MA541 : Real Analysis

Tutorial and Practice Problems - 1

Hints and Solutions

1. Suppose that S is a nonempty subset of real numbers that is bounded (i.e. bounded above as well
as below). Prove that inf S sup S. What can you say if inf S = sup S?

Solution: Second Part: inf S = sup S i S is a singleton.

2. Is the set {x R | x2 < x} bounded above (below)? If so, nd its supremum (inmum).

Solution: Hint. {x R | x2 < x} = (0, 1).

3. Suppose n is a positive integer and a R, a 0. Show that there is a unique b 0 in R such that
bn = a.

Solution: Hint. Consider the set S = {x R : x 0, xn a}. Show that S is nonempty and
bounded above. The supremum b of S satises bn = a (show that bn < a and bn > a are not
possible). Finally show that that if c 0 and cn = a, then c = b.

4. Show that between any two distinct real numbers there is a rational number as well as an irrational
number.

Solution: (Refer to any text book.)

5. Prove Well-Ordering Principle of natural numbers: Every nonempty subset of positive integers has
a minimum.

Solution: Let S be a nonempty subset of positive integers. Then S is bounded below by 0, and
so has an inmum, say c.
Claim: c is the least element of S. Since c + 1 is not a lower bound of S, there is m S such
that m < c + 1. Now, for any positive integer n < m we have n m 1 < c and therefore,
n
/ S. Consequently, m is the least element of S. (Note that this also means that c = m.)

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6. Suppose that a real number a has the property that

1
n

a for all n N. Show that a 0.

Solution: Hint. Follows from Archimedean Principle.

7. Let S and T be nonempty sets of real numbers such that every real number is in S or T and if s S
and t T , then s < t. Prove that there is a unique real number such that every real number less
than is in S and every real number greater than is in T . (A decomposition of the reals into two
sets with these properties is a Dedekind cut. This is known as Dedekinds theorem.)

Solution: Done in the Tutorial class.

8. Suppose that a sequence (xn ) converges to x and xn 0 for all n. Show that x 0.

Solution: Hint. Show that if x < 0, then xn < 0 for innitely many values of n.

9. A subset S of R is closed if every convergent sequence in S has its limit in S. Which of the following
sets are closed: [a, b), [a, b], Q, R \ Q? Justify your answer.
Solution: [a, b] is closed: If xn x and a xn b for each n, then a x b.
[a, b) is not closed: If xn = b ba
/ [a, b).
n , then xn [a, b) and xn b
Q and R \ Q are not closed: Use density property.

10. Let (xn ), (yn ), (zn ) be sequences such that xn yn zn for all n N. If both (xn ) and (zn )
converges to the same limit c, then show that (yn ) converges to c. [This result is known as the
Sandwich Theorem.]

Solution: Refer to any text book.

)
(
 xn+1 

 converges to L. Show that (xn ) (i) converges to 0, if
11. Let (xn ) be such that xn = 0 and 
xn 
L < 1, and (ii) diverges, if L > 1. Show that (xn ) can converge or diverge, if L = 1.

Solution: Done in the Tutorial class.

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12. Let a, b R, and let (xn ) be dened as follows: x1 = a, x2 = b, and xn = 12 (xn2 + xn1 ) for n 3.
Prove that (xn ) is convergent and nd its limit.

Solution: For n 3, we have xn = 12 (xn2 +xn1 ) and therefore xn xn1 = 12 (xn1 +xn2 ),
i.e., |xn xn1 | = 12 |xn1 + xn2 |. Therefore, by the Result given below, (xn ) is a Cauchy
sequence and so convergent. Moreover,
xn x1 = (xn xn1 ) + (xn1 xn2 ) + + (x2 x1 )
]
[( )
( )n3
1
1 n2
+
+ + 1 (b a)
=

2
2
[
( )n1 ]
2
1
=
(b a).
1
3
2
Taking limits we get lim xn a = 23 (b a), i.e., lim xn = a + 32 (b a)
13. Let (xn ) be a sequence and yn = n1 (x1 + x2 + + xn ). Show that if (xn ) is convergent, then (yn )
is convergent. Is the converse true?

Solution: Suppose xn a. Let > 0 be given. There exists N N such that |xn a| < /2
for all n N . Now, for n N


1


|yn a| =  (x1 + + xn ) a
n
[
]
|x1 a| + |x2 a| + + |xn a|
=

N
n
1
1
|xi a| +
|xi a|
n
n

(n N )
K
+
.
n
n
2

i=1

i=N +1

where K = N
i=1 |xi a|. Choose positive integer M N such that K/M < /2. Then for
n M we have |yn a| < .
The converse is not true. Take for example, xn = (1)n .

14. Prove or disprove: If (xn ) converges to x, and (xn ) has a subsequence (xnk ) such that (1)k xnk 0
for all k, then x = 0.
(
)
Solution: Suppose, if possible, x > 0. There exists m N such that xn x2 , 3x
2 for all n m
(Note: we took = x/2.) In particular, xn > 0 for all n m. Now, nm , nm+1 m and therefore
xnm , xnm+1 are positive. This implies that (1)m xnm 0, (1)m+1 xnm+1 0 simultaneously
cannot hold, since one of them is negative. Thus, x 0. Similarly, it can be shown that x < 0
is not possible.

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15. Examine whether the sequences (xn ) converge, where xn is given below. Find also the limits, if
exist. Here, a, b are real numbers.
1
n

(iv)

sin3 n
(
)n
1 + n1

(vii)

nn

(i)

(iii)

an
n!

(an + bn ) n , where a, b > 0

(vi)

1
n+1

357(2n1)
258(3n1)

(ix)

1
n2

(ii)

an

(v)
(viii)

Solution: (i) n1

sin3 n
n

1
n+2

+ +

1
n+n

)
[a] + [2a] + + [na]

n1 . Now use Sandwich Theorem.

(ii) xn = an . If a = 0 or 1, then clearly (xn ) converges. If a = 1, then (xn ) = ((1)n ) diverges.

Case: |a| > 1. Let |a| = 1 + h. Then
n(n 1) 2
h + + hn > nh.
2
Thus, (xn ) is not bounded, and so not convergent.
1
Case: 0 < a < 1. Then 1/a > 1. Put 1/a = 1 + h, i.e., a = 1+h
. Thus,
|an | = (1 + h)n = 1 + nh +

0 < x n = an =

1
1
1
=

.
n
n
(1 + h)
1 + nh + + h
1 + nh

Use Sandwich Theorem to conclude that xn 0. Case: 1 < a < 0. Then |an | 0 and
therefore an 0.




|a|
(iii)  xxn+1
 = n+1 0 < 1. Thus xn 0.
n
(
)n
(iv) Show that 2 < xn = 1 + n1 < 3 and (xn ) is monotonically increasing. Thus the sequence
converges. (lim xn is denoted by e.)
1

(v) Assume a b. Then b xn = (an + bn ) n (bn + bn ) n = 2 n b. Use Sandwich Theorem to

conclude xn b. Thus, xn max{a, b}.
1
1
n
1
+ n+2
+ + n+n
n+1
< 1, the sequence (xn ) is bounded. Moreover,
(vi) Since 0 < xn = n+1
1
1
1
xn+1 xn = 2n+1 + 2n+2 n+1 > 0, i.e., (xn ) is monotonically increasing. Hence (xn ) converges.
In fact,
[
]
1
1
1
1
1
dx
xn =
+
+ +

= ln 2.
n 1 + 1/n 1 + 2/n
1 + n/n
0 1+x
1

(vii) xn = n n . We have xn > 1 for n 2. Put hn = xn 1. Then n n = 1 + hn , i.e.,

n = (1 + hn )n = 1 + nhn +

n(n 1) 2
n(n 1) 2
hn + >
hn .
2
2

2
2
i.e., 0 hn n1
. Using Sandwich Theorem, we
Therefore, for n 2 we have 0 h2n n1
get hn 0, i.e. xn 1.



 2n+1
(viii) Note that  xxn+1
 = 3n+1 2/3 < 1. Hence xn 0.
n
(
)
(ix) xn = n12 [a] + [2a] + + [na] . Note that for any real b, b 1 < [b] b. Thus,
)
)
1(
1(
(a

1)
+
(2a

1)
+

+
(na

1)
<
x

a
+
2a
+

+
na
.
n
n2
n2
Simplify this to get
1 a n+1
a n+1
+
< xn
.
n 2
n
2
n
Use Sandwich Theorem and get xn a2 .

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BK Sarma, 05 Aug 2014, 18:42

Result. Suppose (xn ) be a real sequence such that

|xn+1 xn | c|xn xn1 | for all n.

(0.1)

If c < 1, then (xn ) is a Cauchy sequence and therefore convergent.

Proof. If x2 = x1 , then xn = x1 for all n, and the result follows.
Suppose x2 = x1 . We have for all n
|xn+1 xn | c|xn xn1 | cn1 |x2 x1 |.
Moreover,
|xn+k xn | |xn+k xn+k1 | + + |xn1 xn |
(ck1 + cn2 + + c + 1)|xn1 xn |
1 ck
=
|xn1 xn |
1c
1

cn1 |x2 x1 |.
1c
c(1 c)
for all
|x2 x1 |
n N . Then for any n N, k 1 we have |xn+k xn | < . Thus (xn ) is a Cauchy sequence.

Let > 0 be given. Since 0 c < 1, we have cn 0. Choose N N such that cn <

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