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ListofnarrativetechniquesWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Listofnarrativetechniques
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Anarrativetechnique(alsoknown,morenarrowlyforliteraryfictionalnarratives,asaliterary
technique,literarydevice,orfictionaldevice)isanyofseveralspecificmethodsthecreatorofanarrative
usestoconveywhattheywant[1]inotherwords,astrategyusedinthemakingofanarrativetorelay
informationtotheaudienceand,particularly,to"develop"thenarrative,usuallyinordertomakeitmore
complete,complicated,orinteresting.Literarytechniquesaredistinguishedfromliteraryelements,which
existinherentlyinworksofwriting.

Contents
1Narrativetechniquespertainingtosetting
2Narrativetechniquespertainingtoplots
3Narrativetechniquespertainingtoperspective
4Narrativetechniquespertainingtostyle
5Narrativetechniquespertainingtotheme
6Narrativetechniquespertainingtocharacter
7Notes

Narrativetechniquespertainingtosetting
Name
Backstory

Definition
Storythatprecedeseventsin
thestorybeingtoldpast
eventsorbackgroundthatadd
meaningtocurrent
circumstances.

Example
ThoughTheLordoftheRingstrilogytakesplace
towardstheendoftheThirdAge,thenarrationinthe
beginningofthemovietrilogygivesglimpsesofthe
mythological/historicaleventswhichtookplaceinthe
FirstandSecondAge.

Narrativetechniquespertainingtoplots
Name

Definition

Example

Backstory

Storythatprecedeseventsin
thestorybeingtoldpast
eventsorbackgroundthatadd
meaningtocurrent
circumstances

ThoughTheLordoftheRingstrilogytakesplace
towardstheendoftheThirdAge,thenarrationgives
glimpsesofthemythological/historicaleventswhich
tookplaceintheFirstandSecondAge.

Cliffhanger

Thenarrativeends
unresolved,todrawthe
audiencebacktoafuture
episodefortheresolution.

AlmosteveryepisodeoftheTVshowslikeDexterand
BreakingBadendswithoneofthecharactersina
predicament(abouttobecaughtbythugs,abouttobe
exposedbytheauthority,orafamilymemberorafriend
findsoutthemaincharacter'sdirtysecret).

Deusex

Resolvingtheprimary

AnexampleoccursinMightyAphrodite.

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Deusex
machina(a
machination,
oractofgod
lit.godoutof
themachine)

Resolvingtheprimary
conflictbyameansunrelated
tothestory(e.g.,agod
appearsandsolves
everything).Thisdevicedates
backtoancientGreektheater,
butcanbeaclumsymethod
thatfrustratestheaudience.
Eucatastrophe CoinedbyJ.R.R.Tolkien,a
climacticeventthroughwhich
theprotagonistappearstobe
facingacatastrophicchange.
However,thischangedoes
notmaterializeandthe
protagonistfindshimselfas
thebenefactorofsucha
climacticeventcontrast
peripety/peripateia.

AnexampleoccursinMightyAphrodite.

Flashback(or
analeptic
reference)

Generaltermforalteringtime
sequences,takingcharacters
backtothebeginningofthe
tale,forinstance

Thestoryof"TheThreeApples"inArabianNightstale
beginswiththediscoveryofayoungwoman'sdead
body.Afterthemurdererlaterrevealshimself,he
narrateshisreasonsforthemurderasaflashbackof
eventsleadinguptothediscoveryofherdeadbodyat
thebeginningofthestory.

Flashforward

Alsocalledprolepsis,ascene OccursinAChristmasCarolwhenMr.Scroogevisits
thattemporarilyjumpsthe
theghostofthefuture.Itisalsofrequentinthelater
narrativeforwardintime.
seasonsofthetelevisionseriesLost.
Flashforwardsoftenrepresent
eventsexpected,projected,or
imaginedtooccurinthe
future.Theymayalsoreveal
significantpartsofthestory
thathavenotyetoccurred,but
soonwillingreaterdetail.

Foreshadowing Implicityetintentionalefforts
ofanauthortosuggestevents
whichhaveyettotakeplace
intheprocessofnarration.
Seealsorepetitive
designationandChekhov's
gun

AttheendofTheLordoftheRings,Gollumforcibly
takesawaytheRingfromFrodo,suggestingthatSauron
wouldeventuallytakeoverMiddleEarth.However,
Gollumcelebratestooeagerlyandclumsilyandfalls
intothelava,wherebytheringisdestroyedandwithit
Sauron'spower.Inaway,GollumdoeswhatFrodoand
theFellowshipoftheRingintendedtodothroughthe
wholeplotofthetrilogy,whichwastothrowthering
intothelakeoffireintheheartofMountDoom.

Anarrationmightbeginwithamalecharacterwhohas
tobreakupaschoolyardfightamongsomeboyswho
arevyingfortheattentionofagirl,whichwas
introducedtoforeshadowtheeventsleadingtoadinner
timesquabblebetweenthecharacterandhistwin
brotheroverawoman,whombotharecourtingatthe
sametime.

Framestory,or Amainstorythatorganizesa EarlyexamplesincludePanchatantra,ArabianNights,

astorywithin seriesofshorterstories.
andTheDecameron.AmoremodernexampleisBrian
astory
Jacques'TheLegendofLuke.
Framing
device

Asingleaction,scene,event,
setting,oranyelementof
significanceatthebeginning
andendofawork.Theuseof

InArabianNights,Scheherazade,thenewlywedwifeto
theKing,istheframingdevice.Asacharacter,sheis
tellingthe"1,001stories"totheKing,inordertodelay
herexecutionnightbynight.However,asaframing

framingdevicesallowfor

deviceherpurposeforexistingistotellthesame1,001

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framingdevicesallowfor
framestoriestoexist.
MacGuffin

Aplotdeviceintheformof
somegoal,desiredobject,or
othermotivatorthatthe
protagonistpursues,often
withlittleornonarrative
explanationastowhyitis
consideredsoimportant.

Inmediasres

Beginningthestoryinthe
middleofasequenceof
events.Aspecificformof
narrativehook.

deviceherpurposeforexistingistotellthesame1,001
storiestothereader.

TheIliadandtheOdysseyofHomerareprime
examples.Thelatterworkbeginswiththereturnof
OdysseustohishomeofIthakaandtheninflashbacks
tellsofhistenyearsofwanderingfollowingtheTrojan
War.

Narrativehook Storyopeningthat"hooks"
Anynonfictionbookisoftenintroducedwithan
readers'attentionsotheywill interestingfactoid.
keepreading
Plottwist

Unexpectedchange("twist")
inthedirectionorexpected
outcomeoftheplot.Seealso
twistending.

AnexampleoccursinTheCryingGame.

Poeticjustice

Virtueultimatelyrewarded,or
vicepunished,byanironic
twistoffaterelatedtothe
character'sownconduct

WileE.Coyotecomingupwithacontraptiontocatch
theRoadRunner,onlytobefoiledandcaughtbyhis
owndevices.Eachsin'spunishmentinDante'sInferno
isasymbolicinstanceofpoeticjustice.

Predestination Timetravelparadoxwherea
paradox
timetraveleriscaughtina
loopofeventsthat
"predestines"themtotravel
backintime

InDoctorWho,themaincharacterrepeatedlyfinds
himselfundertheobligationofhavingtotravelbackin
timebecauseofsomethinghisfuturecharacterhasdone.

Quibble

Plotdevicebasedonan
argumentthatanagreement's
intendedmeaningholdsno
legalvalue,andthatonlythe
exact,literalwordsagreedon
apply.

Forexample,WilliamShakespeareusedaquibblein
TheMerchantofVenice:PortiasavesAntonioinacourt
oflawbypointingoutthattheagreementcalledfora
poundofflesh,butnoblood,soShylockcancollect
onlyifheshedsnoblood.

Redherring

Divertingattentionawayfrom Forexample,inmysteryfiction,aninnocentpartymay
anitemofsignificance.
bepurposefullycastashighlysuspiciousthrough
emphasisordescriptivetechniquestodivertattention
fromthetrueguiltyparty.

Selffulfilling
prophecy

Predictionthat,bybeing
EarlyexamplesincludethelegendofOedipus,andthe
made,makesitselfcometrue. storyofKrishnaintheMahabharata.Thereisalsoan
exampleofthisinHarryPotterwhenLordVoldemort
heardaprophecy(madebySybillTrelawneyto
Dumbledore)thataboybornattheendofJuly,whose
parentshaddefiedVoldemortthriceandsurvived,
wouldbemademarkedashisequal.Becauseofthis

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Storywithina Astorytoldwithinanother
story
story.Seealsoframestory.
(Hypodiegesis)

prophecy,LordVoldemortsoughtoutHarryPotter
(believinghimtobetheboyspokenof)andtriedtokill
him.Hisparentsdiedprotectinghim,andwhen
VoldemorttriedtocastakillingcurseonHarry,it
reboundedandtookawaymostofhisstrength,andgave
HarryPotterauniqueabilityandconnectionwiththe
DarkLordthusmarkinghimashisequal
InStephenKing'sTheWindThroughtheKeyhole,of
theDarkTowerseries,theprotagonisttellsastoryfrom
hispasttohiscompanions,andinthisstoryhetells
anotherrelativelyunrelatedstory.

Tickingclock
scenario

Threatofimpendingdisaster
oftenusedinthrillers
wheresalvationandescape
areessentialelements

IntheTVshow"24",themaincharacter,JackBauer
oftenfindshimselfinterrogatingaterroristwhois
caughtinordertodisarmabomb.

Unreliable
narrator

Thenarratorofthestoryis
notsincere,orintroducesa
biasinhisnarrationand
possiblymisleadsthereader,
hidingorminimizingevents,
characters,ormotivations.

AnexampleisTheMurderofRogerAckroyd.

Narrativetechniquespertainingtoperspective
Name

Definition

Example

Authorsurrogate Characterswhicharebased SocratesinthewritingsofPlato.

onauthors,usuallytosupport
theirpersonalviews.
Sometimesanintentionally
orunintentionallyidealized
versionofthem.Avariation
istheMarySueorGaryStu,
whichprimarilyservesasan
idealizedselfinsertion.
Breakingthe
fourthwall

Anauthororcharacter
addressestheaudience
directly(alsoknownasdirect
address).Thismay
acknowledgetothereaderor
audiencethatwhatisbeing
presentedisfiction,ormay
seektoextendtheworldof
thestorytoprovidethe
illusionthattheyareincluded
init.

ThecharactersinSesameStreetoftenbreakthefourth
wallwhentheyaddresstheirviewersaspartofthe
ongoingstoryline,whichispossiblebecauseofthe
highlevelofsuspensionofbeliefaffordedbyits
audiencechildren.TheAmericanpoliticaldrama
showHouseofCardsalsousesthistechnique
frequentlytolettheviewersknowwhatthemain
characterFrankUnderwoodisthinkingandplanning.

Defamiliarization Writingaboutsomething
Acharactertravelstoanexoticland.Hewritesletters
describingcharacteraweand tosomeonehome.
wonder[2]

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wonder[2]
Firstperson
Narration

Atextpresentedfromthe
MarkTwain'sAdventuresofHuckleberryFinnuses
pointofviewofacharacter, thetitlecharacterasthenarrator,whileSherlock
especiallytheprotagonist,as HolmesisprimarilytoldfromWatson'sperspective.
ifthecharacteristellingthe
storythemselves.(Breaking
thefourthwallisanoption,
butnotanecessity,ofthis
format.)

Magicalrealism

Describingeventsinareal ParticularlypopularwithLatinAmericanauthorslike
worldsettingbutwith
GabrielGarcaMrquez.Elsewhere,SalmanRushdie's
magicaltrappings,often
workprovidesgoodexamples.
incorporatinglocalcustoms
andinventedbeliefs.
Differentfromurbanfantasy
inthatthemagicitselfisnot
thefocusofthestory.

Secondperson
Narration

Atextwritteninthestyleof
adirectaddress,inthe
secondperson.

Streamof
consciousness

Theauthorusesnarrativeand Anexampleis"Ulysses".
stylisticdevicestocreatethe
senseofanuneditedinterior
monologue,characterizedby
leapsinsyntaxand
punctuationthattracea
character'sfragmentary
thoughtsandsensory
feelings.Theoutcomeisa
highlylucidperspectivewith
aplot.Nottobeconfused
withfreewriting.

Thirdperson
Narration

Atextwrittenasifbyan
impersonalnarratorwhois
notaffectedbytheeventsin
thestory.Canbeomniscient
orlimited,thelatterusually
beingtiedtoaspecific
character,agroupof
characters,oralocation.

Unreliable
narrator

Thenarratorofthestoryis
AnexampleisTheMurderofRogerAckroyd
notsincere,orintroducesa
biasinhisnarrationand
possiblymisleadsthereader,
hidingorminimizingevents,
characters,ormotivations.

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Rape:ALoveStory.

ASongofIceandFireiswritteninmultiplelimited
thirdpersonnarratorsthatchangewitheachchapter.
TheMasterandMargaritausesanomniscient
narrator.

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Narrativetechniquespertainingtostyle
Name

Definition

Example

Allegory

Asymbolicstory.

ThePilgrim'sProgressbyJohnBunyanisanarrative
thatservescompletelyasanallegory,withthemain
characterChristianrepresentingafollowerof
Christianityonhisjourneythroughlife,encountering
dailystrugglesasheaimstowardstheCelestialCity
(Heaven).

Alliteration

Repeatingthesameletteror
consonantsoundatthe
beginningofadjacentor
closelyconnectedwords.

InthefilmVforVendettathemaincharacterperformsa
coupleofsoliloquieswithaheavyuseofalliteration.
e.g.."Voil!Inview,ahumblevaudevillianveteran,
castvicariouslyasbothvictimandvillainbythe
vicissitudesofFate.Thisvisage,nomereveneerof
vanity,isavestigeofthevoxpopuli,nowvacant,
vanished,astheoncevitalvoiceoftheverisimilitude
nowvenerateswhattheyoncevilified.However,this
valorousvisitationofabygonevexationstandsvivified,
andhasvowedtovanquishthesevenalandvirulent
verminvanguardingviceandvouchsafingtheviolently
viciousandvoraciousviolationofvolition.Theonly
verdictisvengeanceavendettaheldasavotive,notin
vain,forthevalueandveracityofsuchshalloneday
vindicatethevigilantandthevirtuous.Verily,this
vichyssoiseofverbiageveersmostverbosevisvisan
introduction,andsoitismyverygoodhonortomeet
youandyoumaycallmeV."

Amplification
(rhetoric)

Amplificationreferstoa
literarypracticewhereinthe
writerembellishesthe
sentencebyaddingmore
informationtoitinorderto
increaseitsworthand
understanding.

e.g.OriginalsentenceThethesispaperwasdifficult.
AfteramplificationThethesispaperwasdifficult:it
requiredextensiveresearch,datacollection,sample
surveys,interviewsandalotoffieldwork.

Anagram

Rearrangingthelettersofa
wordoraphrasetoforma
newphraseorword.

e.g.Ananagramfor"debitcard"is"badcredit".Asyou
cansee,bothphrasesusethesameletters.Bymixing
thelettersabitofhumoriscreated.

Asyndeton

Whensentencesdonotuse
conjunctions(e.g.:and,or,
nor)toseparateclauses,but
runclausesintooneanother,
usuallymarkingthe
separationofclauseswith
punctuation.

AnexampleiswhenJohnF.KennedysaidonJanuary
the20th1961"...thatweshallpayanyprice,bearany
burden,meetanyhardship,supportanyfriend,oppose
anyfoetoassurethesurvivalandthesuccessof
liberty."

Anabrupttransitioninstyle
fromtheexaltedtothe
commonplace,producinga
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:Theballerinarosegracefullyenpointeandextended
oneslenderlegbehindher,likeadogatafirehydrant.

Bathos

(JenniferHart,Arlington)[5]

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commonplace,producinga
ludicrouseffect.Whileoften
unintended,bathosmaybe
useddeliberatelytoproducea
humorouseffect.[3][4]

(JenniferHart,Arlington)[5]

Caesura

Abreak,especiallyasense
pause,usuallynearthe
middleofaverse,and
markedinscansionbya
doubleverticalline.This
techniquefrequentlyoccurs
withinapoeticline
grammaticallyconnectedto
theendofthepreviousline
byenjambment.

e.g.in"Knowthenthyself.PresumenotGodtoscan."

Distancing
Effect

Deliberatelymakingthe
Popularizedby20thcenturyplaywrightBertoltBrecht.
audiencenotidentifyingwith
charactersinordertoletting
thembecomescrutinized.[6]

Dramatic
visualization

Representinganobjector
characterwithabundant
descriptivedetail,or
mimeticallyrendering
gesturesanddialogueto
makeascenemorevisualor
imaginativelypresenttoan
audience.

Euphuism

Anartificial,highlyelaborate "Isitnotfarbettertoabhorsinsbytheremembranceof
wayofwritingorspeaking. others'faults,thanbyrepentanceofthineownfollies?"
NamedfromEuphues(1579) (Euphues,1,lecturebythewiseNeapolitan)
theproseromancebyJohn
Lyly.

Hyperbole

Exaggerationusedtoevoke
strongfeelingsorcreatean
impressionwhichisnot
meanttobetakenliterally.

Sallycouldnolongerhidehersecret.Herpregnant
bellywasbiggerthantheplanetonwhichshestood.

Imagery

Formingmentalimagesofa
sceneusingdescriptive
words,especiallymakinguse
ofthehumansenses.The
sameassensorydetail.

Whenthebootscameoffhisfeetwithaleathery
squeak,asmelloffermentandfishmarketimmediately
filledthesmalltent.Theskinofhistoeswereredand
rawandsensitive.Themalodorousairwassotoxiche
thoughthecouldalmosttastehistoes.

Leitwortstil

Purposefullyrepeatingwords ThisdatesbackatleasttotheArabianNights.[8]
thatusuallyexpressamotif
orthemeimportanttothe
story.

Thistechniqueappearsatleastasfarbackasthe
ArabianNights.[7]

Metonymy

Wordorphraseinafigureof Metonomy:Theboxerthrewinthetowel.Synecdoche:
speechinwhichanounis
Shegaveherhandinmarriage.
referencedbysomething
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referencedbysomething
closelyassociatedwithit,
ratherthanexplicitlybythe
nounitself.Thisisnottobe
confusedwithsynecdoche,in
whichapartofthewhole
standsforthethingitself.
Overstatement Exaggeratingsomething,
oftenforemphasis(also
knownashyperbole)

Sally'spregnantbellymostlikelyweighedasmuchas
thescootersheusedtoridebeforeshegotpregnant.

Onomatopoeia Wordthatsoundsthesame
as,orsimilartowhatthe
wordmeans.

"Boomgoesthedynamite."

Oxymoron

Atermmadeoftwowords
thatdeliberatelyor
coincidentallyimplyeach
other'sopposite.

"terriblebeauty"

Paradox

Aphrasethatdescribesan
ideacomposedofconcepts
thatconflict.

"Itwasthebestoftimes,itwastheworstoftimes."(A
TaleofTwoCities)

Parody

Ridiculebyoverstated
imitation,usuallyhumorous.

MADMagazine

Pastiche

Usingformsandstylesfrom
anotherauthor,generallyas
anaffectionatetribute.

SuchasthemanystoriesfeaturingSherlockHolmesnot
writtenbyArthurConanDoyle,ormuchoftheCthulhu
Mythos.

Pathos

Emotionalappeal,oneofthe
threemodesofpersuasionin
rhetoricthattheauthoruses
toinspirepityorsorrow
towardsacharacter
typicallydoesnot
counterbalancethetarget
character'ssufferingwitha
positiveoutcome,asin
Tragedy.

InRomeoandJuliet,thetwomaincharacterseach
commitsuicideatthesightofthesupposedlydead
lover,howevertheaudienceknowstheseactionstobe
rashandunnecessary.Therefore,Shakespearemakes
fortheemotionalappealfortheunnecessarytragedy
behindtheyoungcharacters'rashinterpretationsabout
loveandlife.

Polyptoton

Wordsderivedfromthesame "Notasacalltobattle,thoughembattledweare."John
rootinasentence.
F.Kennedy,InauguralAddress,January20,1961.

Polysyndeton

Polysyndetonistheuseof
severalconjunctionsinclose
succession,thisprovidesa
senseofexaggeration
designedtoweardownthe
audience.

AnexampleofthisisinthefirstchapterofGreat
ExpectationsbyCharlesDickens:"Amanwhohad
beensoakedinwater,andsmotheredinmud,andlamed
bystones,andcutbyflints,andstungbynettles,and
tornbybriarswholimped,andshivered,andglared
andgrowledandwhoseteethchatteredinhisheadas
heseizedmebythechin"

Satire

Theuseofhumor,ironyor
exaggerationtocriticize.

AnexampleisNetwork.Oneoftheearliestexamplesis
GulliversTravels,writtenbyJonathanSwift.Alsothe

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TVshowSouthParkisanexampleofsatire.

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TVshowSouthParkisanexampleofsatire.
Sensorydetail

sight,sound,taste,touch,
smell.Thesameasimagery

Thebootwastoughandsinewybetweenhishardbiting
teeth.Therewasnoflavortospeakofexceptforthe
blandnessofallthedirtthattheboothadsoakedup
overtheyears.Theonlythingthebootremindedhimof
wasthesmellofawetdog.

Understatement Adiminishingorsofteningof Thebrokenendsofthelongbonewerestickingthrough

athemeoreffect.
thebleedingskin,butitwasn'tsomethingthatalways
killedaman.

Narrativetechniquespertainingtotheme

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Name

ListofnarrativetechniquesWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Definition

Example

Irony

Thisdiscrepancybetween
Apersonhearsaprophecyabouthimself.Hisendeavor
expectationandrealityoccurs tostoptheprophecyfromcomingtrue,makesitcome
inthreeforms:situational
true.
irony,whereasituation
featuresadiscrepancy
betweenwhatisexpectedand
whatisactualizeddramatic
irony,whereacharacteris
unawareofpivotal
informationalreadyrevealed
totheaudience(the
discrepancyhereliesinthe
twolevelsofawareness
betweenthecharacterandthe
audience)andverbalirony,
whereonestatesonething
whilemeaninganother.The
differencebetweenverbal
ironyandsarcasmis
exquisitelysubtleandoften
contested.Theconceptof
ironyistoooften
misunderstoodinpopular
usage.Unfortunate
circumstancesand
coincidencesdonotconstitute
irony(nordotheyqualifyas
beingtragic).SeetheUsage
controversysectionunder
irony,andthetermtragedy.

Metaphor

Evokingimaginationby
meansofusingfigurative
language.

Thematic
patterning

Distributingrecurrent
EachofthechaptersofUlyssesbyJamesJoyce.
thematicconceptsand
moralisticmotifsamong
variousincidentsandframes
ofastory.Inaskillfully
craftedtale,thematic
patterningmayemphasizethe
unifyingargumentorsalient
ideadisparateeventsand
disparateframeshavein
common.

Narrativetechniquespertainingtocharacter
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Name

Type

Anthropomorphism

Notes
Formofpersonificationthatapplieshumanlike
characteristicstoanimalsorobjects

Hamartia

Thecharacterflawofan
initiallyrichandpowerful
herothatleadstohistragic
downfall.

Oedipuskillshisownfatherbecausehedoesn't
understandhistrueparentage.

Patheticfallacy

Reflectingacharacter's
Forexample,thestorminWilliamShakespeare's
(usuallytheprotagonist)
KingLear,whichmirrorsLear'smental
moodintheatmosphereor
deterioration.
inanimateobjects.Relatedto
anthropomorphismand
projection

Personification

Usingcomparative
Atalkingrock.
metaphorsandsimilesto
givelivingcharacteristicsto
nonlivingobjects.Thesame
thingasanthropomorphism.

Notes
1. Orehovec,Barbara(2003).RevisitingtheReadingWorkshop:ACompleteGuidetoOrganizingandManagingan
EffectiveReadingWorkshopThatBuildsIndependent,StrategicReaders(illustrateded.).ScholasticInc.p.89.
ISBN0439444047.
2. http://beyondthemargins.com/2010/05/doyoudefamiliarize2/
3. Fiske,RobertHartwell(1November2011).RobertHartwellFiske'sDictionaryofUnendurableEnglish:A
CompendiumofMistakesinGrammar,Usage,andSpellingwithcommentaryonlexicographersandlinguists
(http://books.google.com/books?id=JZqfZfIvtlsC&pg=PA71).Scribner.p.71.ISBN9781451651348.
4. Abrams,MeyerHowardHarpham,GeoffreyGalt(2009).AGlossaryofLiteraryTerms
(http://books.google.com/books?id=o9VkYJuVn9YC&pg=PA24).CengageLearning.p.24.ISBN97814130
33908.
5. HighSchoolAnalogies(http://writingenglish.wordpress.com/2006/09/12/the25funniestanalogiescollectedby
highschoolenglishteachers/)
6. GrahamAllen(2June2004).RolandBarthes(http://books.google.com/books?id=o4Sg_gx3soIC&pg=PA29).
Routledge.p.29.ISBN1134503415.
7. Heath,Peter(May1994),"Reviewedwork(s):StoryTellingTechniquesintheArabianNightsbyDavidPinault",
InternationalJournalofMiddleEastStudies(CambridgeUniversityPress)26(2):358360,
doi:10.1017/s0020743800060633(https://dx.doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0020743800060633)
8. Heath(1994)p.360

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