AXIAL STRENGTH AISC 360-05

1 Index
Contenido
1

Index...................................................................................................................... 1

AISC 360-05........................................................................................................... 1

2.1

Record Section properties:............................................................................... 1

2.2

Determine K (Effective Length factor) for the X-axis and Y-axis.......................1

2.2.1

Columns.................................................................................................... 2

2.2.2

Frames....................................................................................................... 2

Methods:................................................................................................................ 3
3.1

Tables............................................................................................................... 3

3.2

Manual Calculation.......................................................................................... 8

3.2.1

Check Local stability.................................................................................. 8

3.2.2

Determine Fcr............................................................................................ 9

3.2.3

Nominal strength..................................................................................... 10

Columns in Frames (BEAM COLUMN)....................................................................11

4.1

Shapes different to I-shapes..........................................................................14

2 STRUCTURAL CONCEPTS
The design compressive strength Pn and the allowable compressive strength Pn/ are
determined using c = 0.90 (LRFD) and c = 1.67 (ASD) for all cases.
The nominal compressive strength Pn is determined as the least value calculated for the
limit states of
- flexural buckling,
- torsional buckling, and
- flexural-torsional buckling, as applicable.
Flexural buckling is applicable for doubly symmetric and singly symmetric members.
For singly symmetric and unsymmetric members, and certain doubly symmetric
members, such as cruciform or built-up columns, the limit states of torsional or
flexural torsional buckling are also applicable.
An important factor in the design of compression members is the slenderness ratio, KL/r,
where
L = laterally unbraced length of member, in (mm),
r = governing radius of gyration, in (mm), and
K = effective length factor.
Although the AISC Specification imposes no maximum slenderness limit, it is sometimes
considered good practice to limit KL/r to 200 for members designed on the basis of
compression.

The buckling coefficient K is the ratio of the effective column length to the unbraced
length L.
(Also see Art. 5.2.) Values of K depend on the support conditions of the column to be
designed. The AISC Specification indicates that K should be taken as unity for columns in
braced frames unless analysis indicates that a smaller value is justified. Analysis is
required for determination of K for unbraced frames, but K should not be less than unity.
Design values for K recommended by the Structural Stability Research Council for use with
six idealized conditions of rotation and translation
at column supports are illustrated in Fig. 5.1.
The following articles give the compressive strength of members without slender
elements.
Provisions for the latter may be found in Art. E7 of the AISC Specificatio

2.1 EFFECTIVE WIDTH CONCEPT (COLD FORMED STEEL)

The design of cold-formed steel differs from heavier construction in that elements of
members typically have large width-to-thickness (w/t) ratios and are thus subject to local
buckling.
Figure 9.2 illustrates local buckling in
beams and columns. Flat elements in
compression that have both edges
parallel to the direction of stress
stiffened by a web, flange, lip, or
stiffener are referred to as stiffened
elements.
Examples in Fig. 9.2 include the top
flange of the channel and the flanges
of the I-cross-section column.
To account for the effect of local
buckling in design, the concept of
effective width is employed for
elements in compression. The
background for this concept can be
explained as follows.
FIGURE 9.2 Local buckling of
compression elements.
(a) In beams.
(b) In columns.
(Source: Commentary on the North
American Specification for the Design
of Cold-Formed Steel Structural
Members, American Iron and Steel
Institute, Washington, D.C., 2001, with
permission.)
Unlike a column, a plate does not usually attain its maximum load-carrying capacity at the
buckling load, but usually shows significant postbuckling strength.
This behavior is illustrated in Fig. 9.3, where longitudinal and transverse bars represent a
plate that is simply supported along all edges. As the uniformly distributed end load is
gradually increased, the longitudinal bars are equally stressed and reach their buckling
load simultaneously. However, as the longitudinal bars buckle, the transverse bars develop
tension in restraining the lateral deflection of the longitudinal bars. Thus, the longitudinal
bars do not collapse when they reach their buckling load but are able to carry additional
load because of the transverse restraint. The longitudinal bars nearest the center can

deflect more than the bars near the edge, and therefore, the edge bars carry higher loads
after buckling than do the center bars.
The postbuckling behavior of a simply supported plate is similar to that of the grid model.
However, the ability of a plate to resist shear strains that develop during buckling also
contributes to its postbuckling strength.
Although the grid shown in Fig. 9.3a
buckled into only one longitudinal
half-wave, a longer plate may buckle
into several waves, as illustrated in
Figs. 9.2 and 9.3b.
For long plates, the half-wavelength
approaches the width b.
After a simply supported plate
buckles, the compressive stress will
vary from a maximum near the
supported edges to a minimum at the
mid-width of the plate, as shown by
line 1 of Fig. 9.3c. As the load is
increased the edge stresses will
increase, but the stress in the midwidth of the plate may decrease
slightly. The maximum load is reached
and collapse is initiated when the
edge stress reaches the yield stress
a condition indicated by line 2 of Fig.
9.3c.
The postbuckling strength of a plate
element can be considered by
assuming that, after buckling, the
total load is carried by strips adjacent
to the supported edges which are at a
uniform stress equal to the actual
maximum edge stress. These strips
are indicated by the dashed lines in
Fig. 9.3c. The total width of the strips,
which represents the effective width
of the element b, is defined so that
the product of b and the maximum
edge stress equals the actual stresses
integrated over the entire width.

FIGURE 9.3 Effective width concept.

(a) Buckling of grid model. (b) Buckling of plate. (c) Stress distributions.

The effective width decreases as the applied stress f increases. At maximum load, the
stress on the effective width is the yield stress fy.
Thus, an element with a small enough w/t will be able to reach the yield point and will be
fully effective. Elements with larger ratios will have an effective width that is less than the
full width, and that reduced width will be used in section property calculations.
The behaviour of elements with other edge-support conditions is generally similar to that
discussed
above. However, an element supported along only one edge will develop only one
effective strip.

Equations for calculating effective widths of elements are given in subsequent articles
based on
the AISI NAS. These equations are based on theoretical elastic buckling theory but
modified to reflect
the results of extensive physical testing.
9.7 MAXIMUM WIDTH-TO-THICKNESS RATIOS

The AISI NAS gives certain maximum width-to-thickness ratios that must be adhered to.
For flange elements, such as in flexural members or columns, the maximum flat width-to
thickness ratio, w/t, disregarding any intermediate stiffeners, is as follows:
Stiffened compression element having one longitudinal edge connected to a web or flange
element, the other stiffened by
A simple lip, 60
Other stiffener with IS Ia, 90
Other stiffener with IS Ia, 90
Stiffened compression element with both longitudinal edges connected to other stiffened
elements, 500
Unstiffened compression element, 60
In the above,
- IS is the moment of inertia of the stiffener about its centroidal axis, parallel to the
element to be stiffened, and
- Ia is the moment of inertia of a stiffener adequate for the element to behave as a
stiffened element.
Note that, although greater ratios are permitted, stiffened compression elements

2.2 Equations for Axially Loaded Metal Columns

3 AISC 360-05
Brace and unbraced frames. Buckling resistance and torsional buckling according to AISC
13th edition. Personal development. 1 hour. Chart to obtain K. Rotational stiffness.
If AMERICAN SECTIONS, check table 22 to determine Available Critical Stress

3.1 Record Section properties:

Ag , rx , ry , b , be, k , tf, t , kdes
where kdes is the design value of k. (Different manufacturers will produce this shape with
different values of k. The design value is the smallest of these values. The detailing value
is the largest.)
Determine Lb

Determine if braced or unbraced, if there is translation/sway or non-sway/nontranslation

3.2 Determine K (Effective Length factor) for the X-axis and Y-axis
Select case
3.2.1 Columns
Table C-C2.2
For isolated columns that are not part of a continuous frame, Table C-C2.2 in the Commentary to
the Specification will usually suffice.

3.3 Determine KL/r

3.3.1 Columns

FY (N/mm2)
355
275

3.3.2 Frames
Braced frames

113.2
128.6

Unbraced frames

KxL/rx
KyL/ry

If there is sway then

KL
rx
ry

Take the larger of them ,

Condition: KL/r < 200
where
Pr = required axial strength
Pc = available axial strength

3.3.3 Notes On effective length:

3.4 Compressive Strength for Flexural Buckling

The nominal compressive strength Pn for the limit state of flexural buckling is
Pn = AgFcr
where Fcr is the buckling stress, determined according to Eqs. (5.20) and (5.21).
When (KL/r) 4.71 E/Fy or Fe 0.44 Fy,

When (KL/r) > 4.71E/Fy or Fe < 0.44Fy,

Strength of section. Manual Calculation
Notes on this issue. Exercises and learn on design
where Fe = elastic buckling stress determined according to Eq. (5.22) or from the
stability analysis:

FY (N/mm2)
355
275

113.2
128.6

If KL/r > 200 then Not appropriate

If KL/r <
Eq. E3-2

or Fe 0.44 Fy then

If KL/r >

then Eq. E3-3

3.4.1 Check Local stability. Determine compactness or slenderness of

section
The strength corresponding to any buckling mode cannot be developed, however, if
the elements of the cross section are so thin that local buckling occurs. This type of
instability is a localized buckling or wrinkling at an isolated location.
If it occurs, the cross section is no longer fully effective, and the member has
failed. I- and Hshaped cross sections with thin flanges or webs are susceptible to
this phenomenon, and their
use should be avoided whenever possible.
Otherwise, the compressive strength given by:
- AISC Equations E3-2 and E3-3 must be reduced.
The measure of this susceptibility is the widththickness ratio of each cross-sectional
element. Two types of elements must be considered:
1. unstiffened elements, which are unsupported along one edge parallel to the
direction of load, and
2. stiffened elements, which are supported along both edges.
Limiting values of widththickness ratios are given in AISC B4, Classification of
Sections for Local Buckling, where cross-sectional shapes are classified as
- compact,
- noncompact, or
- slender,
according to the values of the ratios.
For uniformly compressed elements, as in an axially loaded compression member,
the strength must be reduced if the shape has any slender elements.
The widththickness ratio is given the generic name of . Depending on the particular
cross-sectional element, for I- and H-shapes is either the ratio b/t or h/tw, both of
which are defined presently.
- If is greater than the specified limit, denoted r , the shape is slender, and
the potential for local buckling must be accounted for.
For I- and H-shapes, the projecting flange is considered to be an unstiffened element,
and its width can be taken as half the full nominal width.
Using AISC notation gives
Check limiting width-thickness ratio for compression elements
(We postpone a discussion of the compact
and noncompact categories until Chapter 5, Beams.)

3.4.1.1Limits on flange/web ratios on compression member

See 7.4 COMPRESSION
MEMBERS from Structural
Steel Designers Handbook
(3rd Edition) Brockenbrough
& Merritt- bookmarked.pdf

Flange: bf/2tf // Allowable:

AISC 9th edition: 171/sqr(Fy) /
AISC 13th edition:
253.55/sqr(Fy) (S.I)
Web: D/tw
// Allowable:
th
AISC 9 edition: 1683/sqr(Fy) /
AISC 13th edition:
674.76/sqr(Fy) (S.I)
Values of r for I-beams /
Channels:
FY
(N/mm2)
355
275

13.5
15.3

If slender: Stiffener or use factor Q (foot note C in AISC manual section tables)
KL/r , an upper limit of 200 is recommended
3.4.1.2Compact (no instability)
Calculate Euler load Fe: (critical buckling load according to the Euler equation)

Determine Fcr

35.8
40.7

Fe = elastic critical buckling stress, calculated using Equations E3-4 and E4-4 for
doubly symmetric members,

CHANNELS & ANGLES

Equations E3-4 and E4-5 for singly symmetric members, and

OTHER MEMBERS
Equation E4-6 for unsymmetric members, except for single angles where Fe is
calculated using Equation E3-4.

3.4.1.3Slender
For uniformly compressed elements, as in
an axially loaded compression member,
the strength must
be reduced if the shape has any slender
elements.
(TAKE INTO ACCOUNT IF SLENDER
STIFFENED OR SLENDER UNSTIFFENED)
SEE E7. MEMBERS WITH SLENDER
ELEMENTS AISC 2005 - Specification for
Structural Steel Buildings

The nominal strength is Pn = FcrAg (AISC Equation E7-1)

Fe = elastic critical buckling stress, calculated using Equations E3-4 and E4-4 for
doubly symmetric members, Equations E3-4 and E4-5 for singly symmetric members,
and Equation E4-6 for unsymmetric members, except for single angles where Fe is
calculated using Equation E3-4.

3.4.2 Nominal strength Pn

3.4.2.1For LRFD,
Pu c Pn c = 0.90
Pu =Factored load sum of the factored loads
3.4.2.2For ASD
Pa = sum of the service loads
and being c= 1.67 (compression factor)
fa computed axial compressive stress Pa/Ag
Fa allowable axial compressive stress

3.4.3 Check width-thickness ratios

From the dimensions and properties table in the Manual, the width-thickness ratio for
the larger overall dimension is h/t and the ratio for the smaller dimension is b/t
From AISC Table B4.1, Determine case XX , and upper and lower limit CHECK
COMPRESSION

the upper limit for nonslender elements is

The reduction factor Q is the product of two factorsQs for unstiffened elements and
Qa for stiffened elements.
- Q = 1.0 for members with compact and noncompact sections, as defined in Section
B4,
- If the shape has no slender unstiffened elements, Qs = 1.0.
- If the shape has no slender stiffened elements, Qa = 1.0.
- for uniformly compressed elements = QsQa for members with slender-element
sections, as defined in Section B4, for uniformly compressed elements.
User Note:
- For cross sections composed of only unstiffened slender elements, Q = Qs (Qa =
1.0).
- For cross sections composed of only stiffened slender elements, Q = Qa (Qs = 1.0).
- For cross sections composed of both stiffened and unstiffened slender elements, Q
= QsQa.
Many of the shapes commonly used as columns are not slender, and the reduction
will not be needed. This includes most (but not all) W-shapes. However, a large
number of hollow structural shapes (HSS), double angles, and tees have slender
elements.
3.4.3.1

AISC E.7.1. Slender Unstiffened Elements, Qs

AISC Specification Section E7.1 gives the procedure for calculating Qs for slender
unstiffened elements: The procedure is straightforward, and involves comparing the

width-thickness ratio with a limiting value and then computing Qs from an expression
that is a function of the width-thickness ratio, Fy, and E.
The reduction factor Qs for slender unstiffened elements is defined as follows:
- (a) For flanges, angles, and plates projecting from rolled columns or other
compression members:

- (b) For flanges, angles, and plates projecting from built-up columns or other
compression members:

- (c) For single angles:

(d) For stems of tees:

3.4.3.2AISC E.7.2. Slender Stiffened Elements, Qa

The computation of Qa for slender stiffened elements is given in AISC E7.2 and is
slightly more complicated than the procedure for unstiffened elements. The general
procedure is as follows.
- Compute an effective area of the cross section. This requires a knowledge of
the stress in the effective
area, so iteration is required. The Specification
allows a simplifying assumption,
however, so iteration can be avoided.
- Compute Qa = Aeff/A, where Aeff is the effective area and A is the actual
area:
Aeff is the reduced effective area. The Specification user note for square and
rectangular sections permits a value of f = Fy to be used in lieu of determining f by
iteration.

where
f = Pn/Aeff
User Note: In lieu of calculating f = Pn/Aeff, which requires iteration, f
may be taken equal to Fy .
This will result in a slightly conservative
estimate of column capacity.
be = effective width of the slender element

3.5 Compressive Strength for Torsional and Flexural-Torsional

Buckling
This article applies to singly symmetric and unsymmetric members, and certain
doubly symmetric
members, such as cruciform or built-up columns. The elements of the members must
have width
thickness ratios for axially compressed elements such that the sections are classified
as compact or
noncompact (see Art. 5.1.5). For single-angle members, see Art. 5.4.3.
The nominal compressive strength Pn is calculated from Eq. (5.19) based on the limit
states of flexural-torsional buckling and torsional buckling. Fcr is determined as
follows:
where
The following definitions apply:
Kz = effective length factor for torsional buckling
G = shear modulus of elasticity of steel = 11,200 ksi (77,200 MPa)
Cw = warping constant, in6 (mm6)

J = torsional constant, in4 (mm4)

Ix, Iy = moment of inertia about the principal axes, in4 (mm4)
xo, yo = coordinates of shear center with respect to the centroid, in (mm)
o= Polar radius of gyration about shear center, in (mm)

For doubly symmetric I-shaped sections, Cw may be taken conservatively as Iyd 2/4.
For tees and double angles, take Cw and xo as 0.
3.5.1 For double-angle and tee-shaped compression members,

where Fcry is determined according to Eq. (5.20) or (5.21) for flexural buckling about
the y axis of symmetry with (KL/r) (KL/ry), and

For all other cases, Fcr is determined from Eq. (5.20) or (5.21), but with Fe determined
as follows:
3.5.2 For doubly symmetric members,

3.5.3 For singly symmetric members where y is the axis of symmetry

3.5.4 For unsymmetric members, Fe is the lowest root of the cubic equation

3.6 Compressive Strength of Single-Angle Members

The compressive strength of single-angle members can be determined from Eqs.
(5.19)(5.21), using
KL/r as given in this article and neglecting eccentricity, provided the angles are (1)
loaded at the ends
in compression through the same one leg, (2) attached by welding or by two-boltminimum connections,
and (3) subjected to no intermediate transverse loads. For other conditions, see the
AISC

Specification. The modified slenderness ratios are intended to account indirectly for
bending due to
eccentricity of loading and end restraint from truss chords.
For equal-leg angles, or unequal-leg angles connected through the longer leg, which
are individual
members or are web members of planar trusses with adjacent web members
attached to the same
side of the gusset plate or chord:
When 0 (L/rx) 80,

(5.33)
When (L/rx) > 80,

(5.34)
For unequal-leg angles with leg length ratios less than 1.7 connected through the
shorter leg, the
KL/r from Eqs. (5.33) and (5.34) should be increased by adding 4[(bl/bs)2 1], but
KL/r should not be less than 0.95L/rz.
For equal-leg angles or unequal-leg angles connected through the longer leg that are
web members
of box or space trusses with adjacent web members attached to the same side of the
gusset plate or chord:
When 0 (L/rx) 75,

(5.35)
When (L/rx) > 75,

(5.36)

For unequal-leg angles with leg length ratios less than 1.7, connected through the shorter leg, the

KL/r from Eqs. (5.35) and (5.36) should be increased by adding 6[(bl/bs)2 1], but
KL/r should not
be less than 0.82L/rz.
The following definitions apply:
L = length of member between work points at truss chord centerlines, in (mm)
rz = radius of gyration about minor axis, in (mm)
rx = radius of gyration about axis parallel to connected leg, in (mm)
bl = longer leg of angle, in (mm)
bs = shorter leg of angle, in (mm)

3.7 Compressive Strength of Built-up Members

The compressive strength of built-up members comprised of two or more shapes interconnected by
stitch bolts or welds should be determined from Eqs. (5.19) to (5.22), but with KL/r replaced by a
modified column slenderness ratio (KL/r)m determined as follows.
For intermediate connectors that are snug-tight bolted,

For intermediate connectors that are welded or fully tensioned bolted,

where (KL/r)o slenderness ratio of built-up member acting as a unit in the buckling direction
being considered
a distance between connectors, in (mm)
ri minimum radius of gyration of individual component, in (mm)
rib radius of gyration of individual component relative to its centroidal axis parallel
to member axis of buckling, in (mm)
separation ratio h/2rib
h distance between centroids of individual components perpendicular to the member
axis of buckling, in (mm)
The following dimensional requirements apply for built-up members. Individual components of
compression members composed of two or more shapes should be connected to one another at
intervals
a such that the effective slenderness ratio Ka/ri of each of the component shapes, between the
connectors, does not exceed three-fourths of the governing slenderness ratio of the built-up member.
Use the least radius of gyration ri to compute the slenderness ratio of each component part. The end
connection must be welded or fully tensioned bolted with Class A or B faying surfaces. The end
connection
may be designed for the full compressive load in a bearing-type bolted connection, but the
bolts must be fully tightened (see Art. 5.9.5).
At the ends of built-up compression members bearing on base plates or milled surfaces, all components
in contact with one another must be connected by a weld having a length not less than the
maximum width of the member, or by bolts spaced longitudinally not more than four diameters apart
for a distance equal to 11/2 times the maximum width of the member.
Along the length of built-up compression members between the end connections, longitudinal
spacing for intermittent welds or bolts should be adequate to transfer required forces. Where a
component
of a built-up compression member consists of an outside plate, and intermittent welds are provided
along the edges of the components or bolts are provided on all gage lines at each section, the
maximum spacing should not exceed the thickness of the thinner outside plate times 0.75 E/Fy ,nor
12 in (305 mm). When fasteners are staggered, the maximum spacing on each gage line should not
exceed the thickness of the thinner outside plate times 1.12 E/Fy nor 18 in (460 mm).
Open sides of compression members built up from plates or shapes should be provided with
continuous cover plates perforated with a succession of access holes. According to the AISC
Specification, the unsupported width of such plates at access holes contributes to the design strength
provided the following requirements are met: (1) the widththickness ratio conforms to the limitations
of Art. 5.1.5, (2) the ratio of hole length in the direction of stress to hole width of hole does not
exceed 2, (3) the clear distance between holes in the direction of stress is not less than the transverse
distance between the nearest lines of connecting fasteners or welds, and (4) the periphery of the holes
has a radius no less than of 11/2 in (38 mm).
As an alternative to perforated cover plates, lacing can be used with tie plates at each end and at
points where the lacing is interrupted. In members providing design strength, the end tie plates
should have a length of not less than the distance between the lines of fasteners or welds connecting
them to the components of the member. Intermediate tie plates should have a length not less than
one-half this distance. The thickness of tie plates should be not less than 1/50th the distance between
lines of welds or fasteners connecting them to the segments of the members. In welded construction,
the welding on each line connecting a tie plate should total at least one-third the length of the plate.
In bolted construction, the spacing in the direction of stress in tie plates should be not more than six
diameters and the tie plates should be connected to each segment by at least three fasteners.
Lacing, including flat bars, angles, channels, or other shapes employed as lacing, must be so
spaced that L/r of the flange included between their connections does not exceed three-fourths of the
governing slenderness ratio for the member as a whole. Lacing must be proportioned to provide a
shearing strength normal to the axis of the member equal to 2% of the compressive design strength
of the member. The L/r ratio for lacing bars must not exceed 140 for single lacing systems, or 200
for double lacing systems. Join double lacing bars where they intersect. For single lacing bars in
compression, take L as the unsupported length of the lacing bar between welds or fasteners connecting
it to the components of the built-up member. For double lacing, take L as 70% of that distance. It is
considered good practice to keep the inclination of lacing bars to the axis of the member
to not less than 60for single lacing or 45for double lacing. Also, use double lacing or lacing
made up of angles where distance between the lines of bolts or welds exceeds 15 in (380 mm).
For limitations on the longitudinal spacing of connectors between elements in continuous contact
consisting of a plate and a shape or two plates, and other limitations, see Art. 5.9.7.

3.8 Strength From Tables

1. (FROM TABLES): Table 4-22 Available Critical Stress for Compression Members
From tables obtain for LFRD: Fcr c
From tables obtain for ASD: Fcr/c

Being c= 1.67 and c = 0.90

These expressions can be written in the general form

4 FRAMES (BEAM COLUMN)

A more rational procedure, however, will account for the degree of restraint provided by
connecting members
The rotational restraint provided by the beams, or girders, at the end of a column is a
function of the rotational stiffnesses of the members intersecting at the joint. The rotational
stiffness of a member is proportional to EI/L, where I is the moment of inertia of the cross
section with respect to the axis of bending. Gaylord, Gaylord, and Stallmeyer (1992) show
that the effective length factor K depends on the ratio of column stiffness to girder stiffness
at each end of the member, which can be expressed as

4.1 G, Ratio of column stiffness to girder:

Assumptions
All columns under
consideration reach buckling
Simultaneously
All joints are rigid
Consider members lying in
the plane of buckling
All members have constant
A

Use alignment charts (Structural Stability Research Council SSRC)

LRFD Commentary Figure C-C2.2 p 16.1-241,242
When Connections to foundations
(a) Hinge: G is infinite - Use G=10
(b) Fixed:
G=0 - Use G=1.0
Values of G:
- for a pinned support, G should be taken as 10.0;
- for a fixed support, G should be taken as 1.0. (The latter support condition
corresponds to an infinitely stiff girder and a flexible column, corresponding to a
theoretical value of G = 0).

the discussion accompanying the alignment chart in the Commentary recommends a value
of G = 1.0 because true fixity will rarely be achieved.
The relationship between G and K has been quantified in the JacksonMooreland Alignment
Charts (Johnston, 1976), which are reproduced in Figures C-C2.3 and C-C2.4 in the
Commentary. To obtain a value of K from one of these nomograms, first calculate the value of
G at each end of the column, letting one value be GA and the other be GB. Connect GA and
GB with a straight line, and read the value of K on the middle scale. The effective length
factor obtained in this manner is with respect to the axis of bending, which is the axis
perpendicular to the plane of the frame.
A separate analysis must be made for buckling about the other axis. Normally the beam-tocolumn connections in this direction will not transmit moment; sidesway is prevented by
bracing; and K can be taken as 1.0.
Unbraced frames are able to support lateral loads because of their moment resisting joints.
Often the frame is augmented by a bracing system of some sort; such frames are called
braced frames.
The additional resistance to lateral loads can take the form of diagonal bracing or rigid shear
walls, as illustrated in Figure 4.16.

Unbraced frames are able to support lateral

loads because of their moment resisting
joints
for a fixed support, G should be taken as 1.0.
The latter support condition corresponds to
an infinitely stiff girder and a flexible column,
corresponding to a theoretical value
of G = 0. The discussion accompanying the
alignment chart in the Commentary
recommends
a value of G = 1.0 because true fixity will
rarely be achieved.
Unbraced frames are able to support lateral
loads because of their moment resisting
joints. Often the frame is augmented by a
bracing system of some sort; such frames are
called braced frames.

.
Braced frames Often the frame is augmented
by a bracing system of some sort. The
additional resistance to lateral loads can take
the form of diagonal bracing or rigid shear
walls. The additional resistance to lateral
loads can take the form of diagonal bracing
or rigid shear walls, as illustrated in Figure
4.16

A frame must resist not only the tendency to sway under the action of lateral loads but also
the tendency to buckle, or become unstable, under the action of vertical loads. Bracing to
stabilize a structure against vertical loading is called stability bracing. Appendix 6 of the AISC
Specification, Stability Bracing for Columns and Beams, covers this type of bracing.
Two categories are covered: relative and nodal.
1. With relative bracing, a brace point is restrained relative to adjacent brace points. A
relative brace is connected not only to the member to be braced but also to other
members, as with diagonal bracing. With relative bracing, both the brace and other
members contribute to stabilizing the member to be braced.
2. Nodal bracing provides isolated support at specific locations on the member and is not
relative to other brace points or other members.
The provisions of AISC Appendix 6 give equations for the required strength and stiffness
(resistance to deformation)
of stability bracing. The provisions for columns are from the Guide to Stability
Design Criteria (Galambos, 1998). The required strength and stiffness for
stability can be added directly to the requirements for bracing to resist lateral loading.
Stability bracing is discussed further in Chapter 5, Beams, and Chapter 6,
BeamColumns.

Columns that are members of braced rigid frames are prevented from sidesway
and have some degree of rotational restraint at their ends. Thus they are in a category
that lies somewhere between cases (a) and (d) in Table C-C2.2 of the Commentary,
and K is between 0.5 and 1.0. A value of 1.0 is therefore always conservative for members
of braced frames and is the value prescribed by AISC C1.3a unless an analysis is
made. Such an analysis can be made with the alignment chart for braced frames. Use
of this nomogram would result in an effective length factor somewhat less than 1.0,
and some savings could be realized.*
As with any design aid, the alignment charts should be used only under the conditions
for which they were derived. These conditions are discussed in Section C2 of the
Commentary to the Specification and are not enumerated here. Most of the conditions
will usually be approximately satisfied; if they are not, the deviation will be on the
conservative
side. One condition that usually is not satisfied is the requirement that all behavior
be elastic. If the slenderness ratio KLr is less than 4.71 E/Fy the column will buckle
inelastically, and the effective length factor obtained from the alignment chart will be overly
conservative. A large number of columns are in this category.
A convenient procedure for determining K for inelastic columns allows the alignment charts
to be used (Yura, 1971; Disque, 1973). To demonstrate the procedure we begin with the critical
buckling load for an inelastic column given by Equation
4.6b. Dividing it by the cross-sectional area gives the buckling stress:
The rotational stiffness of a column in this state would be proportional to EtIc_Lc, and
the appropriate value of G for use in the alignment chart is
Because Et is less than E, Ginelastic is less than Gelastic, and the effective length factor K
will be reduced, resulting in a more economical design. To evaluate Et_E, called the
stiffness reduction factor (denoted by ta), consider the following relationship for a column
with pinned ends:
(4.13)
AISC uses an approximation for the inelastic portion of the column strength curve, so
Equation 4.13 is an approximation when AISC Equations E3-2 and E3-3 are used for Fcr.
We can approximate Fcr by the compressive strength:
Then in the elastic range, Fcr (inelastic) is approximately
and
We can solve for Fe, then compute
Fcr(elastic) 0.877Fe
The stiffness reduction factor ta can then be computed

4.2 K-VALUES
These charts, originally developed by Julian and Lawrence, present a practical method for
estimating -values. They were developed from a slope-deflection analysis of the frames that
includes the effects of column loads.
K

One chart was developed for columns braced against sidesway and one for columns subject
to sidesway
The stiffness reduction can only be applied if the buckling is inelastic. Take into account that
KL/ry can be larger than KL/rx. Use larger to determine buckling elastic or inelastic
Chart for effective length (for columns braced against sidesway and one for columns subject
to sidesway)

4.3 STIFFENSS REDUCTION FACTOR,

Note: It only applies for INELASTIC BUCKLING
Because Et is less than E, Ginelastic is less than Gelastic, and the effective length factor K will be
reduced, resulting in a more economical design.
To evaluate Et/E, called the stiffness reduction factor (denoted by a), consider the following
relationship for a column with pinned ends

Fcr(elastic) 0.877Fe

Alternatively from tables

Axial capacity Pc:

ASD

c safety factor for compressio n 1.67

Pn c allowable compressiv e strength

LFRD
Being,

c resistance factor for compressio n 0.90

c Pn design compressiv e strength

4.4 Shapes different to I-shapes

A ) Compute buckling strength as normal (min KL/rx or KL/ry)
B) Compute flexural torsional buckling
Min strength of a and b governs

Compression AISC 9TH EIDTION

5 EXAMPLES
5.1 Example . Investigate Column with pinned ends.
A W1474 of A992 steel has a length of 20 feet and pinned ends. Compute the
design compressive strength for LRFD and the allowable compressive strength for
ASD. Investigate Local instability
5.1.1 Nominal Strength
L = 20 ft
ry=2.48 in
K = 1 (both ends pinned)
Determine Slenderness:
=KL/ry = 12012/2.48 = 96.77
Check < 200 =>OK
For S355 , Cc = 113

Depending of and Cc use

If KL/r <
2

then Eq. E3-

If KL/r >
3

then Eq. E3-

Being

Fe =

2 E
2

= 30.56 ksi

E3-2 : Fcr = 0.658^(Fy/Fe)Fy = 25.21 ksi

Nominal Strength :
LFRD c = 0.9
ASD c=1.67

Pa=

5.1.2 Local instability

I-beam

For I-beams and channels:

FY
(N/mm2)
355
275

13.5
15.3

35.8
40.7

5.2 Example 2. Frame. Determine Effective length factor, without

consider the stiffness reduction factor.
4.7-8 The frame shown in Figure P4.7-8 is unbraced,
and bending is about the x-axis of the members. All
beams are W18 35, and all columns are W10 54.
a. Determine the effective length factor Kx for
column AB. Do not consider the stiffness reduction
factor.
b. Determine the effective length factor Kx for
column BC. Do not consider the stiffness reduction
factor.
c. If Fy = 50 ksi, is the stiffness reduction factor
applicable to these columns?
a) For column AB
Ratio of column stiffness to girder:

For column AB

b) For column BC

c) For column AB

Since Kx for column BC is smaller, KxL/rx, is smaller, so column BC is also inelastic.

5.3 Example 3. Frame axial strength

4.7-9 The given frame is unbraced, and bending is
about the x axis of each member.
The axial dead load supported by column AB is 204
kips, and the axial live load is 408 kips. Fy = 50 ksi.
Determine Kx for member AB. Use the stiffness
reduction factor if possible.
a. Use LRFD.
b. Use ASD

Ratio of column stiffness to girder:

Lc = 13 , Lg = 25
GA pinned , thus GA = 10
From section tables:
- Column W18x97 => Ic=2460
- Girder / beam W18 50 : Ig=800

5.3.1 LFRD. Factored ultimate load

GB= GBa=

To calculate the section strength:

Determine Fe:
See if inelastic or elastic buckling.
Slenderness KL/rmin
Compare to cc

Determine Fcr:

Pn = Fcr Ag
Strength of the section= cPn

5.3.2 ASD

GA= 1

To calculate the section strength:

Determine Fe:
See if inelastic or elastic buckling.
Slenderness KL/rmin
Compare to cc

Determine Fcr:

Pn = Fcr Ag
Strength of the section= Pn/c

5.4 Example 4. Multi Frame

The frame shown in Figure P4.7-13 is
unbraced against sidesway. The columns are
HSS 6 6 58, and the beams are W12
22. ASTM A500 grade B steel (Fy = 46 ksi) is
used for the columns, and Fy = 50 ksi for the
beams.
The beams are oriented so that bending is
about the x-axis. Assume that Ky = 1.0.
a. Use the alignment chart to determine Kx
for column AB. Use the stiffness reduction
factor if applicable. For column AB, the

service dead load is 17 kips and the service

live load is 50 kips.
b. Compute the nominal compressive
strength of column AB.
5.4.1 Column AB
Lc = 13 , Lg = 20
GA pinned , thus GA = 10
From section tables:
- HSS 6 6 58 => Ic=55.2
- Girder / beam W12 22 : Ig=156

5.4.2 Nominal compressive strength

Elastic buckling: