additive integration (in which the ideas
are imported along with the matrix of
theory out of which they grew). Integration on the scale that Berne undertook
could not have been achieved without
extensive use of the assimilatory
approach with its consequent losses.
One of the trends of contemporary
transactional analysis is reintroducing
material from other disciplines additively, especially modern psychoanalysis, to
enrich the brilliantly conceived framework that Berne has left us.

hypomania
Its use in these circumstances is
little interest in the therapeutic use of
to be counter-therapeutic.
hypnosis by transactional analysts
although it can have a positive role in
facilitating the achievement of autono- hypomania an energised u"n'u'""
state resembling
my. There is currently increasing interintense.
est among transactional analysts in
integrating NLP techniques. Hypnosis is
sometimes sought by clients who seek hysteric personality adaptation
formerly used for the HISTRIONIC
change without addressing the issues
TION.
of personal responsibility for actions.

56

hypomania
Its use in these circumstances is
little interest in the therapeutic use of
to be counter-therapeutic.
hypnosis by transactional analysts
although it can have a positive role in
facilitating the achievement of autono- hypomania an energised u"n'u'""
state resembling
my. There is currently increasing interintense.
est among transactional analysts in
integrating NLP techniques. Hypnosis is
sometimes sought by clients who seek hysteric personality adaptation
formerly used for the HISTRIONIC
change without addressing the issues
TION.
of personal responsibility for actions.

56

identity
Primary identification occurs in infants
who do not yet have a sense of the
other; secondary identification occurs
as a defence and the identity confusion
is with someone who has been perceived as an other. Transactional analysis has not developed a unique vocabulary in this area and may employ psychoanalytic terms. See also PROJECTIVE
IDEl'i-riFICATION.

"EI

aspects of their issues that they m.i-0~~

find difficult to verbalise. ouTcoAiJ:;~
FMHASIES are va1uable in CONTRACnN~~~
GUIDED FA."'TASY is a therapeutic tecff~
nique to elicit _such imag.ery. It facili1"~l~
rates contact wrth the Child ego-stat'1~~
is particularly valuable when workirlg~~~
with the SCHJZOID PERSONALITY ADAPTAnot'l
and also offers the opportunity ~~~~~
make interventions in the imagerf7.\tl
mode (e.g. by inviting the client tc{]f
imagine an image that represents
symbolises a changed life situation). :;::

oi?4

identity the unique character of the individual. Establishing an identity is an

important developmental task. The RAP
.-~~/i~
PROCHEMENT CRISIS is a significant stage impasse an experience of being blockeJ':~~;
in this process. Both the OBSESSIVEor faced with an unresolvable dilemma;;.~tj
COMPUI.SNE and PASSNE-AGGRESSIVE PERSON
According to the Gouldings (Goulding'~~
ALIIT ADAPTATIONS are associated with
and Goulding, 1979) this can takeBt
failures at this stage.
three forms which are now terme&},]
type 1, type 2 and type 3 impasses (thery~
If It Weren't For You a G&\1E, initiated
early literature uses the term 'degree';-;_1~;
from the Victim position, which involves
in place of type). Each conflict involves;it!j
blaming someone else for failure (peran internal conflict between ego-state.s'~:~
secuting from a Victim position).
in which Child rebels against Parent!~j
but feels unable to resolve the conflict~~
illustration see THERAPEUTIC OPER.-\TIOi\S.
Resolution is ultimately achieved with;*
the intervention of the Adult so /!i
I'm OK, You're OK the healthy position
Goulding redecision work involves c~!
in the OK CORRAL. A statement of the
contacting the Child while maintaining :~
basic philosophical position of
contact with the Adult. Mellor (1986) i~J
Transactional Analysis 'I accept myself
reformulated the Gouldings work in ';i
as I am and I accept you as you are'.
terms of a developmental theory, type {
This does not necessarily )mply
1 representing the latest type and type ;';
approval of the other person's behav3 the earliest. In terms of the SCRIPT APPA- '.%
iour or of all aspects of oneself. It is
RATUS a type 1 impasse involves coun- g
about unconditional acceptance and
terinjunctions and a type 2 involves };:;
perother
the
valuing of oneself and
The Gouldings originally ';::
injunctions.
son. This closely corresponds to Carl
3 impasses in terms of\j
type
formulated
Rogers' UNCONDITIONAL POSITIVE ,REGARD
a conflict between free (natural) Child ;~;
and Martin Buber's (1923, 1970) con-<
and adapted Child; however, this
cept of the !:THOU relationship.
involves using functional language to ,.:~
describe an intrapsychic process . .;,:
I'm Only Trying To Help You a GA.\1E
Mellor fonnulates type 3 in terms of a
initiated from the Rescuer position.
conflict between early Parent P0 and ,,.
This involves mscouNTii\G the abilities
early Child C0 (See Figure 16.) Since "
of the person being helped: it is driven
type 3 corresponds to an issue that
by the Rescuer's need to Rescue rather
before the child had mastery _j
emerged
the
to
than a measured response
of language it is often presented symVictim's need for help.
bolically and reflected in body states. !t
Impasse resolution is central to the fJ
imagery the mental pictures that clients
~~
approach of the REDECISION SCHOOL
describe symbolically represent

identity
Primary identification occurs in infants
who do not yet have a sense of the
other; secondary identification occurs
as a defence and the identity confusion
is with someone who has been perceived as an other. Transactional analysis has not developed a unique vocabulary in this area and may employ psychoanalytic terms. See also PROJECTIVE
IDEl'i-riFICATION.

"EI

aspects of their issues that they m.i-0~~

find difficult to verbalise. ouTcoAiJ:;~
FMHASIES are va1uable in CONTRACnN~~~
GUIDED FA."'TASY is a therapeutic tecff~
nique to elicit _such imag.ery. It facili1"~l~
rates contact wrth the Child ego-stat'1~~
is particularly valuable when workirlg~~~
with the SCHJZOID PERSONALITY ADAPTAnot'l
and also offers the opportunity ~~~~~
make interventions in the imagerf7.\tl
mode (e.g. by inviting the client tc{]f
imagine an image that represents
symbolises a changed life situation). :;::

oi?4

identity the unique character of the individual. Establishing an identity is an

important developmental task. The RAP
.-~~/i~
PROCHEMENT CRISIS is a significant stage impasse an experience of being blockeJ':~~;
in this process. Both the OBSESSIVEor faced with an unresolvable dilemma;;.~tj
COMPUI.SNE and PASSNE-AGGRESSIVE PERSON
According to the Gouldings (Goulding'~~
ALIIT ADAPTATIONS are associated with
and Goulding, 1979) this can takeBt
failures at this stage.
three forms which are now terme&},]
type 1, type 2 and type 3 impasses (thery~
If It Weren't For You a G&\1E, initiated
early literature uses the term 'degree';-;_1~;
from the Victim position, which involves
in place of type). Each conflict involves;it!j
blaming someone else for failure (peran internal conflict between ego-state.s'~:~
secuting from a Victim position).
in which Child rebels against Parent!~j
but feels unable to resolve the conflict~~
illustration see THERAPEUTIC OPER.-\TIOi\S.
Resolution is ultimately achieved with;*
the intervention of the Adult so /!i
I'm OK, You're OK the healthy position
Goulding redecision work involves c~!
in the OK CORRAL. A statement of the
contacting the Child while maintaining :~
basic philosophical position of
contact with the Adult. Mellor (1986) i~J
Transactional Analysis 'I accept myself
reformulated the Gouldings work in ';i
as I am and I accept you as you are'.
terms of a developmental theory, type {
This does not necessarily )mply
1 representing the latest type and type ;';
approval of the other person's behav3 the earliest. In terms of the SCRIPT APPA- '.%
iour or of all aspects of oneself. It is
RATUS a type 1 impasse involves coun- g
about unconditional acceptance and
terinjunctions and a type 2 involves };:;
perother
the
valuing of oneself and
The Gouldings originally ';::
injunctions.
son. This closely corresponds to Carl
3 impasses in terms of\j
type
formulated
Rogers' UNCONDITIONAL POSITIVE ,REGARD
a conflict between free (natural) Child ;~;
and Martin Buber's (1923, 1970) con-<
and adapted Child; however, this
cept of the !:THOU relationship.
involves using functional language to ,.:~
describe an intrapsychic process . .;,:
I'm Only Trying To Help You a GA.\1E
Mellor fonnulates type 3 in terms of a
initiated from the Rescuer position.
conflict between early Parent P0 and ,,.
This involves mscouNTii\G the abilities
early Child C0 (See Figure 16.) Since "
of the person being helped: it is driven
type 3 corresponds to an issue that
by the Rescuer's need to Rescue rather
before the child had mastery _j
emerged
the
to
than a measured response
of language it is often presented symVictim's need for help.
bolically and reflected in body states. !t
Impasse resolution is central to the fJ
imagery the mental pictures that clients
~~
approach of the REDECISION SCHOOL
describe symbolically represent

inner child advocacy

Don't Do Anything (it will be wrong or
dangerous)
Some transactional analysts add Don't
Enjoy and Don't Trust as additional
injunctions.
Verbal labels such as Don't Be Close
are convenient to use and give a vivid
sense of the essence of the injunction
but it should not be concluded that
injunctions are held only as verbal (cognitive) messages within the personality;
they also involve patterns of feeling and
behaving and body states. The verbal
labels serve only to designate types of
'message'; each individual will have her
or his own version. See MESSAGE FOR."'AT.
However, the use of the message format
does make one point clear. Injunctions
are 'messages' not decisions. For the
injunction to become directly active in
the script the decision must be made to
comply with it.
Steiner (1974) in his sc!UPT MATRIX diagram shows the injunction as being sent
directly from the Child ego-state of the
parent to the Child ego-state of the child.
This probably describes accurately the
situation in parental abuse, in which
there is a gross inequality of power. In
more normal parenting situations the
injunction arises out of the interactions
between the parent and the child and it
arises out of the meanings that thechild
gives to the parent's behaviours. For
example, the unavailability of a parent at
a crucial stage in the child's development
may give rise to a Don't Exist injunction
but the reality that the child did not
understand might have been the parent's
illness. The parent did not in fact send
the injunction. Although the injunction
is primary pathology rather than defence,
injunctions can be linked in defensive
combinations so that one injunction
defends against the other. This is called a
COMPOUND DECISION (for example, I can
exist as long as I don't feel).

inner child. She derived her

of the inner child from the
tiona! analysis concept of the
ego-state and also drew on the
of John Bowlby and Karen Ho
See ADVOCACY.
insight the ability to be aware of one'

own inner processes. A major aim

psychotherapy is to promote the
opment of insight in order to ~- ... c.uc:.
change. Transactional analysis
insight as an Adult (A,) function
although intuition from early Adult
(A,) is also involved. The process of"
by establishing
DECONTAMINATION
boundaries between what is currently
me case and what is archaic is important in this process.
Institute of Transactional Analysis
British transactional analysis organisation.
intalte interview a first meeting between
the client and a counsellor or psychotherapist to establish the nature of the
client's problems and the suitability of
the service offered to deal with them.
Two important aspects to be addressed
are the client's willingness to commit
energy to the change process and
whether he or she has sufficient available Adult ego-state to support change.

integrated Adult Berne's concept

(Berne, 1961) of me final stage in the
development of the Adult in which all
that is of value in me Parent and Child
ego-states has been assimilated and
integrated within the Adult to form a
single ego-state. He divides me integrated Adult into two parts: ethos, which
contains the values and patterns of me
Parent ego-state, pathos, which .holds
the Child ego-state's experience, and a
central zone that he did not name.
Richard Erskine has proposed the name
technos for this part, which deals creinner child advocacy (psychoanalysis.atively wim here-and-now issues. The
Alice Miller) Alice Miller saw the role
term logos is also used.
of the tl1erapist as the advocate of the

60

inner child advocacy

Don't Do Anything (it will be wrong or
dangerous)
Some transactional analysts add Don't
Enjoy and Don't Trust as additional
injunctions.
Verbal labels such as Don't Be Close
are convenient to use and give a vivid
sense of the essence of the injunction
but it should not be concluded that
injunctions are held only as verbal (cognitive) messages within the personality;
they also involve patterns of feeling and
behaving and body states. The verbal
labels serve only to designate types of
'message'; each individual will have her
or his own version. See MESSAGE FOR."'AT.
However, the use of the message format
does make one point clear. Injunctions
are 'messages' not decisions. For the
injunction to become directly active in
the script the decision must be made to
comply with it.
Steiner (1974) in his sc!UPT MATRIX diagram shows the injunction as being sent
directly from the Child ego-state of the
parent to the Child ego-state of the child.
This probably describes accurately the
situation in parental abuse, in which
there is a gross inequality of power. In
more normal parenting situations the
injunction arises out of the interactions
between the parent and the child and it
arises out of the meanings that thechild
gives to the parent's behaviours. For
example, the unavailability of a parent at
a crucial stage in the child's development
may give rise to a Don't Exist injunction
but the reality that the child did not
understand might have been the parent's
illness. The parent did not in fact send
the injunction. Although the injunction
is primary pathology rather than defence,
injunctions can be linked in defensive
combinations so that one injunction
defends against the other. This is called a
COMPOUND DECISION (for example, I can
exist as long as I don't feel).

inner child. She derived her

of the inner child from the
tiona! analysis concept of the
ego-state and also drew on the
of John Bowlby and Karen Ho
See ADVOCACY.
insight the ability to be aware of one'

own inner processes. A major aim

psychotherapy is to promote the
opment of insight in order to ~- ... c.uc:.
change. Transactional analysis
insight as an Adult (A,) function
although intuition from early Adult
(A,) is also involved. The process of"
by establishing
DECONTAMINATION
boundaries between what is currently
me case and what is archaic is important in this process.
Institute of Transactional Analysis
British transactional analysis organisation.
intalte interview a first meeting between
the client and a counsellor or psychotherapist to establish the nature of the
client's problems and the suitability of
the service offered to deal with them.
Two important aspects to be addressed
are the client's willingness to commit
energy to the change process and
whether he or she has sufficient available Adult ego-state to support change.

integrated Adult Berne's concept

(Berne, 1961) of me final stage in the
development of the Adult in which all
that is of value in me Parent and Child
ego-states has been assimilated and
integrated within the Adult to form a
single ego-state. He divides me integrated Adult into two parts: ethos, which
contains the values and patterns of me
Parent ego-state, pathos, which .holds
the Child ego-state's experience, and a
central zone that he did not name.
Richard Erskine has proposed the name
technos for this part, which deals creinner child advocacy (psychoanalysis.atively wim here-and-now issues. The
Alice Miller) Alice Miller saw the role
term logos is also used.
of the tl1erapist as the advocate of the

60

internal dialogue
internal dialogue internal communica- '
subjectivity with a unique view of the
tion between ego-states. This may be
world, a fruitful_ dialogue is possible
experienced as thoughts; for example,
between our two subjectivities. This
self-critical thoughts are probably Parent
concept is inherent in the transactionmessages to Child (although if the critial analysis concept of the 'I'm OK,
cisms are valid and appropriate they
You're OK' UFE POsrnoN. See EMPATHY.
may be within the Adult) in response to
which the Child may assent ('yes I am intervention an action by the therapist
hopeless') or rebel ('I'll show you I'm
designed to promote change. In Eric
not'). likewise self-pitying thoughts are
Berne's THERAPEUTIC OPERATIONS he disdirected from Child to Parent.
tinguishes between interventions that
Sometimes people can hear their parimpinge directly on ego-states and
ents' voices in their imagination giving
INTERPOSITIONS, which intervene
support, criticism or infonnation.
between the client's Adult and his or
her other ego-states.
internal object (psychoanalysis) see
OBJECT, INTERNAL.
intimacy close involvement with others
from authentic positions, communicatinterpersonal between people as opposed
ing needs and wants to each other
to INTRAPSYCHIC (within the person's
, openly. This is one of the six types of
mind).
TIME STRUCTURING described by Eric
Berne (1964). People may be intimately
interposition Eric Berne (1966) described
loving but they may also be intimately
eight THERAPEUTIC OPERATIONS that he
angry if they are straight and open with
divided into two categories: interveneach other about their anger and comtions and interpositions. Interpositions
municate clearly from 'I'm OK, You're
are operations such as illustration in
OK' positions. Berne (1964) defined
which the therapist tells a story that
intimacy as 'the spontaneous game-free
interposes something between the
candidness of an aware person, the libclient's Adult and his or her other egoeration of the eidetically perceptive
states to prevent them slipping back.
(seeing things as they are), uncorrupted
Child in all its nai"vete, living in the here
and now'.
interpretation see THERAPEUTIC OPERATIONS.
interrogation See THERAPEUTIC OPERATIONS.

intrapsychic within the psyche or mind

as opposed to INTERPERSONAL (between
people).
intersubjectivity an awareness of a subjective self in the other person, :who
also has an awareness of us b"eing intrauterine within the womb; i.e.
aware of him or her. A theory of minds
before birth. It is now known that the
that takes into account that they are
child is aware of stimuli before birth so
unique centres of awareness and that
SCRIPT formation may occur.
this awareness includes awareness of
being known. Communication from an introject (noun) a representation of
intersubjective viewpoint involves
another person taken into the internal
owning one's own subjective viewworld of the mind. The PARENT egopoint, honouring the subjective self of
state contains introjects of parent figthe other, making an attempt intuitively
ures. Introjects function internally
to comprehend it and to communicate
(e.g. in the INTERNAL DIAI.OGUE) in ways
that it has been comprehended.
analogous to ways in which the origi- .
Althowzh we are all contained within a
nal person was perceived.

internal dialogue
internal dialogue internal communica- '
subjectivity with a unique view of the
tion between ego-states. This may be
world, a fruitful_ dialogue is possible
experienced as thoughts; for example,
between our two subjectivities. This
self-critical thoughts are probably Parent
concept is inherent in the transactionmessages to Child (although if the critial analysis concept of the 'I'm OK,
cisms are valid and appropriate they
You're OK' UFE POsrnoN. See EMPATHY.
may be within the Adult) in response to
which the Child may assent ('yes I am intervention an action by the therapist
hopeless') or rebel ('I'll show you I'm
designed to promote change. In Eric
not'). likewise self-pitying thoughts are
Berne's THERAPEUTIC OPERATIONS he disdirected from Child to Parent.
tinguishes between interventions that
Sometimes people can hear their parimpinge directly on ego-states and
ents' voices in their imagination giving
INTERPOSITIONS, which intervene
support, criticism or infonnation.
between the client's Adult and his or
her other ego-states.
internal object (psychoanalysis) see
OBJECT, INTERNAL.
intimacy close involvement with others
from authentic positions, communicatinterpersonal between people as opposed
ing needs and wants to each other
to INTRAPSYCHIC (within the person's
, openly. This is one of the six types of
mind).
TIME STRUCTURING described by Eric
Berne (1964). People may be intimately
interposition Eric Berne (1966) described
loving but they may also be intimately
eight THERAPEUTIC OPERATIONS that he
angry if they are straight and open with
divided into two categories: interveneach other about their anger and comtions and interpositions. Interpositions
municate clearly from 'I'm OK, You're
are operations such as illustration in
OK' positions. Berne (1964) defined
which the therapist tells a story that
intimacy as 'the spontaneous game-free
interposes something between the
candidness of an aware person, the libclient's Adult and his or her other egoeration of the eidetically perceptive
states to prevent them slipping back.
(seeing things as they are), uncorrupted
Child in all its nai"vete, living in the here
and now'.
interpretation see THERAPEUTIC OPERATIONS.
interrogation See THERAPEUTIC OPERATIONS.

intrapsychic within the psyche or mind

as opposed to INTERPERSONAL (between
people).
intersubjectivity an awareness of a subjective self in the other person, :who
also has an awareness of us b"eing intrauterine within the womb; i.e.
aware of him or her. A theory of minds
before birth. It is now known that the
that takes into account that they are
child is aware of stimuli before birth so
unique centres of awareness and that
SCRIPT formation may occur.
this awareness includes awareness of
being known. Communication from an introject (noun) a representation of
intersubjective viewpoint involves
another person taken into the internal
owning one's own subjective viewworld of the mind. The PARENT egopoint, honouring the subjective self of
state contains introjects of parent figthe other, making an attempt intuitively
ures. Introjects function internally
to comprehend it and to communicate
(e.g. in the INTERNAL DIAI.OGUE) in ways
that it has been comprehended.
analogous to ways in which the origi- .
Althowzh we are all contained within a
nal person was perceived.

'l

Jacobs, Alan transactional analyst. Given

the Eric Berne Memorial Award in
1995 for his contributions to the theory
of social applications of transactional
analysis (see Jacobs, 1991). Ooint
award.)

GA.\1E in transactional analysis is unlike

the everyday concept of a 'game'
Also the use of familiar words in
place of technicalities sometimes
leads to transactional analysis being
misperceived as theoretically lightweight. See LANGUAGE OF TRA.."'SACTIONAL

ANALYSIS.
James, Muriel transactional analyst.
Awarded the Eric Berne Memorial
Scientific Award for developing SELF Joines, Vann received the Eric Berne
Memorial Award in Transactional
REPARENTING Games, 1974) and coAnalysis (joint award) in 1994 for
authored with Dorothy Jongeward one
his work on using redecision therapy
of the most successful introductions to
transactional analysis, Born to Win
with different personality adaptations
Goines, 1986) and diagnosis and treatGames andJongeward, 1971).
ment planning using a transactional
jargon a derogatory term for specialised
analysis framework Goines, 1988). He
is joint author (with Ian Stewart) of a
language. By implication, jargon
popular introduction to transactional
serves to mystify and exclude those
outside a small group from underanalysis (TA Today, Stewart and Joines,
1987).
standing what is being discussed.
However, every speciality has unique
language needs. In the development Jung, Carl analyst. Jung was at flrst closely
associated with Freud but later left psyof transactional analysis the aim has
choanalysis to found his own school
been to create an open language system that can be widely shared- i.e. to
which he called 'analytical psychology'.
avoid creating jargon. Most of its terJung's thought ranged widely and he
minology draws on everyday and
was deeply interested in myth and
even colloquial expressions. To a
symbolism. He aimed to create a syslarge extent the aim of an open lantem that was more open and broader
guage system has been achieved but
than Freud's psychoanalysis but his
there has been a cost. Inappropriate
approach lacks Freud's clarity and
meanings are carried over from the
consistency. Eric Berne trained as a
everyday use of words; for example, a
psychoanalyst so the underlying

64

'l

Jacobs, Alan transactional analyst. Given

the Eric Berne Memorial Award in
1995 for his contributions to the theory
of social applications of transactional
analysis (see Jacobs, 1991). Ooint
award.)

GA.\1E in transactional analysis is unlike

the everyday concept of a 'game'
Also the use of familiar words in
place of technicalities sometimes
leads to transactional analysis being
misperceived as theoretically lightweight. See LANGUAGE OF TRA.."'SACTIONAL

ANALYSIS.
James, Muriel transactional analyst.
Awarded the Eric Berne Memorial
Scientific Award for developing SELF Joines, Vann received the Eric Berne
Memorial Award in Transactional
REPARENTING Games, 1974) and coAnalysis (joint award) in 1994 for
authored with Dorothy Jongeward one
his work on using redecision therapy
of the most successful introductions to
transactional analysis, Born to Win
with different personality adaptations
Goines, 1986) and diagnosis and treatGames andJongeward, 1971).
ment planning using a transactional
jargon a derogatory term for specialised
analysis framework Goines, 1988). He
is joint author (with Ian Stewart) of a
language. By implication, jargon
popular introduction to transactional
serves to mystify and exclude those
outside a small group from underanalysis (TA Today, Stewart and Joines,
1987).
standing what is being discussed.
However, every speciality has unique
language needs. In the development Jung, Carl analyst. Jung was at flrst closely
associated with Freud but later left psyof transactional analysis the aim has
choanalysis to found his own school
been to create an open language system that can be widely shared- i.e. to
which he called 'analytical psychology'.
avoid creating jargon. Most of its terJung's thought ranged widely and he
minology draws on everyday and
was deeply interested in myth and
even colloquial expressions. To a
symbolism. He aimed to create a syslarge extent the aim of an open lantem that was more open and broader
guage system has been achieved but
than Freud's psychoanalysis but his
there has been a cost. Inappropriate
approach lacks Freud's clarity and
meanings are carried over from the
consistency. Eric Berne trained as a
everyday use of words; for example, a
psychoanalyst so the underlying

64

This reinforces the initiator's belief

Kahler, Taibi transactional analyst who
that he or she is no good but also
has made major contributions to
enables the Victim to get negative
theory. He received the Eric Berne
strokes and thus know that he or she
Memorial Scientific Award in 1977 for
exists.
his work on the MINISCRIPT and the five
DRIVERS (Kahler and Capers, 1974).
Taibi Kahler has also developed Paul Klein, Melanie Austrian-born psychoanalyst. She came to England from Berlin
Ware's COnCept of PERSONALJTY ADAPTA(where she had been analysed by
TION in his process therapy approach.
FERENCZ!) in 1927 and became the cenY>arpman, Stephen transactional analyst.
tre of the British School out of which
grew the OBJECT REL\.TIONS approach.
He was awarded the Eric Berne
She worked mainly with children and
Memorial Scientific Award twice, in
developed a highly original theoretical
1972, for his work on the DRAMA I"RIA"'!GLE
approach stressing the importance of
(Ka.rpman, 1968- the drama triangle is
very early experiences and conflicts.
sometimes referred to as the Karpman
Some of her ideas have been influenTriangle), and again in 1979 for his
tial in the development of transactionwork on OPTIONS (Karpman, 1971).
al analysis (e.g. she originated the concept of the LIFE POSITION).
Kick Me game initiated from the Victim
position and inviting persecution.

:.-.'

This reinforces the initiator's belief

Kahler, Taibi transactional analyst who
that he or she is no good but also
has made major contributions to
enables the Victim to get negative
theory. He received the Eric Berne
strokes and thus know that he or she
Memorial Scientific Award in 1977 for
exists.
his work on the MINISCRIPT and the five
DRIVERS (Kahler and Capers, 1974).
Taibi Kahler has also developed Paul Klein, Melanie Austrian-born psychoanalyst. She came to England from Berlin
Ware's COnCept of PERSONALJTY ADAPTA(where she had been analysed by
TION in his process therapy approach.
FERENCZ!) in 1927 and became the cenY>arpman, Stephen transactional analyst.
tre of the British School out of which
grew the OBJECT REL\.TIONS approach.
He was awarded the Eric Berne
She worked mainly with children and
Memorial Scientific Award twice, in
developed a highly original theoretical
1972, for his work on the DRAMA I"RIA"'!GLE
approach stressing the importance of
(Ka.rpman, 1968- the drama triangle is
very early experiences and conflicts.
sometimes referred to as the Karpman
Some of her ideas have been influenTriangle), and again in 1979 for his
tial in the development of transactionwork on OPTIONS (Karpman, 1971).
al analysis (e.g. she originated the concept of the LIFE POSITION).
Kick Me game initiated from the Victim
position and inviting persecution.

:.-.'

.. - -~

:'I

leadership hunger
opmental issues by life events, for life positions also known as ~~"-'na
example activation of oral (first year)
positions or basic positions
issues often follows a new beginning.
1962, 1966, 1972). Each TPrrP,Pnt~
She also suggests that recycling though
outlook on life that has a
all the stages of child developmen t
effect on the way the world is
continue throughout the life cycle and
strued and life is lived. There are
she identifies ages at which specific
life positions:
stage issues are likely to become
1. 'I'm OK, you're OK' (I+U+).
salient.
accept myself unconditiona lly as
am and I accept you un_condlitionaUv
leadership hunger Berne (1966) the
as you are.' This is the healthy
need of a group for a leader to provide
tion enabling the person to
time structuring. This is a derivative of
autonomous and to form relation .
STRUCTURE HUNGER.
ships that are balanced and reward. .
ing. 'You're OK' does not mean that
libido (psychoana lysis) originally a
approve of everything that you do
form of mental energy deriving from
but that I unconditiona lly accept
the ID (from the instinctual level of the
your
value as a person. c.f. UNCONDI
psyche) and associated with sexuality.
TIONAL POSITIVE REGARD.
Later Freud used it as a more general
2. 'I'm not OK, you're OK' (I-U+).
term for mental energy, for example
Individuals in this position constantthe EGO was assumed to possess egoly look to others for approval, underlibido. In later psychoanalyti c instinct
value themselves and are subject to
theory libido is the energy of the life
depression.
instinct (love). Berne uses the term
3.
I'm OK, you're not OK (I+U-). The
cathexis or enetgv but po:>tc!lat<.>s that
person in this position is critical and
it can exist in three states: bound,
mistrustful of others but lacks
unbound and free. See E:-iER<YY. The
insight into what they are doing.
opposite of libido, the energy of the
This is characteristic of paranoid disdeath instinct (Thanatos) is a concept
orders although many people enter
which is little used. However it has
this state from time to time.
been given the name Mortido. An alter4. I'm not OK, you're not OK (I-U-).
native name which is sometimes used
This is a despairing position that
is Destrudo.
often underlies serious psychological
disorders.
life events the individual's life will
have been shaped by life events, each
All four positions occur from time to
of which may have encouraged or
time in relatively healthy ('normal')
reinforced script beliefs and led to
people but they are quickly able to
early decisions. The early stages of
move back into the healthy position. It
therapy usually include exploration of
is fixedness in one of the unhealthy
significant past life events. These
positions that constitutes a problem
may be both the cause and the result
The concept was originated by Melanie
of scripting since, as script is formed,
KLEIN. See also OK CORRAL, DEPRESSIVE POSI
it influences subsequent events.
TION, PA.'(ANOIDSCHJZOID POSITION.
Events occurring during therapy
are often closely related to script life script the unconscious life plan
issues being addressed and may consti
derived from early experiences that
tute manifestation s of GA.\fES or ACTING
governs the way life is lived out.
OUT.
Usually referred to simply as SCRIPT.

68

.. - -~

:'I

leadership hunger
opmental issues by life events, for life positions also known as ~~"-'na
example activation of oral (first year)
positions or basic positions
issues often follows a new beginning.
1962, 1966, 1972). Each TPrrP,Pnt~
She also suggests that recycling though
outlook on life that has a
all the stages of child developmen t
effect on the way the world is
continue throughout the life cycle and
strued and life is lived. There are
she identifies ages at which specific
life positions:
stage issues are likely to become
1. 'I'm OK, you're OK' (I+U+).
salient.
accept myself unconditiona lly as
am and I accept you un_condlitionaUv
leadership hunger Berne (1966) the
as you are.' This is the healthy
need of a group for a leader to provide
tion enabling the person to
time structuring. This is a derivative of
autonomous and to form relation .
STRUCTURE HUNGER.
ships that are balanced and reward. .
ing. 'You're OK' does not mean that
libido (psychoana lysis) originally a
approve of everything that you do
form of mental energy deriving from
but that I unconditiona lly accept
the ID (from the instinctual level of the
your
value as a person. c.f. UNCONDI
psyche) and associated with sexuality.
TIONAL POSITIVE REGARD.
Later Freud used it as a more general
2. 'I'm not OK, you're OK' (I-U+).
term for mental energy, for example
Individuals in this position constantthe EGO was assumed to possess egoly look to others for approval, underlibido. In later psychoanalyti c instinct
value themselves and are subject to
theory libido is the energy of the life
depression.
instinct (love). Berne uses the term
3.
I'm OK, you're not OK (I+U-). The
cathexis or enetgv but po:>tc!lat<.>s that
person in this position is critical and
it can exist in three states: bound,
mistrustful of others but lacks
unbound and free. See E:-iER<YY. The
insight into what they are doing.
opposite of libido, the energy of the
This is characteristic of paranoid disdeath instinct (Thanatos) is a concept
orders although many people enter
which is little used. However it has
this state from time to time.
been given the name Mortido. An alter4. I'm not OK, you're not OK (I-U-).
native name which is sometimes used
This is a despairing position that
is Destrudo.
often underlies serious psychological
disorders.
life events the individual's life will
have been shaped by life events, each
All four positions occur from time to
of which may have encouraged or
time in relatively healthy ('normal')
reinforced script beliefs and led to
people but they are quickly able to
early decisions. The early stages of
move back into the healthy position. It
therapy usually include exploration of
is fixedness in one of the unhealthy
significant past life events. These
positions that constitutes a problem
may be both the cause and the result
The concept was originated by Melanie
of scripting since, as script is formed,
KLEIN. See also OK CORRAL, DEPRESSIVE POSI
it influences subsequent events.
TION, PA.'(ANOIDSCHJZOID POSITION.
Events occurring during therapy
are often closely related to script life script the unconscious life plan
issues being addressed and may consti
derived from early experiences that
tute manifestation s of GA.\fES or ACTING
governs the way life is lived out.
OUT.
Usually referred to simply as SCRIPT.

68

~:

magical Parent the Parent in the Child

ego-state. See P,.

depression; the condition in which the

mood swings are not so severe is
known as cyclothymia. Loomis and
Landsman (1980) have advanced a
theory of the manic-depres sive structure and a treatment approach based
on the concept of ego-state splitting.

magical thinking young children do not

distinguish clearly between thought
and action and so may believe that
their thoughts (for example, hostile
feelings towards their parents) can
insincere positive
directly affect others. A child may feel marshmall ows
of giving these
practice
The
strokes.
illor
death
relative's
a
for
responsible
strokes is referred to as 'throwing
ness or the conflict between his or her
marshmallow s'.
parents. Children may also believe that
tne world may be changed in some way
by wishing it to be different, a theme of marathon extended group therapy lasting from one to several days. This maxmany fairy st01ies. This style of thinking
imises processes and provides a srrfe
is referred to a.s magical thinking and is
in which intensive work can be
space
:Jaaicularly characteristi c of the five
done.
ye:1r old, thus the name :-..1AGICAL PAPJ::>;T
for the early version of the Parent egoMartian we have all been trained to see
scate P,. See aiso o:\1NIPOTEC<CE.
social interactions in particular ways.
The Martian view is the totally objecmd2~'-~ptive maladaptive patterns of
tive view of someone who comes from
tbin!dng, feeling or behaviour are not
outside our culrure. Children have this
appropriate to current reality altho~1gh
view before they are indoctrinated into
they may have been appropriate at
the rules of society. Transaction al
some time in the past.
analysis encourages us to take a
Martian view, to stand back and see
mania a highly energised psychologica l
things as they are actually occurring
st:lte in which the client may talk conand also to 'speak Martian', to say
stantly, sleep very little and have
what we see and what we feel.
grandiose beliefs about his or her rrb!lities.
f>icNeel, John received rhe Eric Berne
Memorial Award in Transaction al
:na:;:;.ic-depr essive a disorder in which
Analysis in 1994 for his work on the
there are major mood swings between
PARENT L"iTERV!EW (McNeel, 1976).
a highly excited manic phase and deep

:-.

''

~:

magical Parent the Parent in the Child

ego-state. See P,.

depression; the condition in which the

mood swings are not so severe is
known as cyclothymia. Loomis and
Landsman (1980) have advanced a
theory of the manic-depres sive structure and a treatment approach based
on the concept of ego-state splitting.

magical thinking young children do not

distinguish clearly between thought
and action and so may believe that
their thoughts (for example, hostile
feelings towards their parents) can
insincere positive
directly affect others. A child may feel marshmall ows
of giving these
practice
The
strokes.
illor
death
relative's
a
for
responsible
strokes is referred to as 'throwing
ness or the conflict between his or her
marshmallow s'.
parents. Children may also believe that
tne world may be changed in some way
by wishing it to be different, a theme of marathon extended group therapy lasting from one to several days. This maxmany fairy st01ies. This style of thinking
imises processes and provides a srrfe
is referred to a.s magical thinking and is
in which intensive work can be
space
:Jaaicularly characteristi c of the five
done.
ye:1r old, thus the name :-..1AGICAL PAPJ::>;T
for the early version of the Parent egoMartian we have all been trained to see
scate P,. See aiso o:\1NIPOTEC<CE.
social interactions in particular ways.
The Martian view is the totally objecmd2~'-~ptive maladaptive patterns of
tive view of someone who comes from
tbin!dng, feeling or behaviour are not
outside our culrure. Children have this
appropriate to current reality altho~1gh
view before they are indoctrinated into
they may have been appropriate at
the rules of society. Transaction al
some time in the past.
analysis encourages us to take a
Martian view, to stand back and see
mania a highly energised psychologica l
things as they are actually occurring
st:lte in which the client may talk conand also to 'speak Martian', to say
stantly, sleep very little and have
what we see and what we feel.
grandiose beliefs about his or her rrb!lities.
f>icNeel, John received rhe Eric Berne
Memorial Award in Transaction al
:na:;:;.ic-depr essive a disorder in which
Analysis in 1994 for his work on the
there are major mood swings between
PARENT L"iTERV!EW (McNeel, 1976).
a highly excited manic phase and deep

:-.

''

mental illness
use the valuable material from the
while the client remains in this situation. This raises complex ethical issues
Child and Parent ego-states but is no
longer influenced by the negative
for the therapist. These gave rise to the
controversy regarding the Schiffs' work
material. This would mean that the
with schizophrenics. See also CURE.
individual would be truly autonomous.
Berne (1957, 1972) writes of a drive
towards wholeness and fulfilment that mental organs see PSYCHIC ORGANS.
he calls PHYSIS and represents by an
upward arrow passing through all message format transactional analysts
frequently refer to 'messages' influencthree ego-states (thus formulating the
ing the client and may use imagery
principles of humanistic therapy in
drive terms). Health must also involve
such as 'the Parent whispering in the
Child's ear' or 'Parent tapes playing in
the free flow of physis.
the head'. Verbal labels in message formental illness a state of prolonged psymat such as a Don't Be Close injunction or a Try Hard driver are convechological distress or a state in which
the community does not accept behavnient to use and give a vivid sense of
iours. Thomas Szasz (1961) pointed
the essence of the concept and how it
functions intrapsychically, but it should
out the very large social component in
not be concluded that they imply that
mental illness. The term isolates the
problem within the client but it exists
the intrapsychic features which they
not only within the client but also
name exist solely as verbal messages
held within the personality. Powerful
wit.'1in his or her relationships. including those with the externJ.l society.
injunctions (such as Don't Exist) are
often received before the child is
Pressures of the socier-y or rhe iamily
capabie cf speech. The injunction and
or group in which the client !Jyes m;J.y
other script elements involve cognitive
make it very difficult for them not to
(thoughts), affective (feelings), behavexperience distress or behave in ways
ioural and physical (body states) comthat are not acceptable to others.
ponents. The message format for repreTransactional analysis starts from the
position 'I'm OK, You're OK', that is 'I
senting intrapsychic elements is characaccept you as you are and I accept
teristic of the metaphor used in transacmyself as I am, although I may not
tional analysis; it is one of the features
that give it its vividness, accessibility,
accept what you are doing'. Transactional analysts do not tell people
precision and brevity. However, when
not understood it can lead to transacwhat is wrong with them but invite
tional analysis being misperceived as a
them to make a contract for change:
this contract must be acceptable to
simplistic approach. By contrast, the
object relations theorist Wilfred BiDn
both the client and the therapist. 'To
aimed to create a terminology that
make such a contract the client must
opened up a space into which the indihave functional Adult available.
Transactional analysis takes the posividual's own, experientially derived
meaning might enter. He wrote: 'the
tion that most people including chil
dren have this and that it is important
advantage of employing a sign ... is
to empower clients to use their Adult
that it at lea..~t indicates that the reader's
resources and not to rescue them when
comprehension of my meaning should
this would be inappropriate because
contain an element that will remain
they have the resources to help themunsatisfied until he meets the appropriselves. In some cases, such as psy- .
ate realisation'. There is the risk that
chosis, Adult is not available and a con
the metaphor of transactional analysis
tractual approach is not appropriate
leads to the meaning being perceived as
72

mental illness
use the valuable material from the
while the client remains in this situation. This raises complex ethical issues
Child and Parent ego-states but is no
longer influenced by the negative
for the therapist. These gave rise to the
controversy regarding the Schiffs' work
material. This would mean that the
with schizophrenics. See also CURE.
individual would be truly autonomous.
Berne (1957, 1972) writes of a drive
towards wholeness and fulfilment that mental organs see PSYCHIC ORGANS.
he calls PHYSIS and represents by an
upward arrow passing through all message format transactional analysts
frequently refer to 'messages' influencthree ego-states (thus formulating the
ing the client and may use imagery
principles of humanistic therapy in
drive terms). Health must also involve
such as 'the Parent whispering in the
Child's ear' or 'Parent tapes playing in
the free flow of physis.
the head'. Verbal labels in message formental illness a state of prolonged psymat such as a Don't Be Close injunction or a Try Hard driver are convechological distress or a state in which
the community does not accept behavnient to use and give a vivid sense of
iours. Thomas Szasz (1961) pointed
the essence of the concept and how it
functions intrapsychically, but it should
out the very large social component in
not be concluded that they imply that
mental illness. The term isolates the
problem within the client but it exists
the intrapsychic features which they
not only within the client but also
name exist solely as verbal messages
held within the personality. Powerful
wit.'1in his or her relationships. including those with the externJ.l society.
injunctions (such as Don't Exist) are
often received before the child is
Pressures of the socier-y or rhe iamily
capabie cf speech. The injunction and
or group in which the client !Jyes m;J.y
other script elements involve cognitive
make it very difficult for them not to
(thoughts), affective (feelings), behavexperience distress or behave in ways
ioural and physical (body states) comthat are not acceptable to others.
ponents. The message format for repreTransactional analysis starts from the
position 'I'm OK, You're OK', that is 'I
senting intrapsychic elements is characaccept you as you are and I accept
teristic of the metaphor used in transacmyself as I am, although I may not
tional analysis; it is one of the features
that give it its vividness, accessibility,
accept what you are doing'. Transactional analysts do not tell people
precision and brevity. However, when
not understood it can lead to transacwhat is wrong with them but invite
tional analysis being misperceived as a
them to make a contract for change:
this contract must be acceptable to
simplistic approach. By contrast, the
object relations theorist Wilfred BiDn
both the client and the therapist. 'To
aimed to create a terminology that
make such a contract the client must
opened up a space into which the indihave functional Adult available.
Transactional analysis takes the posividual's own, experientially derived
meaning might enter. He wrote: 'the
tion that most people including chil
dren have this and that it is important
advantage of employing a sign ... is
to empower clients to use their Adult
that it at lea..~t indicates that the reader's
resources and not to rescue them when
comprehension of my meaning should
this would be inappropriate because
contain an element that will remain
they have the resources to help themunsatisfied until he meets the appropriselves. In some cases, such as psy- .
ate realisation'. There is the risk that
chosis, Adult is not available and a con
the metaphor of transactional analysis
tractual approach is not appropriate
leads to the meaning being perceived as
72

missed sessions
client and his or her experiences SO' Moiso, Carlo received the Eric
that they are able to become aware of
Memorial Award in
themselves through the therapist. This
Analysis in 1981 for his work on
is a way of giving PERMISSIONS, tO e."tist,
states and transference (Moiso,
to feel and to be oneself.
mortido (psychoanalysis) the
missed sessions the business contract
associated with the death instinct;
(see CONTRACT) needs to deal with what
usmo referred to by Berne
will happen if the Client misses a sesThere is no corresponding concept
transactional analysis ENERGY
sion. Missing or being late for sessions
is a common way in which Clients show
although the concept of the script
resistance to therapy and is very often a
OFF bears some resemblance to Freud's
move to invite the therapist into a GAME.
thinking about the death instinct.
model (noun) A representation of a sys- mother a female parent or anyone who
tem or process in other terms, for
fulfils the main role in providing the
example the ego-state model of the
care and support needed by the develpersonality. This can be expressed diaoping child (sets up and maintains
grammatically or verbally and is an
healthy SYMBIOSIS). Good mothering
can be given by people who are not
effective way of displaying information
about the structure and function of the
biologically related to the child (or
even not female).
ego. A model is a metaphor designed
to be isomorphous with some aspect
of reality (it provides a 'map' of some motivation that which tends to bring
aspect or aspects of experience).
about action. An important aspect is
the meaning attached to the action by
Psychological disturbances (which
the individual; this will depend on the
will often be linked to physiological disturbances) can be explained in terms of
content of their FRA.\1E OF REFERENCE. Out
of awareness factors are often involved
three models (Clarkson, 1992). In the
confusion model there is interference in
in motivation so that people find
the functioning of the Adult ego-state in
themselves unwilling to do the things
they 'ought' to do (that is, the things
an integrated way with other ego-states.
their Parent ego-state tells them to do)
This can be represented as CONTA.vlJX<~
but find themselves doing things they
TION. In the conj?ict model there is conthink they ought not to do (things that
flict between ego-states as represented
in the IMPASSE COncept of REDECJSIO:-\ thermay be EGO DYSTONIC with Adult or
apy. The deficit model describes how
Parent). Transactional analysis explains
disturbances result from develoon~enra!
this in terms of the distribution of
deficits (missed experiences ne~ded fer
energy across ego-states. See ENERGY.
development) and inadequate parenting for extended periods at the time of mourning the process of letting go of an
trauma ..A..nother way of representing
attachment (usually an attachment to a
these ideas is Lee's (1988b) concept of
person) on separation, death etc.
the PR!-"'AL WOUND.
Kubler-Ross (1969) identified a fivestage sequence: denial, anger, bargaining, depression and acceptance.
model (verb) To give a message, for
example a permission, through beha,rLacousiere identified mourning as a
iour. A parent might give a pennission
final stage in group development in
to express sadness to a child by showwhich the group focuses on its termiing his own sadness, thus modelling
nation. See GROUPS, STAGES OF DEVELOP
MENT.
the permission 'it is OK to be sad'.

missed sessions
client and his or her experiences SO' Moiso, Carlo received the Eric
that they are able to become aware of
Memorial Award in
themselves through the therapist. This
Analysis in 1981 for his work on
is a way of giving PERMISSIONS, tO e."tist,
states and transference (Moiso,
to feel and to be oneself.
mortido (psychoanalysis) the
missed sessions the business contract
associated with the death instinct;
(see CONTRACT) needs to deal with what
usmo referred to by Berne
will happen if the Client misses a sesThere is no corresponding concept
transactional analysis ENERGY
sion. Missing or being late for sessions
is a common way in which Clients show
although the concept of the script
resistance to therapy and is very often a
OFF bears some resemblance to Freud's
move to invite the therapist into a GAME.
thinking about the death instinct.
model (noun) A representation of a sys- mother a female parent or anyone who
tem or process in other terms, for
fulfils the main role in providing the
example the ego-state model of the
care and support needed by the develpersonality. This can be expressed diaoping child (sets up and maintains
grammatically or verbally and is an
healthy SYMBIOSIS). Good mothering
can be given by people who are not
effective way of displaying information
about the structure and function of the
biologically related to the child (or
even not female).
ego. A model is a metaphor designed
to be isomorphous with some aspect
of reality (it provides a 'map' of some motivation that which tends to bring
aspect or aspects of experience).
about action. An important aspect is
the meaning attached to the action by
Psychological disturbances (which
the individual; this will depend on the
will often be linked to physiological disturbances) can be explained in terms of
content of their FRA.\1E OF REFERENCE. Out
of awareness factors are often involved
three models (Clarkson, 1992). In the
confusion model there is interference in
in motivation so that people find
the functioning of the Adult ego-state in
themselves unwilling to do the things
they 'ought' to do (that is, the things
an integrated way with other ego-states.
their Parent ego-state tells them to do)
This can be represented as CONTA.vlJX<~
but find themselves doing things they
TION. In the conj?ict model there is conthink they ought not to do (things that
flict between ego-states as represented
in the IMPASSE COncept of REDECJSIO:-\ thermay be EGO DYSTONIC with Adult or
apy. The deficit model describes how
Parent). Transactional analysis explains
disturbances result from develoon~enra!
this in terms of the distribution of
deficits (missed experiences ne~ded fer
energy across ego-states. See ENERGY.
development) and inadequate parenting for extended periods at the time of mourning the process of letting go of an
trauma ..A..nother way of representing
attachment (usually an attachment to a
these ideas is Lee's (1988b) concept of
person) on separation, death etc.
the PR!-"'AL WOUND.
Kubler-Ross (1969) identified a fivestage sequence: denial, anger, bargaining, depression and acceptance.
model (verb) To give a message, for
example a permission, through beha,rLacousiere identified mourning as a
iour. A parent might give a pennission
final stage in group development in
to express sadness to a child by showwhich the group focuses on its termiing his own sadness, thus modelling
nation. See GROUPS, STAGES OF DEVELOP
MENT.
the permission 'it is OK to be sad'.

narcissism investment of psychological

energy (cathexis) in the self. This may
be positive and helpful (for example,
healthy self-respect). Over-valuation of
the self is a defence, often against the
trauma of early loss of rel~tionship.
Psychoanalysts dist.ing1..Iish bet-;v'.:::r.:: n
/J7"imary narcissism, the:: b:-tb;'s love Gf
~(:"lf

!h::n

pr~cedes

lo-.i!"1g

spcondary narci.ssisn-?.
INTROJECTI:'"~G

--~ther5_, ?_~!.'.i

rjJclt in\oi'.':.~;

and jdcntifying -..;viti:.

~' ..::.

The child neeJs positive

responses to nurture and sustain th:=
self; these can be tenned narcissistic
needs and might be represented in
transactional analysis terms as adequate and appropriate STROKES.
Rejecting and abusive behavio,_;r
towards the child inflicts a narcissistic
wound and would be likely to result in
a Don't Exist J:-<JUNCTION.
OBJECT.

constrained by adaptation to the

(assumed) needs and wishes of others
as it had been in childhood to the parents. This is a functional concept, i.e. it
describes the outward (behavioural)
rn3ni.fest:J.tion of ;;.n ego-state. See FUNcTIO:\TAL

~Ic-t.:"d

EGO-STATES.

sonlf:tbing thc.1.t Is necessary for

nor~

}w:dthy functioning. This includes

rwt OI'.ly physical needs such as food
and warmth but also psychological
needs. Transactional analysis stresses
the importance of RECOGNITION HUNGER,
which is satisfied through STROKING,
and STRL;Cn.;RE HUNGER, which signifies a
need for TIME STRL:CTURING.
I~?J

negative stroke a STROKE is an act of

recognition from another person.
Stroking is required to maintain psychological health. Berne (1964)
described strokes as units of social
natural Child (also written Naturd
action. Strokes can take many forms,
Child) when someone reacts from a
verbal and non-verbal, negative and
spontaneous and open Child position,
positive. A negative stroke is hostile,
in touch with emotions and reacting to
rejecting, undermining or critical, for
the moment with enthusiasm and
example a disparaging remark.
energy, we describe him or her as
However, the verbal or non-verbal an
being in the natural Child ego-stare.
is directed towards the person and
Although such a person will be respontherefore involves recognising their
sive to others he or she will be in
existence Negative strokes are sometouch with his or her own needs ;md
times sought for this reason. Many
wants and will seek openly to satisfy
children find that negative strokes are
them. This is to be contrasted with the
easier ro elicit from their parents than
adapted Child in which b~haviour is

narcissism investment of psychological

energy (cathexis) in the self. This may
be positive and helpful (for example,
healthy self-respect). Over-valuation of
the self is a defence, often against the
trauma of early loss of rel~tionship.
Psychoanalysts dist.ing1..Iish bet-;v'.:::r.:: n
/J7"imary narcissism, the:: b:-tb;'s love Gf
~(:"lf

!h::n

pr~cedes

lo-.i!"1g

spcondary narci.ssisn-?.
INTROJECTI:'"~G

--~ther5_, ?_~!.'.i

rjJclt in\oi'.':.~;

and jdcntifying -..;viti:.

~' ..::.

The child neeJs positive

responses to nurture and sustain th:=
self; these can be tenned narcissistic
needs and might be represented in
transactional analysis terms as adequate and appropriate STROKES.
Rejecting and abusive behavio,_;r
towards the child inflicts a narcissistic
wound and would be likely to result in
a Don't Exist J:-<JUNCTION.
OBJECT.

constrained by adaptation to the

(assumed) needs and wishes of others
as it had been in childhood to the parents. This is a functional concept, i.e. it
describes the outward (behavioural)
rn3ni.fest:J.tion of ;;.n ego-state. See FUNcTIO:\TAL

~Ic-t.:"d

EGO-STATES.

sonlf:tbing thc.1.t Is necessary for

nor~

}w:dthy functioning. This includes

rwt OI'.ly physical needs such as food
and warmth but also psychological
needs. Transactional analysis stresses
the importance of RECOGNITION HUNGER,
which is satisfied through STROKING,
and STRL;Cn.;RE HUNGER, which signifies a
need for TIME STRL:CTURING.
I~?J

negative stroke a STROKE is an act of

recognition from another person.
Stroking is required to maintain psychological health. Berne (1964)
described strokes as units of social
natural Child (also written Naturd
action. Strokes can take many forms,
Child) when someone reacts from a
verbal and non-verbal, negative and
spontaneous and open Child position,
positive. A negative stroke is hostile,
in touch with emotions and reacting to
rejecting, undermining or critical, for
the moment with enthusiasm and
example a disparaging remark.
energy, we describe him or her as
However, the verbal or non-verbal an
being in the natural Child ego-stare.
is directed towards the person and
Although such a person will be respontherefore involves recognising their
sive to others he or she will be in
existence Negative strokes are sometouch with his or her own needs ;md
times sought for this reason. Many
wants and will seek openly to satisfy
children find that negative strokes are
them. This is to be contrasted with the
easier ro elicit from their parents than
adapted Child in which b~haviour is

NLP

game), so in a behaviour al interactio n

two games are going on. NIGYYSOB is
lil(ely to be matched by a Victim game
such as I'm Only Trying to Help You,
which is initiated from a Rescuer position and ends up in Victim. See DRA.\!A
TRIANGLE.

NLP see

NEUROUNG UIST!C PROGRA.'Lv!!NG

~~=;.~::;~:~::~al
occurs even if it is not culturally~~'\}\~

endorsed as in 'it is normal to lose your'

temper occasion ally'. Clients often~
become concerned as to Whether their
behaviour is normal. They are
respondin g to critical messages from
their Parent ego-state and may require
PERMISSIONS from the therapist. There is
usually a need for clear Adult informa.
tion about what is possible and acceptable in their culture. This may lead to a
change in their FRAME OF REFERENCE.

non-dire ctive Following the client and

being purely reflective . Rogers originally named his approach to counselling 'non-direc tive' but changed it
later to 'client centred' and most
Rogerians now prefer the term 'person
centred' to acknowle dge the equality of normal depende ncy children lack the
personal resources to meet many of
the two people who engage in the
their needs for themselv es so are
process. Rogers' thin.\dng has had an
nt on their parents. This
depende
psyof
schools
many
influenc e on
depende ncy becomes less as they
chothera py, including transacti onal
mature until they are capable of
analysis, by raising awarenes s of the
becoming fully autonomo us individuimportan ce of empower ing the client
als. If their dependen cy is appropria te
and acknowle dging the client's unique
their developm ental stage (they are
to
analysis
ional
perspect ive. Transact
allowed and encoura ged to be as
recognise s the importan ce of facilitat
autonom ous as is safe and healthy),
ing the client on his or her journey
they are in a state of normal depenbut
along,
client
the
taking
than
rather
dency. This will be character ised by
believes that theory provides a map
HEALTHY SY:I-IB!OSJs (that is the parent or
map
the
and a therapist who can read
caregiver provides for those needs that
and share its insights with the client
the developm~nt of the child's EGO
C:Hl ensure a quicker and safer journey.
STATES do not yet make it possible for
them to supply for themselv es but
non-verb al cominml ication informati on
allow the child to have as much AUTON
about states of mind, feelings etc. sigOMY as they can sustain). Unhealth y
as
such
m:.:ans
al
non-verb
nalled by
dependen cy is usually develope d in
paralingu istics (tone of voice, speech
response to parents' emotiona l needs
coneye
n,
rhythms) , facial expressio
and may become a lifelong pattern
tact, body posture and movemen t pat(SECOND-OR DER SY.IiBJOS!S) .
terns. Transactio nal analysts are trained
as
carefully
s
behaviour
such
observe
to
stanthey provide much informatio n on EGO nonnativ e concernin g norms and
for
valuable,
often
are
These
dards.
verbal
STATES. Incongru ence between
example standard s of professio nal
and non-verb al communi cation incHpractice, but can be oppressiv e. The
cates ULTERIOR TRAl'iSACTIONS.
contractu al process in transactio nal
analysis facilitates the separation of the
normal behaviou 1 behaviou r viewed
necessary standard from the norm that
healthy,
as
within a particular culture
discounts the value and the uniquewell adjusted and socially acceptabl e.
ness of the client. See CONTRACT.
There are wide variations betvveen cul-

NLP

game), so in a behaviour al interactio n

two games are going on. NIGYYSOB is
lil(ely to be matched by a Victim game
such as I'm Only Trying to Help You,
which is initiated from a Rescuer position and ends up in Victim. See DRA.\!A
TRIANGLE.

NLP see

NEUROUNG UIST!C PROGRA.'Lv!!NG

~~=;.~::;~:~::~al
occurs even if it is not culturally~~'\}\~

endorsed as in 'it is normal to lose your'

temper occasion ally'. Clients often~
become concerned as to Whether their
behaviour is normal. They are
respondin g to critical messages from
their Parent ego-state and may require
PERMISSIONS from the therapist. There is
usually a need for clear Adult informa.
tion about what is possible and acceptable in their culture. This may lead to a
change in their FRAME OF REFERENCE.

non-dire ctive Following the client and

being purely reflective . Rogers originally named his approach to counselling 'non-direc tive' but changed it
later to 'client centred' and most
Rogerians now prefer the term 'person
centred' to acknowle dge the equality of normal depende ncy children lack the
personal resources to meet many of
the two people who engage in the
their needs for themselv es so are
process. Rogers' thin.\dng has had an
nt on their parents. This
depende
psyof
schools
many
influenc e on
depende ncy becomes less as they
chothera py, including transacti onal
mature until they are capable of
analysis, by raising awarenes s of the
becoming fully autonomo us individuimportan ce of empower ing the client
als. If their dependen cy is appropria te
and acknowle dging the client's unique
their developm ental stage (they are
to
analysis
ional
perspect ive. Transact
allowed and encoura ged to be as
recognise s the importan ce of facilitat
autonom ous as is safe and healthy),
ing the client on his or her journey
they are in a state of normal depenbut
along,
client
the
taking
than
rather
dency. This will be character ised by
believes that theory provides a map
HEALTHY SY:I-IB!OSJs (that is the parent or
map
the
and a therapist who can read
caregiver provides for those needs that
and share its insights with the client
the developm~nt of the child's EGO
C:Hl ensure a quicker and safer journey.
STATES do not yet make it possible for
them to supply for themselv es but
non-verb al cominml ication informati on
allow the child to have as much AUTON
about states of mind, feelings etc. sigOMY as they can sustain). Unhealth y
as
such
m:.:ans
al
non-verb
nalled by
dependen cy is usually develope d in
paralingu istics (tone of voice, speech
response to parents' emotiona l needs
coneye
n,
rhythms) , facial expressio
and may become a lifelong pattern
tact, body posture and movemen t pat(SECOND-OR DER SY.IiBJOS!S) .
terns. Transactio nal analysts are trained
as
carefully
s
behaviour
such
observe
to
stanthey provide much informatio n on EGO nonnativ e concernin g norms and
for
valuable,
often
are
These
dards.
verbal
STATES. Incongru ence between
example standard s of professio nal
and non-verb al communi cation incHpractice, but can be oppressiv e. The
cates ULTERIOR TRAl'iSACTIONS.
contractu al process in transactio nal
analysis facilitates the separation of the
normal behaviou 1 behaviou r viewed
necessary standard from the norm that
healthy,
as
within a particular culture
discounts the value and the uniquewell adjusted and socially acceptabl e.
ness of the client. See CONTRACT.
There are wide variations betvveen cul-

object (psychoana lysis) this word has a object relations school (psychoan alysis) a therapeut ic approach that
meaning that is different from its everystresses the psychologic al importance
day usage. It means not a material
of relationshi p to both external and
subject
a
which
to
something
but
thing
internal OBJECTS. This contrasts with
relates. In practice this usually means a
Freudian drive theory, which
classical
the
(e.g.
person
a
person, a part of
focused on the need to reduce internal
mother's breast) or something that reptension caused by instinctual demands
resents a person. See also TRA."'iSITIONAL
emerging from the ID. Object relations
OBjECT
IO:-IAI.
TRANSFOR.\1AT
OBJECT,
theory ';vas an influence on transactional analysis; the Parent ego-state is
psycho(Kleinian
object constancy
in essence a group of internal objects
analysis) the ability to accept the
(introjecte d parent figures). Recent
ambivalen ce of others (the child's
nts in transactiona l analysis
developme
level
deepest
the
at
recognise
to
ability
have been characterise d by a renewed
that the mother who frustrates is also
interest in psychoanaly sis, in particular
the mother who nurtures). Seealso
object re!ations and self psychology .
PARANOID-SC HIZOID POSITI0:-1, OB}ECT PER.\1A
(1996a) refers to this as 'the
Stewart
NENCE.
psychoanal ytic renaissance '.
object, inte:rnal (psychoan alysis) an
internal representat ion of an external obsessive- compulsiv e personality adaptation an adaptation (that is a characobject (e.g. person) that one relates to
teristic way of reacting compatibl e
repThe
as if it were an external object
with normal life) which shows some of
resentation s of the parents \vithin the
the features of obsessive-c ompulsive
Parent ego-state can be regarded as
(Ware, 1983). It is characdisorder
central
is
concept
This
objects.
internal
terised by a methodica l and orderly
to the thinking of the OBjECT RELATIONS
approach and a need to get things
SCHOOL, which has had a significant
right and gain approval. The person
influence on transaction al analysis.
has a need for information and seeks
to stay in control by understand ing
object permanen ce (Piaget) the stage in
and thinking and has difficulty accesschild developm ent where the child
ing feeling. He or she also has difficulshows signs of recognising the cont!nin making decisions and changing
ty
is
it
when
object
an
of
existence
uing
behaviour patterns. The underlying
not visible.
Of\

object (psychoana lysis) this word has a object relations school (psychoan alysis) a therapeut ic approach that
meaning that is different from its everystresses the psychologic al importance
day usage. It means not a material
of relationshi p to both external and
subject
a
which
to
something
but
thing
internal OBJECTS. This contrasts with
relates. In practice this usually means a
Freudian drive theory, which
classical
the
(e.g.
person
a
person, a part of
focused on the need to reduce internal
mother's breast) or something that reptension caused by instinctual demands
resents a person. See also TRA."'iSITIONAL
emerging from the ID. Object relations
OBjECT
IO:-IAI.
TRANSFOR.\1AT
OBJECT,
theory ';vas an influence on transactional analysis; the Parent ego-state is
psycho(Kleinian
object constancy
in essence a group of internal objects
analysis) the ability to accept the
(introjecte d parent figures). Recent
ambivalen ce of others (the child's
nts in transactiona l analysis
developme
level
deepest
the
at
recognise
to
ability
have been characterise d by a renewed
that the mother who frustrates is also
interest in psychoanaly sis, in particular
the mother who nurtures). Seealso
object re!ations and self psychology .
PARANOID-SC HIZOID POSITI0:-1, OB}ECT PER.\1A
(1996a) refers to this as 'the
Stewart
NENCE.
psychoanal ytic renaissance '.
object, inte:rnal (psychoan alysis) an
internal representat ion of an external obsessive- compulsiv e personality adaptation an adaptation (that is a characobject (e.g. person) that one relates to
teristic way of reacting compatibl e
repThe
as if it were an external object
with normal life) which shows some of
resentation s of the parents \vithin the
the features of obsessive-c ompulsive
Parent ego-state can be regarded as
(Ware, 1983). It is characdisorder
central
is
concept
This
objects.
internal
terised by a methodica l and orderly
to the thinking of the OBjECT RELATIONS
approach and a need to get things
SCHOOL, which has had a significant
right and gain approval. The person
influence on transaction al analysis.
has a need for information and seeks
to stay in control by understand ing
object permanen ce (Piaget) the stage in
and thinking and has difficulty accesschild developm ent where the child
ing feeling. He or she also has difficulshows signs of recognising the cont!nin making decisions and changing
ty
is
it
when
object
an
of
existence
uing
behaviour patterns. The underlying
not visible.
Of\

OKness
In a few situations openness
quadrant also has a name for the state
that it represents. The 'I'm not OK,
risks that must be balanced
You're not OK' is the futility (also called
potential gains; the aim is to
despairing or schizoid) position. We all
open while keeping oneself s
Openness or genuineness (in TA
visit all the quadrants from time to time
but everyone has a favoured life posinology, being in the OK;OK position,
tion in which they spend most of their
Rogers' language being congruent
time. We move through the quadrants
real) involves authenticity,
over the short term as our mood
ness and awareness of the other and
the process in which both are 1mJr>ln~.~
changes and over the long term as we
change because oflue experience or
from a non-judgemental and ac<:el='tirtg)/5
therapy. It is not possible to move
position. This awareness needs to
directly from the paranoid to the
shared but openness is compatible
healthy position. This change involves
maintaining some boundaries.
visiting the depressive (I-U +) and perhaps also the futility (I-U-) positions. operationalise to put into action.
This corresponds to Melanie Klein's
transactional analysis there are
view of the depressive position as repclose links between theoretical conresenting an advance in functioning
cepts and therapeutic behaviours.
over the paranoid-schizoid position
derives from the clarity of its theory
(achievement of OBJECT CONSTANCY). See
and its incorporation of a behavioural
LIFE POSlTIONS, PARANOID-SCHJZOID POSITION,
perspective. It is therefore a system
DEPRESSJVE POSITION.
that can readily be operationalised.
OKness the state of being in an 'I'm OK,
You're OK' LIFE POSITION. See T.\1 OK.
YOU'RE OK'. OK CORR>\L, OPENNESS.

options alternatives that may be chosen.

\ \1nen clients become stuck they may
be unaware of options or they may be
DISCOUNTI:-IG options. See DISCOUNT

omnipotence belief in being all-powerMATRIX.

ful. This is probably normal in early
infancy but the child learns the limits options (Karpnan's) Karpman (1971)
of his or her powers through repeated
suggested that there are wide choices
experiences of frustration. In the
available in the way we TRA,'\SACT with
adult, the belief that events conform,
others. If we wish to challenge the way
or should conform, to their wishes is
the other person is behaving classical
dysfunctional. Belief in the omnipotheory tells us that we can cross his or
tence of thought (that thought can
her TRA.:'ISACTION by replying from an egodirectly affect others or the exu:rnal
state other than the one that was
world) underlies MAGICAL THJ:-.JFJc;;_: 2.nd
addressed. Karpman highlighted the
rich possibilities that arise if we make
may explain why wishes can evoke as
use of all the available FUNCTIONAL EGOmuch guilt as actions.
STATES. Very different options result, for
example, from responding from the
openness the state of being direct, nonrebellious adapted Child, the Adult or
defensive and transparent with others
and maintaining no secrecy (in Berne's
the controlling Parent where a response
imagery 'speaking Martian'). In an ideal
from compliant adapted Child is expectsituation where there is caring, trust
ed. If we choose an ego-state, we make
and mutual respect, openness greatly
that choice in the Adult so there will be
an element of 'as if' in our transacting,
facilitates social relations and the
achievement of INTL\1ACY and is the attialthough the Adult will be able to shift
tude endorsed by transactional analysis.
cathexis into the chosen ego-state.
0')

OKness
In a few situations openness
quadrant also has a name for the state
that it represents. The 'I'm not OK,
risks that must be balanced
You're not OK' is the futility (also called
potential gains; the aim is to
despairing or schizoid) position. We all
open while keeping oneself s
Openness or genuineness (in TA
visit all the quadrants from time to time
but everyone has a favoured life posinology, being in the OK;OK position,
tion in which they spend most of their
Rogers' language being congruent
time. We move through the quadrants
real) involves authenticity,
over the short term as our mood
ness and awareness of the other and
the process in which both are 1mJr>ln~.~
changes and over the long term as we
change because oflue experience or
from a non-judgemental and ac<:el='tirtg)/5
therapy. It is not possible to move
position. This awareness needs to
directly from the paranoid to the
shared but openness is compatible
healthy position. This change involves
maintaining some boundaries.
visiting the depressive (I-U +) and perhaps also the futility (I-U-) positions. operationalise to put into action.
This corresponds to Melanie Klein's
transactional analysis there are
view of the depressive position as repclose links between theoretical conresenting an advance in functioning
cepts and therapeutic behaviours.
over the paranoid-schizoid position
derives from the clarity of its theory
(achievement of OBJECT CONSTANCY). See
and its incorporation of a behavioural
LIFE POSlTIONS, PARANOID-SCHJZOID POSITION,
perspective. It is therefore a system
DEPRESSJVE POSITION.
that can readily be operationalised.
OKness the state of being in an 'I'm OK,
You're OK' LIFE POSITION. See T.\1 OK.
YOU'RE OK'. OK CORR>\L, OPENNESS.

options alternatives that may be chosen.

\ \1nen clients become stuck they may
be unaware of options or they may be
DISCOUNTI:-IG options. See DISCOUNT

omnipotence belief in being all-powerMATRIX.

ful. This is probably normal in early
infancy but the child learns the limits options (Karpnan's) Karpman (1971)
of his or her powers through repeated
suggested that there are wide choices
experiences of frustration. In the
available in the way we TRA,'\SACT with
adult, the belief that events conform,
others. If we wish to challenge the way
or should conform, to their wishes is
the other person is behaving classical
dysfunctional. Belief in the omnipotheory tells us that we can cross his or
tence of thought (that thought can
her TRA.:'ISACTION by replying from an egodirectly affect others or the exu:rnal
state other than the one that was
world) underlies MAGICAL THJ:-.JFJc;;_: 2.nd
addressed. Karpman highlighted the
rich possibilities that arise if we make
may explain why wishes can evoke as
use of all the available FUNCTIONAL EGOmuch guilt as actions.
STATES. Very different options result, for
example, from responding from the
openness the state of being direct, nonrebellious adapted Child, the Adult or
defensive and transparent with others
and maintaining no secrecy (in Berne's
the controlling Parent where a response
imagery 'speaking Martian'). In an ideal
from compliant adapted Child is expectsituation where there is caring, trust
ed. If we choose an ego-state, we make
and mutual respect, openness greatly
that choice in the Adult so there will be
an element of 'as if' in our transacting,
facilitates social relations and the
achievement of INTL\1ACY and is the attialthough the Adult will be able to shift
tude endorsed by transactional analysis.
cathexis into the chosen ego-state.
0')

P, the Parent in the Child ego-state. This is

an early ego-state that is formed in
response to the rules given to the child
by a parent figure. The child is not yet
able to evaluate these rules but incorporates his or her understanding (or
misunderstanding) of them rigidly. The
child does not understand the consequences of disobeying the rules but
fears that it may be very frightening
(their world may become unsic). As a
result, a harsh, frightening figure is
often created in P, by the child to frighten himself or herself into conformity. A
number of negative names for P, reflect
the harsh, negative content often found

in P,: Witch Parent, Ogre, Pig Parent.

Grandiose positive versions of P, are
also contacted, which are referred to as
the Fairy Godmother, Good Fairy or
Santa Claus. These also reflect the MAGICAL THINKJNG through which the child
seeks to gain control over his or her
world. The term Magical Parent
includes both positive and negative
aspects of P,. Berne's term, 'the
Electrode', refers to the way the Child
responds almost compulsively to the
rewards and punishments ofP,.
Melanie Klein describes a similar
phenomenon but offers a somewhat
different explanation. See SPLITTING.

introject of another significant person (e.g. grandfather)

Father introject
Mother introject

, together these constitute the Parent ego-state

Adult ego-state

Parent in

t.~e

Child (magical Parent)

Adult in the Child (Little Professor)

Child in the Child (somatic Child)

Figure 20 Second-order structural analysis (Berne, 1961).

84

P, the Parent in the Child ego-state. This is

an early ego-state that is formed in
response to the rules given to the child
by a parent figure. The child is not yet
able to evaluate these rules but incorporates his or her understanding (or
misunderstanding) of them rigidly. The
child does not understand the consequences of disobeying the rules but
fears that it may be very frightening
(their world may become unsic). As a
result, a harsh, frightening figure is
often created in P, by the child to frighten himself or herself into conformity. A
number of negative names for P, reflect
the harsh, negative content often found

in P,: Witch Parent, Ogre, Pig Parent.

Grandiose positive versions of P, are
also contacted, which are referred to as
the Fairy Godmother, Good Fairy or
Santa Claus. These also reflect the MAGICAL THINKJNG through which the child
seeks to gain control over his or her
world. The term Magical Parent
includes both positive and negative
aspects of P,. Berne's term, 'the
Electrode', refers to the way the Child
responds almost compulsively to the
rewards and punishments ofP,.
Melanie Klein describes a similar
phenomenon but offers a somewhat
different explanation. See SPLITTING.

introject of another significant person (e.g. grandfather)

Father introject
Mother introject

, together these constitute the Parent ego-state

Adult ego-state

Parent in

t.~e

Child (magical Parent)

Adult in the Child (Little Professor)

Child in the Child (somatic Child)

Figure 20 Second-order structural analysis (Berne, 1961).

84

can mitigate hate (the mother is loved Parent resolution a therapeutic techeven when the child experiences her
nique developed by Dashiel (1978) in
behaviour as frustrating). The child has
which, after making an Adult:Adult
contract with the client the therapist
achieved OBJECf CONSTANCY (understanding that the mother is one OBJECf and
uses Gestalt technique (see cusHION
woRK) to separate ego-states. The
not twO) and entered the DEPRESSIVE POSITION. The child now understands that
Parent is then opened up and given
new information, PERMISSIONS and
his or her hate has been directed to the
opportunities or resolutions.
loved mother and feels remorse and the
desire to make reparation. The resolution of the paranoid-schizoid position passive-aggressive personality adaptamay not be completed in infancy so
tion a personality pattern characterised by rebelliousness coupled with
that it may contribute to later pathology. McDevitt and Mahler (1980) place
a reluctance to initiate. The rebelliousthis resolution as usually occurring at
ness is usually expressed covertly by
age three (associated with the individustubborn, resentful or manipulative
ation-separation crisis) although other
behaviour. People with this pattern
Kleinians believe it can occur much earhave not found it safe to ask openly
and directly for their needs and wants
lier. Klein influenced Berne's thinking
as children. See PERSONALJ'IY ADAPTATIONS,
about life positions and offers an explaWARE SEQUENCE.
nation of the observation that clients in
therapy do not move directly from
either the I+ U- (paranoid) or 1-U- passive behavioms four behaviours
(schizoid) life positions to the healthy
identified by the Cathexis School
(Schiff eta!., 1975) as often resorted to
position I+ U + without visiting the
under stress but nor leading to prob1-U+ (depressive) life position. See LIFE
!'OSITIONS, OK CORRAL.
lem resolution because of the DIScouNTING of important aspects of realiParent ego-state usually written 'Parent'.
ty. See FOUR PASSIVE BEHAVIOURS.
The ego-state that contains behaviours,
thoughts and feeling patterns of par- passivity unassertiveness, responding to
ent figures experienced in the past in
a challenge by behaviours that do not
the form of INTROJECTS of these individgive rise to problem solving because of
DISCOUNTING of important aspects of
uals. In the PAC diagram it is shovvn by
a circle containing the letter P. In secreality. For example, in doing nothing
ond-order analysis of ego-states this
the individual's power to effect change
main Parent ego-srate is designated P,.
is being discounted probably rogether
with other aspects of the situation
Pa>ent interview a therapeutic tech(such as availability of options or
resources). See FOUR PASSIVE BEHAVIOURS
nique developed by McNeel (1976).
and DISCOUNT MAnnx.
The diem is invited to project a Parent
figure (introject) on to a chair. The
client then sits on the chair and pastimes a form of TIME STRCCTURING in
'becomes' the introject, which is interwhich there is talk about a topic but
viewed by the ther;cpist. \Vhat happens
no action is t:1ken concerning it.
Pastimes are not rigid, like RITUALS, but
is that, in effect, the therapist gives
give considerable freedom without
therapy to the introject. This has
having to undertake the commitment
proved to be a very powerful technique that, in skilled hands, can facilito action involved in an ACTIVJ'IY or the
tate profound changes. See also REPARemotional involvement of GAMES. They
ENTING TiiE PARENT.
constitute a large part of social activity

can mitigate hate (the mother is loved Parent resolution a therapeutic techeven when the child experiences her
nique developed by Dashiel (1978) in
behaviour as frustrating). The child has
which, after making an Adult:Adult
contract with the client the therapist
achieved OBJECf CONSTANCY (understanding that the mother is one OBJECf and
uses Gestalt technique (see cusHION
woRK) to separate ego-states. The
not twO) and entered the DEPRESSIVE POSITION. The child now understands that
Parent is then opened up and given
new information, PERMISSIONS and
his or her hate has been directed to the
opportunities or resolutions.
loved mother and feels remorse and the
desire to make reparation. The resolution of the paranoid-schizoid position passive-aggressive personality adaptamay not be completed in infancy so
tion a personality pattern characterised by rebelliousness coupled with
that it may contribute to later pathology. McDevitt and Mahler (1980) place
a reluctance to initiate. The rebelliousthis resolution as usually occurring at
ness is usually expressed covertly by
age three (associated with the individustubborn, resentful or manipulative
ation-separation crisis) although other
behaviour. People with this pattern
Kleinians believe it can occur much earhave not found it safe to ask openly
and directly for their needs and wants
lier. Klein influenced Berne's thinking
as children. See PERSONALJ'IY ADAPTATIONS,
about life positions and offers an explaWARE SEQUENCE.
nation of the observation that clients in
therapy do not move directly from
either the I+ U- (paranoid) or 1-U- passive behavioms four behaviours
(schizoid) life positions to the healthy
identified by the Cathexis School
(Schiff eta!., 1975) as often resorted to
position I+ U + without visiting the
under stress but nor leading to prob1-U+ (depressive) life position. See LIFE
!'OSITIONS, OK CORRAL.
lem resolution because of the DIScouNTING of important aspects of realiParent ego-state usually written 'Parent'.
ty. See FOUR PASSIVE BEHAVIOURS.
The ego-state that contains behaviours,
thoughts and feeling patterns of par- passivity unassertiveness, responding to
ent figures experienced in the past in
a challenge by behaviours that do not
the form of INTROJECTS of these individgive rise to problem solving because of
DISCOUNTING of important aspects of
uals. In the PAC diagram it is shovvn by
a circle containing the letter P. In secreality. For example, in doing nothing
ond-order analysis of ego-states this
the individual's power to effect change
main Parent ego-srate is designated P,.
is being discounted probably rogether
with other aspects of the situation
Pa>ent interview a therapeutic tech(such as availability of options or
resources). See FOUR PASSIVE BEHAVIOURS
nique developed by McNeel (1976).
and DISCOUNT MAnnx.
The diem is invited to project a Parent
figure (introject) on to a chair. The
client then sits on the chair and pastimes a form of TIME STRCCTURING in
'becomes' the introject, which is interwhich there is talk about a topic but
viewed by the ther;cpist. \Vhat happens
no action is t:1ken concerning it.
Pastimes are not rigid, like RITUALS, but
is that, in effect, the therapist gives
give considerable freedom without
therapy to the introject. This has
having to undertake the commitment
proved to be a very powerful technique that, in skilled hands, can facilito action involved in an ACTIVJ'IY or the
tate profound changes. See also REPARemotional involvement of GAMES. They
ENTING TiiE PARENT.
constitute a large part of social activity

Persecutor (written with a capit::!l)

Persecutor (written with a capital) ' personal development group a group
one of the three positions or roles on
in which personal issues can be
the DRAMA TRIAJ'IGLE (also known as the
Karpman Triangle). The use of the
capital distinguishes it from the ordiis sometimes preferred to therapy
nary use of the word. As with the
group as the latter term implies that
some form of treatment is received other two positions, Victim and
Rescuer, the Persecutor position
i.e. that the group members have
involves DISCOUNTING. The Persecutor
'problems' that need to be 'treated'.
Group work has always been imporsees others as not-OK and therefore
meriting his attacks.
tant in transactional analysis (Berne,
1966) and was originally the dominant
mode of working, but as the discipline
person-centred counselling (or therapy)
has developed individual work has
the name now preferred for
become increasingly important and is
Rogerian counselling or therapy (formerly often referred to as client-cennow the major therapeutic approach.
tred counselling). This approach to
therapy and counselling was devel- personal growth a HCMA!'i!STIC THERAPY
concept implying the realisation of the
oped by Carl Rogers (1951, 1961). It is
a humanistic approach whose core
individual's potential for psychological, emotional and spiritual developidea is that, if the conditions for
ment. This avoids the medical conchange are created by the therapist
then the client will change. The essencepts of malfunction, treatment and
tial conditions for change are the CORE
cure that still cling to psychotherapy
CONDITIONS of empathy, congruence
and to some extent also to counselling. The 'inner drive to wholeness'
and unconditional positive regard.
According to Rogers, if these are creatis conceptualised in transactional
ed successfully then the client will
analysis through the idea of PHYSIS.
become more aware, more tkxible and
fluid in their feelings, thoughts and personalisation believing that events or
actions, and less rigid and fL"\:ed. The
remarks relate to oneself. This is comclient will develop an internal locus of
mon in early childhood, especially durevaluation, become more self-detering the age of ,v!AGICAL THINKJNG. This
mining and less in11uenced by the perremains a feature of the Child egoceived need to please others, to mask
state so some !eve! of personalisation
is common in normal subjects. In its
themselves and to live according to
others' expectations. A trust in the
extreme form it constitutes delusions
of reference.
client's ability to find his or her. own
solutions is essential in this approach.
It sees interventionist therapies such personality adaptation a term adopted
as transactional analysis as likely to
by Ware (1983) to describe a structurcreate an unequal relationship in
ing of the personality that is comwhich the client may be inhibited from
patible with normal functioning but
seeking his or her own solutions and
shows similarities to certain types of
finding his or her own direction. It
psychological disorder. He named the
shares with transactional analysis the
adaptations using psychiatric termihumanistic and existential perspectives
nology (see DSM-N). Each is the result
and differs mainly in its idea that the
of a specific pattern of early experitherapist follows the client's lead
ences reacted to by a characteristic
rather than being more active in negopattern of defences. Personality adaptiating the direction of therapy.
tation theory is unusual in transac-

:i't

Jiir

~;~~~~:~~~o~; ;~~~~~e~ ii
.):':?:

00

,,

i~

,,,

'/i

'~,:

;;;
(:i

,,,

;;

Persecutor (written with a capit::!l)

Persecutor (written with a capital) ' personal development group a group
one of the three positions or roles on
in which personal issues can be
the DRAMA TRIAJ'IGLE (also known as the
Karpman Triangle). The use of the
capital distinguishes it from the ordiis sometimes preferred to therapy
nary use of the word. As with the
group as the latter term implies that
some form of treatment is received other two positions, Victim and
Rescuer, the Persecutor position
i.e. that the group members have
involves DISCOUNTING. The Persecutor
'problems' that need to be 'treated'.
Group work has always been imporsees others as not-OK and therefore
meriting his attacks.
tant in transactional analysis (Berne,
1966) and was originally the dominant
mode of working, but as the discipline
person-centred counselling (or therapy)
has developed individual work has
the name now preferred for
become increasingly important and is
Rogerian counselling or therapy (formerly often referred to as client-cennow the major therapeutic approach.
tred counselling). This approach to
therapy and counselling was devel- personal growth a HCMA!'i!STIC THERAPY
concept implying the realisation of the
oped by Carl Rogers (1951, 1961). It is
a humanistic approach whose core
individual's potential for psychological, emotional and spiritual developidea is that, if the conditions for
ment. This avoids the medical conchange are created by the therapist
then the client will change. The essencepts of malfunction, treatment and
tial conditions for change are the CORE
cure that still cling to psychotherapy
CONDITIONS of empathy, congruence
and to some extent also to counselling. The 'inner drive to wholeness'
and unconditional positive regard.
According to Rogers, if these are creatis conceptualised in transactional
ed successfully then the client will
analysis through the idea of PHYSIS.
become more aware, more tkxible and
fluid in their feelings, thoughts and personalisation believing that events or
actions, and less rigid and fL"\:ed. The
remarks relate to oneself. This is comclient will develop an internal locus of
mon in early childhood, especially durevaluation, become more self-detering the age of ,v!AGICAL THINKJNG. This
mining and less in11uenced by the perremains a feature of the Child egoceived need to please others, to mask
state so some !eve! of personalisation
is common in normal subjects. In its
themselves and to live according to
others' expectations. A trust in the
extreme form it constitutes delusions
of reference.
client's ability to find his or her. own
solutions is essential in this approach.
It sees interventionist therapies such personality adaptation a term adopted
as transactional analysis as likely to
by Ware (1983) to describe a structurcreate an unequal relationship in
ing of the personality that is comwhich the client may be inhibited from
patible with normal functioning but
seeking his or her own solutions and
shows similarities to certain types of
finding his or her own direction. It
psychological disorder. He named the
shares with transactional analysis the
adaptations using psychiatric termihumanistic and existential perspectives
nology (see DSM-N). Each is the result
and differs mainly in its idea that the
of a specific pattern of early experitherapist follows the client's lead
ences reacted to by a characteristic
rather than being more active in negopattern of defences. Personality adaptiating the direction of therapy.
tation theory is unusual in transac-

:i't

Jiir

~;~~~~:~~~o~; ;~~~~~e~ ii
.):':?:

00

,,

i~

,,,

'/i

'~,:

;;;
(:i

,,,

;;

person ality disord er

perso nality disord er (also charac ter disorder ). A psych ologic al disord er in
which the client lacks insigh t and
tends to attribu te his or her proble ms
to other s and to extern al circum stance s and adopt s malad aptive patterns of relatin g to his or her social
enviro nment . More genera lly, a class
of behav ioural disord ers other than
psych oses (in which there is discon nectio n from reality genera lly and not
just social reality ) and neuro ses (in
which there is insigh t into the owner ship of the probl em) in which the
whole perso nality is involv ed and
there is often relativ ely little anxiet y or
distres s.

it looks like to an observ er (the ----"~~'

terist ic positi on of the sci
appro ach). Pheno meno logy urrn;'P c
from the work of the Germa n pu.uu,u-.
pher Edmu nd Husse r! (1859 -19
who advoc ated the study of unmt:d iateJ
experi ence as the basis of psycho
The empha sis is on how events
percei ved and experi enced rather than .
on the events in the extern al world
that gener ate these percep tions and .
e.xperi ences. Transa ctiona l analys is is a
'two-p erson psycho logy'. To achiev e
this it has to comb ine an extern al
object ive view (as in observ ing transac tions) with an insigh t into the interna l
(pheno menol ogical ) perspe ctive of the
indivi dual. This synthe sis is achiev ed
via ego-st ate theory . In diagno sing egostates Berne specif ied four criteri a,
one of which is pheno menol ogical .
See EGO-STATE QIAGNOSIS.

perso nality theor y any theor y that

claims to explai n individ ual charac teristics, differ ences and differ ent patterns of reactin g to the enviro nment .
There are many such theori es within
meno logic al diagn osis of egothe divers e schoo ls of psych ology . pheno
diagno sis on the basis of the
states
use
Transa ctiona l analysis, throug h its
report of his or her intern al
's
client
of
theory
a
is
,
model
of the ego-st ate
he or she is thinkin g and
(what
states
person ality as well as a theory of intertheir resem blance to preand
)
feeling
per:o;onal interac tion.
al
vious intern stares (is this how it felt
you were five?).
when
phaiE c stage (psych oanaly sis) the stage
al
osexu
psych
in Freud 's theory of
of transa ctiona l analy sis
develo pment in which the child shows philo sophy
the philos ophy of transac to
l
centra
clign~at intere st in his penis or her
tional analys is is the conce pt of the
toris. This follow s the ANAL ST.\GE and
y life positio n: 'I'm OK, You're
health
preced es the OEDIPAL STAGE (i.e. at about
means that I have accept ed
This
OK'.
is
ology
three) . Freud 's stage termin
am as intrins ically valuab le
I
as
myself
somet imes used by transa ctiona l anayou similar ly as you 2.re.
accept
I
and
lysts e.g. Levin (1974) .
This does not mean that I consid er
every aspect of you or myself as entirely
phant asy (Klei nian psych oanal ysis)
ctory, it is an evalua tion of the
satisfa
from
ated
gener
uncon scious image s
whole self. This corres ponds closely to
the infant' s own feeling s and perCef>
Rogers ' concep t of uncon dition al positions and not necess arily hm-ing :!!!)'
tive regard . The second key concep t is
COi1
(in
world
al
correla te in the extern
auton omy, being in charge of one's
trast to fantas y, which consis ts of repo,vn life, inter:a cting respec tfully, car.
resent ations of the real world)
ingly and contac tfully with others but
makin g one's own choice s witho ut
pheno meno logy the pheno menol ogical
being restra ined by other peopl e,
the
at
g
lookin
appro ach consis ts in
wheth er presen t in the here-a nd-now
world 'from rhe inside ' (what it feels'
or throu gh intern alised INTROJ ECTS.
what
like to the individ ual) rather than

person ality disord er

perso nality disord er (also charac ter disorder ). A psych ologic al disord er in
which the client lacks insigh t and
tends to attribu te his or her proble ms
to other s and to extern al circum stance s and adopt s malad aptive patterns of relatin g to his or her social
enviro nment . More genera lly, a class
of behav ioural disord ers other than
psych oses (in which there is discon nectio n from reality genera lly and not
just social reality ) and neuro ses (in
which there is insigh t into the owner ship of the probl em) in which the
whole perso nality is involv ed and
there is often relativ ely little anxiet y or
distres s.

it looks like to an observ er (the ----"~~'

terist ic positi on of the sci
appro ach). Pheno meno logy urrn;'P c
from the work of the Germa n pu.uu,u-.
pher Edmu nd Husse r! (1859 -19
who advoc ated the study of unmt:d iateJ
experi ence as the basis of psycho
The empha sis is on how events
percei ved and experi enced rather than .
on the events in the extern al world
that gener ate these percep tions and .
e.xperi ences. Transa ctiona l analys is is a
'two-p erson psycho logy'. To achiev e
this it has to comb ine an extern al
object ive view (as in observ ing transac tions) with an insigh t into the interna l
(pheno menol ogical ) perspe ctive of the
indivi dual. This synthe sis is achiev ed
via ego-st ate theory . In diagno sing egostates Berne specif ied four criteri a,
one of which is pheno menol ogical .
See EGO-STATE QIAGNOSIS.

perso nality theor y any theor y that

claims to explai n individ ual charac teristics, differ ences and differ ent patterns of reactin g to the enviro nment .
There are many such theori es within
meno logic al diagn osis of egothe divers e schoo ls of psych ology . pheno
diagno sis on the basis of the
states
use
Transa ctiona l analysis, throug h its
report of his or her intern al
's
client
of
theory
a
is
,
model
of the ego-st ate
he or she is thinkin g and
(what
states
person ality as well as a theory of intertheir resem blance to preand
)
feeling
per:o;onal interac tion.
al
vious intern stares (is this how it felt
you were five?).
when
phaiE c stage (psych oanaly sis) the stage
al
osexu
psych
in Freud 's theory of
of transa ctiona l analy sis
develo pment in which the child shows philo sophy
the philos ophy of transac to
l
centra
clign~at intere st in his penis or her
tional analys is is the conce pt of the
toris. This follow s the ANAL ST.\GE and
y life positio n: 'I'm OK, You're
health
preced es the OEDIPAL STAGE (i.e. at about
means that I have accept ed
This
OK'.
is
ology
three) . Freud 's stage termin
am as intrins ically valuab le
I
as
myself
somet imes used by transa ctiona l anayou similar ly as you 2.re.
accept
I
and
lysts e.g. Levin (1974) .
This does not mean that I consid er
every aspect of you or myself as entirely
phant asy (Klei nian psych oanal ysis)
ctory, it is an evalua tion of the
satisfa
from
ated
gener
uncon scious image s
whole self. This corres ponds closely to
the infant' s own feeling s and perCef>
Rogers ' concep t of uncon dition al positions and not necess arily hm-ing :!!!)'
tive regard . The second key concep t is
COi1
(in
world
al
correla te in the extern
auton omy, being in charge of one's
trast to fantas y, which consis ts of repo,vn life, inter:a cting respec tfully, car.
resent ations of the real world)
ingly and contac tfully with others but
makin g one's own choice s witho ut
pheno meno logy the pheno menol ogical
being restra ined by other peopl e,
the
at
g
lookin
appro ach consis ts in
wheth er presen t in the here-a nd-now
world 'from rhe inside ' (what it feels'
or throu gh intern alised INTROJ ECTS.
what
like to the individ ual) rather than

plastic strokes
r (PTSD) .
This enables them to become familiar 'post-tra umatic stress disorde
follows":
that
disorder
gical
psycholo
a
disgical
psycholo
with severe forms of
exposur e to unavoida ble major damag,
turbanc e and to learn how to work
ing or life-thre atening events. It may
alongsid e other mental health profesimmedia tely after the events or~
occur
sionals.
its onset may be delayed, sometimes'".
for long periods. It is characte rised by
plastic strokes positive gestures towards
repeate d intrusiv e memori es of the
others (acts of recognit ion) that are
event (flashba cks and nightma res).
flattery.
example
clearly insincere , for
Flashba cks and anxiety (which may
See STROKE.
reach the level of panic attacks) may
be triggered by similar circumst ances
Please the PLEASE DRNER is often referred
to those that accompa nied or preced- :
to as Please.
ed the traumat ic events, so there is
common ly avoidan ce of such situaPlease driver a behaviou ral pattern that
There may be persisten t anxiety
tions.
may
This
others.
seeks approval from
and sleep disturba nces. Defence s
show through a variety of behaviou rs,
against this may produce flattenin g
e.g. smiling (usually tensely), checldng
(numbin g).
affect
highyou?',
by
right
'all
others
with
Psychot herapeu tic interven tions
pitched voice rising at the end of the
include re-exper iencing the event irr
sentence , etc. The driver is a behavfantasy in a supporti ve environm ent.
ioural manifest ation of a DRIVER :11ESSAGE,
Because of the profoun d effects of arr
so
script,
of
ent
which is a compon
unsuppo rted experien ce of trauma it
when driver behaviou r is being shown
may have a wide range of psycholo gical
~IE
the individua l is in script. See PLEASE
ences calling for a broad
consequ
OTHER~.
and PLEASE
approac h in which many of the therapeutic techniqu es of transact ional
Please me the Parent form of the PLEASE
arralysis may need to be deployed . TherDRNER. Drivers are most often encounapy may also irrvolve addressi ng earlier
tered in their Child form. that is the
unresolv ed issues that have been reactito
messago:
Parent
a
replays
l
individua
by the traumati c event. The stress
vated
himself or herself and resporrd s from
d by the trauma can lead to
generate
the
to
conform
Child by seeking to
regressi on so that the traumati sation
message . Howeve r, the person may
be recorded in a Child ego-state
may
::md
identify with the Parent ego-state
an earlier develop mental stage
at
and
The
else.
son":cme
to
message
give the
at which it occurred . Much
that
than
Child form of the driver is (I ~vlust)
abuse survivor s is in effect
with
work
(fou
is
fo:n1
Parent
The
Please (You).
post-trau matic stress diswith
working
Must) Please (Me).
order.
Please others a way of specifyi ng the
potency the power of the therapis t, as
Child form of the PLEASE DRIVER.
perceive d by the client, to give permissions to overrule negative message s
Poor Me a game initiated fzom the Victim
from the client's Parent ego-state . See
to
irwited
are
position irr which others
THREE PS.
be sympath etic so that they can be
manipul ated.
potentia l that which is capable of being
but is not yet realised . Humani stic
positive stroke a positive act of recognicourrsel ling lays great emphas is
phrase
a
tion such as a smile, a touch,
human potential . Transact ional analySTROKE.
See
you'.
like
-'I

plastic strokes
r (PTSD) .
This enables them to become familiar 'post-tra umatic stress disorde
follows":
that
disorder
gical
psycholo
a
disgical
psycholo
with severe forms of
exposur e to unavoida ble major damag,
turbanc e and to learn how to work
ing or life-thre atening events. It may
alongsid e other mental health profesimmedia tely after the events or~
occur
sionals.
its onset may be delayed, sometimes'".
for long periods. It is characte rised by
plastic strokes positive gestures towards
repeate d intrusiv e memori es of the
others (acts of recognit ion) that are
event (flashba cks and nightma res).
flattery.
example
clearly insincere , for
Flashba cks and anxiety (which may
See STROKE.
reach the level of panic attacks) may
be triggered by similar circumst ances
Please the PLEASE DRNER is often referred
to those that accompa nied or preced- :
to as Please.
ed the traumat ic events, so there is
common ly avoidan ce of such situaPlease driver a behaviou ral pattern that
There may be persisten t anxiety
tions.
may
This
others.
seeks approval from
and sleep disturba nces. Defence s
show through a variety of behaviou rs,
against this may produce flattenin g
e.g. smiling (usually tensely), checldng
(numbin g).
affect
highyou?',
by
right
'all
others
with
Psychot herapeu tic interven tions
pitched voice rising at the end of the
include re-exper iencing the event irr
sentence , etc. The driver is a behavfantasy in a supporti ve environm ent.
ioural manifest ation of a DRIVER :11ESSAGE,
Because of the profoun d effects of arr
so
script,
of
ent
which is a compon
unsuppo rted experien ce of trauma it
when driver behaviou r is being shown
may have a wide range of psycholo gical
~IE
the individua l is in script. See PLEASE
ences calling for a broad
consequ
OTHER~.
and PLEASE
approac h in which many of the therapeutic techniqu es of transact ional
Please me the Parent form of the PLEASE
arralysis may need to be deployed . TherDRNER. Drivers are most often encounapy may also irrvolve addressi ng earlier
tered in their Child form. that is the
unresolv ed issues that have been reactito
messago:
Parent
a
replays
l
individua
by the traumati c event. The stress
vated
himself or herself and resporrd s from
d by the trauma can lead to
generate
the
to
conform
Child by seeking to
regressi on so that the traumati sation
message . Howeve r, the person may
be recorded in a Child ego-state
may
::md
identify with the Parent ego-state
an earlier develop mental stage
at
and
The
else.
son":cme
to
message
give the
at which it occurred . Much
that
than
Child form of the driver is (I ~vlust)
abuse survivor s is in effect
with
work
(fou
is
fo:n1
Parent
The
Please (You).
post-trau matic stress diswith
working
Must) Please (Me).
order.
Please others a way of specifyi ng the
potency the power of the therapis t, as
Child form of the PLEASE DRIVER.
perceive d by the client, to give permissions to overrule negative message s
Poor Me a game initiated fzom the Victim
from the client's Parent ego-state . See
to
irwited
are
position irr which others
THREE PS.
be sympath etic so that they can be
manipul ated.
potentia l that which is capable of being
but is not yet realised . Humani stic
positive stroke a positive act of recognicourrsel ling lays great emphas is
phrase
a
tion such as a smile, a touch,
human potential . Transact ional analySTROKE.
See
you'.
like
-'I

primary process thinking

For example, a cool and detached style
may re-enact non-involvement while a
very involving style may be perceiYed
as threatening by a client with engulfment issues. See also MODELS.

primary process thinking (psychoanalysis) Freud's concept of unconscious

mental activity associated with the ID. It
is characterised by the pleasure principle (a pursuit of pleasure and avoidance of pain without regard for the limitations of reality), a disregard for space
and time and a tendency to combine
thoughts and images (condensation)
and to displace feelings from one person to another. These features are
observable in the content of dreams.
This concept is useful in understanding the sometimes bizarre nature of
Child ego-state thinking. See SECONDARY
PROCESS.

Principles of Group Treatment one of

the major texts of transactional analysis. This book by Eric Berne, first published in 1966, is a major source of
information on Berne's ide:<s about
professional practice using tr;msactional a~;dy.'lis, particularly as applied to
grm:p therapy. It also cont:tins some
deveLopment of the thinki.-Jg abobt
group processes, which he began in
THE STRUCTURE A.'lD flr'NA.\IICS Or ORGAN!SA
TIO:-.IS AND GROUPS

(1963).

process what happeos in counselling or

psychotherapy, as opposed to what 'is
discussed, which is tbc CONTENT.
Usually the process is the more psychologically significant. This is the
meaning of Berne's THIRD RL.LE OF CO.V!

process script the characteristic process

through which the script is expressed in
action. This is shaped by tbe DRJVER MEs.
SAGES. These are essentially messages
about how to please the parents in
childhood which are used to generate
phoney (spurious) OKness in adult life
to counteract the negative effect of
INJUNCTIONS. Because the driver messages
(counterinjunctions) specify behaviours
that are supposed to elicit the approval
of others (and more importantly of the
internal Parent) it is these that shape the
outward form of the script although the
significant content of the script, which is
responsible for most of the damage it
causes, lies in the injunctions. As a
result, people with very different pathology may express their scripts in similar
ways (employ similar defences).
However, tbe underlying pathology of
the injunctions wili affect d1e DEGREE of
the script (the level of damage to self
and others that occur-s).
Each script process type can be characterised by a Greek myth and a slogan
(Berne, 1970, 1972: Kahler, 1978). For
example, the process script type which
has the Be Perfect driver message is an
Until script. Peor,;e with this type of
scripting respond u cbe internal message
'you can't get your needs met until you
have done cvel)'thing perfectly'. For
e.-x.'llnpl-::, they will not sit down to watch
the TV until they have washed and dried
the dishes and tidied the kitchen. The corresponding Greek myth is of Hercules,
who had to peri'om1 a long series of
incredibly difficult usks before he was
alimved ro hecom= immortal. The seven
process scripts are ibted belowwiili their
slogans and char;;ucristic driver patterns.

~1UNiCATJON.

process model an integrative theory

bringing together many aspects oi'
transactional analysis. lt was developed hy Taibi Kahler and makes use of
Paul Ware's concept of PERS01\ALITY ADAl'
TATIONS. For a summary of his approach
C'Q.Q

Ctpn~~,.r

11 QO{.:;h)

always (why do2s this always happen

to me?). Try H:trd. A-~
until (I can't do X until I have fine.Y'~
ished Y). Be Perfect.
never (I never get what I most want).
BeStrong. ~
after (after the good,.._times will come
IJ rJ.J.LWck::,
the bad). Please.

primary process thinking

For example, a cool and detached style
may re-enact non-involvement while a
very involving style may be perceiYed
as threatening by a client with engulfment issues. See also MODELS.

primary process thinking (psychoanalysis) Freud's concept of unconscious

mental activity associated with the ID. It
is characterised by the pleasure principle (a pursuit of pleasure and avoidance of pain without regard for the limitations of reality), a disregard for space
and time and a tendency to combine
thoughts and images (condensation)
and to displace feelings from one person to another. These features are
observable in the content of dreams.
This concept is useful in understanding the sometimes bizarre nature of
Child ego-state thinking. See SECONDARY
PROCESS.

Principles of Group Treatment one of

the major texts of transactional analysis. This book by Eric Berne, first published in 1966, is a major source of
information on Berne's ide:<s about
professional practice using tr;msactional a~;dy.'lis, particularly as applied to
grm:p therapy. It also cont:tins some
deveLopment of the thinki.-Jg abobt
group processes, which he began in
THE STRUCTURE A.'lD flr'NA.\IICS Or ORGAN!SA
TIO:-.IS AND GROUPS

(1963).

process what happeos in counselling or

psychotherapy, as opposed to what 'is
discussed, which is tbc CONTENT.
Usually the process is the more psychologically significant. This is the
meaning of Berne's THIRD RL.LE OF CO.V!

process script the characteristic process

through which the script is expressed in
action. This is shaped by tbe DRJVER MEs.
SAGES. These are essentially messages
about how to please the parents in
childhood which are used to generate
phoney (spurious) OKness in adult life
to counteract the negative effect of
INJUNCTIONS. Because the driver messages
(counterinjunctions) specify behaviours
that are supposed to elicit the approval
of others (and more importantly of the
internal Parent) it is these that shape the
outward form of the script although the
significant content of the script, which is
responsible for most of the damage it
causes, lies in the injunctions. As a
result, people with very different pathology may express their scripts in similar
ways (employ similar defences).
However, tbe underlying pathology of
the injunctions wili affect d1e DEGREE of
the script (the level of damage to self
and others that occur-s).
Each script process type can be characterised by a Greek myth and a slogan
(Berne, 1970, 1972: Kahler, 1978). For
example, the process script type which
has the Be Perfect driver message is an
Until script. Peor,;e with this type of
scripting respond u cbe internal message
'you can't get your needs met until you
have done cvel)'thing perfectly'. For
e.-x.'llnpl-::, they will not sit down to watch
the TV until they have washed and dried
the dishes and tidied the kitchen. The corresponding Greek myth is of Hercules,
who had to peri'om1 a long series of
incredibly difficult usks before he was
alimved ro hecom= immortal. The seven
process scripts are ibted belowwiili their
slogans and char;;ucristic driver patterns.

~1UNiCATJON.

process model an integrative theory

bringing together many aspects oi'
transactional analysis. lt was developed hy Taibi Kahler and makes use of
Paul Ware's concept of PERS01\ALITY ADAl'
TATIONS. For a summary of his approach
C'Q.Q

Ctpn~~,.r

11 QO{.:;h)

always (why do2s this always happen

to me?). Try H:trd. A-~
until (I can't do X until I have fine.Y'~
ished Y). Be Perfect.
never (I never get what I most want).
BeStrong. ~
after (after the good,.._times will come
IJ rJ.J.LWck::,
the bad). Please.

psyche
psyche the mental apparatus.

Sigmund Freud. This is a

approach. Freud
his theory over a long lifetime and
work has been extensively nPvPinn.o.
reinterpreted and extended, so
choanalysis constitutes a rich
diverse field of.theory and
although psychoanalysts share
assumptions and approaches.
are four major schools of
sis (name in brackets is the
who had the major influence in
lishing the approach).
DYNAM.IC

psychiatry the medical speciality which

deals with mental disorders.
Psychiatrists may use a variety of therapeutic techniques including psychotherapy but often stress the medical aspects of mental disorder and the
importance of medical interventions
such as the use of psychotropic drugs
and, in certain conditions, physical
interventions such as ECT. c.f. PSY
CHOTHERAPY, PSYCHOLOGY.

psychic energy in the PSYCHODYNAMIC

model of mental processes these are
understood in terms of flows of psychic energy (CATHEJGS) between structures in the PSYCHE. This concept is also
employed in transactional :~.nalysis
which has roots in the psychodynamic
theories of Freud. Psychic energy is a
metaphor used in describing intrapsychic processes and must be distinguished from physical energy. See
ENERGY.

psychic organ a structure within the

PSYCHE with a specific function. Freud
postulated three psychic orgam, the
EGO. SUPEREGO and !D. In his o:-igina!
exposition of transactional analysis
(1961) Berne postulated three psychic
organs, the EXTEROPSYCJ-IE, :'iEOP:iYCHE and
ARCHEOPSYCHE. These had the functions
of 'generating' (were manifest::d phenomenologically as) the three c}pes of
ego-state, Parent, Adult and Child. In
later writings this concept tended to be
subsumed within the ego-state concept
and the psychic organ concept hJ.s been
little used in transactional analysis.
However, it is sometimes impon:mt :o
make the distinction berrveen psychic
organs and ego-states. Despite their similarity to Freud's psychic organs, there is
no direct correspondence beiTv'-Oen the
concepts. See Novey (1997).
psychoanalysis the theories and cli:1ical
techniques deriving from the work of

Drive theory (Freud)

Object relations (Fairbairn developing
the ideas of Melanie Klein)
Ego psychology (Hartmann)
Self psychology (Kohut)
Berne trained as a psychoanalyst and
much psychoanalytic thinking has
been incorporated into transactional
analysis. Often the original abstract
psychoanalytic term was dropped or
little used and replaced by a name for
an observable phenomenon. For
example, in the early literature of
transactional analysis there are few
references to transference but numerous references to phenomena caused
by transference (such as games, script,
rubber-banding, 'putting a face on'
etc.). The language had moved sharply
towards the concrete. This made it
refreshingly down-to-earth, objective
and accessible. However, as transactional analysis developed, it found the
lack of an abstract language an
increasing liability and also became
aware tbat it had isolated itself from
important developments in theory
such as self psychology. Probably the
watershed was crossed with ;'V1oiso 's
(1985) article on ego-states and transference and there is now a growing
interest in integrating psychoanalytic
thinking into transactional analysis.
The areas of psychoanalysis that have
drawn the most interest are post
Freudian and particularly recent
developments in object relations and

psyche
psyche the mental apparatus.

Sigmund Freud. This is a

approach. Freud
his theory over a long lifetime and
work has been extensively nPvPinn.o.
reinterpreted and extended, so
choanalysis constitutes a rich
diverse field of.theory and
although psychoanalysts share
assumptions and approaches.
are four major schools of
sis (name in brackets is the
who had the major influence in
lishing the approach).
DYNAM.IC

psychiatry the medical speciality which

deals with mental disorders.
Psychiatrists may use a variety of therapeutic techniques including psychotherapy but often stress the medical aspects of mental disorder and the
importance of medical interventions
such as the use of psychotropic drugs
and, in certain conditions, physical
interventions such as ECT. c.f. PSY
CHOTHERAPY, PSYCHOLOGY.

psychic energy in the PSYCHODYNAMIC

model of mental processes these are
understood in terms of flows of psychic energy (CATHEJGS) between structures in the PSYCHE. This concept is also
employed in transactional :~.nalysis
which has roots in the psychodynamic
theories of Freud. Psychic energy is a
metaphor used in describing intrapsychic processes and must be distinguished from physical energy. See
ENERGY.

psychic organ a structure within the

PSYCHE with a specific function. Freud
postulated three psychic orgam, the
EGO. SUPEREGO and !D. In his o:-igina!
exposition of transactional analysis
(1961) Berne postulated three psychic
organs, the EXTEROPSYCJ-IE, :'iEOP:iYCHE and
ARCHEOPSYCHE. These had the functions
of 'generating' (were manifest::d phenomenologically as) the three c}pes of
ego-state, Parent, Adult and Child. In
later writings this concept tended to be
subsumed within the ego-state concept
and the psychic organ concept hJ.s been
little used in transactional analysis.
However, it is sometimes impon:mt :o
make the distinction berrveen psychic
organs and ego-states. Despite their similarity to Freud's psychic organs, there is
no direct correspondence beiTv'-Oen the
concepts. See Novey (1997).
psychoanalysis the theories and cli:1ical
techniques deriving from the work of

Drive theory (Freud)

Object relations (Fairbairn developing
the ideas of Melanie Klein)
Ego psychology (Hartmann)
Self psychology (Kohut)
Berne trained as a psychoanalyst and
much psychoanalytic thinking has
been incorporated into transactional
analysis. Often the original abstract
psychoanalytic term was dropped or
little used and replaced by a name for
an observable phenomenon. For
example, in the early literature of
transactional analysis there are few
references to transference but numerous references to phenomena caused
by transference (such as games, script,
rubber-banding, 'putting a face on'
etc.). The language had moved sharply
towards the concrete. This made it
refreshingly down-to-earth, objective
and accessible. However, as transactional analysis developed, it found the
lack of an abstract language an
increasing liability and also became
aware tbat it had isolated itself from
important developments in theory
such as self psychology. Probably the
watershed was crossed with ;'V1oiso 's
(1985) article on ego-states and transference and there is now a growing
interest in integrating psychoanalytic
thinking into transactional analysis.
The areas of psychoanalysis that have
drawn the most interest are post
Freudian and particularly recent
developments in object relations and

psychotherapy
ANALYSis) is referred to as the somatic
child. At the stage when this early egostate develops existence is more centred on the body than it is in later
stages of childhood. Transactional
analysis regards psychosomatic illness
as indicative of damage at this level. If
conditions involve mind and body then
they can be treated via either route and
perhaps best by both. Speculation on
the psychosomatic origin of disease
should not therefore preclude the use
of physical methods of treatment. See
BODY SCRIPTING.

resulted in many people looking at

problems posed qy the human
tion in a great variety of ways.
tive therapies have developed in
insights of diverse disciplines
been brought together.
analysis is such an approach
on psychodynamic, humanistic
behaviourist sources. The term
SELLING overlaps with psycho
and counsellors and psychoth
draw on similar theory and make use
similar techniques. The exact
ary between these two
remains a subject of debate.

psychotherapy treatment of psychological problems by talking to the client. psychotropic drugs medical drugs
There are many schools of psychogive rise to change of mood.
therapy but these fall into a relatively
include antipsychotic drugs or
small number of types and despite the
tranquillisers such as chlorpromazine,
disagreement in which theorists somealso anxiolytics such as the benzodiaptimes engage, there is widespread
ines (commonly referred to as tranagreement about general principles. In
quillisers) which reduce anxiety
the UK there is a go1erning body to
antidepressants, which affect mood
which most major psychotherapy trainonly. Drugs are useful for handing crisi5
ing organisations belong: the United
situations or the seriously disturbed
.Y-.ingdom Council for Psychother~!py.
cUent but they may interfere with psyTrainees ,vho satisfY the standards of
chotherapy hy making Adult less availany body that is a full member are
able and by blocking feelings thus lowplaced on the Natii~nal Register of
ering the motivation to change and
Psychother2pists. The CK transactional
obstructing access to Child.
analysis org:omisation, the Jnstitcote of
Transactional Analysis, is a full mem- PT5D see POST-Ti{At;M,.\TIC STRESS DISORDER.
ber of the UKCP so cenified tP.Dsactional analysts with a clinical speciaiity PTSTA
ProYisional Teaching and
become 'UKCP registcT~ci psychor.heraSupervising Transactional Analyst. A
pists when they qualif)'.
certified trans:JCtional analyst who has
Each discipline hc.s a theory of the
bc;'~n endorsed as able to give officially
z;tructure of mind and ~)f the natu r:: of
recognised transactional analysis train~
n1ental processes, ;Ir:-~ :TJ.ost of tht:-;e
ir;g and sup~rvision at a TE'X' (training
er:.ciorsemcr:t workshop). A PTSTA is
derive from, or bav~ been stron~?!y
influenced by the ,.\'o~-k of, Sig!:<<.:itd
reqclired to have regular supervision
Lorn a TSTA (te;:tching ::md superiising
Freud. The splitting into disci!:oth:::s
has not been unproductive - i; h~;s
mtnsaction~l analyst).

psychotherapy
ANALYSis) is referred to as the somatic
child. At the stage when this early egostate develops existence is more centred on the body than it is in later
stages of childhood. Transactional
analysis regards psychosomatic illness
as indicative of damage at this level. If
conditions involve mind and body then
they can be treated via either route and
perhaps best by both. Speculation on
the psychosomatic origin of disease
should not therefore preclude the use
of physical methods of treatment. See
BODY SCRIPTING.

resulted in many people looking at

problems posed qy the human
tion in a great variety of ways.
tive therapies have developed in
insights of diverse disciplines
been brought together.
analysis is such an approach
on psychodynamic, humanistic
behaviourist sources. The term
SELLING overlaps with psycho
and counsellors and psychoth
draw on similar theory and make use
similar techniques. The exact
ary between these two
remains a subject of debate.

psychotherapy treatment of psychological problems by talking to the client. psychotropic drugs medical drugs
There are many schools of psychogive rise to change of mood.
therapy but these fall into a relatively
include antipsychotic drugs or
small number of types and despite the
tranquillisers such as chlorpromazine,
disagreement in which theorists somealso anxiolytics such as the benzodiaptimes engage, there is widespread
ines (commonly referred to as tranagreement about general principles. In
quillisers) which reduce anxiety
the UK there is a go1erning body to
antidepressants, which affect mood
which most major psychotherapy trainonly. Drugs are useful for handing crisi5
ing organisations belong: the United
situations or the seriously disturbed
.Y-.ingdom Council for Psychother~!py.
cUent but they may interfere with psyTrainees ,vho satisfY the standards of
chotherapy hy making Adult less availany body that is a full member are
able and by blocking feelings thus lowplaced on the Natii~nal Register of
ering the motivation to change and
Psychother2pists. The CK transactional
obstructing access to Child.
analysis org:omisation, the Jnstitcote of
Transactional Analysis, is a full mem- PT5D see POST-Ti{At;M,.\TIC STRESS DISORDER.
ber of the UKCP so cenified tP.Dsactional analysts with a clinical speciaiity PTSTA
ProYisional Teaching and
become 'UKCP registcT~ci psychor.heraSupervising Transactional Analyst. A
pists when they qualif)'.
certified trans:JCtional analyst who has
Each discipline hc.s a theory of the
bc;'~n endorsed as able to give officially
z;tructure of mind and ~)f the natu r:: of
recognised transactional analysis train~
n1ental processes, ;Ir:-~ :TJ.ost of tht:-;e
ir;g and sup~rvision at a TE'X' (training
er:.ciorsemcr:t workshop). A PTSTA is
derive from, or bav~ been stron~?!y
influenced by the ,.\'o~-k of, Sig!:<<.:itd
reqclired to have regular supervision
Lorn a TSTA (te;:tching ::md superiising
Freud. The splitting into disci!:oth:::s
has not been unproductive - i; h~;s
mtnsaction~l analyst).

racket system

racket system a dynamic model of scripts

ceived their caretakers as
as interlocking, self-reinforcing systems
and felt rage towards
of racket behaviours and script beliefs,
Transactional analysts (and rn,,.,.,,,..;,,.,
developed by Erskine and Zalcman
of certain other modalities) sotneltimeSf
(1979). It is now often referred to as
use rage-reduction techniques
the script system. Major elements in
involve inviting the client to get
the system are Script Beliefs, Repressed
touch with repressed rage and
Feelings, manifestations of script (rackoccasioned by bonding fail
et behaviours), which the authors
abusive relationships. This is
describe as Rackety Displays, and
contractually (see coNTRAcr) and in an
Reinforcing Memories. Rackety
environment that is both physically
Displays are subdivided
into
and emotionally safe. See CATHARSIS,
Observable (observable to an external
ANGER WORK.
observer), Internal Experiences and
Fantasies. Each part reinforces the rapo a GAV!E in which a sexual advance is
other parts, setting up a dynamic sys
at first invited and then repulsed. The
tern. This model differs markedly from
other party is switched from the posiSteiner's scRIPT ,\1ATRJX. Steiner's model
tion of Rescuer (providing what is
is static and answers the questions
asked for) to Victim while being invit'how did the script originate and what
ed into guilt by being accused of being
is its content?' whereas Erskine and
a Persecutor. This is a sexual version of
Zalcman's model answers the question
~i!GYYSOB.
'how is the script maintained and wh:ll
is its process?' The models :!re compic- tapport an under5landing relationship
mentary and each offers an invaluable
between client ~nd therapist that
basis for treatment planning, see
enables the client to feel safe, connectFigure 22. For an up-dated view of the
ed and responded to. The early estabJacket system and racket analysis sec
lishment of rapport is essential if an
Zalcman (1990).
effective therapeutic relationship is to
be established. See also E,\1PAfHY, TilERA
rackety (adjective) appertaining to a
PEuTJC ALLIANCE.
RACKET. Having the qualities of a RACKET
Or of RACKETEERING.
rapprochement crisis (psychoanalysi s
- object relations) Margaret Mahler's
rage extreme anger. Melanie Klein
term for the developmental stage in
believed that all babies at times perwhich the child deals with establishing

""'

SCRiPT (RAC'<f:TY) DISPLAYS

REINFORCING EXPERIENCES

about self

observable td1aviour

current events

about others

!"ef<>rted. internal

old emotional memories

SCRIPT BELIEFS

about the quality

of life

expenences

fantnsic.s

REPRESSED NEEDS
AND FEELINGS

Figure 22 Racket system (Erskine and Zalcman, 1979).

100

memories of the fantasies

as real

racket system

racket system a dynamic model of scripts

ceived their caretakers as
as interlocking, self-reinforcing systems
and felt rage towards
of racket behaviours and script beliefs,
Transactional analysts (and rn,,.,.,,,..;,,.,
developed by Erskine and Zalcman
of certain other modalities) sotneltimeSf
(1979). It is now often referred to as
use rage-reduction techniques
the script system. Major elements in
involve inviting the client to get
the system are Script Beliefs, Repressed
touch with repressed rage and
Feelings, manifestations of script (rackoccasioned by bonding fail
et behaviours), which the authors
abusive relationships. This is
describe as Rackety Displays, and
contractually (see coNTRAcr) and in an
Reinforcing Memories. Rackety
environment that is both physically
Displays are subdivided
into
and emotionally safe. See CATHARSIS,
Observable (observable to an external
ANGER WORK.
observer), Internal Experiences and
Fantasies. Each part reinforces the rapo a GAV!E in which a sexual advance is
other parts, setting up a dynamic sys
at first invited and then repulsed. The
tern. This model differs markedly from
other party is switched from the posiSteiner's scRIPT ,\1ATRJX. Steiner's model
tion of Rescuer (providing what is
is static and answers the questions
asked for) to Victim while being invit'how did the script originate and what
ed into guilt by being accused of being
is its content?' whereas Erskine and
a Persecutor. This is a sexual version of
Zalcman's model answers the question
~i!GYYSOB.
'how is the script maintained and wh:ll
is its process?' The models :!re compic- tapport an under5landing relationship
mentary and each offers an invaluable
between client ~nd therapist that
basis for treatment planning, see
enables the client to feel safe, connectFigure 22. For an up-dated view of the
ed and responded to. The early estabJacket system and racket analysis sec
lishment of rapport is essential if an
Zalcman (1990).
effective therapeutic relationship is to
be established. See also E,\1PAfHY, TilERA
rackety (adjective) appertaining to a
PEuTJC ALLIANCE.
RACKET. Having the qualities of a RACKET
Or of RACKETEERING.
rapprochement crisis (psychoanalysi s
- object relations) Margaret Mahler's
rage extreme anger. Melanie Klein
term for the developmental stage in
believed that all babies at times perwhich the child deals with establishing

""'

SCRiPT (RAC'<f:TY) DISPLAYS

REINFORCING EXPERIENCES

about self

observable td1aviour

current events

about others

!"ef<>rted. internal

old emotional memories

SCRIPT BELIEFS

about the quality

of life

expenences

fantnsic.s

REPRESSED NEEDS
AND FEELINGS

Figure 22 Racket system (Erskine and Zalcman, 1979).

100

memories of the fantasies

as real

:-

rechilding
trauma, providing an opportunity to
give permissions and affirmations that
were absent in the original experience
and also to provide the sense of a new
beginning and therefore the potentiality
to choose new paths through life, see
Grof1985.

training of therapists and is a part of ,- - '._-.-__- -.~:-~;- ~--~

good professional practice, enabling
the therapist to maintain an overview
of the therapy and keep track of -~~~~\f(
important points and changes. Record '.{!:;~~
keeping raises issues regarding CONFI- ::)k,jj

~::~~t r:::~~:~~:e~e:~:e~d~~~; ~J~lJ

,.,,!_ ,,

rechilding a therapeutic technique for

within an organisation. It is important
generating new Child ego-state to provide a resource for integrated Adult
functioning (Clarkson and Fish, 1988).
The client is invited to regress to an
age at which he or she had experiential or developmental deficits and
allows himself or herself to create new
made clear. Berne (1966) recommends
Child ego-states with positive responses
drawing up an organisational diagram
to a wide variety of situations. This
charting all the e:h"ternal influences on
provides a corrective experience that is
the therapeutic relationship.
lodged in the newly created Child egostate but that becomes a historical real- redecision changing a script decision.
ity for the integrated Adult.
Therapeutic procedures for facilitating
redecision are central to the REDECISION
reciprocity a balanced interaction
SCHOOL of transactional analysis.
bet\veen two people in which there i~

~~i~~~~f~;li~;; ~
~7i~~~i~~~n~h~~r~;~~~~n a:da~~~

rrmtuality and an equality of power,

influence and openness to the other. .,_-edecision school one of the major
schools of transactional analysis based
Ideally a therapeutic relationship
on the work of Robert and Mary
should involve reciprocity; however,
Goulding (1972, 1976). Script is a
the client often feels powerless when
response to EAJUY LJFE DECISIONS. As the
he or she enters therapy and has perindividual
strives for autonomy, these
ceived the therapist as someone who
set up internal conflicts known as
has the power to hdp thec1
IMPASSES. There are three types of
Transactional analysis stresses th<':'
impasse
(originally referred to as
importance of promoting AUTONO~IY
degrees of impasse). Type one conand empowering the client. The
cerns COUNTERINJUNCTIONS, these are
process of making a CONTRi.Cr is impormessages about bow to be OK given by
tant in this, as also is the sl1aring o;
parents (for exampie, Please- you are
theory 'IYith the cliel-t.
OK if you please your parents or others,
or Be Perfect - YOU are OK if you get
n~cognliiGn hunger <' need f'nr recogr.ieverything right). As the individual
tion by ethers that ;o; n~et at the most
begins to become ;iv.'are of how the
basic kvel in the i;;i;:nt b:.' physical
decision to respond ~o these messages
contact (Berne, 1961). Norn:al psychoconflicts with his or her needs, the indilogic9.l development is impossible
vidual experiences an impa~se. Type
without some satisfaction of the
two impasses relate to INJUNCTIONS, meshunger and the search for recognition
sages given (usually out of awareness)
is a major motivat.or. St"e STIY!ULl'S
by parents when they respond to their
HUNG:oR, STROKJNG, ST:'L''-~TURE l11JNGER.
own unresolved Child needs at the
record keeping the making of clinical
expense of the child. The Gouldings
notes on clients. This is stressed in the
identified 12 typical forms that these

:;:;]
;;
: \1

:-

rechilding
trauma, providing an opportunity to
give permissions and affirmations that
were absent in the original experience
and also to provide the sense of a new
beginning and therefore the potentiality
to choose new paths through life, see
Grof1985.

training of therapists and is a part of ,- - '._-.-__- -.~:-~;- ~--~

good professional practice, enabling
the therapist to maintain an overview
of the therapy and keep track of -~~~~\f(
important points and changes. Record '.{!:;~~
keeping raises issues regarding CONFI- ::)k,jj

~::~~t r:::~~:~~:e~e:~:e~d~~~; ~J~lJ

,.,,!_ ,,

rechilding a therapeutic technique for

within an organisation. It is important
generating new Child ego-state to provide a resource for integrated Adult
functioning (Clarkson and Fish, 1988).
The client is invited to regress to an
age at which he or she had experiential or developmental deficits and
allows himself or herself to create new
made clear. Berne (1966) recommends
Child ego-states with positive responses
drawing up an organisational diagram
to a wide variety of situations. This
charting all the e:h"ternal influences on
provides a corrective experience that is
the therapeutic relationship.
lodged in the newly created Child egostate but that becomes a historical real- redecision changing a script decision.
ity for the integrated Adult.
Therapeutic procedures for facilitating
redecision are central to the REDECISION
reciprocity a balanced interaction
SCHOOL of transactional analysis.
bet\veen two people in which there i~

~~i~~~~f~;li~;; ~
~7i~~~i~~~n~h~~r~;~~~~n a:da~~~

rrmtuality and an equality of power,

influence and openness to the other. .,_-edecision school one of the major
schools of transactional analysis based
Ideally a therapeutic relationship
on the work of Robert and Mary
should involve reciprocity; however,
Goulding (1972, 1976). Script is a
the client often feels powerless when
response to EAJUY LJFE DECISIONS. As the
he or she enters therapy and has perindividual
strives for autonomy, these
ceived the therapist as someone who
set up internal conflicts known as
has the power to hdp thec1
IMPASSES. There are three types of
Transactional analysis stresses th<':'
impasse
(originally referred to as
importance of promoting AUTONO~IY
degrees of impasse). Type one conand empowering the client. The
cerns COUNTERINJUNCTIONS, these are
process of making a CONTRi.Cr is impormessages about bow to be OK given by
tant in this, as also is the sl1aring o;
parents (for exampie, Please- you are
theory 'IYith the cliel-t.
OK if you please your parents or others,
or Be Perfect - YOU are OK if you get
n~cognliiGn hunger <' need f'nr recogr.ieverything right). As the individual
tion by ethers that ;o; n~et at the most
begins to become ;iv.'are of how the
basic kvel in the i;;i;:nt b:.' physical
decision to respond ~o these messages
contact (Berne, 1961). Norn:al psychoconflicts with his or her needs, the indilogic9.l development is impossible
vidual experiences an impa~se. Type
without some satisfaction of the
two impasses relate to INJUNCTIONS, meshunger and the search for recognition
sages given (usually out of awareness)
is a major motivat.or. St"e STIY!ULl'S
by parents when they respond to their
HUNG:oR, STROKJNG, ST:'L''-~TURE l11JNGER.
own unresolved Child needs at the
record keeping the making of clinical
expense of the child. The Gouldings
notes on clients. This is stressed in the
identified 12 typical forms that these

:;:;]
;;
: \1

Reichian
in which they appear to have been
an INTEGRATED ADULT. A similar process
and will acquire a large collecrejected
may occur with Parent ego-state matertion of such memories which will reinial. There are a variety of views among
force their script belief, while they are
transactiona l analysts about how to
likely tO find ways of DISCOUNTING disbe
may
It
ego-state.
Child
the
regard
confirming experiences ('they did not
seen less as a residue of a superseded
really mean it, they were just being
level of developmen t and more as a
polite'). See RACKET SYST&\ol.
repository of valuable qualities that
have been lost in later development (a
Wordsworth ian view: 'the child is reinforceme nt (behaviouris m) associating a reward with a specific behaviour
father of the man').
and thus making it more probable that
Regression may be facilitated as a
the behaviour will be repeated. This is
therapeutic technique. This must be
basis of operant conditioning and
the
within
and
CONTRACT
done within a clear
is one of the psychologica l principles
a structure that provides for adequate
underlying the transactional analysis
physical and emotional safety. Theraconcept of STROKING.
peutic interventions while in the
regressed state may give access to early
issues that would be difficult to work rejection the experience of not being
accepted, invited to feel that one is not
with in other ways, but this type of work
or unacceptable (unlovable).
wanted
issues
ethical
raises professional and
Life will inevitably include such experithat must be carefully addressed. See
ences but they are particularly damagREPARENTING.
ing in early childhood where ti1ey may
set up lifelong patterns of expected
Reichian based on the work of the postrejection (which may become a self-fulFreudian analyst Wilhelm Reich.
filling prophecy) and lo\v self-esteem.
Reich's main theoretical contribution
Experiences of rejection in childhood
was to the theory of character analysis
are likely to lead to a Don't Exist
but the aspect of his work that now
INJUNCTION.
receives most attention is the connections that he traced between body
states and psychological problems (for relationship the pattern of attachment
and interaction between two people.
example, body armouring) and which
From birth onwards human beings
he explained in terms of an energy
exist in relationship s and healthy
theory (orgone energy). Modern post
development cannot occur unless the
Reichian therapies include BIOE>'ERGFT
individual is supported, challenged
JCS and Radix. Reich's approach b;Js
and socialised within a suitable relabeen introduced into transactiona l
tionship system. Through its power to
analysis; see BODY SCRIPT!.'\G and BOlW
analyse transaction s and map
WORK.
stroking, transactional analysis is able
to. map relationship processes.
reinforcing memories a memc)ry of a
Psychological problems are frequently
past negative experience thar is used
initially failures of relationships . The
to reinforce a SCRIPT BELJEF. Tber<: is a
relationship between the client and
tendency to give weight to, and there
the therapist is an important factor in
that
ev::nts
memory,
fore to keep in
all psychotherap ies, including those
seem to confirm script beliefs, while
that accord it little significance (e.g.
events that disconfirm them may be
classical behaviourism ). The classical
easily forgotten. Someone who has a
psychodynam ic approach sees relascript belief 'I am unlovable' will pay
as important but also threattionship
s
circumstance
particular attention to
1fl4

Reichian
in which they appear to have been
an INTEGRATED ADULT. A similar process
and will acquire a large collecrejected
may occur with Parent ego-state matertion of such memories which will reinial. There are a variety of views among
force their script belief, while they are
transactiona l analysts about how to
likely tO find ways of DISCOUNTING disbe
may
It
ego-state.
Child
the
regard
confirming experiences ('they did not
seen less as a residue of a superseded
really mean it, they were just being
level of developmen t and more as a
polite'). See RACKET SYST&\ol.
repository of valuable qualities that
have been lost in later development (a
Wordsworth ian view: 'the child is reinforceme nt (behaviouris m) associating a reward with a specific behaviour
father of the man').
and thus making it more probable that
Regression may be facilitated as a
the behaviour will be repeated. This is
therapeutic technique. This must be
basis of operant conditioning and
the
within
and
CONTRACT
done within a clear
is one of the psychologica l principles
a structure that provides for adequate
underlying the transactional analysis
physical and emotional safety. Theraconcept of STROKING.
peutic interventions while in the
regressed state may give access to early
issues that would be difficult to work rejection the experience of not being
accepted, invited to feel that one is not
with in other ways, but this type of work
or unacceptable (unlovable).
wanted
issues
ethical
raises professional and
Life will inevitably include such experithat must be carefully addressed. See
ences but they are particularly damagREPARENTING.
ing in early childhood where ti1ey may
set up lifelong patterns of expected
Reichian based on the work of the postrejection (which may become a self-fulFreudian analyst Wilhelm Reich.
filling prophecy) and lo\v self-esteem.
Reich's main theoretical contribution
Experiences of rejection in childhood
was to the theory of character analysis
are likely to lead to a Don't Exist
but the aspect of his work that now
INJUNCTION.
receives most attention is the connections that he traced between body
states and psychological problems (for relationship the pattern of attachment
and interaction between two people.
example, body armouring) and which
From birth onwards human beings
he explained in terms of an energy
exist in relationship s and healthy
theory (orgone energy). Modern post
development cannot occur unless the
Reichian therapies include BIOE>'ERGFT
individual is supported, challenged
JCS and Radix. Reich's approach b;Js
and socialised within a suitable relabeen introduced into transactiona l
tionship system. Through its power to
analysis; see BODY SCRIPT!.'\G and BOlW
analyse transaction s and map
WORK.
stroking, transactional analysis is able
to. map relationship processes.
reinforcing memories a memc)ry of a
Psychological problems are frequently
past negative experience thar is used
initially failures of relationships . The
to reinforce a SCRIPT BELJEF. Tber<: is a
relationship between the client and
tendency to give weight to, and there
the therapist is an important factor in
that
ev::nts
memory,
fore to keep in
all psychotherap ies, including those
seem to confirm script beliefs, while
that accord it little significance (e.g.
events that disconfirm them may be
classical behaviourism ). The classical
easily forgotten. Someone who has a
psychodynam ic approach sees relascript belief 'I am unlovable' will pay
as important but also threattionship
s
circumstance
particular attention to
1fl4

Re scu e

ree me nt pla ce
' wh o are pla ce d (o r by ag
rtpa
t
en
ol
vi
th
wi
ca re su ch as ch ilup re lat io ns hi ps
the ms elv es) in ou r
cs tha t
mi
na
dy
the
of
e
on
if we ac ce pt so me
ne rs) . Th is is
dren or cli en ts. Ev en
of GAMES.
g
yin
pla
ed to en co ur ag e
ne
the
d
we
hin
lie be
res po ns ibi lit y,
r ca re to be as
th e pe rs on in ou
so me on e
r
fo
g
in
th
sh e ca n wi thi n
me
so
or
Re sc ue to do
au ton om ou s as he
eir
th
s
ine
rm
de
un
to sh ift res po ns iels e in a wa y ch at
the co nte xt. At tem pts
m is dister
the
of
e
us
is
nip ula tiv e. 'I on ly
au ton om y. Th
bil ity are us ua lly ma
ac ts of resate
itim
leg
m
u' ma y be acc ep tfro
yo
ed
of
tin gu ish
)
did it be ca us e
ed
ed
ne
lly
rea
is
lp
ar pr ior ag ree me nt
cu e (w he re the he
ab le if the re was cle
al let ter .
pit
ca
a
th
wi
'Y ou ma de me
it
g
by sp ell in
t no t ot he rw ise .
bu
G th e
TIN
UN
CO
DIS
re sp on sib ili ty fo r
Re sc ui ng in vo lv es
an gr y' im pl ies a
effect
ac
to
n
rso
pe
er
gs, ho we ve r 'I fel t
po we r of the oth
oth er pe op le' s feelin
the ir ow n life
of
e
arg
ch
e
u sai d' is lik ely to
yo
tak
d
at
tively an
an gry ab ou t wh
UI+
an
m
fro
s
me
t. Se e I STATEMENTs.
an d the Re scu er co
be a sta tem en t of .fuc
S). Re scu ing
ION
SIT
PO
E
UF
e
po sit ion (se
ss
n int o SYMBIOSIS.
of the the rap y pro ce
involves an inv ita tio
rev iew dis cu ssi on
RTHE
e
Th
.
ed
iev
ach
an d wh at ha s be en
fo r
r) the DRAMA
on
ue
isi
sc
ov
Re
pr
so
ke
(al
ma
le
y
ma
Re sc ue r ro
APY CO NT RA CT
iti ng
tio na l
wh ich inv olv es inv
iew ses sio ns . Tr an sac
rev
TRIANGLE rol e,
r
ula
reg
al
pit
ca
l
tia
ini
s an d
e
es
oc
(th
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pr
l
scu
tua
Re
oth ers int o
aly sis is a co ntr ac
is
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rol
gle
lar
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tri
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ind ica tes tha t a dra
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d
act
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ntr
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g
be ing ref err ed
rev iew of ou tst an din
ue r is dis co un tin g
res cu e). Th e Re sc
al
TU RIN G in m' s ab ili ty to de
fo rm of TIM E STR UC
the su pp os ed Vi cti
or he rse lf rit ua ls a
lf
se
llo w an
fo
him
n
ns
tio
tio
ua
ac
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ich th e tra ns
t
wh
ou
ab
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ios
hig hly
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gra
are
t the y
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ag ree d pa tte rn so tha
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pro
eti ng
the
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ve
sol
the
to
is
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ple
his or he r abilit
pre dic tab le. An ex am
' 'O K
u?
yo
e
ar
w
ho
rit ua l 'H ell o,
a
int en tio n to ac t in
saf e bu t yie ld few
re so lu tio n (1 ) an
w
tha nk s'. Ri tua ls are
Ne
a
,
ple
am
ex
r
(fo
y
wa
pa rti cu lar
str ok es.
. Th e ou tco me is
Ye ar' s res olu tio n)
in
s:
the eg o-s tat
oa ch of the
rel ati ng to the ap pr
lik ely to de pe nd on
n is ma de . Ro ge ria n
tio
ge rs.
lu
Ro
so
rl
re
Ca
e
ist
th
wh ich
Am eri ca n the rap
ma de in Child in
all y
en
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oft
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d
are
s
tho
on
me
uti
sol
tic
Re
the rap eu
al pr es su re fro m
or o~rsc,n-.cetztnE>a
re sp on se to int ern
ly
to as cli en t-c en tre d
ick
qu
ll
wi
ild
Ch
the
lly
m, non-direcltiv4
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ter
Us
l
t.
na
Pa ren
Ro ge rs' or igi
this an d
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t
ou
g
lin
igg
er us ed . Fr om
wr
find a way of
the rap y, is no lo ng
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erm
g-t
lon
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no
nd
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co
ll
the re wi
po sit io n of un
'
ist fac ili tat es
ch an ge .
re ga rd th e th er ap
or he r ow n
his
cli en t in ma kin g
ving of a pro ble m
sol
n an d life
the
tio
ua
(2)
sit
n
ir
tio
res olu
tio n of the
fro m a
e
eas
rel
or
ms
tic ba se
ble
nis
or gro up of pro
Be ca us e of its hu ma
ict, for ex am ple
nll
co
ny va lue s
al
ma
s
ern
are
int
sh
of
sta te
tiona! analysis
E.
ASS
oa ch
IMP
pr
an
ap
the res olu tio n of
the pe rso n- ce ntr ed
re
mo
e
lis
uti
pr ep ar ed to
ns ac tio na l an aly sis
SON -CE NT RED
re sp on sib ili ty tra
ap pr oa ch es . Se e PER
t
tha
ion
sit
po
l
ica
ph
so
ilo
tak es the ph
SELUNG.
ibl e for the ir ow n
pe op le are res po ns
ur.
vio
to
gs an d be ha
sit io n in re lat io n
lives, thinking, feelin
d res po ns i- ro le a po
ite
lim
in
pt
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or
ac
ily
to
rar
We ne ed
ad op ted tem po
o are vu lne rab le or
hil itv for tho se wh

Re scu e

ree me nt pla ce
' wh o are pla ce d (o r by ag
rtpa
t
en
ol
vi
th
wi
ca re su ch as ch ilup re lat io ns hi ps
the ms elv es) in ou r
cs tha t
mi
na
dy
the
of
e
on
if we ac ce pt so me
ne rs) . Th is is
dren or cli en ts. Ev en
of GAMES.
g
yin
pla
ed to en co ur ag e
ne
the
d
we
hin
lie be
res po ns ibi lit y,
r ca re to be as
th e pe rs on in ou
so me on e
r
fo
g
in
th
sh e ca n wi thi n
me
so
or
Re sc ue to do
au ton om ou s as he
eir
th
s
ine
rm
de
un
to sh ift res po ns iels e in a wa y ch at
the co nte xt. At tem pts
m is dister
the
of
e
us
is
nip ula tiv e. 'I on ly
au ton om y. Th
bil ity are us ua lly ma
ac ts of resate
itim
leg
m
u' ma y be acc ep tfro
yo
ed
of
tin gu ish
)
did it be ca us e
ed
ed
ne
lly
rea
is
lp
ar pr ior ag ree me nt
cu e (w he re the he
ab le if the re was cle
al let ter .
pit
ca
a
th
wi
'Y ou ma de me
it
g
by sp ell in
t no t ot he rw ise .
bu
G th e
TIN
UN
CO
DIS
re sp on sib ili ty fo r
Re sc ui ng in vo lv es
an gr y' im pl ies a
effect
ac
to
n
rso
pe
er
gs, ho we ve r 'I fel t
po we r of the oth
oth er pe op le' s feelin
the ir ow n life
of
e
arg
ch
e
u sai d' is lik ely to
yo
tak
d
at
tively an
an gry ab ou t wh
UI+
an
m
fro
s
me
t. Se e I STATEMENTs.
an d the Re scu er co
be a sta tem en t of .fuc
S). Re scu ing
ION
SIT
PO
E
UF
e
po sit ion (se
ss
n int o SYMBIOSIS.
of the the rap y pro ce
involves an inv ita tio
rev iew dis cu ssi on
RTHE
e
Th
.
ed
iev
ach
an d wh at ha s be en
fo r
r) the DRAMA
on
ue
isi
sc
ov
Re
pr
so
ke
(al
ma
le
y
ma
Re sc ue r ro
APY CO NT RA CT
iti ng
tio na l
wh ich inv olv es inv
iew ses sio ns . Tr an sac
rev
TRIANGLE rol e,
r
ula
reg
al
pit
ca
l
tia
ini
s an d
e
es
oc
(th
e
pr
l
scu
tua
Re
oth ers int o
aly sis is a co ntr ac
is
an
e
rol
gle
lar
an
gu
tri
re
ma
isi on fo r
ind ica tes tha t a dra
wi ll in clu de pr ov
ma te
iti
leg
t
no
s.
d
act
an
ntr
to
co

g
be ing ref err ed
rev iew of ou tst an din
ue r is dis co un tin g
res cu e). Th e Re sc
al
TU RIN G in m' s ab ili ty to de
fo rm of TIM E STR UC
the su pp os ed Vi cti
or he rse lf rit ua ls a
lf
se
llo w an
fo
him
n
ns
tio
tio
ua
ac
wi th the sit
ich th e tra ns
t
wh
ou
ab
e
ios
hig hly
nd
gra
are
t the y
an d is pro ba bly be ing
ag ree d pa tte rn so tha
ble m.
pro
eti ng
the
gre
ve
sol
the
to
is
y
ple
his or he r abilit
pre dic tab le. An ex am
' 'O K
u?
yo
e
ar
w
ho
rit ua l 'H ell o,
a
int en tio n to ac t in
saf e bu t yie ld few
re so lu tio n (1 ) an
w
tha nk s'. Ri tua ls are
Ne
a
,
ple
am
ex
r
(fo
y
wa
pa rti cu lar
str ok es.
. Th e ou tco me is
Ye ar' s res olu tio n)
in
s:
the eg o-s tat
oa ch of the
rel ati ng to the ap pr
lik ely to de pe nd on
n is ma de . Ro ge ria n
tio
ge rs.
lu
Ro
so
rl
re
Ca
e
ist
th
wh ich
Am eri ca n the rap
ma de in Child in
all y
en
usu
oft
is
d
are
s
tho
on
me
uti
sol
tic
Re
the rap eu
al pr es su re fro m
or o~rsc,n-.cetztnE>a
re sp on se to int ern
ly
to as cli en t-c en tre d
ick
qu
ll
wi
ild
Ch
the
lly
m, non-direcltiv4
ua
ter
Us
l
t.
na
Pa ren
Ro ge rs' or igi
this an d
of
t
ou
g
lin
igg
er us ed . Fr om
wr
find a way of
the rap y, is no lo ng
be ha vio ura l
erm
g-t
lon
iti on al po si
no
nd
be
co
ll
the re wi
po sit io n of un
'
ist fac ili tat es
ch an ge .
re ga rd th e th er ap
or he r ow n
his
cli en t in ma kin g
ving of a pro ble m
sol
n an d life
the
tio
ua
(2)
sit
n
ir
tio
res olu
tio n of the
fro m a
e
eas
rel
or
ms
tic ba se
ble
nis
or gro up of pro
Be ca us e of its hu ma
ict, for ex am ple
nll
co
ny va lue s
al
ma
s
ern
are
int
sh
of
sta te
tiona! analysis
E.
ASS
oa ch
IMP
pr
an
ap
the res olu tio n of
the pe rso n- ce ntr ed
re
mo
e
lis
uti
pr ep ar ed to
ns ac tio na l an aly sis
SON -CE NT RED
re sp on sib ili ty tra
ap pr oa ch es . Se e PER
t
tha
ion
sit
po
l
ica
ph
so
ilo
tak es the ph
SELUNG.
ibl e for the ir ow n
pe op le are res po ns
ur.
vio
to
gs an d be ha
sit io n in re lat io n
lives, thinking, feelin
d res po ns i- ro le a po
ite
lim
in
pt
ce
or
ac
ily
to
rar
We ne ed
ad op ted tem po
o are vu lne rab le or
hil itv for tho se wh

sabotage behaviours or thought patterns Schiff, Jacqui Lee transactional analyst.

She has made major contributions to
that undermine the therapy process.
theory and practice and, with Aaron
This is indicative of internal conflict,
Schiff, was awarded the Eric Berne
the sabotage often being due to the
Memorial Prize in 1974 for her work
Child ego-state hanging on to an old
on passivity and the four discounts.
and well-tried defensive strategy.
She founded the Cathexis Institute
which gave its name to the Cathexis
SAD see SEASONAL AFFECTIVE DISORDER.
school of transactional analysis. Her
major innovation was the technique of
sadness one of the FOUR AUTHENTIC F.l'~i.
REPARENT!NG, which she claimed was
INGS, sadness is experienced in the
able to cure schizophrenia. As originally
process of mourning. It relates to the
practised, this involved inviting the
loss of someone or something one h:ts
client to regress to a childhood state
been attached to and expressing the
and bringing him or her up again withfeeling and having it validated by o 1hin the therapist's 'family' or therapeuers helps in the process of letting go ~.:o
tic community. Within this supportive
that new attachments can be mack.
environment there was higi1 confrontaUnlike other authentic feelings, i. .s
tion of dysfunctional behaviours. It
time frame is the past. ldthough it i:;
was therefore a highly intenentionist
classified as an authentic L:'e!ing, it Gli.l
approach with a strong emphasis on
be expressed unauthentically as a
behaviour. The level of intervention
RACKET FEELINt;. Sadness should be
that Jacqui Schiff was using with her
distinguished from UNHAPPINESS :d!d
clients caused concern vvithin the
DEPRESSION.
transactional analysis community
where some felt it breached the princiSanta Claus, waiting for passively w::.itple of 'I'm OK, You're OK'. This dising for some imagined future good
agreement eventually led to a breach
outcome, especially as a long-term
between her and the transactional
Strategy in SCRIPT.
analysis community although the
Cathexis school within transactional
Schiff, Aaron with ]acqui Lee Schiff jointanalysis remains active and influentiaL
ly received the Eric Berne Memorial
Scientific Award in 1974 for work on
passivity and the four discounts (Schiff Schlffian theory the body of transactional analysis theory developed by ]acqui
and Schiff, 1971).
1(\0

sabotage behaviours or thought patterns Schiff, Jacqui Lee transactional analyst.

She has made major contributions to
that undermine the therapy process.
theory and practice and, with Aaron
This is indicative of internal conflict,
Schiff, was awarded the Eric Berne
the sabotage often being due to the
Memorial Prize in 1974 for her work
Child ego-state hanging on to an old
on passivity and the four discounts.
and well-tried defensive strategy.
She founded the Cathexis Institute
which gave its name to the Cathexis
SAD see SEASONAL AFFECTIVE DISORDER.
school of transactional analysis. Her
major innovation was the technique of
sadness one of the FOUR AUTHENTIC F.l'~i.
REPARENT!NG, which she claimed was
INGS, sadness is experienced in the
able to cure schizophrenia. As originally
process of mourning. It relates to the
practised, this involved inviting the
loss of someone or something one h:ts
client to regress to a childhood state
been attached to and expressing the
and bringing him or her up again withfeeling and having it validated by o 1hin the therapist's 'family' or therapeuers helps in the process of letting go ~.:o
tic community. Within this supportive
that new attachments can be mack.
environment there was higi1 confrontaUnlike other authentic feelings, i. .s
tion of dysfunctional behaviours. It
time frame is the past. ldthough it i:;
was therefore a highly intenentionist
classified as an authentic L:'e!ing, it Gli.l
approach with a strong emphasis on
be expressed unauthentically as a
behaviour. The level of intervention
RACKET FEELINt;. Sadness should be
that Jacqui Schiff was using with her
distinguished from UNHAPPINESS :d!d
clients caused concern vvithin the
DEPRESSION.
transactional analysis community
where some felt it breached the princiSanta Claus, waiting for passively w::.itple of 'I'm OK, You're OK'. This dising for some imagined future good
agreement eventually led to a breach
outcome, especially as a long-term
between her and the transactional
Strategy in SCRIPT.
analysis community although the
Cathexis school within transactional
Schiff, Aaron with ]acqui Lee Schiff jointanalysis remains active and influentiaL
ly received the Eric Berne Memorial
Scientific Award in 1974 for work on
passivity and the four discounts (Schiff Schlffian theory the body of transactional analysis theory developed by ]acqui
and Schiff, 1971).
1(\0

script apparatus
results in a replay of the original out scnipt belief a belief about self, others
or the world arrived at in childhood
come thus reinforcing script.
in an attempt to deal with unfinished
There bas been debate as to whether
business (usually feelings that have
there can be a positive script. Unconnot been appropriately responded to)
scious patterns may be useful but will
by 'explaining away' (making cognialways suffer the disadvantage that they
tive closure). Script beliefs are an
cannot readily be changed to adjust to
important element in the SCRIPT
current reality. Essentially all script
(RACKET) system of Erskine and
behaviours involve discounting. Stewart
Zalcman (1979).
and Joines (1987) define script as that
part of the FRAME OF REFERENCE that
involves discounting. See SCRIPT APPARA- script diagrams the two main ways of
illustrating the script are Steiner's
TUS, SCRIPT MATRIX, SCRIPT SYSTEM, PROCESS
SCRIPT MATRIX and the RACKET SYSTEM
SCRIPT,EARLYilFEDECISION.
(sometimes called the SCRIPT SYSTEM) of
Erskine and Zalcman (1979).
script apparatus the elements which
make up the script. These include
INJUNCTIONS, COUNTERINJUNCTIONS, PRO- script matrix a diagram showing how a
client received his or her INJUNCTIONS,
GRAM, PERMISSIONS AND EARLY UFE DECISIONS.
COUNTERINJUNCTIONS and PROGRAM MESSAGES from parents' ego-states. In
script backlash after a movement out
Steiner's (1966) original model the
of script the client may experience a
script is shown as held in all three egosevere reaction of anxiety, guilt etc.
states of the client. Woollams and
This may be seen in terms of the
Brown (1978) hold that the script is
Parent punishing the Child for its
held in the Child and is distributed
transgression. It is important that sufbetween the three second-order egoficient PROTECTION is available from the
states P., A, and C,.
therapist to deal with this if it occurs.

person

Figure 23 Script matrix- Steiner (Steiner, 1966).

1 Hl

script apparatus
results in a replay of the original out scnipt belief a belief about self, others
or the world arrived at in childhood
come thus reinforcing script.
in an attempt to deal with unfinished
There bas been debate as to whether
business (usually feelings that have
there can be a positive script. Unconnot been appropriately responded to)
scious patterns may be useful but will
by 'explaining away' (making cognialways suffer the disadvantage that they
tive closure). Script beliefs are an
cannot readily be changed to adjust to
important element in the SCRIPT
current reality. Essentially all script
(RACKET) system of Erskine and
behaviours involve discounting. Stewart
Zalcman (1979).
and Joines (1987) define script as that
part of the FRAME OF REFERENCE that
involves discounting. See SCRIPT APPARA- script diagrams the two main ways of
illustrating the script are Steiner's
TUS, SCRIPT MATRIX, SCRIPT SYSTEM, PROCESS
SCRIPT MATRIX and the RACKET SYSTEM
SCRIPT,EARLYilFEDECISION.
(sometimes called the SCRIPT SYSTEM) of
Erskine and Zalcman (1979).
script apparatus the elements which
make up the script. These include
INJUNCTIONS, COUNTERINJUNCTIONS, PRO- script matrix a diagram showing how a
client received his or her INJUNCTIONS,
GRAM, PERMISSIONS AND EARLY UFE DECISIONS.
COUNTERINJUNCTIONS and PROGRAM MESSAGES from parents' ego-states. In
script backlash after a movement out
Steiner's (1966) original model the
of script the client may experience a
script is shown as held in all three egosevere reaction of anxiety, guilt etc.
states of the client. Woollams and
This may be seen in terms of the
Brown (1978) hold that the script is
Parent punishing the Child for its
held in the Child and is distributed
transgression. It is important that sufbetween the three second-order egoficient PROTECTION is available from the
states P., A, and C,.
therapist to deal with this if it occurs.

person

Figure 23 Script matrix- Steiner (Steiner, 1966).

1 Hl

seasonal affective disorder (SAD)

they represent. The conflguration may
then be worked on by asking them to
change position. Inanimate objects can
be used in the same way. This technique enables unacknowledged
(unconscious) thoughts and feelings to
be projected and then dealt with symbolically. This technique, which is
essentially a development of PSYCHODRAMA, is often employed by transactional analysts and facilitates contact
with the Child ego-state.

at each other, although not to

other. See RULES OF COM:lUNICATION

seasonal affective disorder (SAD) a type

of depression that occurs during winter
and is believed to be associated with
lack of exposure to daylight. Treatment
by exposure to artificial daylight is
Figure 25 A crossed transaction.
claimed to help sufferers. Depression
may have multiple causes, so a diagnosis of SAD should not preclude the use 5econda:ry gain psychological or social
benefit obtained from a symptom or
of a psychotherapeutic approach such
problem, for example by inviting a
as transactional analysis.
partner into a caregiving (symbiotic)
role as in the GAME of WOODEN LEG. See
second-order analysis of ego-states see
also PAYOFF, CODEPENDENCY, SYMBIOSIS.
EGO-STATE, SECOND-OHDER ANALYSIS.
second-order structural analysis see
EGO-STATE, SECOND-ORDER Ai'iALY:;lS.

second-oder syn1biosis see

SECOND ORDER.

SY.'>!BJo:;l:<.

:>econda:ry process (psychoanalysis)

thinking that is logical and based on
reality. This is characteristic of the
Adult ego-state whereas PRE,!ARY PROCESS
is more characteristic of the Child. See
also MAGICAL THINKING.

second rule of comroun.icatioTJ. Berne

(1964) stated three rules of communi- See How Hard I Tried a GA,\!E initiated
from the vlCTI~! position, which seeks
cation that predict the outcome of
to create and sustain symbiosis by ineftransactions. The second ruk states
fective struggling with a problem.
that when a communication is crossed.
a break in communication results and
one or both individuals will need to See What You Made I<fe Do a GA,\IE in
which the initiator, from the VICTIM
shift ego-states in order for communiposition, seeks to create symbiosis by
cations to be re-established. Crossed
getting others to take responsibility for
means that the answer >;a~ receil,ed
his or her actions.
from an ego-~tate other than rhe o:Jc
addressed; that is, the p;~rtie;; cannc;:
agree on who is to be in which egu- self the person as he or sh:.: experiences
himself or herself, as having a distincstate. \"\Then illustrated, this ~;icuation
tive identity, able to initiate actions
usually results in crossed vectors.
and as being perceived by and reacted
Communication is not pos::ible untH
to by others. Structures such as the
there is such agreement alll10L;,,~h
ego in psychoanalysis or one of the
sometimes the parties continue to talk
11 ')

seasonal affective disorder (SAD)

they represent. The conflguration may
then be worked on by asking them to
change position. Inanimate objects can
be used in the same way. This technique enables unacknowledged
(unconscious) thoughts and feelings to
be projected and then dealt with symbolically. This technique, which is
essentially a development of PSYCHODRAMA, is often employed by transactional analysts and facilitates contact
with the Child ego-state.

at each other, although not to

other. See RULES OF COM:lUNICATION

seasonal affective disorder (SAD) a type

of depression that occurs during winter
and is believed to be associated with
lack of exposure to daylight. Treatment
by exposure to artificial daylight is
Figure 25 A crossed transaction.
claimed to help sufferers. Depression
may have multiple causes, so a diagnosis of SAD should not preclude the use 5econda:ry gain psychological or social
benefit obtained from a symptom or
of a psychotherapeutic approach such
problem, for example by inviting a
as transactional analysis.
partner into a caregiving (symbiotic)
role as in the GAME of WOODEN LEG. See
second-order analysis of ego-states see
also PAYOFF, CODEPENDENCY, SYMBIOSIS.
EGO-STATE, SECOND-OHDER ANALYSIS.
second-order structural analysis see
EGO-STATE, SECOND-ORDER Ai'iALY:;lS.

second-oder syn1biosis see

SECOND ORDER.

SY.'>!BJo:;l:<.

:>econda:ry process (psychoanalysis)

thinking that is logical and based on
reality. This is characteristic of the
Adult ego-state whereas PRE,!ARY PROCESS
is more characteristic of the Child. See
also MAGICAL THINKING.

second rule of comroun.icatioTJ. Berne

(1964) stated three rules of communi- See How Hard I Tried a GA,\!E initiated
from the vlCTI~! position, which seeks
cation that predict the outcome of
to create and sustain symbiosis by ineftransactions. The second ruk states
fective struggling with a problem.
that when a communication is crossed.
a break in communication results and
one or both individuals will need to See What You Made I<fe Do a GA,\IE in
which the initiator, from the VICTIM
shift ego-states in order for communiposition, seeks to create symbiosis by
cations to be re-established. Crossed
getting others to take responsibility for
means that the answer >;a~ receil,ed
his or her actions.
from an ego-~tate other than rhe o:Jc
addressed; that is, the p;~rtie;; cannc;:
agree on who is to be in which egu- self the person as he or sh:.: experiences
himself or herself, as having a distincstate. \"\Then illustrated, this ~;icuation
tive identity, able to initiate actions
usually results in crossed vectors.
and as being perceived by and reacted
Communication is not pos::ible untH
to by others. Structures such as the
there is such agreement alll10L;,,~h
ego in psychoanalysis or one of the
sometimes the parties continue to talk
11 ')

separation anxiety
separation anxiety anxiety derived origi- social control a stage early in therapy in
nally from interruption in the carewhich sufficient insight has been
giver's contact with the child, which
achieved for inappropriate behaviours
to be identified and avoided and more
interfered with the baby's attachment to
the mother or caregiver and conseappropriate behaviours chosen. This
will occur when substantial DECONTAMIquently its sense of security. ln Bowlby's
NATION of Adult has been achieved,
(1969) view this forms the basis for all
later anxieties relating to separations.
however no changes will have
occurred in Child or Parent so sympSex in Human Loving this book by Eric
toms will not have been relieved. See
STAGES OF 'J'HEMPY.
Berne was published in the. year of his
death (1970). In his characteristic
lucid, humorous and incisive style he social level . the manifest message of an
looks at human sexual relationships in
ulterior transaction (what appears to
be being said) is the social level mesterms of transactional analysis theory.
sage. A second message is being transshame self-judgement for some public
mitted at the psychological level and it
is this that decides the outcome of the
display of inadequacy or immorality
and the emotional state that accompatransaction. See 1llANSACI10N, Ul.TElUOR.
nies this. There is a social dimension
to shame that may be lacking in guilt; social psychiatry Eric Berne chose the
it involves the imagined condemnation
title San Francisco Social Psychiatry
Seminars for. the meeting of profesof an audience. Shaming is often used
sionals that took place at his home
by parents to control children and in
the experience of shame the Parent
every Tuesday evening from 1958.
Here many of the ideas of transactional
ego-state is attacking the Child in the
analysis were burnished and develINTERNAL DIALOGUE in a way that often
oped. The term 'social psychiatry'
closely parallels the .original family
process. In accepting shaming the
derives from Harry Stack Sullivan
child is colluding in the parents'
(1953) who was one of the first people
process of negative projection in an
to place psychiatric problems in a
attempt to obtain love. Shame undersocial psychological framework, as
being located not solely in the individmines the individual and does not support positive change, so it is regarded
ual but also in his or her relationship
with society. A one-person psychology
as a RACKET FEEI.lNG. See Erskine (1994),
such as drive theory psychoanalysis
English (1994) and Cornell (1994).
ignores an important part of the system. Transactional analysis, with its
'should' statements a statement implyability to conceptualise and analyse
ing a moral imperative to act in a certransactions between individuals is
tain way. This usually indicates that the
ideally equipped to develop this
Parent ego-state is active.
approach.
Sigmund, Eric received an Eric Berne
Memorial Scientific Award jointly with soft closure see ESCAPE HATCHES.
Ken Mellor in 1980 for his work on DISCOUNTING and REDEFINING (Mellor and somatic relating to the body. See also PSY
CHOSOMATIC.
Sigmund 1975a, 1975b).
social anxiety anxiety experienced in somatic Child the Child in the Child egostate or C,. So called because the young
social situations associated with feelchild experiences the world mainly
ings of shyness and embarrassment.

separation anxiety
separation anxiety anxiety derived origi- social control a stage early in therapy in
nally from interruption in the carewhich sufficient insight has been
giver's contact with the child, which
achieved for inappropriate behaviours
to be identified and avoided and more
interfered with the baby's attachment to
the mother or caregiver and conseappropriate behaviours chosen. This
will occur when substantial DECONTAMIquently its sense of security. ln Bowlby's
NATION of Adult has been achieved,
(1969) view this forms the basis for all
later anxieties relating to separations.
however no changes will have
occurred in Child or Parent so sympSex in Human Loving this book by Eric
toms will not have been relieved. See
STAGES OF 'J'HEMPY.
Berne was published in the. year of his
death (1970). In his characteristic
lucid, humorous and incisive style he social level . the manifest message of an
looks at human sexual relationships in
ulterior transaction (what appears to
be being said) is the social level mesterms of transactional analysis theory.
sage. A second message is being transshame self-judgement for some public
mitted at the psychological level and it
is this that decides the outcome of the
display of inadequacy or immorality
and the emotional state that accompatransaction. See 1llANSACI10N, Ul.TElUOR.
nies this. There is a social dimension
to shame that may be lacking in guilt; social psychiatry Eric Berne chose the
it involves the imagined condemnation
title San Francisco Social Psychiatry
Seminars for. the meeting of profesof an audience. Shaming is often used
sionals that took place at his home
by parents to control children and in
the experience of shame the Parent
every Tuesday evening from 1958.
Here many of the ideas of transactional
ego-state is attacking the Child in the
analysis were burnished and develINTERNAL DIALOGUE in a way that often
oped. The term 'social psychiatry'
closely parallels the .original family
process. In accepting shaming the
derives from Harry Stack Sullivan
child is colluding in the parents'
(1953) who was one of the first people
process of negative projection in an
to place psychiatric problems in a
attempt to obtain love. Shame undersocial psychological framework, as
being located not solely in the individmines the individual and does not support positive change, so it is regarded
ual but also in his or her relationship
with society. A one-person psychology
as a RACKET FEEI.lNG. See Erskine (1994),
such as drive theory psychoanalysis
English (1994) and Cornell (1994).
ignores an important part of the system. Transactional analysis, with its
'should' statements a statement implyability to conceptualise and analyse
ing a moral imperative to act in a certransactions between individuals is
tain way. This usually indicates that the
ideally equipped to develop this
Parent ego-state is active.
approach.
Sigmund, Eric received an Eric Berne
Memorial Scientific Award jointly with soft closure see ESCAPE HATCHES.
Ken Mellor in 1980 for his work on DISCOUNTING and REDEFINING (Mellor and somatic relating to the body. See also PSY
CHOSOMATIC.
Sigmund 1975a, 1975b).
social anxiety anxiety experienced in somatic Child the Child in the Child egostate or C,. So called because the young
social situations associated with feelchild experiences the world mainly
ings of shyness and embarrassment.

stamps (also trading stamps)

tracting and the. way counsellors reprecure. It will remain stable as long as
sents themselves and what they can
the client can keep the therapist
offer, both within the therapeutic relaaround in his or her head, certainly
tionship and in advertising. See
for the duration of therapy and perAppendix 3.
haps beyond if the new parent can
be as firmly retained as the old one.
However, there is the risk oflapsing Steiner, Claude transactional analyst. A
close associate of Eric Berne, Claude
back into script.
had a major influence on the
Steiner
the
stage
4. In the fourth and final
development of transactional analysis
client is assisted in making fundaand his work is included in the Classic
mental changes in the Child egoSchool. He is best known for developstate with Adult support. The client
ing script theory, in particular the
is thus able to move permanently
SCRIPT MATRIX. Other important contriout of script. In his earlier writing
butions to transactional analysis include
Berne called this psychoanalytic
his work on coNTRACTJNG and the
development
the
with
cure but later,
STROKE ECONOMY. He was given Eric
of life script theory, he renamed it
Berne Memorial Scientific Awards i~
script cure.
1971 (script matrix) and again in 1980
There are a number of other systems
(stroke economy). He is the author of
for describing the stages of therapeutic
a number of important books and
change, notably those of Erskine
articles on transactional analysis
(1973) and Woollams and Brown
including Games Alcoholics Play
(1978).
(1971) and Scripts People Live (1974).
stamps (also trading stamps) feelings stimulus hunger the need for mental
that are held so that they can be used
and physical stimulation. Such stinlulato manipulate others. Stamps are coltion appears to be essential for the
lected by indulging in RACKET BE!-W'IOI.JRS
norm,J development and psychologitl1at invite others into treating uo in a
cal healtl1 of all mammals. Eric Berne
certain way (e.g. inviting us into <mger
(1964) suggested that in human beings
so that we can collect an anger sl::tmp)
this is manifested primarily as a
Stamps are later used to ach ievc a
hunger for recognition by others
scripty outcome, which the collected
(RECOGNITION HUNGER). He called acts of
stamps 'justify'. This is called 'cashing
recognition STROKES since in infants
in the stamps', for example a collecthese are often tactile.
tion of resentment stamps can bf:
cashed in for a row with one's parrc;:r.
stopper in the .\l!NISCRIPT the position
shifted to when the defence provided
standards of practice major counselling
a DRIVER against an INJUNCTION fails SO
by
and psychotherapy organisations 5uch
the injunction is responded to.
that
as ITA (the Institute for Transactional
This results in a shift from the position
Analysis), EATA (the Europe:1n
of conditional OKness achieved with
A.ssociation for Transactional Ar1~t.iyc:is).
the driver (I'm OK if . .. ) to an I-U+
Transactional
International
(the
ITAA
POSITION.
LJFE
Analysis Association) and BAC (the

British Association for Counselling)

have codes of professional practice in s!:orming the third stage in Tuckman's
(1965, Tuckman and Jensen, 1977)
addition to, or in association with,
classification of the stages of small
their ethical codes. These provide
group development. The complete
guidelines on matters such as compe
sequence is 'forming', 'norming',
tence, professional development, con-

116

stamps (also trading stamps)

tracting and the. way counsellors reprecure. It will remain stable as long as
sents themselves and what they can
the client can keep the therapist
offer, both within the therapeutic relaaround in his or her head, certainly
tionship and in advertising. See
for the duration of therapy and perAppendix 3.
haps beyond if the new parent can
be as firmly retained as the old one.
However, there is the risk oflapsing Steiner, Claude transactional analyst. A
close associate of Eric Berne, Claude
back into script.
had a major influence on the
Steiner
the
stage
4. In the fourth and final
development of transactional analysis
client is assisted in making fundaand his work is included in the Classic
mental changes in the Child egoSchool. He is best known for developstate with Adult support. The client
ing script theory, in particular the
is thus able to move permanently
SCRIPT MATRIX. Other important contriout of script. In his earlier writing
butions to transactional analysis include
Berne called this psychoanalytic
his work on coNTRACTJNG and the
development
the
with
cure but later,
STROKE ECONOMY. He was given Eric
of life script theory, he renamed it
Berne Memorial Scientific Awards i~
script cure.
1971 (script matrix) and again in 1980
There are a number of other systems
(stroke economy). He is the author of
for describing the stages of therapeutic
a number of important books and
change, notably those of Erskine
articles on transactional analysis
(1973) and Woollams and Brown
including Games Alcoholics Play
(1978).
(1971) and Scripts People Live (1974).
stamps (also trading stamps) feelings stimulus hunger the need for mental
that are held so that they can be used
and physical stimulation. Such stinlulato manipulate others. Stamps are coltion appears to be essential for the
lected by indulging in RACKET BE!-W'IOI.JRS
norm,J development and psychologitl1at invite others into treating uo in a
cal healtl1 of all mammals. Eric Berne
certain way (e.g. inviting us into <mger
(1964) suggested that in human beings
so that we can collect an anger sl::tmp)
this is manifested primarily as a
Stamps are later used to ach ievc a
hunger for recognition by others
scripty outcome, which the collected
(RECOGNITION HUNGER). He called acts of
stamps 'justify'. This is called 'cashing
recognition STROKES since in infants
in the stamps', for example a collecthese are often tactile.
tion of resentment stamps can bf:
cashed in for a row with one's parrc;:r.
stopper in the .\l!NISCRIPT the position
shifted to when the defence provided
standards of practice major counselling
a DRIVER against an INJUNCTION fails SO
by
and psychotherapy organisations 5uch
the injunction is responded to.
that
as ITA (the Institute for Transactional
This results in a shift from the position
Analysis), EATA (the Europe:1n
of conditional OKness achieved with
A.ssociation for Transactional Ar1~t.iyc:is).
the driver (I'm OK if . .. ) to an I-U+
Transactional
International
(the
ITAA
POSITION.
LJFE
Analysis Association) and BAC (the

British Association for Counselling)

have codes of professional practice in s!:orming the third stage in Tuckman's
(1965, Tuckman and Jensen, 1977)
addition to, or in association with,
classification of the stages of small
their ethical codes. These provide
group development. The complete
guidelines on matters such as compe
sequence is 'forming', 'norming',
tence, professional development, con-

116

stroke filter
Don't ask for strokes when you need
them.
Don't accept strokes if you want
them.
Don't reject strokes when you don't
want them.
Don't give yoursel f strokes.

shows the functio ns associa ted with

each ego-sta te and does not suggest
that each functio n is aSsociated with a
structu ral elemen t, its concep tual
framew ork being behavio ural rather
than intrapsy chic. See EGO-STATES, SECOND-ORDERANALYSIS OF EGO-STATES.

Steiner (1974) express es this messag e structu ral model of ego-st ates see
imagina tively through a fairy story 'A
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS.
Fuzzy Tale'. See WARM FUZZIES, cow PRJCK
llES.
structu re the way in which someth ing is
constru cted. The ego-stat e theory posstroke filter the elimina tion or distor
tulates intraps ychic structu res and
tion of strokes that are 'surplu s to
relates these to observa ble behavio urs.
require ments' becaus e they exceed
Psychoa nalytic theory with its concept s
those allowed by the STROKE QUOTIEN T.
of mental organs (id, ego and superego) and zones of differen tial awarestroke quotien t early experie nces result
ness and accessibility (conscio us, prein an expecte d ratio betwee n positive
us and unconsc ious) is likewise
conscio
and negativ e strokes receive d. For
al theory.
structur
a
exampl e, this might be four negativ e
the
is
ratio
This
.
strokes to one positive
structu re hunger Beme (1964) conclud stroke quotien t. Any disturba nce in the
ed that there is a basic need for the
stroke quotien t is likely to be resisted .
structu ring of time that manifes ts as
Surplus strokes may be elimina ted (ms..
re hunger . This is one of the
structu
COUNTED ) or even changed from positive
factors motivat ing interper sonal transto negativ e: 'she did not really mean
and results in the develop ment
actions
those nice things, she was just being
ristic pattern s of structur ing
characte
of
me'.
s
patronis ing because she despise
d six patterns of time
identifie
time. He
This is called using the STROKE FILTER.
structur ing:
strokin g giving strokes (units of recogni - s withdra wal
tion). See STROKE.
rituals.
pastime s
of
form
the
in
diagram
strokin g profile a
activities
a bar chart that illustrat es an individgames
with
dealing
ual's habitua l pattem s for
intimac y
strokes , i.e. the tendenc y for positive ,
See individu al entries.
'
conand negative , uncond itional and
for,
asked
be
to
strokes
ditiona l
Stuntz multip le chair work (five chair
accepte d or refused .
work) Stuntz (1973) describ ed a multiple chair techniq ue. Each of the five
structu ral analys is analysi s of ego in
FUNCTIO NAL EGO-STA TES (contro lling
terms of intrapsy chic structur es. FirstParent, nurrura nt Parent, Adult, adaptthree
order structur al analysis shows
ed Child, free Child) is allocat ed a
Parent,
the
res:
structu
ychic
intraps
chair. The client is invited to move
Adult and Child ego-sta tes. Second n the chairs speakin g from the
betwee
the
shows
s
order structu ral analysi
relevan t ego-stat e. This sets up a diapresenc e of subsidia ry, historic ally earlogue betwee n ego-stat es to elucida te
and
lier, ego-sta tes within the Parent
and resolve internal conflict.
analysis
nal
Functio
tes.
Child ego-sta

stroke filter
Don't ask for strokes when you need
them.
Don't accept strokes if you want
them.
Don't reject strokes when you don't
want them.
Don't give yoursel f strokes.

shows the functio ns associa ted with

each ego-sta te and does not suggest
that each functio n is aSsociated with a
structu ral elemen t, its concep tual
framew ork being behavio ural rather
than intrapsy chic. See EGO-STATES, SECOND-ORDERANALYSIS OF EGO-STATES.

Steiner (1974) express es this messag e structu ral model of ego-st ates see
imagina tively through a fairy story 'A
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS.
Fuzzy Tale'. See WARM FUZZIES, cow PRJCK
llES.
structu re the way in which someth ing is
constru cted. The ego-stat e theory posstroke filter the elimina tion or distor
tulates intraps ychic structu res and
tion of strokes that are 'surplu s to
relates these to observa ble behavio urs.
require ments' becaus e they exceed
Psychoa nalytic theory with its concept s
those allowed by the STROKE QUOTIEN T.
of mental organs (id, ego and superego) and zones of differen tial awarestroke quotien t early experie nces result
ness and accessibility (conscio us, prein an expecte d ratio betwee n positive
us and unconsc ious) is likewise
conscio
and negativ e strokes receive d. For
al theory.
structur
a
exampl e, this might be four negativ e
the
is
ratio
This
.
strokes to one positive
structu re hunger Beme (1964) conclud stroke quotien t. Any disturba nce in the
ed that there is a basic need for the
stroke quotien t is likely to be resisted .
structu ring of time that manifes ts as
Surplus strokes may be elimina ted (ms..
re hunger . This is one of the
structu
COUNTED ) or even changed from positive
factors motivat ing interper sonal transto negativ e: 'she did not really mean
and results in the develop ment
actions
those nice things, she was just being
ristic pattern s of structur ing
characte
of
me'.
s
patronis ing because she despise
d six patterns of time
identifie
time. He
This is called using the STROKE FILTER.
structur ing:
strokin g giving strokes (units of recogni - s withdra wal
tion). See STROKE.
rituals.
pastime s
of
form
the
in
diagram
strokin g profile a
activities
a bar chart that illustrat es an individgames
with
dealing
ual's habitua l pattem s for
intimac y
strokes , i.e. the tendenc y for positive ,
See individu al entries.
'
conand negative , uncond itional and
for,
asked
be
to
strokes
ditiona l
Stuntz multip le chair work (five chair
accepte d or refused .
work) Stuntz (1973) describ ed a multiple chair techniq ue. Each of the five
structu ral analys is analysi s of ego in
FUNCTIO NAL EGO-STA TES (contro lling
terms of intrapsy chic structur es. FirstParent, nurrura nt Parent, Adult, adaptthree
order structur al analysis shows
ed Child, free Child) is allocat ed a
Parent,
the
res:
structu
ychic
intraps
chair. The client is invited to move
Adult and Child ego-sta tes. Second n the chairs speakin g from the
betwee
the
shows
s
order structu ral analysi
relevan t ego-stat e. This sets up a diapresenc e of subsidia ry, historic ally earlogue betwee n ego-stat es to elucida te
and
lier, ego-sta tes within the Parent
and resolve internal conflict.
analysis
nal
Functio
tes.
Child ego-sta

supervision
ulates and criticises the ego. In Freud's
sor will also be_ concerned with the
effectiveness of the therapist's work,
original formulation the ego is in the
use of theory and specific difficulties
unenviable position of havi.Og to satisfy
he or she has encountered, as well as
the demands of the m, placate the
his or her professional development.
superego and also deal with the conThe process provides protection for
straints of exterior reality. Tranthe client and also for the professional.
sactional analysis sees the functions of
the superego as manifesting through
position of the therapist.
the Parent ego-state. This contains
introjects of specific parent figures that sweatshirt self presentation. People
behave as if they were wearing sweathave been experienced by the client. An
shirts with messages on the front and
objection to this view is that the interback. The message on the front is the
nal Parent sometimes manifests as more
way the person habitually presents himcritical and punishing than any historiself or herself while on the bade is the
cal parent figure. This is explained in
underlying psychological message. Thus
terms of two Parent ego-states. An earlisomeone who avoids longed for contact
er version is within the Child ego-state
because they fear rejection might have
(P,) and is largely the creation of child
PHANTASY and also incorporates early
on the front 'keep your distance' and on
experiences in which the child saw the
the back 'but don't leave me'.
parent as enormously powerful (magical Parent) and potentially threatening. switch the point in a GAME at which DRAMA
TRIANGLE positions are switched. See
This early Parent may be split into ideFOfu'I!Ul.A G.
alised and negative forms, sometimes
referred to as the Fairy Godmother and
the Pig or Witch Parents. This theoreti- symbiosis (Cathexis school) Symbiosis
cal position is reminiscent of the
occurs when two individuals behave as
through they constituted a single perKleinian view. Unlike the superego, the
Parent ego-state may contain positive
son. Each person in a symbiosis is DIScouNTING certain ego-states so that only
and supportive as well as critical
aspects of the historical parent. See also
one Parent, Adult and Child ego state
SPIJTTING.
is functioning in the combination.
supervision it is important for both the
counsellor or therapist and the client
that the professional regularly takes his
or her work to supervision and this is a
requirement for trainees preparing for
the Certified Transactional Analysis
examination. This may be with someone of a similar level of training and
experience or, more usually, with a
more experienced colleague. PEER
SUPERV1SION cannot be counted towards
trainees' supervision requirements.
Supervision involves discussion of the
therapist's work, possibly illustrated by Figure 26 Symbiosis - dotted circles show distapes, to monitor professional and eth- counted ego-state.
ical issues as well as personal issues
affecting the therapist, which may be symbiosis, healthy the normal situation
influencing the process. The superviin child care in which the child is able

,..,"

supervision
ulates and criticises the ego. In Freud's
sor will also be_ concerned with the
effectiveness of the therapist's work,
original formulation the ego is in the
use of theory and specific difficulties
unenviable position of havi.Og to satisfy
he or she has encountered, as well as
the demands of the m, placate the
his or her professional development.
superego and also deal with the conThe process provides protection for
straints of exterior reality. Tranthe client and also for the professional.
sactional analysis sees the functions of
the superego as manifesting through
position of the therapist.
the Parent ego-state. This contains
introjects of specific parent figures that sweatshirt self presentation. People
behave as if they were wearing sweathave been experienced by the client. An
shirts with messages on the front and
objection to this view is that the interback. The message on the front is the
nal Parent sometimes manifests as more
way the person habitually presents himcritical and punishing than any historiself or herself while on the bade is the
cal parent figure. This is explained in
underlying psychological message. Thus
terms of two Parent ego-states. An earlisomeone who avoids longed for contact
er version is within the Child ego-state
because they fear rejection might have
(P,) and is largely the creation of child
PHANTASY and also incorporates early
on the front 'keep your distance' and on
experiences in which the child saw the
the back 'but don't leave me'.
parent as enormously powerful (magical Parent) and potentially threatening. switch the point in a GAME at which DRAMA
TRIANGLE positions are switched. See
This early Parent may be split into ideFOfu'I!Ul.A G.
alised and negative forms, sometimes
referred to as the Fairy Godmother and
the Pig or Witch Parents. This theoreti- symbiosis (Cathexis school) Symbiosis
cal position is reminiscent of the
occurs when two individuals behave as
through they constituted a single perKleinian view. Unlike the superego, the
Parent ego-state may contain positive
son. Each person in a symbiosis is DIScouNTING certain ego-states so that only
and supportive as well as critical
aspects of the historical parent. See also
one Parent, Adult and Child ego state
SPIJTTING.
is functioning in the combination.
supervision it is important for both the
counsellor or therapist and the client
that the professional regularly takes his
or her work to supervision and this is a
requirement for trainees preparing for
the Certified Transactional Analysis
examination. This may be with someone of a similar level of training and
experience or, more usually, with a
more experienced colleague. PEER
SUPERV1SION cannot be counted towards
trainees' supervision requirements.
Supervision involves discussion of the
therapist's work, possibly illustrated by Figure 26 Symbiosis - dotted circles show distapes, to monitor professional and eth- counted ego-state.
ical issues as well as personal issues
affecting the therapist, which may be symbiosis, healthy the normal situation
influencing the process. The superviin child care in which the child is able

,..,"

TA 101 the official introduction to transactional analysis, following a syllabus

specified by the Internation al
Transaction al Analysis Association
(ITAA). This is usually taught as a twoday intensive workshop although it is
also possible to qualify by taking a
written examination. Completion of a
TA 101 is a requirement for regular
membership of the Institute of
Transactiona l Analysis (ITA) and for
official transactional analysis training.
tangential transaction see

TRANSACTION,

TANGENTIAL.

tape recording therapists and counsellors sometimes make tape recordings

of sessions with their clients' permission. These enable the processes
occurring to be analysed in detail, e.g.
it enables them to carry out TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS PROPER, and are particularly valuable in the training of psychotherapists and counsellors. Tape
recording has a second meaning in
transactional analysis, standing figuratively for parental messages that determine script. 'Parent tapes' are 'played
back in the head', thus triggering
scripty thinking, feeling and behaviour.
technique the specific means and procedures used to carry out therapy, such
as script analysis or CUSHION woRK, as

opposed to theory, such as the theory

of ego-states, which is the system of
meaning which guides the use of techniques. Each system of psychotherap y
has its own techniques while many
techniques are common to the field or
large sections of it.
termination ending therapy or counselling. Berne ( 1961) listed three
types of termination: accidental, resistant and therapeutic. Accidental termination occurs when the client moves
away or has to terminate because of
some external force over which he or
she has no control. In resistant termination, which is usually based on fear,
dissatisfactio n or triumph, there is a
plausible excuse or a sudden withdrawal and this indicates that the therapist has overlooked something. The
movement to therapeutic termination
will be marked by the achievement of
contracts and when it is achieved both
client and therapist will agree that
therapeutic goals have been achieved.
Termination will usually involve a
final phase of integration and consolidation of gains. Clients sometimes
seek to terminate prematurely when
the stage of sociAL CONTROL is reached.
See FUGHT INTO HEALTH.
terminology of transactiona l analysis
see LANGUAGE OF TRAi'ISACTIONAL ANALYSIS.

TA 101 the official introduction to transactional analysis, following a syllabus

specified by the Internation al
Transaction al Analysis Association
(ITAA). This is usually taught as a twoday intensive workshop although it is
also possible to qualify by taking a
written examination. Completion of a
TA 101 is a requirement for regular
membership of the Institute of
Transactiona l Analysis (ITA) and for
official transactional analysis training.
tangential transaction see

TRANSACTION,

TANGENTIAL.

tape recording therapists and counsellors sometimes make tape recordings

of sessions with their clients' permission. These enable the processes
occurring to be analysed in detail, e.g.
it enables them to carry out TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS PROPER, and are particularly valuable in the training of psychotherapists and counsellors. Tape
recording has a second meaning in
transactional analysis, standing figuratively for parental messages that determine script. 'Parent tapes' are 'played
back in the head', thus triggering
scripty thinking, feeling and behaviour.
technique the specific means and procedures used to carry out therapy, such
as script analysis or CUSHION woRK, as

opposed to theory, such as the theory

of ego-states, which is the system of
meaning which guides the use of techniques. Each system of psychotherap y
has its own techniques while many
techniques are common to the field or
large sections of it.
termination ending therapy or counselling. Berne ( 1961) listed three
types of termination: accidental, resistant and therapeutic. Accidental termination occurs when the client moves
away or has to terminate because of
some external force over which he or
she has no control. In resistant termination, which is usually based on fear,
dissatisfactio n or triumph, there is a
plausible excuse or a sudden withdrawal and this indicates that the therapist has overlooked something. The
movement to therapeutic termination
will be marked by the achievement of
contracts and when it is achieved both
client and therapist will agree that
therapeutic goals have been achieved.
Termination will usually involve a
final phase of integration and consolidation of gains. Clients sometimes
seek to terminate prematurely when
the stage of sociAL CONTROL is reached.
See FUGHT INTO HEALTH.
terminology of transactiona l analysis
see LANGUAGE OF TRAi'ISACTIONAL ANALYSIS.

therapy
3. Confrontation. This involves using
information previously obtained to
cross-transact and point out inconsistencies. This stirs up the client and
causes a redistribution of cathexis
between ego-states. However, this
redistribution may reinforce the inappropriate ego-state that is in command if the confrontation is badly
timed or badly worded. In Berne's
words: 'The therapeutic object is
always to cathect the uncontaminat
ed segment of the patient's Adult and
its attainment will be signalled by a
thoughtful silence or an insightful
laugh.'
4. Explanation. The therapist says
what he or she thinks is going on.
This aims to strengthen, decontaminate or reorient the client's Adult.
5. Illustration. The therapist tells a story to make a point. Illustration is significantly different to the other
interventions. The therapist is inter
posing something between the
client's Adult and his or her other
ego-states in order to stabilise the
Adult and make it more difficult for
him or her to slide back into Child or
Parent. Berne classified the other
therapeutic' operations as interventions but illustration he describes as
an interposition.
6. Confirmation. The therapist reinforces a point that emerged earlier as
the client offers more information~
Confirmation may be heard by the
client's Parent as confirmation that
the Child cannot be trusted. If so the
Child will feel trapped by the therapist. Confmnation is strengthening
to the Adult because of its logical
force and reassuring to the Child
because it demonstrates the therapist's strength and alertness.
The next two interventions go
beyond decontamination into
deconfusing the Child.
7. Interpretation. This is an attempt to
deconfuse the client's Child by
decoding, detoxifying, correcting

distortions and regrouping past

experiences. Berne advised to go
easy on interpretation, which may
be intellectualisation rather than
thinking.
8. Crystallisation. A statement of the
client's position from the Adult of the
therapist to the Adult of the client so
that the client's Adult can make a
decision to change. Berne advises not
to confuse a Child resolution (which
will be broken) with an Adult decision (which will be kept). He recommends that this intervention should
not be used until Adult, Child and
Parent are prepared.
therapy literally any form of treatment.
Often used for psychotherapy or counselling.
therapy contract see TREATMENT CONTRACT.
there and then an emphatic way of referring to the past and not the present
(here and now). An understanding of
the client's past is of great value in
understanding his or her present problems but a preoccupation with the past
is often used as a defence against dealing with current life issues. If the therapist joins in this process it constitutes
the GAME of Archeology. In psychoanalysis this is referred to as the FLIGHT
INTO HISTORY.

thinking cognitive processes that may

involve unvoiced speech, the manipulation of images, or abstract ideas. One of
Paul Ware's three DOORS TO THERAPY.
Cognitive-behavioural and psychodynamic theory give thinking a key position in therapy whereas humanistic
approaches stress feeling. Transactional
analysis, because of its mixed origins,
stands between these positions.
Classical transactional analysis (e.g. the
writings of Berne) is closer to the psy
chodynamic view and often more cognitive in its approach than later devel
opments in theory.

(
Fi:

therapy
3. Confrontation. This involves using
information previously obtained to
cross-transact and point out inconsistencies. This stirs up the client and
causes a redistribution of cathexis
between ego-states. However, this
redistribution may reinforce the inappropriate ego-state that is in command if the confrontation is badly
timed or badly worded. In Berne's
words: 'The therapeutic object is
always to cathect the uncontaminat
ed segment of the patient's Adult and
its attainment will be signalled by a
thoughtful silence or an insightful
laugh.'
4. Explanation. The therapist says
what he or she thinks is going on.
This aims to strengthen, decontaminate or reorient the client's Adult.
5. Illustration. The therapist tells a story to make a point. Illustration is significantly different to the other
interventions. The therapist is inter
posing something between the
client's Adult and his or her other
ego-states in order to stabilise the
Adult and make it more difficult for
him or her to slide back into Child or
Parent. Berne classified the other
therapeutic' operations as interventions but illustration he describes as
an interposition.
6. Confirmation. The therapist reinforces a point that emerged earlier as
the client offers more information~
Confirmation may be heard by the
client's Parent as confirmation that
the Child cannot be trusted. If so the
Child will feel trapped by the therapist. Confmnation is strengthening
to the Adult because of its logical
force and reassuring to the Child
because it demonstrates the therapist's strength and alertness.
The next two interventions go
beyond decontamination into
deconfusing the Child.
7. Interpretation. This is an attempt to
deconfuse the client's Child by
decoding, detoxifying, correcting

distortions and regrouping past

experiences. Berne advised to go
easy on interpretation, which may
be intellectualisation rather than
thinking.
8. Crystallisation. A statement of the
client's position from the Adult of the
therapist to the Adult of the client so
that the client's Adult can make a
decision to change. Berne advises not
to confuse a Child resolution (which
will be broken) with an Adult decision (which will be kept). He recommends that this intervention should
not be used until Adult, Child and
Parent are prepared.
therapy literally any form of treatment.
Often used for psychotherapy or counselling.
therapy contract see TREATMENT CONTRACT.
there and then an emphatic way of referring to the past and not the present
(here and now). An understanding of
the client's past is of great value in
understanding his or her present problems but a preoccupation with the past
is often used as a defence against dealing with current life issues. If the therapist joins in this process it constitutes
the GAME of Archeology. In psychoanalysis this is referred to as the FLIGHT
INTO HISTORY.

thinking cognitive processes that may

involve unvoiced speech, the manipulation of images, or abstract ideas. One of
Paul Ware's three DOORS TO THERAPY.
Cognitive-behavioural and psychodynamic theory give thinking a key position in therapy whereas humanistic
approaches stress feeling. Transactional
analysis, because of its mixed origins,
stands between these positions.
Classical transactional analysis (e.g. the
writings of Berne) is closer to the psy
chodynamic view and often more cognitive in its approach than later devel
opments in theory.

(
Fi:

tracking
use of touching in psychotherapy.
PTSTA can provide officially recognised
Some approaches use it extensively
transactional analysis training and
(e.g. Neo-Reichian body work) wheresupervision (provided he or she is
as others forbid it entirely (psychosupervised by a TSTA).
analysis). Berne trained as a psychoanalyst and his initial attitude was to min- ttansactional analysis Eric Berne (1961)
imise touching (even shaking hands,
defined transactional analysis as '. . . a
which he did not do until he felt he
systematic consistent theory of personknew the client). Humanistic influality and social dynamics derived from
ences have shifted attitudes in the
clinical experience and an actionistic,
direction of using contact more freely,
rational form of therapy which is suitwhile always noting carefully its signifiable for, easily understood by, and natcance within the current therapeutic
urally adapted to the great majority of
relationship and in the light of what is
psychiatric patients'.
known of the client's history. Contact
Since Berne wrote this, transactional
analysis has found many applications
that is highly supportive to one client
my seem threatening and invasive to
outside of hospital psychotherapy but
another (or even to the same client at
the elements of his definition - an
a different time) c.f. PRIMAL WOUNDS.
approach which is rooted in experience,
Transactional analysis does not have a
and seeks to be both rational and accesfmn position on this issue and there
sible and points towards clear courses
are wide variations in practice.
of action- continue to be relevant in all
However there is general agreement
the diverse applications of transactional
analysis.
among transactional analysts that physical contact is a very significant issue
therapeutically and this significance transactional analysis, applications of
attaches both to the withholding and
transactional analysis was originally
the giving of contact. However, transacdeveloped by Eric Berne, a psychiational analysis is a contractual process
trist, to work with his patients. The
so any use of touch must be agreed
success of Games People Play brought
his work to the attention of a wide
between client and therapist.
public. Its clarity, accessibility and reletracking the careful following of the
vance to a wide spectrum of human
client's process, moment by moment,
behaviour led to its being enthusiastically adopted in many fields other than
by the therapist or counsellor using
intent listening, careful observation
mental health. It is now used in educaand an empathic understanding illumition, management, staff training and
indeed wherever people need to deal
nated by a grasp of relevant theory.
with people. Some people also study
trading stamps see STAMPS.
transactional analysis to develop
insight and achieve personal developTraining Endorsement Workshop
ment.
(TEW) a workshop in which certified
transactional analysts are trained and Transactional Analysis in Psychotherapy
endorsed to commence work as trainBerne's major work on transactional
ers of transactional analysis. Those
analysis, published in 1961. Here is a
clear, detailed and comprehensive
who are successful and go on w train
further with a training and supervising
exposition of his theories. None of his
other works deals with the theories of
transactional analyst (TSTA) have the
title 'provisional teaching and supertransactional analysis so thoroughly.
The style is demanding and clearly
vising transactional analyst' (PTSTA). A

tracking
use of touching in psychotherapy.
PTSTA can provide officially recognised
Some approaches use it extensively
transactional analysis training and
(e.g. Neo-Reichian body work) wheresupervision (provided he or she is
as others forbid it entirely (psychosupervised by a TSTA).
analysis). Berne trained as a psychoanalyst and his initial attitude was to min- ttansactional analysis Eric Berne (1961)
imise touching (even shaking hands,
defined transactional analysis as '. . . a
which he did not do until he felt he
systematic consistent theory of personknew the client). Humanistic influality and social dynamics derived from
ences have shifted attitudes in the
clinical experience and an actionistic,
direction of using contact more freely,
rational form of therapy which is suitwhile always noting carefully its signifiable for, easily understood by, and natcance within the current therapeutic
urally adapted to the great majority of
relationship and in the light of what is
psychiatric patients'.
known of the client's history. Contact
Since Berne wrote this, transactional
analysis has found many applications
that is highly supportive to one client
my seem threatening and invasive to
outside of hospital psychotherapy but
another (or even to the same client at
the elements of his definition - an
a different time) c.f. PRIMAL WOUNDS.
approach which is rooted in experience,
Transactional analysis does not have a
and seeks to be both rational and accesfmn position on this issue and there
sible and points towards clear courses
are wide variations in practice.
of action- continue to be relevant in all
However there is general agreement
the diverse applications of transactional
analysis.
among transactional analysts that physical contact is a very significant issue
therapeutically and this significance transactional analysis, applications of
attaches both to the withholding and
transactional analysis was originally
the giving of contact. However, transacdeveloped by Eric Berne, a psychiational analysis is a contractual process
trist, to work with his patients. The
so any use of touch must be agreed
success of Games People Play brought
his work to the attention of a wide
between client and therapist.
public. Its clarity, accessibility and reletracking the careful following of the
vance to a wide spectrum of human
client's process, moment by moment,
behaviour led to its being enthusiastically adopted in many fields other than
by the therapist or counsellor using
intent listening, careful observation
mental health. It is now used in educaand an empathic understanding illumition, management, staff training and
indeed wherever people need to deal
nated by a grasp of relevant theory.
with people. Some people also study
trading stamps see STAMPS.
transactional analysis to develop
insight and achieve personal developTraining Endorsement Workshop
ment.
(TEW) a workshop in which certified
transactional analysts are trained and Transactional Analysis in Psychotherapy
endorsed to commence work as trainBerne's major work on transactional
ers of transactional analysis. Those
analysis, published in 1961. Here is a
clear, detailed and comprehensive
who are successful and go on w train
further with a training and supervising
exposition of his theories. None of his
other works deals with the theories of
transactional analyst (TSTA) have the
title 'provisional teaching and supertransactional analysis so thoroughly.
The style is demanding and clearly
vising transactional analyst' (PTSTA). A

transactions, complementary
transactions, complementary a transac- transference unawarely transferring attitudes, beliefs and feelings relating to a
tion in which the vectors run parallel,
significant person in the past on to a
indicating consensus about who
person in the present such as a therashould be in which ego-state. See FIRST
pist. This is sometimes referred to as
RULE OF COMMUNICATION.
'putting a face' on to them. More generally transferring feelings, attitudes
transactions, crossed a transaction in
which the vectors are not parallel and
and beliefs relevant to some situation
in the past on to an analogous situain most cases cross. The response is
not from the ego-state that was
tion in the present. This psychoanalytic term was little used in classical
addressed and is not directed to the
transactional analysis, although it is
ego-state that originated the stimulus.
implicit in many transactional analysis
See SECOND RULE OF COMMUNICATION.
concepts. A person in his or her Child
or Parent ego-states is not perceiving
transactions, duplex the type of ULTERIOR
the world as it now is and so is in
transaction in which the psychological
transference. Rubberbanding vividly
and social level messages pass
describes what transference feels like
between different ego-states. See TiliRD
RULE OF COMMUNICATION, ANGUlAR TRANSACfrom the inside and symbiosis repreTION.
sents a couple bound together in a
mutually transferential relationship as
seen from the viewpoint of an external
transactions, empathic see EMPATHIC
observer. Driver behaviour is transferTRANSACTIONS.
entia! and discounting is often indicatransactions, parallel a COMPLEMENTARY
tive of transference. The underlying
transaction.
mechanisms of games and script clearly
involve transference. In effect transactional analysis tended to substitute
transaction, tangential a TRANSACTION in
operational definitions of how transwhich the response is not congruent
with the stimulus but addresses a dif
ference manifests itself for the term
itself. This suited the behavioural
ferent issue. For example, if the stimulus is a question then the response is
emphasis of transactional analysis in
an answer to a different question.
the 1960s and 1970s but was a loss to
theory. Modern transactional analysis
transactions, ulterior a transaction in
theorists (e.g. Novellino, 1984, Moiso,
1985) have written extensively on the
which there are two messages being
passed simultaneously, one at the
theory of transference while retaining
overt or social level and another at the
their rich and unique vocabulary for
covert or psychological level. See TRANSdescribing how transference is acted
ACTIONS, ANGULAR, TRANSACTIONS, DUPLEX,
out in behaviour. Clarkson (1992) has
TiliRD RULE OF COMMUNICATION.
developed a classification of types of
transference and COUNTERTRANSFERENCE
transcript an accurate written record of
and offers an integrative overview of
spoken words. Transcripts of psythe use of the concept in modern
chotherapy sessions are used in the
transactional analysis.
training of transactional analysts to
analyse the processes occurring in transformational object term used by
therapy. The use of such material
the psychoanalyst Christopher Bollas
needs to be agreed in the confidential(1987). He suggests that the baby's
ity CONTRACT made between therapist
first experience of its mother is of
or counsellor and his or her client.
someone or something (perhaps not
128

transactions, complementary
transactions, complementary a transac- transference unawarely transferring attitudes, beliefs and feelings relating to a
tion in which the vectors run parallel,
significant person in the past on to a
indicating consensus about who
person in the present such as a therashould be in which ego-state. See FIRST
pist. This is sometimes referred to as
RULE OF COMMUNICATION.
'putting a face' on to them. More generally transferring feelings, attitudes
transactions, crossed a transaction in
which the vectors are not parallel and
and beliefs relevant to some situation
in the past on to an analogous situain most cases cross. The response is
not from the ego-state that was
tion in the present. This psychoanalytic term was little used in classical
addressed and is not directed to the
transactional analysis, although it is
ego-state that originated the stimulus.
implicit in many transactional analysis
See SECOND RULE OF COMMUNICATION.
concepts. A person in his or her Child
or Parent ego-states is not perceiving
transactions, duplex the type of ULTERIOR
the world as it now is and so is in
transaction in which the psychological
transference. Rubberbanding vividly
and social level messages pass
describes what transference feels like
between different ego-states. See TiliRD
RULE OF COMMUNICATION, ANGUlAR TRANSACfrom the inside and symbiosis repreTION.
sents a couple bound together in a
mutually transferential relationship as
seen from the viewpoint of an external
transactions, empathic see EMPATHIC
observer. Driver behaviour is transferTRANSACTIONS.
entia! and discounting is often indicatransactions, parallel a COMPLEMENTARY
tive of transference. The underlying
transaction.
mechanisms of games and script clearly
involve transference. In effect transactional analysis tended to substitute
transaction, tangential a TRANSACTION in
operational definitions of how transwhich the response is not congruent
with the stimulus but addresses a dif
ference manifests itself for the term
itself. This suited the behavioural
ferent issue. For example, if the stimulus is a question then the response is
emphasis of transactional analysis in
an answer to a different question.
the 1960s and 1970s but was a loss to
theory. Modern transactional analysis
transactions, ulterior a transaction in
theorists (e.g. Novellino, 1984, Moiso,
1985) have written extensively on the
which there are two messages being
passed simultaneously, one at the
theory of transference while retaining
overt or social level and another at the
their rich and unique vocabulary for
covert or psychological level. See TRANSdescribing how transference is acted
ACTIONS, ANGULAR, TRANSACTIONS, DUPLEX,
out in behaviour. Clarkson (1992) has
TiliRD RULE OF COMMUNICATION.
developed a classification of types of
transference and COUNTERTRANSFERENCE
transcript an accurate written record of
and offers an integrative overview of
spoken words. Transcripts of psythe use of the concept in modern
chotherapy sessions are used in the
transactional analysis.
training of transactional analysts to
analyse the processes occurring in transformational object term used by
therapy. The use of such material
the psychoanalyst Christopher Bollas
needs to be agreed in the confidential(1987). He suggests that the baby's
ity CONTRACT made between therapist
first experience of its mother is of
or counsellor and his or her client.
someone or something (perhaps not
128

psychological level
UKCP (United Kingdom Council for
stimulus
Psychotherapy) the major governing
body for psychotherapy in the UK,
which operates a voluntary system of
registration for psychotherapists.
'\
Training bodies are assessed by a
'\
process of peer review and if they
social'lovel,_stimu!us
'
reach the standards laid down by the
' ' response
social !eve)
UKCP they are granted full membership.
\ '
Trainees of member organisations
\ '
\ '
are placed on the register when they
qualifY. The UK transactional analysis
organisation, the Institute of
Transactional Analysis, is a full mempsychological level
ber of UKCP. As a result clinical certified
response
,
transactional analysts become UKCP reg Figure 31 An ulterior transaction (duplex).
istered psychotherapists.

ulterior transaction sometimes short- unbound energy in Berne's energy theory

(Berne, 1961), that part of the psychoened to 'ulterior'. A transaction that
logical energy (cATHEXIs) associated
occurs at two levels: a social level,
with an ego-state that is available for
conveying a message that is socially
use. Some energy may remain bound
acceptable, and also at an unspoken
and therefore not available. There is
psychological level. The psychological
also energy that is free to move
level message is usually manipulative
between ego-states and is therefore
or sexual and involves Parent ....
available to cathect any of the egoChild, Child .... Child or Parent ..,.
states. This is known as free energy (or
Parent transactions whereas the social
free cathexis). See ENERGY.
level message is ostensibly Adult ....
Adult.
regard
positive
Berne's third rule of communication unconditional
(Rogerian person-centred therapy)
states that the behavioural outcome of
an unconditional acceptance of the
an ulterior transaction is determined
intrinsic worth of the other person
at the psychological and not at the
reflected in a positive attitude towards
social level.
1~{\

psychological level
UKCP (United Kingdom Council for
stimulus
Psychotherapy) the major governing
body for psychotherapy in the UK,
which operates a voluntary system of
registration for psychotherapists.
'\
Training bodies are assessed by a
'\
process of peer review and if they
social'lovel,_stimu!us
'
reach the standards laid down by the
' ' response
social !eve)
UKCP they are granted full membership.
\ '
Trainees of member organisations
\ '
\ '
are placed on the register when they
qualifY. The UK transactional analysis
organisation, the Institute of
Transactional Analysis, is a full mempsychological level
ber of UKCP. As a result clinical certified
response
,
transactional analysts become UKCP reg Figure 31 An ulterior transaction (duplex).
istered psychotherapists.

ulterior transaction sometimes short- unbound energy in Berne's energy theory

(Berne, 1961), that part of the psychoened to 'ulterior'. A transaction that
logical energy (cATHEXIs) associated
occurs at two levels: a social level,
with an ego-state that is available for
conveying a message that is socially
use. Some energy may remain bound
acceptable, and also at an unspoken
and therefore not available. There is
psychological level. The psychological
also energy that is free to move
level message is usually manipulative
between ego-states and is therefore
or sexual and involves Parent ....
available to cathect any of the egoChild, Child .... Child or Parent ..,.
states. This is known as free energy (or
Parent transactions whereas the social
free cathexis). See ENERGY.
level message is ostensibly Adult ....
Adult.
regard
positive
Berne's third rule of communication unconditional
(Rogerian person-centred therapy)
states that the behavioural outcome of
an unconditional acceptance of the
an ulterior transaction is determined
intrinsic worth of the other person
at the psychological and not at the
reflected in a positive attitude towards
social level.
1~{\

values of transactional analysis see

LOSOPHY OF 1RANSACTIONALANALYSIS.

PHI-

In this case it is discounting of their

power to deal with their own problems. When used in this way the word
is spelled with a capital. The Victim
role must be distinguished from a real
victim who is in real need of help.

vector the line ending in an arrow on a

transaction diagram showing the direction of the transaction from the transactional stimulus and the transactional
violence one of the
response.

FOUR PASSIVE BEHAV-

IOURS.

Victim one of the three positions or roles

on the DRAMA TRIANGLE. Like the other visualisation generating a picture in the
two positions the Victim position is
mind. See GUIDED FANTASY, OUTCOME FAN
unauthentic and involves DISCOUNTING.
TASY.

132

values of transactional analysis see

LOSOPHY OF 1RANSACTIONALANALYSIS.

PHI-

In this case it is discounting of their

power to deal with their own problems. When used in this way the word
is spelled with a capital. The Victim
role must be distinguished from a real
victim who is in real need of help.

vector the line ending in an arrow on a

transaction diagram showing the direction of the transaction from the transactional stimulus and the transactional
violence one of the
response.

FOUR PASSIVE BEHAV-

IOURS.

Victim one of the three positions or roles

on the DRAMA TRIANGLE. Like the other visualisation generating a picture in the
two positions the Victim position is
mind. See GUIDED FANTASY, OUTCOME FAN
unauthentic and involves DISCOUNTING.
TASY.

132

Yes But also known as Why Don't You 'you' statements 'you' statements often
seek to place responsibility for feelings
(Yes But). A GAME in which help (usually advice) is sought but everything that
etc. on the other party (for example,
'you made me angry'). Shifting to 'I'
is offered is rejected as unsuitable so
statements clarifies the process. 'I feel
that the other party who takes the
angry about what you said' owns the
Rescuer role is invited into Victim. The
feeling and opens up the questions of
game that usually pairs with this is rM
ONLY TRYING TO HEll' YOU.
whether anger is an appropriate
response to what has occurred and
You Can't Make Me a GAME initiated
what is wanted from the other person.
'You' statements are often indicative of
from a rebellious Victim position and
inviting persecution.
Be Strong DRIVER BEHAYIOUR.

Yes But also known as Why Don't You 'you' statements 'you' statements often
seek to place responsibility for feelings
(Yes But). A GAME in which help (usually advice) is sought but everything that
etc. on the other party (for example,
'you made me angry'). Shifting to 'I'
is offered is rejected as unsuitable so
statements clarifies the process. 'I feel
that the other party who takes the
angry about what you said' owns the
Rescuer role is invited into Victim. The
feeling and opens up the questions of
game that usually pairs with this is rM
ONLY TRYING TO HEll' YOU.
whether anger is an appropriate
response to what has occurred and
You Can't Make Me a GAME initiated
what is wanted from the other person.
'You' statements are often indicative of
from a rebellious Victim position and
inviting persecution.
Be Strong DRIVER BEHAYIOUR.

Appendix 1

Intuition and Ego States (1977). A compilation of Berne's professional papers published between 1949 and 1962 as he developed transactional analysis.

Some other works illustrating differing approaches

Changing Lives Through Redecision Therapy (1979) Mary and Robert Goulding (a
major work of the redecision school).

The Cathexis Reader (1975) Jacqui Lee Schiff et al. A major work of the cathexis
school.

Techniques in Transactional Analysis (1977) Edited by Muriel James. Muriel

James is both editor and contributing author. Contains a collection of papers on
diverse applications of transactional analysis.
Scripts People Live (1974). Claude Steiner (classical school).
Transactional Analysis (1978). Stan Woollams and Michael Brown. A good
overview of theory at intermediate level.
Integrative Psychotherapy in Action (1988). Richard Erskine and Janet Moursand.
Erskine's integrative approach to transactional analysis .
TA The State of the Art (1984). Edited by Erika Stern. A collection of intermediate to
advanced papers originating in Europe.
Transactional Analysis Psychotherapy, An Integrated Approach (1992). Petruska
Clarkson. An advanced and comprehensive text from an integrative standpoint.
Transactional Analysis for Trainers (1992). Julie Hay. Transactional analysis from
the viewpoint of the organisational special field.

Appendix 1

Intuition and Ego States (1977). A compilation of Berne's professional papers published between 1949 and 1962 as he developed transactional analysis.

Some other works illustrating differing approaches

Changing Lives Through Redecision Therapy (1979) Mary and Robert Goulding (a
major work of the redecision school).

The Cathexis Reader (1975) Jacqui Lee Schiff et al. A major work of the cathexis
school.

Techniques in Transactional Analysis (1977) Edited by Muriel James. Muriel

James is both editor and contributing author. Contains a collection of papers on
diverse applications of transactional analysis.
Scripts People Live (1974). Claude Steiner (classical school).
Transactional Analysis (1978). Stan Woollams and Michael Brown. A good
overview of theory at intermediate level.
Integrative Psychotherapy in Action (1988). Richard Erskine and Janet Moursand.
Erskine's integrative approach to transactional analysis .
TA The State of the Art (1984). Edited by Erika Stern. A collection of intermediate to
advanced papers originating in Europe.
Transactional Analysis Psychotherapy, An Integrated Approach (1992). Petruska
Clarkson. An advanced and comprehensive text from an integrative standpoint.
Transactional Analysis for Trainers (1992). Julie Hay. Transactional analysis from
the viewpoint of the organisational special field.

Appendix2

1976

Pat Crossman, PROTECTION. Crossman, P. (1966) Permission and protection.

Transactional Analysis Bulletin 5(19), 152-4.

1977
Taibi Kahler, MINISCRIPT AND FIVE DRIVERS. Kahler, T. (1974) The miniscript. Transactional
Analysis journal 4(1), 26-42.

1978
Fanita English, RACKETS AND REAL FEEUNGS: THE SUBSTITimON FACTOR. English, F. (1971) The
substitution factor: rackets and real feelings. Transactional Analysis]ourna/1(4),
225-30; and (1972) Rackets and real feelings, Part II. Transactional Analysis
]ournal2(1), 23-5.

1979
Stephen Karpman, OPTIONS. Karpman, S. (1971) Options. Transactional Analysis
]ourna/1(1), 79--87.
1980 (joint award)
Claude Steiner, THE STROKE ECONOMY. Steiner, C. (1971) The stroke economy.
TransactionalAnalysis]ourna/1(3), 9-15.
Ken Mellor and Eric Sigmund, DISCOUNTING AND REDEFINING. Mellor, K. and Sigmund, E.
(1975) Discounting. Transactional.4nalysis]ournal 5(3), 295-302; and Mellor, K
and Sigmund, E. (1975) Redefining. Transactional Analysis]ournal5(3), 303-11.
1981
Franklin H. Emst, Jr., THE OK coRRAL. Emst, F. (1971) The OK corral: the grid for get-onwith. TransactionalAnalysis]ournall(4), 231-40.

1982
Richard Erskine and Marilyn Zalcman, RACKET SYSTEM AND RACKET Al'lALYSIS. Erskine, R. and
Zalcman, M. (1979) The racket system: a model for racket analysis. Transactional
1
Analysis]ournal9(l), 51-9.
1983
\1uriel james, SELF-REPARENTING. james, M. (1974) Self-reparenting: theory and process.
Transactiona!Analysis]ournal4(3), 32-9.
1984
Pam Levin, DEVELOPMENT CYCLE. Levin, P. (1982) The cycle of development.
TransactionalAnalysis]ourna/12(2), 129-39.
1985, 1986
'lot awarded.
1987
:arlo Moiso, EGO STATES AND TRANSFERENCE. Moiso, C. (1985) Ego states and transference.
Transactional Analysis]ournal15(3), 194-201.
1988 to 1993
'lot awarded.
140

Appendix2

1976

Pat Crossman, PROTECTION. Crossman, P. (1966) Permission and protection.

Transactional Analysis Bulletin 5(19), 152-4.

1977
Taibi Kahler, MINISCRIPT AND FIVE DRIVERS. Kahler, T. (1974) The miniscript. Transactional
Analysis journal 4(1), 26-42.

1978
Fanita English, RACKETS AND REAL FEEUNGS: THE SUBSTITimON FACTOR. English, F. (1971) The
substitution factor: rackets and real feelings. Transactional Analysis]ourna/1(4),
225-30; and (1972) Rackets and real feelings, Part II. Transactional Analysis
]ournal2(1), 23-5.

1979
Stephen Karpman, OPTIONS. Karpman, S. (1971) Options. Transactional Analysis
]ourna/1(1), 79--87.
1980 (joint award)
Claude Steiner, THE STROKE ECONOMY. Steiner, C. (1971) The stroke economy.
TransactionalAnalysis]ourna/1(3), 9-15.
Ken Mellor and Eric Sigmund, DISCOUNTING AND REDEFINING. Mellor, K. and Sigmund, E.
(1975) Discounting. Transactional.4nalysis]ournal 5(3), 295-302; and Mellor, K
and Sigmund, E. (1975) Redefining. Transactional Analysis]ournal5(3), 303-11.
1981
Franklin H. Emst, Jr., THE OK coRRAL. Emst, F. (1971) The OK corral: the grid for get-onwith. TransactionalAnalysis]ournall(4), 231-40.

1982
Richard Erskine and Marilyn Zalcman, RACKET SYSTEM AND RACKET Al'lALYSIS. Erskine, R. and
Zalcman, M. (1979) The racket system: a model for racket analysis. Transactional
1
Analysis]ournal9(l), 51-9.
1983
\1uriel james, SELF-REPARENTING. james, M. (1974) Self-reparenting: theory and process.
Transactiona!Analysis]ournal4(3), 32-9.
1984
Pam Levin, DEVELOPMENT CYCLE. Levin, P. (1982) The cycle of development.
TransactionalAnalysis]ourna/12(2), 129-39.
1985, 1986
'lot awarded.
1987
:arlo Moiso, EGO STATES AND TRANSFERENCE. Moiso, C. (1985) Ego states and transference.
Transactional Analysis]ournal15(3), 194-201.
1988 to 1993
'lot awarded.
140

Appendix 3:
Codes of ethics

Appendix 3 contains the codes of ethics of the Institute of Transactional Analysis (ITA),
the European Association for Transactional Analysis (EATA) and the International
Association for Transactional Analysis (ITAA).

ITA statement of ethics

This code of ethics is a live document which is constantly under review. The version
reproduced here is that current in June 1997.
Recognising that professional ethics are a series of guidelines to what is considered
right and wrong, the ITA's Statement of Ethics seeks to promote, in addition, the
development of Adult processing in the field of ethics with particular emphasis on
establishing a clear Adult contract.
As members of the ITA 'we accept the principles and philosophy of TA, furthermore we recognise that through our training, certification process and the public
listing of practitioners, the ITA promotes the ethical premises and principles in this
document and that, where appropriate, members also conform to the ethical principles of external governing bodies such as the United Kingdom Council for
'
Psychotherapy (UKCP).
We also recognise that members may not always utilise these ethical principles and,
therefore, that confrontation of a member is sometimes desirable and/or necessary.
We further recognise that should an individual's behaviour show a lack of integration of, or consistency with, these principles, his/her certification, authority to supervise and/or train, training contract and/or membership may be suspended by the ITA
until such time as that integration is assured. '
These principles represent a consensus of Parent values, Adult data and Child
rights:
The term client denotes anyone using the services of a member using Transactional
Analysis working in any field, and includes individuals, trainees, supervisees, and
organisations.
1. An ITA member acknowledges the dignity of all humanity; members of the ITA are
expected to conduct themselves in such a way that they promote equal opportunities for all.
2. Members of the ITA shall in their public statements, whether written or verbal,
speak with respect and with the intent of furthering professional standing, bearing
in mind their responsibility as representatives of the ITA and Transactional Analysis.

1-

Appendix 3:
Codes of ethics

Appendix 3 contains the codes of ethics of the Institute of Transactional Analysis (ITA),
the European Association for Transactional Analysis (EATA) and the International
Association for Transactional Analysis (ITAA).

ITA statement of ethics

This code of ethics is a live document which is constantly under review. The version
reproduced here is that current in June 1997.
Recognising that professional ethics are a series of guidelines to what is considered
right and wrong, the ITA's Statement of Ethics seeks to promote, in addition, the
development of Adult processing in the field of ethics with particular emphasis on
establishing a clear Adult contract.
As members of the ITA 'we accept the principles and philosophy of TA, furthermore we recognise that through our training, certification process and the public
listing of practitioners, the ITA promotes the ethical premises and principles in this
document and that, where appropriate, members also conform to the ethical principles of external governing bodies such as the United Kingdom Council for
'
Psychotherapy (UKCP).
We also recognise that members may not always utilise these ethical principles and,
therefore, that confrontation of a member is sometimes desirable and/or necessary.
We further recognise that should an individual's behaviour show a lack of integration of, or consistency with, these principles, his/her certification, authority to supervise and/or train, training contract and/or membership may be suspended by the ITA
until such time as that integration is assured. '
These principles represent a consensus of Parent values, Adult data and Child
rights:
The term client denotes anyone using the services of a member using Transactional
Analysis working in any field, and includes individuals, trainees, supervisees, and
organisations.
1. An ITA member acknowledges the dignity of all humanity; members of the ITA are
expected to conduct themselves in such a way that they promote equal opportunities for all.
2. Members of the ITA shall in their public statements, whether written or verbal,
speak with respect and with the intent of furthering professional standing, bearing
in mind their responsibility as representatives of the ITA and Transactional Analysis.

1-

Appendix3
should have the competence and intent to fulfil.1When a client is-. unable or unwilling
to function autonomously and responsibly within this contractual relationship, the
member of the ITM must resolve this relationship in such a way as to bring no harm
to the client.
5. A member of the ITM will not exploit a client in any manner, including, but not limited to, financial and sexual matters. Sexual relations between an ITM member and a
client are prohibited.
i.
Members of the ITM will not enter into or maintain a professional contract where
other activities or relationships between an ITM member and a client might jeopardise the professional contract.
t
The professional relationship between a member of the ITAA and the client is
defined by the contract, and that professional relationship ends with the termination
of the contract. However, certain professional responsibilities continue beyond the
termination of the contract. They include, but are not limited to, the following: a)
maintenance of agreed-upon confidentiality; b) avoidance of any exploitation of the
former relationship; c) provision for any needed follow-up care.
I.
Members of the ITAA will operate and conduct services to clients with full responsibility to existing laws of the state and/or country in which they reside.
:0. In establishing a professional relationship, members of the ITAA assume responsibility for providing a suitable environment, including such things as specifying the
nature of confidentiality observed, providing for physical safety appropriate to the
form of activity involved, and obtaining informed consent for high-risk procedures.
1. If members of the ITM become aware that personal conflicts or medical problems
might interfere with their ability to carry out a contractual relationship, they must
either terminate the contract in a professionally responsible manner, or ensure that
the client has the full information needed to make a decision about remaining in the
contractual relationship.
2. Members of the ITAA accept responsibility to confront a colleague whom they have
reasonable cause to believe is acting in an unethical manner, and, failing resolution,
to report that colleague to the appropriate professional body.
'le affirm these principles as common to the, practice of those certified by the ITM

nless a member of ITAA explicitly states in welting his/her differences from these posi.ons. In such an instance, the client's attention to any such differences must also be
oted in writing as part of their contract-setting process.

,,
J.

'

Appendix3
should have the competence and intent to fulfil.1When a client is-. unable or unwilling
to function autonomously and responsibly within this contractual relationship, the
member of the ITM must resolve this relationship in such a way as to bring no harm
to the client.
5. A member of the ITM will not exploit a client in any manner, including, but not limited to, financial and sexual matters. Sexual relations between an ITM member and a
client are prohibited.
i.
Members of the ITM will not enter into or maintain a professional contract where
other activities or relationships between an ITM member and a client might jeopardise the professional contract.
t
The professional relationship between a member of the ITAA and the client is
defined by the contract, and that professional relationship ends with the termination
of the contract. However, certain professional responsibilities continue beyond the
termination of the contract. They include, but are not limited to, the following: a)
maintenance of agreed-upon confidentiality; b) avoidance of any exploitation of the
former relationship; c) provision for any needed follow-up care.
I.
Members of the ITAA will operate and conduct services to clients with full responsibility to existing laws of the state and/or country in which they reside.
:0. In establishing a professional relationship, members of the ITAA assume responsibility for providing a suitable environment, including such things as specifying the
nature of confidentiality observed, providing for physical safety appropriate to the
form of activity involved, and obtaining informed consent for high-risk procedures.
1. If members of the ITM become aware that personal conflicts or medical problems
might interfere with their ability to carry out a contractual relationship, they must
either terminate the contract in a professionally responsible manner, or ensure that
the client has the full information needed to make a decision about remaining in the
contractual relationship.
2. Members of the ITAA accept responsibility to confront a colleague whom they have
reasonable cause to believe is acting in an unethical manner, and, failing resolution,
to report that colleague to the appropriate professional body.
'le affirm these principles as common to the, practice of those certified by the ITM

nless a member of ITAA explicitly states in welting his/her differences from these posi.ons. In such an instance, the client's attention to any such differences must also be
oted in writing as part of their contract-setting process.

,,
J.

'

Appendix 3
as further training, conferenc es and seminars, I profession al writing and reading,
and by being informed of, and promotin g the interest ofTA.
confi16. All communic ation between the member and the client shall be regarded as
relewith
e
complianc
in
or
contract
the
in
for
provided
explicitly
dential except as
vant law. All members shall maintain records of sessions and these shall be kept confidential in a secure place. Except as agreed in the contract or in complianc e with the
law, informatio n can be disclosed only with client's consent, unless the practition er
if
believes that there is convincin g evidence of serious danger to the client or others
dismay
ers
practition
that
informed
be
must
Clients
withheld.
is
n
such informatio
n
cuss their work with their superviso rs. Superviso rs and members of a supervisio
providas
ality
confidenti
and
care
same
the
with
group shall treat material presented
ed for in the original contract. Particular care will be taken when presentin g case
material outside of the usual boundarie s of supervisio n, e.g. for training or teaching
purposes. In such cases where case material records are present - whether printed,
verbal, on tape, finn, or video, or retrieved from electronic media- the client's consent in writing shall be obtained.

EATA code of ethics

A. An EATA member acknowle dges the dignity of all humanity.
s or
B. EATA members shall in their public statement s refrain from derogator y statement
members,
other
of
character
or
ons
qualificati
standing,
the
disparage
that
es
innuendo
bearing in mind their responsib ility as represent atives of EATA and Transacti onal
Analysis. On the other hand, direct personal and objective criticism is welcome.
posC. It is theprima ry protective responsibi lity ofEATA members to provide their best
or
lly
intentiona
harm
no
cause
to
as
way
a
such
sible services to the client and to act in
by negligenc e.
g
D. EATA members should strive to develop in their clients awareness of and functionin
lity.
responsibi
personal
and
autonomy
from a position of dignity,
E. The ethical practice of Transactio nal Analysis involves entering an informed contractual relationsh ip with the client which the client as well as the EATA member should
have the competen ce and intent to fulfil, the .EATA member must resolve this relationship in such a way as to bring no harm to the client.
to
F. An.EATA member will not exploit a client in any matter, including, but not limited
. financial: and sexual matters. Sexual relationsh ips between EATA members and their
clients are prohibited .
other
G. EATA members will not enter into or maintain a profession al contract where
the
jeopardise
might
clients
and
actiViti~s or relationsh ips between EATA mt;mbers
contract.
professi~p,al
by
H. ,The profession al relationsh ip between an EATA member and the client is defined
contract.
the
of
n
terminatio
the
with
ends
ip
relationsh
al
the contract. This profession
However; certain profession al responsibi lities continue beyond the terminatio n of the
contract.q bey include, but are not limited to, the following:
. maintena nce of agreed-up on confident iality
avoidance of any exploitati on of the former relationsh ip
provision for any needed follow-up care.
ility to
I. EATA members will operate and conduct services to clients with full responsib
reside.
they
which
in
existing laws of the state and/or country

Appendix 3
as further training, conferenc es and seminars, I profession al writing and reading,
and by being informed of, and promotin g the interest ofTA.
confi16. All communic ation between the member and the client shall be regarded as
relewith
e
complianc
in
or
contract
the
in
for
provided
explicitly
dential except as
vant law. All members shall maintain records of sessions and these shall be kept confidential in a secure place. Except as agreed in the contract or in complianc e with the
law, informatio n can be disclosed only with client's consent, unless the practition er
if
believes that there is convincin g evidence of serious danger to the client or others
dismay
ers
practition
that
informed
be
must
Clients
withheld.
is
n
such informatio
n
cuss their work with their superviso rs. Superviso rs and members of a supervisio
providas
ality
confidenti
and
care
same
the
with
group shall treat material presented
ed for in the original contract. Particular care will be taken when presentin g case
material outside of the usual boundarie s of supervisio n, e.g. for training or teaching
purposes. In such cases where case material records are present - whether printed,
verbal, on tape, finn, or video, or retrieved from electronic media- the client's consent in writing shall be obtained.

EATA code of ethics

A. An EATA member acknowle dges the dignity of all humanity.
s or
B. EATA members shall in their public statement s refrain from derogator y statement
members,
other
of
character
or
ons
qualificati
standing,
the
disparage
that
es
innuendo
bearing in mind their responsib ility as represent atives of EATA and Transacti onal
Analysis. On the other hand, direct personal and objective criticism is welcome.
posC. It is theprima ry protective responsibi lity ofEATA members to provide their best
or
lly
intentiona
harm
no
cause
to
as
way
a
such
sible services to the client and to act in
by negligenc e.
g
D. EATA members should strive to develop in their clients awareness of and functionin
lity.
responsibi
personal
and
autonomy
from a position of dignity,
E. The ethical practice of Transactio nal Analysis involves entering an informed contractual relationsh ip with the client which the client as well as the EATA member should
have the competen ce and intent to fulfil, the .EATA member must resolve this relationship in such a way as to bring no harm to the client.
to
F. An.EATA member will not exploit a client in any matter, including, but not limited
. financial: and sexual matters. Sexual relationsh ips between EATA members and their
clients are prohibited .
other
G. EATA members will not enter into or maintain a profession al contract where
the
jeopardise
might
clients
and
actiViti~s or relationsh ips between EATA mt;mbers
contract.
professi~p,al
by
H. ,The profession al relationsh ip between an EATA member and the client is defined
contract.
the
of
n
terminatio
the
with
ends
ip
relationsh
al
the contract. This profession
However; certain profession al responsibi lities continue beyond the terminatio n of the
contract.q bey include, but are not limited to, the following:
. maintena nce of agreed-up on confident iality
avoidance of any exploitati on of the former relationsh ip
provision for any needed follow-up care.
ility to
I. EATA members will operate and conduct services to clients with full responsib
reside.
they
which
in
existing laws of the state and/or country

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W. Handbook of Counselling
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10(2), 102-6.
lAQ

Erskine, R. (1993) Inquiry, attunement

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