Remote Surveying of Underground Cavities PDF

Remote Surveying of Underground Cavities
Excavated by Jet Boring
by
Carolyn Ann Ingram
A thesis submitted to the

Robert M. Buchan Department of Mining
in conformity with the requirements for
the degree of Master of Applied Science
Queens University
Kingston, Ontario, Canada
September 2014
Copyright Carolyn Ann Ingram, 2014
Abstract
Cigar Lake is a high-grade uranium deposit, located in northern Saskatchewan, Canada.

In order to extract the uranium ore remotely, thus ensuring minimal radiation dose to
workers and also to access the ore from stable ground, the Jet Boring System (JBS)
was developed by Cameco Corporation. This system uses a high-powered water jet
to remotely mine out cavities. Survey data is required to determine the final shape,
volume, and location of the cavity for mine planning and development.
This thesis provides an overview of the challenges involved in remotely surveying
a JBS-mined cavity. In particular, it studies range finding sensors that are relevant to
mining applications and their attributes. As an alternative to sensors used for remote
cavity surveying, it evaluates the potentially advantageous features of a time-of-flight
(ToF) camera.
Data was collected from inside a test cavity in a variety of experimental environments meant to simulate conditions in a real Cigar Lake cavity. Field data was
collected from the core shack at Cigar Lake and from an open stope at Rabbit Lake.
Advanced data analysis techniques such as registration and segmentation are also
explored for application in cavity surveying. The data from the ToF camera was
evaluated with respect to the survey systems slated for use at Cigar Lake and the
advantages for its use in the post cavity survey are shown.
i
Acknowledgments
Firstly, I would like to extend a multitude of thanks to my research supervisor, Dr.

Joshua Marshall. I feel blessed to have had a supervisor, and friend, who was positive
and encouraging, offering countless valuable ideas and providing continual guidance
throughout the journey.
I wish to convey my gratefulness to Cameco for the support I have received, not
only in funding for my studies, but also towards my professional development goals.
In particular, I would like to thank Martin Wacker for supporting my graduate study
ambitions and interest with regards to the jet boring system. Additionally, I owe a
big thank you to the JBS engineering crew, Devon Loehr, Dustin Repski, and Sean
Borycki, along with the Mining and Geology groups at Cigar Lake who provided
invaluable information and assistance over the past three years.
I would like to thank the Saskatchewan Research Council, specifically Kim Young,
Steve Kosteniuk, Nathan Peter, Damian Rohraff, and Ken Babich, for generously
providing me with an office and the space required to build the test cavity. They
showed an ever readiness to lend an extra hand, brain, or equipment and I was
extremely appreciative for their great patience as I made a mess with stucco, paint,
and water.
This research was funded in part through a Natural Sciences and Engineering
ii
Research Council of Canada (NSERC) IPS 1 scholarship.

Finally, I must express a deep sense of gratitude towards those people who love me
and keep me sane; my mom, Eleanor Ingram, my sisters, Melinda Zerr and Jennifer
Welsh, and all my faithful friends. I am so thankful that they found ways to spend
time with me (even if it meant slaving in the test cavity) while I struggled to find a
balance between work, study, and a seemingly elusive life.
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Contents
Abstract
Acknowledgments
ii
Contents
iv
List of Tables
vi
List of Figures
vii
Nomenclature
Chapter 1:
Introduction
1.1 Motivation . . . . . .
1.2 Problem Formulation
1.3 Scope of Work . . . .
1.4 Format of Thesis . .
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Chapter 2:
Cigar Lake Cavity Scanning
2.1 Survey System History . . . . . . . . .
2.1.1 Jet Boring System . . . . . . .
2.1.2 Cavity Survey System . . . . .
2.2 Deployment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 3:
Theory and Background
3.1 Underground Range Measurement .
3.2 Sensor Overview . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.1 Ultrasonic . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.2 Laser . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.3 Radar . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3 Cigar Lake Sensor Selection . . . .
3.3.1 Historical Options Analysis
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Chapter 5:
Summary and Conclusions
5.1 Summary and Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Bibliography
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3.4
3.3.2
3.3.3
Point
3.4.1
3.4.2
Time-of-Flight Camera
Device Comparison . .
Cloud Processing . . . .
Registration . . . . . .
Segmentation . . . . .
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Chapter 4:
Experimental Studies
4.1 Test Cavity . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 Test Apparatus . . . . . . . . .
4.3 Test Environments and Results
4.3.1 Baseline . . . . . . . . .
4.3.2 Water . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.3 Freeze pipes . . . . . . .
4.3.4 Fog . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4 Field Testing . . . . . . . . . .
4.5 Point Cloud Processing Results
4.5.1 Registration . . . . . . .
4.5.2 Segmentation . . . . . .
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Appendix A: MATLAB Code

A.1 Main Script for SwissRanger and Senix Scan . . .
A.2 Function to Obtain Data from SwissRanger . . . .
A.3 Function to Obtain Data from Senix Sensor . . .
A.4 Function to Correctly Format Celestron Command
A.5 Function to Save SwissRanger Data in .pcd Format
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Appendix B: Equipment Specification Sheets

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B.1 Senix ToughSonic TSPC-30S1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

B.2 C-ALS MK3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
B.3 MESA SwissRanger SR4000 and SR4030 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
List of Tables
3.1
Comparison of survey device specifications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
vi
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List of Figures
2.1
JBS mining schematic for Cigar Lake (image courtesy of Cameco Corporation). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2
Original prototype laser scanning tool (image courtesy of Cameco Corporation). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3
11
Deployment tool testing at McArthur River mine site, June 2012 (image courtesy of Cameco Corporation). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5
Computer rendering of mined cavities (image courtesy of Cameco Corporation). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4
14
Vertical rod pusher deployment depth versus tool weight. Prototype

testing conducted in backfill pipe with 10.16 cm I.D. on a 70 incline
at McArthur River mine site. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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3.1
Electromagnetic spectrum [1]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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3.2
Target reflective characteristics [6]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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3.3
Time of Flight sampling of returned modulated signal [5]. . . . . . . .
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3.4
Devices compared for Cigar Lake cavity surveying. From left to right:
4.1
MESA SwissRanger (ToF Camera), MDL C-ALS (Laser Scanning
Tool), Senix ToughSonic (Ultrasonic Sensor). . . . . . . . . . . .
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Design and construction of test cavity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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vii
4.2
C-ALS test apparatus in test cavity.
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4.3
SwissRanger camera Cartesian coordinate system, (x, y, z) [5]. . . . .
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4.4
4.5
C-ALS baseline scan (vertical) demonstrating data acquisition time.
C-ALS vertical scan 3D plots shown with increasing acquisition in-
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tervals (colour scaled by signal strength with blue for low and red for
high). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6
Left: Basic image acquisition from SwissRanger using MATLAB
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(amplitude (grayscale) image, range image, and confidence map). Right:

Point cloud data plotted using the PCL viewer. . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.7
45
SwissRanger Point Cloud data with water (blue) and without water
(green) on test cavity surface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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SwissRanger Data with Water Droplet on Lens. . . . . . . . . . . . .
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3 , and 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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4.10 SwissRanger data with freeze pipes in test cavity. . . . . . . . . . . .
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4.11 Inside of test cavity with light, medium, and dense fog conditions. . .
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shown on horizontal axis in meters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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4.8
4.9
C-ALS scan of freeze pipes. Scanning interval (Left to Right): 6 ,
4.12 C-ALS data in dense fog (left) and baseline (right). Target distance
4.13 Point cloud data from SwissRanger in light, medium, and dense fog
conditions inside the test cavity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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4.14 Amplitude images from SwissRanger in fog (Auto-scaled in MATLAB ). 55

4.15 Side view of point cloud data from SwissRanger acquired from positions 2 m apart in no fog (top) and medium fog (bottom) conditions.
Integration time is increasing from left to right. . . . . . . . . . . . .
viii
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4.16 Field data acquisition with SwissRanger at Cigar Lake and Rabbit Lake. 58
4.17 SwissRanger images of Cigar Lake core sample. . . . . . . . . . . . .
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4.18 SwissRanger images acquired at an open stope at Rabbit Lake Mine.
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4.19 Registration applied to SwissRanger images in test cavity without position information. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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4.20 Segmentation applied to intensity point cloud. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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ix
Nomenclature
C-ALS
Cavity Auto-Scanning Laser MK3
Interim Cavity Survey Survey performed during cavity excavation between periods of jetting
JBS Jet Boring System
LIDAR Light Detection And Ranging
PCL Point Cloud Library
Post Cavity Survey Survey performed after cavity is excavated
RADAR Radio Detection And Ranging
Ultrasonic Sensor Senix TSPC-30S1 ToughSonic Distance Sensor
Senix
SONAR Sound Navigation And Ranging

SRC Saskatchewan Research Council
SwissRanger MESA Imaging Swiss Ranger ToF Camera, SR4030
ToF Time of Flight
Vertical Rod Pusher System developed to deploy post cavity survey device at
Cigar Lake
xi
Chapter 1
Introduction
In mining, surveying is a common task where data collection takes place using commercially available technology. For unique circumstances, such as the one at Camecos
Cigar Lake mine site, the available technology may have to be altered to suit a
particular need. Because of Cigar Lakes unique deposit, a correspondingly unique
method of mining was developed to extract ore and, as might be expected, requires
a unique method of surveying to observe the mined areas. This dissertation provides
an overview of the basic technologies that have been used for range finding in mining
and focusses on the potential for use of a time-of-flight camera (see Section 3.3.2) in
application at the Cigar Lake mine site, with comparison to the currently proposed
systems, for surveying cavities.
1.1
Motivation
Cigar Lake is the worlds second largest known high grade uranium deposit and is
located in northern Saskatchewan, 40 km inside the margin of the eastern part of the
Athabasca Basin. The Cigar Lake deposit is approximately 1 950 m long, 20 to 100 m
wide, with an average thickness of about 5.4 m. It occurs at depths ranging between
1.1. MOTIVATION
410 and 450 m below the surface. The body of high grade mineralization located at
the unconformity contains the bulk of the total uranium metal in the deposit and
currently represents the only economically viable style of mineralization, considering
the selected mining method and ground conditions [10].
The jet boring system (JBS), a remote mining method, was developed to extract
the Cigar Lake deposit. The unique challenges involved in accessing the deposit include ground instability, radiation protection, control of groundwater and a relatively
thin, flat lying mineralization. The JBS was selected after many years of exploration
and test mining activities, following the discovery of the deposit in 1981. The JBS
mining method consists of remotely excavating cavities out of frozen ore with a high
pressure water jet, producing approximately 230 t of ore per cavity. An average cavity is expected to be approximately cylindrical in shape, with diameter of 4.5 m and
a depth of 6.0 m. Although Cameco has successfully demonstrated the JBS mining
method in trials, at the time of writing, this method had not been proven at full
production.
Due to the unproven nature of the mining method, it is expected that many technical issues may arise as ramp-up to full production progresses. For the purpose
mining optimization and understanding how parameters set during the process of
jetting affect the outcome of the excavated cavity, it is necessary to have a reliable
method for surveying and interpreting data acquired from inside the cavity. In prototype testing completed with a cavity survey system in 2000, which is described in
Chapter 2, the systems used showed to be unreliable due to issues with both the
sensor and telemetry method. For this reason, it was suggested that further research
into options for surveying the cavities could prove to be of value, as production began
1.2. PROBLEM FORMULATION
at Cigar Lake.
1.2
Problem Formulation
The testing that took place with the JBS in 2000 was the single opportunity for
testing all components of the system in the field. Many valuable lessons were learned,
and areas for improvement identified. A critical component for identifying the success
of the JBS, in the cavity excavation process, is the survey system. Throughout the
eight cavities that were excavated, four in waste rock and four in ore, attempts to
use the survey system, as designed and with modifications, were made. The primary
issues identified with the survey system were:
1. Communication or telemetry
2. Mechanical robustness
3. Unreliable range data
At the time of writing, the Saskatchewan Research Council (SRC) had already
begun to address the issues of telemetry and mechanical robustness for the interim
survey system. They had also tested and chosen an ultrasonic sensor for range finding during the jetting process. However, no focus had been made on assessing the
technology available for the post-cavity survey, which was intended to collect detailed
data after the cavity was complete. Although the extreme environment created by
jetting would not have as large of impact for the post-cavity survey as it would for
the interim, it was still possible for fog, falling debris, water, frost, freezepipes to be
present in the cavity. Additionally, there were size limitations imposed by the deployment method which would restrict potential options for surveying the remotely
1.3. SCOPE OF WORK
excavated cavities.
It was proposed that a review of technologies for range finding, the sensor characteristics and applicability for mining applications be conducted. A further assessment
into which technologies on the market would have capability for use as a survey tool
in the Cigar Lake cavities could then occur and would be based on cost, physical
limitations and ability to withstand the cavity environment. The scope of the work
completed for this dissertation is described in the following section.
1.3
Scope of Work
Given the unique challenges involved with accessing the remote cavities at Cigar
Lake, the limited testing that has taken place, and the extreme environment that
surveying is to occur within, the scope of this dissertation was created to encompass
the following objectives:
1. A review of documentation relating to the cavity survey systems tested at Cigar
Lake, with the purpose of identifying the successes and shortfalls of the system,
along with areas for improvement.
2. A review of basic range sensors and the characteristics that can affect their
performance in adverse conditions relating to a mining environment and, more
specifically, for the Cigar Lake application.
3. Evaluate the ToF camera as an alternate technology in comparison to the ultrasonic and laser-based devices for use at Cigar Lake.
4. The design and construction of a test area and apparatus for the three devices
1.4. FORMAT OF THESIS
(ultrasonic, laser, and ToF camera) along with the implementation of experiments designed with intention to test and compare the device performance
within isolated environmental conditions expected inside the Cigar Lake cavities.
5. Collect data, as possible, in the field with a ToF camera and evaluate it for
application in cavity surveying.
As a result of the experiments and data collection with the ToF camera, it was
possible to consider advanced data analysis techniques, which include registration
and segmentation (see Section 3.4). It is proposed that analysis could provide additional information that is not possible with the laser and ultrasonic survey systems.
With further research, and field data collected inside a Cigar Lake cavity, it would
be possible to confirm their utility in the field, but falls outside the scope of this
dissertation.
1.4
Format of Thesis
The next chapter provides an introduction to the Jet Boring System (JBS) that is
used at Cigar Lake and a summary of the testing which had previously taken place
with the cavity survey system. It outlines the lessons learned, the conditions to expect
inside the cavity and the limitations which are imposed by the the access and methods
possible to place the survey device inside a cavity and transmit the acquired data.
Chapter 3 reviews the basic properties of ultrasonic, laser, and radar signals.
It describes how these signals may be affected in a mining environment and the
differences between them that could influence the decision making process. A MESA
1.4. FORMAT OF THESIS
SwissRanger ToF camera is also presented as an alternative to the ultrasonic and laser
systems that are slated for use in the cavity surveying application at Cigar Lake.
In Chapter 4, the various experimental test environments and apparatus for ob-
serving the differences between the Senix ultrasonic sensor, MDL Cavity AutoScanning Laser (C-ALS ) system, and the MESA SwissRanger ToF Camera are
described and include the respective settings used for each device. The test environments were with water, freezepipes, and fog present in the test cavity. Data was also
collected on site at Cigar Lake mine and Rabbit Lake mine in effort to show how data
collected in the field may appear. An analysis of the data from each experiment and
location is presented.
Finally, a summary of the results of this dissertation and the associated conclusions
are given in Chapter 5. Based on the results obtained, suggestions for future work are
presented and could be used in further development of a 3D cavity surveying system
with a ToF camera.
Chapter 2
Cigar Lake Cavity Scanning
2.1
Survey System History
This section provides a brief background and history of the jet boring system (JBS)
and the development of a scanning survey system for the excavated cavities at Cigar
Lake.
2.1.1
Jet Boring System
At Cigar Lake, the Jet Boring System (JBS) was developed to access a high-grade
uranium orebody that is situated in water-saturated sandstone. Before mining begins,
the orebody and surrounding rock is frozen to strengthen it and also to prevent inflows.
A pilot hole is then drilled up through the ore body and cased, providing a path for
the jet string and nozzle. The jetting begins at the top of the ore body and progresses
downwards in periods, as the jet rotates and traverses about its axis, until the lower
limit of the ore body is reached. As the cavity is jetted, the ore slurry falls through
the annulus of the pilot hole casing and jet pipe and into a slurry storage tank before
being pumped to the run-of-mine (ROM) area. From here, further processing of the
2.1. SURVEY SYSTEM HISTORY
slurry occurs underground before being finally pumped to surface [10].

The purpose for the cavity survey, which will take place between periods of jetting,
is to provide feedback to the operator, who is located beneath the orebody (see Figure
2.1), indicating the dimensions of the cavity. While mining, it is important to achieve
maximum recovery while preventing ground instability that may be caused by too
large of a cavity. Following the mine plan, the operator will need to know if it is
necessary to focus the jet on a particular area within the cavity, change the jetting
parameters, or to cease mining. Additionally, the final location of the cavity and its
dimensions are required in order to update resource estimates and production values.
The volume of required backfill can be also be determined if the cavity shape is
known. Knowledge of the JBSs performance and the ability to optimize procedures
to ensure efficient maximum recovery are necessary for a successful mining program.
The challenge is to find an appropriate technology that can acquire reliable data
within the extreme cavity environment.
Figure 2.1: JBS mining schematic for Cigar Lake (image courtesy of Cameco Corporation).
2.1.2
Cavity Survey System
At Cigar Lake, the original goal was to precision mine each ore cavity. The first
prototype (see Figure 2.2) contained several features, including a laser rangefinder, an
IR target detector, IR LEDs for camera illumination, and sapphire lenses for the laser,
video, and target detector. As a result of the field testing described below, better
knowledge of the operating conditions was obtained, and changes to the original
specifications and prototype were made. Field testing of prototype cavity survey
systems took place in 2000 from April through November, in which eight total cavities
were created, four in waste rock and four within the ore body [63].
Figure 2.2: Original prototype laser scanning tool (image courtesy of Cameco Corporation).
The first set of preliminary tests were conducted within a vertical culvert in an
underground raise, with simulated rock conditions similar to those expected during a
typical mining situation. Through the process, it was found that the level of control
to cavity shape with jetting was less than anticipated, and thus, the inclusion of
10
survey components such as the target detector and video camera, to view the cavity
shape during mining, would not provide value. With the system simplification, it was
possible to move the laser range finder higher above the jetting nozzle and further
from the debris that may be launched as a result of jetting. The next phase of testing
took place in frozen waste rock conditions below the orebody. With water being
sprayed in a frozen environment, a resultant dense fog ensued and caused the laser
rangefinder cavity survey system to be rendered inadequate. Some effort was made
in an attempt to eliminate or reduce the fog, by means of a Transvac vacuum and
through use of compressed air, but both were unsuccessful.
An ultrasonic sensor was subsequently chosen as the replacement for the laser
rangefinder due to its off-the-shelf availability, low cost, and, most importantly, the
ability of the signal to produce an indication of range within the fog. During testing
in the ore body, it was discovered that significant cavity wall erosion occurred above
the jet as mining progressed downward and, as a result, it was determined that a final
survey of the cavity would be required prior to backfilling. Preferably, this survey
would be completed as quickly as possible after jetting was complete, before any
additional sloughing occurred from the potentially unstable walls of the excavated
cavity. Since the ultrasonic sensor did not provide a high enough level of precision
and resolution for mine planning purposes, and the data processing system had not
been developed to the point where estimates of the cavity volume could be calculated,
the decision was made to again employ the use of a laser rangefinder. The post-cavity
survey would be in addition to the ultrasonic survey, which would still be completed
between periods of jetting to provide feedback regarding the growth of the cavity
radius to the operator. Through the process of field testing, it was found that the
11
Cigar Lake cavity shape could be approximated by a cylinder of height ranging from 3
m to 15 m and a diameter ranging from 3 m to 5 m, with the cavity surface comprising
of dark, wet, frozen uranium ore.
Figure 2.3: Computer rendering of mined cavities (image courtesy of Cameco Corporation).
The 2000 JBS Test Report [63] identifies the inconsistent performance of the
survey system as an area requiring improvement, one that had caused a significant
impact to cycle times. The delays were ultimately caused by a number of issues which
negatively impacted the survey system performance and are summarized in the list
below.
1. Communication or telemetry: Must be able to consistently access data from
survey system
12
2. Mechanical robustness: Must withstand impact from debris, pressurization

of cavity (if plugging occurs), and vibration during jetting. Survey device must
be operate after submersion in water.
3. Unreliable range data: Potential causes of inaccurate data are suspect from
water or dirt on lens and the cavity fog. Method to diagnose issues is beneficial.
Impact was noted on inaccurate calculation of backfill volumes.
In 2005, a review of current technology was conducted by the Saskatchewan Re-
search Council (SRC), in which a Cavity Auto-Scanning Laser (C-ALS ) system1
was identified at the most viable technology for the post-cavity survey system [37].
It was small enough to fit inside the backfill pipe (12.7 cm inner diameter) and was
equipped with a suitable deployment method and data processing software (see Appendix B.2). For the interim cavity survey system, in 2006, several ultrasonic range
sensors were tested in lab, where the Senix ToughSonic TSPC-30S1 (see Ap-
pendix B.1), demonstrated the best performance for the Cigar Lake application [43].
As part of a continuing contract with Cameco, SRC has researched and developed
an improved housing and electronics design for increased mechanical robustness of
the interim cavity survey system and has also developed two telemetry options for increased reliability of data acquisition. These two telemetry options include: the Power
Line Modem (PLM) method which utilizes the isolated inner and outer pipes of the
jet string, and the Acoustic method which transmits signals acoustically through the
jet string.
1
See
http://www.renishaw.com/en/c-als-borehole-deployable-laser-scanner-forconcealed-cavity-and-void-scanning--25590, accessed on August 9, 2014.
2.2. DEPLOYMENT
2.2
13
Deployment
In addition to the limitations incurred by the environment in which the scan must
take place, the method of deployment also affects the size and weight of the tool which
would be used to survey the remote cavity. The laser survey tool which was used to
obtain the final cavity scans in the 2000 testing was found to provide the necessary
data but the manual method of deploying the tool up-hole was cumbersome, time
consuming, and arguably unsafe.
Initially in October 2010, and again with a rod of increased stiffness in June of
2012, a custom deployment method called the Vertical Rod Pusher was tested at
the McArthur River mine site [25] as an alternative to the manual method. The
custom device was designed for pushing a continuous length of specialized semi-rigid
fiberglass rod through conduits by using a motor with two opposing drive tracks that
clamp down on the rod.
In order to deploy the laser survey tool into the cavity, the jet string must be
removed from the hole, and the backfill pipe installed to provide a necessary conduit
for the rod and tool. An operator is also required to retrieve and position the JBS
cassette which houses the deployment system components. Based on cycle times from
the initial commissioning of the JBS in 2013, the aforementioned process would take
approximately 12 hours. The operator is required to make the necessary connections
between the rod, survey tool, and conduit before simply actuating a valve to deploy
the tool. The backfill pipe at Cigar Lake, with a relatively small inner diameter of
12.7 cm, defines the maximum size of any survey device that is deployed using this
tool.
Identical conditions to those expected at Cigar Lake could not be achieved in
2.2. DEPLOYMENT
14
Figure 2.4: Deployment tool testing at McArthur River mine site, June 2012 (image
courtesy of Cameco Corporation).
the field at McArthur River mine site, but the prototype testing showed definite
promise for the Vertical Rod Pusher in deployment of lightweight survey tools. Upon
completion of data analysis, it was determined that, in order to achieve deployment
up to 60 m in a 10.16 cm I.D. hole at a 70 incline, the post cavity survey tool must
weigh less than 17.8 kg (see Figure 2.5). Since Cigar Lakes backfill pipes would have
a larger inner diameter of 12.7 cm, with more potential for snaking inside the pipe,
and could be oriented at inclines of 90 or less, there was potential that the maximum
deployment distance might diminish, if the weight of the tool was not also reduced.
Thus, this weight limitation was considered in evaluating potential post-cavity survey
devices.
2.2. DEPLOYMENT
15
Figure 2.5: Vertical rod pusher deployment depth versus tool weight. Prototype testing conducted in backfill pipe with 10.16 cm I.D. on a 70 incline at
McArthur River mine site.
16
Chapter 3
Theory and Background
3.1
Underground Range Measurement
Range measurement can be accomplished by several methods but, due to the access
restrictions for the Cigar Lake cavity application, this section focuses on sensors that
can be operated remotely. Some common acronyms referring to systems used to measure range are SONAR (Sound Navigation And Ranging), LIDAR (Light Detection
And Ranging), and RADAR (Radio Detection And Ranging). The basic principle
underlying the measurement of distance for all these devices is the time-of-flight of
the signal. The signal is sent using a transmitter and detected by a receiver. With
knowledge of the speed of the signal, and how long it took for the signal to travel to
the point of interest and back, you can determine the distance it travelled (i.e., the
target range). The basic equation describing this relationship is
t=
2d
,
v
(3.1)
where t is the delay time from when the signal was transmitted to when it was
received, d is the distance to the target and, v is the speed of the signal.
3.1. UNDERGROUND RANGE MEASUREMENT
17
Four different types of sensors are examined in the following section. These are:
ultrasonic,
laser,
microwave radar, and
millimeter wave radar.
An ultrasonic sensor uses a sound wave as a signal and the laser, microwave radar,
and millimeter wave radar all use light, and thus, fall within the electromagnetic
spectrum, as shown in Figure 3.1.
Figure 3.1: Electromagnetic spectrum [1].
The physical differences between signals that are a part of the electromagnetic
spectrum lie only in their wavelength and frequency. It is the state of the technology
for devices which produce and interpret the signals, and how the signals behave when
3.2. SENSOR OVERVIEW
18
interacting with the environment, that differentiates how applicable they may be
within the context of mining and at Cigar Lake.
3.2
3.2.1
Sensor Overview
Ultrasonic
An ultrasound wave is a longitudinal, mechanical wave, where the accuracy in measuring its speed, and from that, the distance it travelled, relies on knowing the speed
of sound in the medium. A sound wave that can be heard by humans lies in the
frequency range between 20 Hz and 20 000 Hz [46] and thus, an ultrasound wave
typically has a frequency greater than 20 000 Hz. The relationship between the fluid
(gas or liquid), which the signal will propagate through (i.e., the medium), and the
speed of the signal can be described by,
s
v=
B
,
0
(3.2)
where v is the velocity of sound (m/s), B is the bulk modulus (Pa) and, is the
density of the fluid (kg/m3 ) [46]. Inaccuracies in range measurement will arise if
the medium is not homogeneous or if compensation for changing conditions is not
accounted for. For example, at room temperature, a change of 10 C will result in
approximately 1 % change in the speed of sound and thus the measured distance as
well [3]. Often, temperature compensation is a feature of ultrasonic range sensors,
but would only account for temperature changes at the sensor itself. At Cigar Lake,
it is expected that the temperature at the sensor would be much higher than the
frozen cavity wall, and so the temperature gradient within the air space between,
19
could cause inaccuracies.

Additionally, there are effects on the accuracy of the range measurements that
are caused by external influences. Since the medium is the carrier of the wave, a
bulk movement of the medium by an air current will displace the acoustic wave, and
furthermore, if the airflow becomes turbulent, it will cause a disruption in both the
transmitted pulse and the echo, resulting in severe attenuation. External vibrations
affecting the sensor may cause a shift in the carrier frequency that would result in
reduced sensitivity. Depending on where the sensor is mounted and what sort of
ventilation exists, these could become factors in the accuracy of the measurement
within an underground mine [6].
Another consideration regarding the effectiveness of the range measurement must
be the properties of the target. All materials will partially reflect, partially absorb,
and partially transmit the incident wave. The proportion of energy reflected is a
function of the ratio of the characteristic impedance of the solid target to the medium
through which it travelled. Hard or dense targets tend to reflect well, while soft targets
would tend to transmit or absorb.
The geometry of the area surrounding the target and the angle of incidence to the
target will also have an effect on the acquired measurements [6, 56]. It may be possible
for the echo to be reflected away from the transducer and/or be reflected at multiple
points before returning to the receiver. An ultrasonic signal also has a relatively wide
beam width (lower frequency = wider beam width) and, if it were to strike an area
composed of several distances it would be difficult to resolve the correct component
of the returned signal [36]. Evidently, an awareness of the geological composition of
potential targets underground as well as their surface structure must be known in
20
order to have a well balanced knowledge of how the ultrasonic sensor will perform.
Ultrasonic sensors have been tested in underground mining applications in the
past [2, 56, 52] and have shown to be able to withstand extreme environments which
include vibration, dust, and fog. Their relatively inexpensive cost and availability also
make them an attractive range sensing option. However, the level of precision and
accuracy required by a particular application may encourage the pursuit of a different
technology, as was deemed necessary by Cigar Lake for their final cavity survey (see
Section 2.1.2).
3.2.2
Laser
A laser emits light in the visible range of the electromagnetic spectrum. It has the
shortest wavelength (approximately 380 to 760 nm) and the highest frequency (400 to
790 THz) of the signals that are discussed. The word laser is an acronym for, Light
Amplification by the Stimulated Emission of Radiation, which hints at the process by
which a laser signal is created. An electron can be excited to a higher energy level,
and when it returns to its stable, lower energy state, the energy is released in the
form of a photon. These photons are the constituents of a laser beam and, since the
photons are released at a particular energy, the resultant signal can be made highly
monochromatic, coherent, and directional [27].
In contrast to ultrasonic sensors, the conditions of the environment such as temperature, pressure, air currents, will not have an effect on the propagation velocity
(i.e., the speed of light). The simple relationship between the signals propagation
speed, v, and the speed of light, c, is
21
c
v= .
(3.3)
The relative dielectric constant, , is the only property of the medium that would
have an effect on its speed. For the short range application that is considered in
this study, the effect of atmospheric attenuation, due to molecular interactions with
electromagnetic radiation would be small, and the value of near one for air.
It is possible to obtain high angular resolution and long range measurements with
a laser, however, the accuracy and range are highly dependent on visibility within the
medium and the targets properties. As an electromagnetic signal propagates through
the atmosphere, molecular interactions with the wave will absorb energy, and the
signal amplitude will decrease as the range increases. In clear air the attenuation is
minimal but for mining applications, where dust particulates or fog are often present,
the attenuation could be severe [51, 12, 6] and would have dependency on the particle size and visibility. If the laser signal interacts with the particulates in the air,
spurious readings may also occur as photons are returned prior to the beam reaching
its intended target.
Like the ultrasonic sensor, the properties of the target itself also affect the performance of the laser sensor. With a highly reflective, diffuse scattering target, the
best performance will be observed (see Figure 3.2). Conversely, low reflective, diffuse
scattering surfaces may absorb the signal and will not be effective in measuring the
range. On a smooth, shiny or wet surface, specular reflection may occur and depending on the angle of incidence, the reflected beam may not be returned to the receiver.
For the case of retro reflection, one will get a measurement of high intensity but this
is not necessarily a positive result as it may saturate the receiver.
22
Figure 3.2: Target reflective characteristics [6].
With the maturity of laser technology, it has already found use within several underground mine mapping applications [59, 40, 8, 33]. However, it is the environment,
with varying levels of dust and humidity, which is clearly acknowledged to limit the
performance of the device in use. A comparison of laser and radar ranging devices,
within adverse environmental conditions meant to simulate an underground mine,
was carried out in [51] and demonstrated the limitations that may be encountered.
Differences were found between the performance of the laser technologies as a result
of the signal wavelength and data processing technologies. It was suggested that none
of the sensors could alone be relied upon in the mining application for which they
examined.
3.2.3
Radar
Microwave Radar
Like the laser, the microwave radar signal is also composed of an EM wave. It has a
frequency which falls in the range between approximately 30 kHz and 30 GHz and a
23
wavelength of between 10 mm and 10 m. As alluded to in the previous section, measurements will be affected by the concentration and size of particulates in the medium.
It should be noted that the absorption or attenuation effects only become severe as
the wavelength approaches the size of the suspended particle. The wavelength of
microwave radar is much larger than the diameter of typical dust or water vapour
and so, although a significant factor when using a laser, not generally a problem for
radar [11].
An additional consideration must be again the beam width. The lower the frequency, the larger the beam width of the signal will be. Over a long range, the beam
will disperse and can become a significant issue, potentially reflecting off unintended
targets [7]. Over a short range, the dispersion effect is less severe and still offers an
improvement over the ultrasonic option with respect to resolution. Another result of
a lower frequency or long wavelength is the greater size requirement for an antenna
[19, 12]. Depending on the environment and physical space this may be a limiting
factor.
Millimeter Wave Radar

Finally, we come to millimeter wave (mm-wave) radar. Again, it is its wavelength
and frequency that differentiates it from laser and microwave radar. It falls between
microwaves and visible light on the EM spectrum with a frequency between approximately 30 and 300 GHz and a wavelength ranging from 1 to 10 mm, hence the name,
millimeter wave radar. Due to the shorter wavelength, the mm-wave has a narrower beam width than microwave radar which makes a higher resolution and further
range possible. Additionally with a shorter wavelength, the component and antenna
3.3. CIGAR LAKE SENSOR SELECTION
24
size can be smaller. Unfortunately, small size requires precision manufacturing, and
hence, a correspondingly high cost. Availability of such a device is also limited and
procurement would be a potential problem.
Radar is an attractive technology due to its ability to penetrate dust, smoke, and
fog and thus its range imaging capabilities have been examined for use in adverse
environmental conditions [14, 51, 19], and specifically for mining applications [39, 11,
52, 64, 12]. Of course, the specific application, and its corresponding requirements
for cost, size, accuracy will drive the selection for any case.
3.3
Cigar Lake Sensor Selection
The process of sensor selection for Cigar Lake is discussed in the following section.
3.3.1
Historical Options Analysis
With the challenging environment of the jetted cavity in which the range measurement
system must operate in, the task of finding an appropriate sensor is not a simple
endeavour. Based on the experience gained in field testing, as discussed in Section
2.1.2, it was determined that an ultrasonic sensor would be used for the interim survey
and that a laser scanning system would be used for the post-cavity survey. However,
given the time between the initial testing in 2000 and expected start of production
(post 2008), there was opportunity to explore advances in technology and examine
further options.
In 2005, the Saskatchewan Research Council (SRC) conducted a review of currently available technologies for use in cavity surveying [37]. Several options were
considered for the post cavity survey, but only one showed significant potential based
25
on the restrictions imposed from the environment and deployment method. This was
the MDL Cavity Auto-Scanning Laser (C-ALS ) system. It had been developed
specifically for cavity surveying applications and came complete with data processing
software. Upon a re-evaluation conducted by Cameco in 2012, following the McArthur
River deployment testing (see Section 2.2), the C-ALS was found to meet the size
and weight requirements for deployment using the rod pusher through the backfill
pipe. The C-ALS probe diameter is 50 mm, easily fitting within the 127 mm backfill pipe, and weighs 5.9 kg. The weight of the attached power and data cable were
also considered. Instead of using the standard cable, which weighs in at 0.18 kg/m,
a custom option was chosen with a lesser weight of 0.065 kg/m. This was to ensure
a deployment distance of 60 m could be easily achieved even after adapters, which
had yet to be fabricated, were attached. It is clear how all components, including
adapters and cables, must be considered as part of the restrictions for weight and
size of a post-cavity survey tool. However, even with the basic specifications met,
the system was expensive and its performance in the challenging Cigar Lake cavity
application had been not been validated. As discussed in Section 2.1.2, a previously
tested laser system had shown to experience issue with the water and fog environment
created by the jetting process.
In 2006, SRC carried out performance testing for three ultrasonic sensors to be
used in the interim cavity survey, including the Senix TX-30S1-ISR, the Massa
M-5000/95, and the Omega LVU-301 [43]. They were chosen based on potential to
withstand the extreme environment, and were characterized according to the following
parameters:
power requirements,
26
voltage sensitivity,
water effects
resolution at varying distances,
response to varying surfaces (texture, bends, spikes, and fissure),
response and sweep time,
reflection characteristics,
vibration resistance, and
screen protector tests.
Based on the results obtained from all the sensors, it was determined that the Senix
was the best choice since it had good accuracy, high response time, NEMA-6P rating,
stainless steel housing, no failures during testing, and had the smallest sensor size.
An alternative technology that SRC had also investigated for the interim cavity
survey application was the Vega Radar Sensor, which uses microwave radar. It was
found that it would be possible to modify an instrument, but that the compromises
necessary may not give an advantage over the ultrasonic units already being considered. It would require waterproofing and the antenna horn would have to be cut to fit
size requirements, resulting in an increase in beam width [37]. For this reason, their
focus remained on an ultrasonic sensor, with low cost, wide availability, and proven
capabilities in a fog environment, for providing range between periods of jetting for
the interim survey system.
Based on the signal properties discussed in Section 3.2.3, with respect to fog
penetration and a narrow beam width, the millimeter wave radar would seem well
27
suited to the underground cavity surveying environment. Graham Brooker et al.

[12] developed a 94 GHz FMCW mm-wave radar system for implementation in a
mining environment and found that, in comparison to sonar, laser, and microwave
radar systems, the mm-wave radar offered the best performance within a dusty or
humid environment and could withstand underground and surface mining operations.
Julian Ryde and Nick Hillier compared two laser range finders, a SICK LMS291-S05
and a Riegl LMSQ120, to a two-dimensional (2D) HSS 95 GHz scanning mm-wave
radar provided by the Australian Centre for Field Robotics (ACFR), using a test
chamber and in the field on an electric rope shovel [51]. They found that neither
sensor could alone provide sufficient data in the adverse environment, suggesting
that radar returns could be used to provide a rough draft of the surrounds, when
adverse weather and dust were present, but that a laser would be needed for detailed
information used in volume estimation and object classification. Castro and Peynot
[14] also examine using the combination of laser and radar for a perception system in
adverse outdoor environmental conditions on an unmanned ground vehicle (UGV).
The need for using two range sensing modalities had already been recognized for the
Cigar Lake application, though, instead of mm-wave radar, an ultrasonic sensor was
planned for use in the fog environment. Due to the high cost and limited availability
of mm-wave radar, it would not be a practical alternative.
3.3.2
Time-of-Flight Camera
The time-of-flight camera is a device which has been gaining increased use in research
for 3D imaging applications, such as map building [42, 34, 54, 57] or object recognition
[23, 21, 24], but had not been examined for remote cavity surveying. The Institut
28
de Robotica i Informatica Industrial (IRI) cited several examples of ToF camera

application in a technical report [22], and concluded that the devices most exploited
feature is the capability to provide complete scene depth maps at high frame rate
without the need of moving parts. In a survey of various ToF cameras currently on
the market, it was suggested that they will replace previous solutions, or at least
complement other technologies, in many areas of application [20]. The potential time
savings, sensor robustness, and small physical size that the TOF camera possessed,
provoked further examination for the Cigar Lake application. The basic operational
principles and potential advantages of using this technology over a laser system, such
as the C-ALS , is discussed within this section and constitutes the focus of this
dissertation.
The MESA Imaging SwissRanger (SR4030) was chosen for the Cigar Lake application due to its small size, weight, and commercial availability1 . It has dimensions
of 65.40 67.40 76 mm, and weighs a mere 410 g. The camera would easily fit
inside the backfill pipe and could be deployed using the vertical rod pusher. The
detection range for the chosen SwissRanger camera was 10.0 m, and since the target
cavities had a diameter of 4.5 m and height of 6 m, it would easily meet requirements
for cavity surveying purposes.
It uses a CCD/CMOS imaging sensor where a continuously-modulated infrared
signal is emitted, reflected by the objects in the scene, and the precise time of return
measured independently by the sensor pixels inside the camera. Each pixel on the
sensor demodulates the incoming light signal and recovers the sine wave function from
which the phase delay of the recovered signal can be used to calculate target distance.
From the single pixel values on the imaging sensor, a 176 144 pixel depth map is
1
See http://mesa-imaging.ch.
29
computed.
In a report published by Swiss Center for Electronics and Microtechnology (CSEM)
[41], a mathematical model for the SwissRanger ToF camera is detailed and replicated
below for completeness. A graphical representation of the modulated signal is shown
in Figure 3.3.
The emitted signal, e(t), can be approximated as:

e(t) = e 1 + sin

F
t
2
(3.4)
and the reflected signal, s(t), as:

s(t) = BG(t) + e k 1 + sin

F
t
2
(3.5)
where F is the modulation frequency in Hz, e is the emitted mean power in W, BG(t)
is the background illumination power in W, k is the attenuation factor including
target (distance, reflectivity) as well as the optics (lens, filter) and, is the phase
delay arising from the objects distance.
With the reflected signal being sampled four times in each cycle, at four period
phase shifts (i.e., 90 phase angle) it is possible to obtain:

= arctan
B=
p
A=
A3 A1
A0 A2
A0 + A1 + A2 + A3
4
[A3 A1 ]2 + [A0 A2 ]2
2
(3.6)
(3.7)
(3.8)
30
where is the measured phase delay, B is the measured offset, and A is the measured
amplitude.
The offset, B, represents the conventional black-and-white image and the amplitude, A, is a measure of the quality of the acquired distance information. According
to the SwissRanger manual [5], the amplitude is converted into a value which is
independent of distance and position in the image array, using the following factors:
1. A factor proportional to the square of the measured distance, scaled to equal 1
at a distance of half of the full-phase distance.
2. A factor which corrects for the drop in strength of the illumination away from
the center of the filed of view. This factor equals 1 at the center, and increases
with radial distance from the center.
With the measured phase delay, it is possible to directly calculate the distance
from the target object to the camera, as shown below:
L=
c
L0
, L0 =
2
2f
(3.9)
where L is the target distance in m, L0 is the distance in m corresponding to one full

cycle, f is the modulation frequency in Hz, and c is the speed of light in m/s.
3.3.3
Device Comparison
As shown in Table 3.1, the SwissRanger device is the fastest device, obtaining up to
50 frames of data per second, where the C-ALS obtains only 250 data points per
second (see Appendix B for device specification sheets). The data from the C-ALS
is plotted in real time but would take over a minute to collect and display what the
31
Figure 3.3: Time of Flight sampling of returned modulated signal [5].
Figure 3.4: Devices compared for Cigar Lake cavity surveying. From left to right:
MESA SwissRanger (ToF Camera), MDL C-ALS (Laser Scanning
Tool), Senix ToughSonic (Ultrasonic Sensor).
SwissRanger can obtain in 1/50-th of a second. The dense data set makes it possible
to employ advanced data analysis techniques such as registration or segmentation
as described in Section 3.4. It was also proposed that with such a dense data set,
it may be possible to filter spurious readings expected in foggy conditions [18], and
examine whether the resulting output could be interpreted. In this case, it would be
possible to use the ToF camera sooner than the C-ALS in foggy conditions and as
a supplement or even replacement for the ultrasonic sensor. Clearly, any time savings
3.4. POINT CLOUD PROCESSING
32
in a production driven environment would be seen as a cost benefit.

In addition to the dense point cloud data, the SwissRanger also provides amplitude
data. Since the amplitude data can be viewed as a grayscale image, this characteristic
would offer a visual representation of the target surface. The C-ALS is equipped
with a video camera, but it is mounted at the end of the probe. Its purpose is limited
to visualization during deployment through a conduit (such as the JBS backfill pipe),
as it does not provide the resolution or range sufficient to view the inside of a cavity.
With regards to the mechanical characteristics of the sensors, unlike the SwissRanger, laser systems generally employ several moving parts. Often with increased
complexity, comes increased maintenance. It is known that in ideal conditions, laser
systems have outperformed TOF cameras [16] for the purpose of very detailed 3D
imaging, but for the Cigar Lake application, the TOF camera could prove to be more
reliable. A distinct advantage of the C-ALS for a commercial application is that it is

a complete off-the-shelf system, equipped with application software, integrated pitch
and roll sensors, and a deployment method. To form a complete system with the ToF
camera, it would require system development, including adaptors for deployment, encoders, and software, along with required electronics and power. One contribution
of the research presented by this thesis is to evaluate whether the data acquired by
using the SwissRanger may offer advantages warranting further development for the
Cigar Lake application.
3.4
Point Cloud Processing
As discussed in Section 3.3.3, one advantageous characteristic of the ToF camera is

the substantially large amount of data that can be acquired in a very short amount
33
Table 3.1: Comparison of survey device specifications.
Survey Application
Cost
Data Acquisition Rate
Grayscale Image
Packaging
Fog/Water Conditions
Closed Space
Surface Reflectivity
Range Accuracy
Development Stage
Senix ToughSonic
TSPC-30S1
Interim Cavity
Low
20 points/s
No
IP68
Good
Unknown
Unaffected
0.2 % of range
Custom
MDL MKIII
C-ALS
Post Cavity
High
250 points/s
B&W video
IP67
Poor
Good
Unknown
5 cm
Commercial
MESA SR4030
ToF Camera
Unknown
Medium
50 frames/s
Yes
IP67
Unknown
Good
Unknown
15 mm
Required
of time. This opens up multiple options for analysis. Two options, registration and
segmentation, were identified to have potential for use in the Cigar Lake Cavity survey
application and are discussed in this section.
3.4.1
Registration
Ultimately, it will be necessary to create a full 3D model of a surveyed cavity by

piecing together the frames of data collected by a ToF camera. The process of consistently aligning the frames of data is known as registration. Two overlapping views
of a surface are considered to be registered if a single transformation is found that
will bring one image into the correct pose within the coordinate system of the other
[15]. A survey system such as the C-ALS uses an encoder that tracks the relative
position of the laser head to form a 3D model. An encoder could similarly be used
to provide the ToF camera viewpoint, however, it is proposed that registration could
further refine the image alignment. The combination of multiple modes to determine
pose, would be of particular use in this remote application, where there are limited
34
options for data validation.

One of the most common methods for registering point clouds is by use of the
Iterative Closest Point (ICP) algorithm [9, 65]. The widely-used ICP algorithm functions through a process of iteratively refining the estimated rotation and translation
between two frames of point cloud data by minimizing the mean-square distance between their points [9]. Due to its popularity, there exist many ICP variants [47], so for
a base case, example code2 from the Point Cloud Library (PCL) was proposed for use
with the SwissRanger. PCL is a large scale, open project for 2D and 3D image and
point cloud processing3 that contains many advanced algorithms for filtering, feature
estimation, registration, segmentation, and more [50].
The example pipeline for PCL ICP4 includes the following steps:
1. Search for point correspondences
2. Reject bad correspondences
3. Estimate a transformation using the good correspondences
4. Iterate at step 1
In Section 4.5 of this thesis, the results of registration attempts using data from
the test cavity are presented.
3.4.2
Segmentation
In order to further process the large amount of data from dense point clouds, or to
extract additional information, methods of segmentation can be used. Segmentation
2
See
http://pointclouds.org/documentation/tutorials/pairwise_incremental_
registration.php.
3
See http://pointclouds.org/.
4
See http://pointclouds.org/documentation/tutorials/registration_api.php.
35
is the process by which data points of similar properties are grouped or clustered
together. It is possible to look for object or surface edges, identify different surface
textures and colours, or cluster the data according to whatever parameter will serve
a particular purpose [48, 29, 44].
To achieve maximal efficiency in mining at Cigar Lake, it is important to extract
all targeted ore while minimizing waste or dilution for each planned cavity. Currently
the mine plan is based on core samples that were used to develop a block model. If
it were possible to segment the boundaries between waste rock and the ore deposit
while the jetting tools were in-hole, benefits could be realized during the interim
survey, ensuring that jetting process extracts the targeted ore, or even afterwards, in
validating the block model and planning future cavities.
The most obvious differentiating property between waste rock and the uranium
ore deposit is their colour. Referring to Figure 4.16(a), the red-brown coloured core
is hematized clay, and the gray colour would be either choritized clay or the grayblack chloritized sandstone. The particular area of interest is the very black coloured
mineral which comprises the pitchblende U3O8 deposit. If the reflectivity of the
different minerals were found to be distinct, it would be possible to segment the
SwissRanger amplitude image accordingly and map the ore body extents during or
after mining is complete.
In Section 4.5 of this thesis, segmentation is tried on data collected from inside
the test cavity.
36
Chapter 4
Experimental Studies
4.1
Test Cavity
Device testing in an experimental test cavity was conducted to demonstrate the capabilities and limitations of the devices proposed for use within the underground
cavity application at Cigar Lake, as compared with the ToF camera. The tests were
intended to provide a baseline for the interpretation of data obtained from any of
the systems in a real remote cavity and to allow for comparison between devices.
Since the shape, size, and target reflectivity of the cavity have an effect on the sensor
performance, a testing space was designed to emulate the properties and size of a
true cavity as closely as possible. A hexagon-shaped wooden enclosure was built with
wall-to-wall distances varying from 4.2 m to 5.0 m. A wall shape similar to a cavity
was constructed with stucco. Diamond mesh was manipulated to cover the surface of
the walls and a stucco base was applied. To finish, Cigar Lake core samples were examined and used as a guide to select colours for the stucco finish (see Figure 4.16(a)).
The uranium ore is very strong and likely to protrude further than the surrounding,
softer rock, when jetting is conducted. The high grade ore is also pitch black and for
4.1. TEST CAVITY
37
this reason, the greatest protrusions on the test cavity walls were painted black (see
Figure 4.1).
(a) A real Cigar Lake cavity with freeze pipes
(b) Test cavity construction
(c) Completed test cavity
Figure 4.1: Design and construction of test cavity.
Testing first included baseline data acquisition, where effects (if any) due to the
closed space and uneven surface composed of various reflectivities could be observed.
To follow, the application specific environment was simulated and the effect of fog
and water on the range data, as well as the detection of freeze pipes, was evaluated.
4.2. TEST APPARATUS
38
The quality of the data obtained, the time in which it could be acquired, the associated cost, and the JBS operators ability to interpret the results all play a role in
determining which sensor is best suited for the interim and post cavity surveys.
4.2
Test Apparatus
The C-ALS is part of a complete scanning system but required stabilization within
the test cavity to complete experiments. A bike repair stand was found to be sufficient
for this purpose and the setup is shown in Figure 4.2. The C-ALS possesses an
actuated head and so, once the system was appropriately positioned, a 3D scan could
be initiated with the use of the application specific software.
Figure 4.2: C-ALS test apparatus in test cavity.
Since the SwissRanger ToF Camera is a stand-alone sensor, a Celestron NexStar

SE tripod was used to rotate the camera and output the angle of rotation. The
ultrasonic sensor and SwissRanger were mounted to an adaptor designed by SRC, as
shown in Figure 4.1(c). Scripts were written in MATLAB (see Appendix A) and
4.2. TEST APPARATUS
39
used to trigger data acquisition from the tripod, Senix sensor, and SwissRanger.
Basic scripts were also used for preliminary data viewing and analysis.
With the need of an efficient means to later process the large amount of data that
was obtained from the SwissRanger, the Point Cloud Library (PCL) was used. Inside
PCL, the Point Cloud Data (.pcd ) file format is used, which requires that a specific
header be used to declare certain properties of the point cloud data stored in the file.
As a result, a script was written in MATLAB to save the data using the PCD file
format. The tripod rotation angle was converted into quaternions, representing the
cameras viewpoint, for the PCL header file. The use of quaternions provides a useful
way of performing rotational mathematics in 3D space [17], and are utilized in the
PCL viewer. The unit quaternion q= [q , qx , qy , qz ] is computed as
qw = cos(/2)
(4.1)
qx = i(x sin(/2))
(4.2)
qy = j(y sin(/2))
(4.3)
qz = k(z sin(/2))
(4.4)
where the vector R3 is the axis of rotation, R represents the angle of rotation
about , and i, j, and k are unit vectors on the x, y, and z axes, respectively.
Since the motion took place in the x z plane of the camera (see Figure 4.3),
with rotation about the y-axis, a simplification was possible whereby = [0, y , 0].
As a unit quaternion, with the condition that |||| = 1, this would further simplify
to = [0, 1, 0].
4.3. TEST ENVIRONMENTS AND RESULTS
40
Figure 4.3: SwissRanger camera Cartesian coordinate system, (x, y, z) [5].
4.3
Test Environments and Results
4.3.1
Baseline
Before beginning the series of various experiments, it was important to determine the
appropriate settings for each device and to acquire a set of baseline data for each.
The rationale behind the base settings and those that would be varied for each device
is presented within this section.
Senix
Range data was obtained with the Senix ultrasonic sensor at the same position that
an image was also acquired with the SwissRanger. It was regularly found that the
Senix sensor would provide a false range of 0 m, likely dependent on the particular
angle of incidence to the surface. For the interim cavity survey system developed
by SRC, this was remedied by filtering out the 0 values and creating an algorithm
to smooth the remaining range data on a continual basis as the sensor was rotated.
41
The value of further analyzing data from the Senix sensor was deemed unnecessary
for the purpose of this dissertation, since its primary advantage had already been
recognized in the capability to provide range measurement in fog conditions.
C-ALS
MDL supplies a software package with the C-ALS that allows for a few options
in the acquisition process. The first considered was a high speed option (default)
which increases the speed of a survey by 20 % but provides 20 % less data. Since
the quantity of data was deemed sufficient, the high speed option was selected for all
testing. Another consideration was the Last Hit option which is intended for use if
there is an obstruction between the instrument and the target, such as water vapour
or dust [35]. These obstructions may cause the laser to reflect back to the instrument
before reaching the intended target. Testing was completed with this option set both
on and off to observe and compare the effect to data acquired in fog (see Section
4.3.4).
The final scanning option reviewed was the interval angle for either vertical or
horizontal slices of data that could be acquired. Figure 4.5 shows how the interval
angle affects the visual detail of the 3D plots. There is an obvious improvement in
the visual information provided between a scan taken with a 5 interval to that of 1 .
However, the difference between 1 and 0.5 appears less obvious, even though there
are approximately twice as many data points and the scan will have taken twice as
much time (see Figure 4.4). This will be a consideration for acquiring data in the
field where time has a direct correlation with cost. It is necessary to collect sufficient
data for cavity modelling and mine planning, but in a minimal amount of time. For
42
data sets collected in the test cavity, the interval angle was set at 1 , since time was
not of essence (in contrast to the mine), and the data set could be down-sampled, if
necessary.
Figure 4.4: C-ALS baseline scan (vertical) demonstrating data acquisition time.
SwissRanger
With the SwissRanger, it is possible to acquire four basic sets of data (see Figure
4.6), which include:
1. 3D Cartesian coordinate data (x, y, z) (point cloud),
2. range image,
3. amplitude (grayscale) image, and
4. confidence map.
43
(a) 5 interval
(b) 1 interval
(c) 0.5 interval
Figure 4.5: C-ALS vertical scan 3D plots shown with increasing acquisition intervals
(colour scaled by signal strength with blue for low and red for high).
44
These basic sets were acquired for each triggered data acquisition.
Four different filtering modes, intended to reduce noisy data, could be set on the
SwissRanger and include:
1. Raw Data - No filters
2. Median Filter - 3 3 median filter run on the host PC
3. Neighborhood Filter - 5 5 hardware adaptive neighborhood filter
4. Median and Neighborhood Filter
Data was collected with each filtering mode, but for consistency, the setting for
Median and Neighborhood Filter was most often used in analysis.
The integration time, which is the length of time that the pixels are allowed to
collect light, was also varied during data acquisition to observe the effect within the
test cavity as a baseline and also in the different test environments. The parameter
intT ime was set through the SwissRanger API and is related to integration time, IT ,
the read out time, RO, and the cameras frame rate, F R, by the following equations:
IT = 0.300 ms + (intT ime) 0.100 ms
FR =
1
4 (IT + RO)
(4.5)
(4.6)
As discussed in Section 3.3.2, four samples of the phase are needed to calculate
range, requiring four separate integration periods. Thus, the time required to capture
a single image frame is the inverse of Equation 4.6.
45
Figure 4.6: Left: Basic image acquisition from SwissRanger using MATLAB (amplitude (grayscale) image, range image, and confidence map). Right: Point
cloud data plotted using the PCL viewer.
As expected, it was observed that visual appearance of the target wall surface
in the amplitude and range image improved as the integration time increased, and
respectively, the noise appeared to decrease.
4.3.2
Water
For the Cigar Lake application, the presence of water in the cavity being surveyed
is expected. During the process of jetting, the nozzle produces a jet of water that is
directed upwards at an angle of 65 from the axis of the sub, with flow at the nozzle
at pressures of up to 100 MPa. The interim survey, taking place between periods of
jetting, will be completed with the Senix ultrasonic device, but it is also expected
46
that the cavity surface will remain water saturated for the final, post cavity survey.
Therefore, any ranging device to be used must operate reliably with water on the
target surface and potentially on the sensor itself.
In order to simulate the cavity environment after jetting, water was sprayed inside
the test cavity, saturating the walls and roof and creating near 100 % humidity within
the space. Data obtained from both the C-ALS and SwissRanger were compared to
the baseline data and found to have no significant difference in the range data, as
shown in Figure 4.7.
The water was also sprayed directly onto the sensor surfaces to observe what effect
it would have on performance. For all sensors, the effect was most noticeable directly
after spraying occurred because it caused a distortion of the signal. A shorter range
(by 10 cm) was measured with the Senix ultrasonic sensor and the data from
the C-ALS appeared noisy with early signal returns. Noisy point cloud data was also
observed with the SwissRanger and the look of a lens appeared on the confidence
image (see Figure 4.8). The effect water had on each sensor diminished over time as
the heat dissipation from the sensors caused the water to pool and evaporate.
4.3.3
Freeze pipes
As part of the mining process at Cigar Lake, the ore and surrounding rock must be
frozen prior to jetting. This is achieved through the installation of freeze pipes in
a grid pattern, through which brine is circulated to freeze the ground. It is known
that jetting cavities will expose freeze pipes and it is beneficial to know how these
will be imaged by each device in order to identify them during the surveying process.
If a freezepipe is identified, it could be factored into the calculation for determining
47
Figure 4.7: SwissRanger Point Cloud data with water (blue) and without water
(green) on test cavity surface.
the overall volume the cavity. Perhaps more importantly, a freeze pipe that has been
exposed will need to be identified so that it can be monitored when the brine is turned
back on, ensuring no permanent damage has occurred.
The ultrasonic device has a nominal beam width of 12 and is unlikely to resolve
a freeze pipe. With some basic calculations, considering the outer diameter of the
freeze pipe, it can be found that even if the beam were centered on the mid point of
the pipe, it would be improbable to resolve a pipe that is beyond a distance of 0.60
(a) Point cloud
(b) Amplitude image
(c) Range image
(d) Confidence image
48
Figure 4.8: SwissRanger Data with Water Droplet on Lens.
m from the sensor. Furthermore, the current software uses a smoothing average, so
it would be even more unlikely to distinguish a point reflected on a freezepipe from
the averaged points on the proximate cavity wall.
With the C-ALS , there are three typical scan interval settings. These are at 6 ,
3 , and 1 . It is clear that with the more data, you are more likely to detect the freeze
pipe, but consideration of time must also be a factor. It was observed that with a
vertical scan interval of 3 , as shown in Figure 4.9, the freeze pipe could be identified
but without a high level of confidence.
49
(a) Front view
(b) Side view
Figure 4.9: C-ALS scan of freeze pipes. Scanning interval (Left to Right): 6 , 3 ,
and 1 .
In contrast, with the high density of range data obtained in a single image with the
SwissRanger ToF camera and the corresponding amplitude image, as shown in Figure
4.10, the chance of a freeze pipe going undetected would be highly unlikely. Object
detection is clearly an advantage of the SwissRanger over the C-ALS , especially
with the contribution to visualization from video frame rate data acquisition.
4.3.4
Fog
As determined from testing in 2000 (Section 2.1.2), the build up of fog is a significant
issue for any survey sensor that is to be used in the jetted cavity where water is sprayed
in the frozen environment. To simulate fog conditions, two methods for creating fog
(a) Point cloud
(b) Amplitude image
(c) Range image
(d) Confidence image
50
Figure 4.10: SwissRanger data with freeze pipes in test cavity.
were assessed. The first method simply involved mixing boiling water with dry ice.
It was quickly determined that this was not a viable option to create a consistent fog,
since it sunk to the floor and dissipated quickly. Instead, an Antari fog machine
was used to create the suspended particulates or fog within the test cavity. Inside
the machine, a mixture of glycol and water is passed through a heat exchanger where
it is vapourized, forming a fog when mixed with the cooler air outside the machine.
Approximate light, medium, and dense fogs, as shown in Figure 4.11, were created by
timing the length of vapour release. A shortcoming of this experiment was the lack
51
of a specific fog density metric. To assess device performance in fog, permutations of

the filter settings were conducted for both the C-ALS and SwissRanger.
(a) Light fog
(b) Medium fog
(c) Dense fog
Figure 4.11: Inside of test cavity with light, medium, and dense fog conditions.
The C-ALS Last Hit option, as mentioned in Section 4.3.1, can be used when
there is water vapour or dust in the air. This option, however, did not make an
observable improvement on the data obtained within the test cavity. It is possible
that even the light fog density was too great for a sufficient amount of the signal
to reach the target surface before being returned. In comparing the baseline and
52
dense fog data from the C-ALS , it could be seen that the point cloud obtained in
fog still resembled the true surface but was scaled down, due to the early returns
of signals on the fog. The new points appeared roughly 1 m from the true target
surface. In application at the Cigar Lake mine, it will be important to identify when
fog is present in the cavity because false, early-returns may not be distinguishable
from normal data and therefore cause significant errors in volume and production
estimates. It would be difficult to assess the impact of the fog on the C-ALS data,
and attempting to correlate fog density to the impact on sensor reading is beyond
the scope of these experiments. However, the importance of utilizing the integrated
video camera on the C-ALS to observe the conditions within the remote cavity and
validate the dissipation of fog, prior to data collection, was substantiated.
Figure 4.12: C-ALS data in dense fog (left) and baseline (right). Target distance
shown on horizontal axis in meters.
53
During testing with the SwissRanger, it was observed that the point cloud was also
scaled down according to the level of fog inside the test cavity (see Figure 4.13). The
average range for the baseline data was 2.00 m and for the point cloud in dense fog
was 0.21 m. It is clear that the lesser power of the SwissRanger signal, as compared
to the C-ALS , had a significant effect on signal penetration through the fog. Since
the 2D amplitude image of the cavity wall still resembled the true surface (see Figure
4.14), despite the small range values, it raised the question as to whether the accurate
range values could be extracted or filtered with a lesser integration time. It had been
noted that part of the point cloud data still encompassed true range values, with a
shorter integration time, though it was unknown whether this data was simply noise.
A simple setup was devised in order to determine whether it was feasible to extract
true range data from the SwissRanger in fog. The camera was located at two different
positionsapproximately 2 m and 4 m from the target surface within the test cavity
and data taken at several integration times, in the light, medium, and dense fog
conditions. It was expected that noise would appear the same, indifferent to the
camera distance from the target surface and the level of fog. As shown in Figure
4.15, at an integration time of 0.3 ms (see Equation 4.5), the point cloud consists
purely of noise, since there is little difference observed at both positions and between
the baseline (no fog) and medium fog conditions. At a higher integration time of
5.3 ms, the baseline data still does not represent the true range, but it is possible
to see the point clouds from the two different positions begin to separate. With the
same integration time, but in fog, the point cloud begins being condensed for both
positions. Finally, at the highest integration time of 25.3 ms, the true average range
is represented at approximately 2 and 4 meters without fog in the cavity. With fog,
54
Baseline
Light Fog
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Height (m)
0.5
0.5
1
0.5
2
1.5
0
0.5
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1
0.5
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Figure 4.13: Point cloud data from SwissRanger in light, medium, and dense fog
conditions inside the test cavity.
it is exclusively early returns that are observed, thus demonstrating the difficulty in
extracting the true range. It was the highest integration time that was required to
achieve reliable range data in clear conditions, but it was not feasible to obtain the
same within fog.
In the field, the possibility of extracting true range data in a fog environment
would diminish further. The density and composition of fog would be variable and
the target distance would certainly not remain the same as jetting progressed. For
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MATLAB ).
from
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in
the remote cavity application, it is necessary that a certain level of confidence in the
range data could be achieved and this was not seen to be possible with the C-ALS
and SwissRanger. The C-ALS possessed a stronger powered signal and thus was
able to acquire range data closer to the baseline than the SwissRanger, however, it
was observed that both devices would provide an inaccurate indication of the size and
volume of the cavity in fog conditions.
4.4. FIELD TESTING
56
Baseline Data
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Figure 4.15: Side view of point cloud data from SwissRanger acquired from positions 2
m apart in no fog (top) and medium fog (bottom) conditions. Integration
time is increasing from left to right.
4.4
Field Testing
At the time of data collection, mining of remote cavities at Cigar Lake had not yet
begun, so it was not possible to acquire a true field data set. Instead, images of core
samples from Cigar Lake, representing the true mineral reflectivity, and images from
an open stope at Rabbit Lake, representing a cavity-like space, were obtained with
the SwissRanger. The uranium deposit at the Rabbit Lake operation, which opened
in 1975, is of lower grade than at Cigar Lake (approximately 1 % versus 18 %),
and is mined using a vertical blast-hole stoping method. The broken ore is removed
with a remote-controlled scoop tram and, once mining is complete, the open stope is
backfilled.
4.5. POINT CLOUD PROCESSING RESULTS
57
The core samples used for experiment were taken at depths encompassing the ore
body at Cigar Lake and contained minerals that would likely be found inside a cavity.
Since there was success in obtaining amplitude images that visually represented the
surface of the test cavity, even in the dense fog environment (see Figure 4.14(c)),
the question remained as to whether the returned signal amplitude could be used
to identify the extents of the ore body, or different minerals, through the process of
segmentation. It was encouraging to find that preliminary observation of the core
sample amplitude images, as shown in Figure 4.17, confirmed a visual distinction
between the minerals.
The images acquired at Rabbit Lake, shown in Figure 4.18, demonstrate the potential of the SwissRanger for a short-range cavity survey device in a mine. The detail
captured in the amplitude image could prove beneficial for remote visualization of the
cavity by a human operator. The point cloud and range images demonstrate how the
distance from the walls of a cavity could be shown with the data. Points that are
beyond the maximum range of the camera are recorded with a value of zero. The
confidence map revealed that bad data could potentially be identified using this
software tool since, for example, points beyond the range of the camera are blue (not
confident). This field test affirmed that the ToF camera would be effective in capturing accurate point cloud data from a rock face at close range, as may similarly be
encountered within a cavity.
4.5
Point Cloud Processing Results
The purpose of this section is to provide some indication of the potential future
direction that could be taken with data acquired from a ToF camera in a remote
58
(a) Cigar Lake core sample
(b) Rabbit Lake stope
Figure 4.16: Field data acquisition with SwissRanger at Cigar Lake and Rabbit Lake.
(a) Amplitude image
59
(b) Range image
(c) Confidence image
Figure 4.17: SwissRanger images of Cigar Lake core sample.

surveying application. The data acquired from the SwissRanger using MATLAB
was saved in a .pcd format for further processing using PCL (see Appendix A.5).
Due to the increased need for complex processing of point cloud data sets, such as
from a ToF camera, the PCL was developed. It is a large scale, open project for
2D or 3D image and point cloud processing. Algorithms from PCL for registration
and segmentation were adapted and implemented on SwissRanger data from the test
cavity, as described in this section. However, a full analysis and study of the use of
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these algorithms is beyond the scope of this thesis.
4.5.1
Registration
For the scope of this study, it was only desired to demonstrate whether there was
potential to use registration as a means of tracking rotation or aligning the point
clouds acquired with the SwissRanger. As a preliminary test, a PCL registration
algorithm1 was used to verify whether multiple frames of data from within the test
1
See
http://pointclouds.org/documentation/tutorials/pairwise_incremental_
registration.php.
61
cavity could be automatically aligned, independently of the encoder angle. This would
demonstrate a robustness of the algorithm and the potential to validate the encoder
rotation data. Naturally, the success of registration depends on the amount of overlap
between images, therefore, several sets of data were acquired using different angles of
increment. For initial trials, data acquired with a 10 increment, which worked out
to an overlap of approximately 74 % between images, was utilized.
After acquiring several sets of data and attempting pairwise registration with the
PCL ICP algorithm, it was unsurprising to find that registration was successful when
distinctive objects [53], appearing in successive images were placed in the cameras
field of view (See Figure 4.19). The ICP algorithm converges to a local minimum [9],
so these objects ensured that the algorithm used sufficiently enriched data. In a field
situation, incorporating extra objects will obviously not be possible, so it is clear that
more effort is required to understand the potential robustness of this approach under
real conditions. For example, the SwissRangers confidence map could prove useful,
since it would highlight the areas where the combination of error in distance and
amplitude are deemed the least [5], suggesting a strong starting point for matching.
Further filtering of data (e.g., pass through filter, down-sampling, statistical outlier
removal) to create a cleaner data set or an exploration of different feature extraction
techniques (ex. Normal Estimation [31], Point Feature Histograms [49, 48]) to identify
rock features in the cavity could potentially improve results as well.
With regards to the Cigar Lake remote cavity application, a practical use of
registration is to use it to supplement or provide correction to data acquired with
a position encoder. As suggested by Hedlund [28], a good solution to improving
registration is to attach odometry equipment to the ToF camera being used. The
(a) Objects in test cavity for registration
62
(b) Failed registration attempt
(c) Registration with objects in test cavity
Figure 4.19: Registration applied to SwissRanger images in test cavity without position information.
encoder would provide an initial position estimate to the registration algorithm. For
future work, it may be a useful exercise to introduce various levels of error to the initial
pose estimate and observe the success in using registration to correct the viewpoint
angle of the camera.
4.5.2
63
Segmentation
The goal of segmentation, for the purpose of cavity surveying with the SwissRanger,
was to identify whether the limits of the ore deposit might be identified from the
amplitude data. As a simple initial test, a pass through filter was used to remove
intensity data which fell between a range of manually chosen values. This method
was successful in extracting the portions of the cavity wall which were painted black
and represented the uranium ore (see Figure 4.20(b)).
Since the amplitude of the SwissRanger signals were observed to be distinct enough
to manually filter according to a range of values, the PCL Conditional Euclidian
Clustering2 was tested next to determine whether it could perform a similar task.
This segmentation algorithm clusters points based on Euclidean distance and a usercustomizable condition (i.e., distance in amplitude space). Successful clustering was
observed when the defined set condition required the difference between amplitudes
to be less than a value of one (see Figure 4.20). This result offered sufficient evidence
to show potential application for segmenting the cavity data from Cigar Lake. There
exist many sophisticated algorithms, for use with data acquired with 3D imaging
devices, which attempt to improve robustness to texture, scale, and viewpoint. Future
work could be completed to determine which might be best suited to the cavity
surveying application and to test the algorithms on true field data.
See
http://pointclouds.org/documentation/tutorials/conditional_euclidean_
clustering.php.
(a) Intensity point cloud
(b) Pass through filter
(c) Conditional euclidean clustering
Figure 4.20: Segmentation applied to intensity point cloud.
64
65
Chapter 5
Summary and Conclusions
5.1
Summary and Contributions
A review of historical documentation from Cigar Lake provided invaluable information with regards to the cavity conditions and the challenges that would be faced
by any sensor having to brave that environment. Having a firm understanding of
the operational environment is important for the selection of any type of device, to
ensure the device specifications meet expectations. In the remote cavity surveying
application at Cigar Lake mine site, an initial struggle was the unknown environment
and relatively undefined requirements. For example, if the original designers of the
cavity survey system had been aware of the foggy conditions that were to ensue and
had combined that with knowledge of the operating capabilities of the laser in such
an environment, it is unlikely that the laser system would have been their first choice.
It was found that: mechanical robustness, exposure to water, performance in fog,
and data accuracy, were all factors that would play a part in future survey device
selection. In an industrial application, such as a mine, cost and availability are also
strong contenders in the decision-making process and were taken into consideration
5.1. SUMMARY AND CONTRIBUTIONS
66
when researching potential options.

A study of range sensing devices including ultrasonic, laser, and radar which had
been used in applications at other mines offered insight and understanding of the
sensor selection process at Cigar Lake. Through the initial testing phase of the Jet
Boring System in 2000, it was determined that the combination of an ultrasonic
sensor, for obtaining an idea of the progression of the cavity shape during the jetting
process (in fog), and a laser scan, for final detailed cavity shape information, could be
used at Cigar Lake. SRC evaluated current technology as of 2005, and proposed the
C-ALS for use as the laser scanner and tested ultrasonic sensors in 2006, resulting
in the selection of the Senix sensor.
A technology that has been gaining popularity in remote field robotics applications
is the time-of-flight camera and has shown potential for use in mining applications. It
meets the physical limitations imposed by the remote cavity deployment method and
in experiments described in this thesis, showed promise for introducing further ad-
vantages over the C-ALS , which included data acquisition rate, point cloud density,
and cost.
It is clear, solely from the data specifications, that the ToF camera (SwissRanger)
has the fastest data acquisition rate. Value is found in cost savings that could result
in completing a faster survey. Additionally, the video frame rate of 50 frames/s
would provide a distinct advantage for operators to visualize the inside of the cavity,
especially with the grayscale (amplitude) images. Comparatively, the C-ALS is
equipped with a separate video camera component which is mounted at the end of
the probe, but is only useful for the purpose of visualization during deployment, not
inside the cavity.
67
The high point cloud density obtained with the SwissRanger offers another benefit
over the other devices tested. This was demonstrated through the use of representative environments inside the test cavity. It was found that the moisture or water on
the cavity walls had insignificant effects on the data obtained from both the C-ALS
and the SwissRanger. When water was sprayed on each lens surface, both the C-
ALS and the SwissRanger output noisy data due to early signal returns. However,
with the SwissRanger, the distortion could be identified and diagnosed. The freeze
pipes in the test cavity also showed that objects at a distance could be more easily identified from a device with high point cloud density. It was possible to obtain
enough data points with the C-ALS in order to positively identify a freeze pipe,
but the SwissRanger would be capable of achieving this in a fraction of the time, and
with less ambiguity.
Inside the fog environment, it was found that the point cloud density of the SwissRanger did not provide an advantage. The various filter modes and integration times
were tested, with results showing that the true range data could not be simply extracted. Had it been possible to replace the ultrasonic sensor with the ToF camera,
significant time and cost savings could have been realized in eliminating the need
for a post-cavity survey. It was already known that the C-ALS would not provide
reliable data in fog from previous testing with a laser range finder at Cigar Lake, and
this was reconfirmed in the test cavity. Of the two signals, however, the C-ALS
was able to penetrate further into the fog (N.b., the C-ALS emits a higher powered
signal), though it remains that it should not be relied upon to provide range data
in fog conditions. As suspected, the ultrasonic device was the only sensor to provide
true values of range in the fog.
68
With limited success in fog, the option for the SwissRangers use in obtaining
range data during the interim survey was eliminated. This did not however mean
that it could not be used, just as the C-ALS , for a detailed post-cavity survey, to
take place when the fog has dissipated. Of course, in this case, there would have to be
a benefit for using the SwissRanger over the C-ALS . From a business perspective,
consideration of factors such as the sensor cost, reliability or maintenance requirements, time savings from survey completion time, and value in information gained,
could be taken into account. Prospective options for further work that could be completed and which may offer improvement to remote cavity surveying is presented in
the next section.
The following is a concise summary of the contributions made by this research:
1. The previous work completed by SRC and Cameco towards developing a cavity
survey system was reviewed, as described in Chapter 2. The theory behind the
operation of systems commonly used in mining was outlined, as described in
Section 3.2, and it was validated that the combination of the ultrasonic and
laser scanning systems made sense for the application and environment they
were expected to operate in.
2. A test cavity was created to simulate the underground cavity environment (see
Section 4.1) and was used to perform several experiments, given that access to
a real cavity was not feasible.
3. Field data was collected at the Cigar Lake and Rabbit Lake mine sites to observe
the SwissRangers imaging of real ore and rock face, as shown in Section 4.4.
4. It was confirmed that the C-ALS would not provide reliable range data in fog.
5.2. FUTURE WORK
69
It was also determined that the SwissRanger would not provide valuable range
data in fog and thus could not be used in the interim cavity survey. Results of
testing in fog are described in Section 4.3.4.
5. It was found that the SwissRanger provided an amplitude image that gave a
visual indication of the appearance of the cavity surface wall, even in fog (see
Section 4.3.4), and thus, it has been suggested that an IR device could be used
in the interim survey to supplement the range values from the Senix ultrasonic
sensor.
6. It was concluded that the speed of data acquisition, the visual information
from the amplitude image, and the dense data set, with potential for advanced
processing (see Section 4.5), could warrant development of a ToF camera remote
cavity surveying device.
5.2
Future Work
Although being able to obtain reliable range data is an integral element of performing
a cavity survey, it is only a part of the larger system that would be required in the field.
Prior to further development, effort should be made to define the level of accuracy
required from the survey system as input for mine planning. This development would
include the incorporation a deployment method, orientation and position finding, as
well as telemetry. The limitations imposed by the deployment method utilized at
Cigar Lake (e.g., weight and size) were considered when selecting the SwissRanger.
Therefore, relatively basic work would be required to source a 60 m length of cabling
to transmit data and power (telemetry) in real-time and to mount an encoder which
would track its position once inside the cavity. A missing piece from all survey
5.2. FUTURE WORK
70
sensors used or proposed for use in the Cigar Lake application is the incorporation
of a north-seeking device to specify absolute positioning of the scan data from inside
the underground cavity.
With the ability to deploy and acquire data in cavity, the survey operators would
also require a simple to use software program to display and save relevant data from
the ToF camera. The saved data could later be used for further point cloud data
processing, including surface reconstruction, volume estimation, and potentially registration and segmentation. A benefit in exploring the robustness of a registration
algorithm from the point cloud data would be to aid in position correction of data
obtained from an encoder.
Some promise for segmenting the images according to mineral type, using the
amplitude image, had also been shown and may prove to be of particular use in
visualizing the cavity and identifying the limits of the ore body. However, much
work would have to be done in order to show with confidence that segmentation
could be performed reliably on the 3D images that can vary with texture, scale,
and viewpoint. For segmenting the amplitude images from the SwissRanger, one
suggestion would be to explore the rotation-invariant descriptor, intensity-domain
spin images [32]. This algorithm uses a two-dimensional histogram encoding the
distribution of image brightness values in the neighborhood of a particular reference
(centre) point. Additionally, since an accurate representation of the targets surface
appears in the amplitude image, even in the dense fog conditions, the success of
segmentation could also be tried for application in the interim survey.
The amplitude image observed in fog lead to a review of sensors that claim to have
obscurant penetrating capabilities, in an attempt to determine what characteristics of
5.2. FUTURE WORK
71
the device or data processing algorithms made this possible [38, 58, 61, 4]. In order to
see-through the fog, it was deemed necessary to have advanced filtering techniques
that are integrated into both the hardware and software, of devices that would be
similar to the SwissRanger [55, 66]. With the SwissRanger it was not possible to
examine the analog pulses received by the device, thereby eliminating a method of
determining how the signal itself (rather than the resultant data) was affected by the
fog. For future work, an extensive survey of obscurant penetrating devices could be
completed and testing conducted to evaluate their potential use in a remote cavity
survey application.
Additionally, investigation into whether an infrared device might be able to provide depth information within the fog conditions was carried out. In examining IR
devices for stereo vision, it was determined that some promising success had been
found when using thermal IR in the long wavelength infrared spectrum [26, 45].
Thermal infrared had also been used in a monocular SLAM application [62]. In this
spectrum, one needs only to examine the IR emission from surfaces, rather than contend with the added complication of the reflected signals. Since the SwissRanger is
a near-infrared device, without potential to examine received signals directly, it was
determined that using it, even in a stereo setup, would be not be likely to reveal
any added information about the range of a target in fog. However, work could be
completed to demonstrate whether a thermal IR device might be able to provide a
3D representation of the cavity while in a foggy environment. Consideration of how
fluctuations in temperature (frozen ground) may affect the quality of data should be
taken into account.
5.3. CONCLUSIONS
72
Finally, sensor fusion could be explored in developing a system which offers further functionality for visualization and range finding during a remote cavity survey.
This is a common solution for robotic perception applications in adverse environmental conditions and often involves multiple combinations of radar, laser, and thermal
infrared sensors [13, 30, 60, 14]. For the Cigar Lake application, a pairing of the
ultrasonic sensor with a thermal infrared camera could provide a means of acquiring
a grayscale image of the surface where the range data from the ultrasonic sensor is
being measured. Currently, there is no visualization in the cavity during the jetting
process. Any added sensor would have to withstand the extreme jetting environment,
and be integrated into the custom interim cavity survey system.
5.3
Conclusions
With the construction of a test cavity, and by simulating the environments that are
expected to be present in underground cavities excavated with a jet boring system,
it was possible to evaluate the data that could be obtained by using a C-ALS and
with a SwissRanger ToF camera. It was shown that, in the environment with freeze
pipes and with water, the quantity and high speed of data acquisition would be
an advantage in using the ToF camera. Furthermore, the amplitude image, which
appears as a grayscale photograph, would provide an additional mode of visualization
for JBS operators who would be making decisions based on the data obtained. In the
fog, as expected, it was shown that neither the C-ALS nor the SwissRanger could
be used to obtain reliable range data.
Data obtained at Cigar Lake showed the variation in amplitude data for the various
mineral compositions in a core sample, and data from Rabbit Lake showed how the
5.3. CONCLUSIONS
73
range and amplitude images would appear when taken from an underground rock
face. The field data provided confirmation that a ToF camera could be used for a
post-cavity survey, just as the C-ALS , after jetting is complete. There is also the
possibility that the SwissRanger amplitude data could be used to identify the extents
of the ore body with segmentation, and that registration might be used to further
correct pose information obtained from an encoder.
The C-ALS had been chosen for post-cavity scanning at Cigar Lake because it
is a readily available and complete system that incorporates deployment, pitch and
roll sensors, and application-ready software. Further field testing, data analysis, and
hardware and software development would be required to integrate a ToF camera into
an automated system for surveying remote cavities. Depending on long-term costs
sustained with use of the C-ALS , the investment in developing a ToF camera survey
tool for acquiring data in a cavity environment, and the additional information it may
provide, could prove of value.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
74
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6950, Laser Radar Technol. Appl. XIII, 69500T, volume 6950, pages 69500T
69500T8, April 2008.
84
Appendix A
MATLAB
A.1
Code
Scan
Main Script for SwissRanger and Senix
s = serial('COM4');
sx = serial('COM3');
%tripod port
%senix serial port
dev = sr open;
%ethernet port for swiss ranger
fopen(s)
%open port for tripod
fopen(sx)
%open port for senix
%No Filters
1297
%Only Neighborhood filter
3345
%Only Median
1301
%Median and Neighborhood
3349
% mode for acquiring range, amplitude, and confidence image and some filters
changemode= 1297;
changemode str=int2str(changemode);
sr setmode(dev, changemode);
A.1. MAIN SCRIPT FOR SWISSRANGER AND SENIX
SCAN
85
intTime = 250;
intTime str = int2str(intTime);
sr setintegrationtime(dev, intTime);
%setting integration time
timestamp = now;
str timestamp = datestr(timestamp);
disp(str timestamp);
file describe = char(inputdlg('Enter unique descriptor for data set','Filename',1));
for r = 0:10:350
%start angle (deg): increment : stop position
angle str = int2str(r);
%store angle as string for filename
disp(r);
%display real time output of angle
%convert horizontal angle to string for celestron command (azimuth,altitude=0)

CelestronCmd = deg2celest(r,0);
fprintf(s,CelestronCmd);
%send command to celestron
pause(10);
%pause for tripod to move
for n = 1:3
%acquire 3 sets of data per angle
n str = int2str(n);
%acquire # of range meas (units of inches and meters) from senix
[meas in,meas m,timestamp senix]=senix(sx,30);
%obtain images from ToF camera
[xd,yd,zd,img dist,img ampl,img conf,timestamp sw]=sw coords(dev);
%create string for filename with angle and data set descriptor
filename=[file describe,' ',changemode str,' ',intTime str,' ',...
n str,' angle ',angle str,'.mat'];
pclfilename=[file describe,' ',changemode str,' ',intTime str,' ',...
A.2. FUNCTION TO OBTAIN DATA FROM SWISSRANGER
86
n str,' angle ',angle str];

%save indicated matlab variables
save(filename,'meas m','xd','yd','zd','img dist','img ampl','img conf',...
'timestamp senix','timestamp sw','changemode','intTime');
%save ToF data in PCD format for PCL code
PCLSave(xd,yd,zd,angle str,timestamp sw,pclfilename);
%display Senix measurements on screen (in meters)
disp(meas m);
end
end
fclose(sx);
sr close(dev);
fclose(s);
A.2
Function to Obtain Data from SwissRanger
function [ x,y,z,img dist,img ampl,img conf,timestamp,intTime ] = sw coords(dev)
%sr setautoexposure(dev,1,130,5,70); %option to set auto integration time

intTime = sr getintegrationtime(dev);
%checking integration time
sr acquire(dev);
img dist=sr getimage(dev,1);
%get distance image
img ampl=sr getimage(dev,2);
%get amplitude image
img conf=sr getimage(dev,3);
%get confidence map image
timestamp = now;
A.2. FUNCTION TO OBTAIN DATA FROM SWISSRANGER
%swissranger command for conversion to cartesian coordinates

[res,x,y,z] = sr coordtrf(dev);
%Viewing images during data acquisition

%scatter plot
figure(1);
scatter3(z(:),x(:),y(:),'.','sizedata',1);
axis equal;
%range image
figure(2);
img dist rotate = fliplr(rot90(img dist,3));
image(img dist rotate,'cdatamapping','scaled');
colormap('default');
colorbar;
axis image;
%amplitude image
figure(3);
img ampl rotate = fliplr(rot90(img ampl,3));
image(img ampl rotate,'cdatamapping','scaled');
colormap(gray)
colorbar;
axis image;
%confidence image
figure(4);
img conf rotate = fliplr(rot90(img conf,3));
87
A.3. FUNCTION TO OBTAIN DATA FROM SENIX
SENSOR
image(img conf rotate,'cdatamapping','scaled');

colormap(jet);
colorbar;
axis image;
end
A.3
Function to Obtain Data from Senix
Sensor
function [meas in, meas m,timestamp senix] = senix(sx,Nvalues)
timestamp senix = now;
%read in numbers from the senix as float (each value is represented by

%5 ascii characters) and values are separated by a space
raw senix = fscanf(sx,'%f',(5*Nvalues+(Nvalues-1)));
%output Nvalues from senix ultrasonic sensor with units in., m

for i=1:Nvalues
%conversion factor from senix manual, pg. 26, for TSPC-30S
meas in(i)=raw senix(i)*0.003384;
meas m(i)=meas in(i)*0.0254;
%(0.003384 inches/count)
%convert inches to meters
end
end
A.4
Function to Correctly Format Celestron Command
function [ CelestronCmd ] = deg2celest( azm deg,alt deg )
88
A.5. FUNCTION TO SAVE SWISSRANGER DATA IN .PCD

FORMAT
89
%converts inputs in degrees to the hexadecimal format required by the

%celestron telescope tripod
azmf = (azm deg/360)*4294967296;
%azimuth percent of revolution
altf = (alt deg/360)*4294967296;
%altitude percent of revolution
azmhex = dec2hex(round(azmf),8);
%convert to hexadecimal
althex = dec2hex(round(altf),8);
%convert to hexadecimal
%put command into correct format for the celestron tripod

CelestronCmd = strcat('b',azmhex,',',althex);
end
A.5
Function to Save SwissRanger Data in .pcd Format
function [] = PCLsave(xd,yd,zd,angle,str timestamp,pclfilename)
file timestamp=datestr(floor(str timestamp));
size datamatrix = size(xd);
%obtain size of ToF array using x(width,height)
width = size datamatrix(1);

height = size datamatrix(2);
totalData = width*height;
%Relative height of tripod.
High position is 0.546 m above low position.
ty = num2str(0);
%calculate quaternion for camera viewpoint

FORMAT
90
qw = num2str(cosd(-str2double(angle)/2));
qx = '0';
qy = num2str(sind(-str2double(angle)/2));
qz = '0';
%Create header for .pcd format

header.line1 = '# .PCD v0.7';
header.line2 = 'VERSION 0.7';
header.line3 = 'FIELDS x y z';
header.line4 = 'SIZE 4 4 4';
header.line5 = 'TYPE F F F';
header.line6 = 'COUNT 1 1 1';
header.line7 = ['WIDTH ',int2str(width)];
header.line8 = ['HEIGHT ',int2str(height)];
header.line9 = ['VIEWPOINT 0 ',ty, ' 0 ',qw,' ',qx,' ',qy,' ',qz];
header.line10 = ['POINTS ',int2str(totalData)];
header.line11 = 'DATA ascii';
fullheader = char(header.line1,header.line2,header.line3,header.line4,...
header.line5,header.line6,header.line7,header.line8,header.line9,...
header.line10,header.line11);
%Format data for .pcd file

pcl x = xd(:);
pcl y = yd(:);
pcl z = zd(:);
sw data = horzcat(pcl x,pcl y,pcl z);
%arrange data in columns of x,y,z

FORMAT
savefile = [pclfilename,'.pcd'];
%make string for filename
disp(savefile);
%write header to file

dlmwrite(savefile,fullheader,'delimiter','','newline','pc');
%append data to same file (space delimeter)
dlmwrite(savefile,sw data,'delimiter',' ','newline','pc','-append');
end
91
92
Appendix B
Equipment Specification Sheets
B.1
ToughSonic TSPC-30S1
Senix
ToughSonic/PC Distance Sensor

Windows PC or Button Setup, Waterproof, Multiple Outputs
TSPC
Button TEACH or
PC Configured
Non-Contact
Ultrasonic
Distance
Measurement
sensors and
SenixVIEW software put the power of ultrasonics
in your hands yet retain the simplicity of push-button TEACH
setup. You can quickly adjust,
optimize, save and clone your
applications without calibration!
ToughSonic sensors contain
a rugged transducer potted in a
stainless steel housing for long
life.
Outputs respond to measured
distance and non-contact technology means nothing touches
your materials.
Many applications exist in all
industries. Contact Senix today
to discuss your specific needs.
TSPC-30S1 Series
Up to 14-ft. (4.3 m) maximum range in IP68 rated

30 mm threaded housing
SenixVIEW PC
Software included!
Features
PC Setup Power!
Output Selection
Distance Measurements
Long range, short dead band
Unaffected by optical factors
like color and transparency
PC or button teachable setup
Narrow beam with adjustments
to optimize performance
Temperature compensated
Packaging & Performance
Quick mounting
Durable sealed housing for wet
or dirty applications
Short & overload protected I/O
Multi-sensor synchronization
Adjustable sensitivity
Rear status indicators (3)
Free Functionality
Use adjustable interface features
like switch hysteresis and time
delays to build complete solutions such as pump or material
flow controllers. Save cost by
eliminating PLCs, delay circuits
and time delay relays!
Use SenixVIEW software (see

separate data sheet) to select
and adjust all interfaces, timing
parameters, filters and modes.
Then view, analyze or log data to
optimize your application.
In addition to the model's serial

data interface there are two
SenixVIEW selected outputs
that can be analogs or switches
to suit your application. All
outputs have configurable features including ranges, target
responses and time delays.
Voltage & Current Loop
Select voltage, current or both in
standard (0-10 VDC, 4-20 mA)
or custom ranges. The outputs
are fully configurable and the
analog slope can be positive or
negative with distance.
Switches
One or two switches can be
selected. Either or both can be
"PNP" or "NPN" type (sourcing
or sinking). Each has adjustable
set point, hysteresis, window,
initial conditions, ON delay, OFF
delay and loss of target response
for ultimate flexibility.
Level or Height
800-677-3649
802-482-5522
web: www.senix.com
Distance-Proximity
Several push-button "teach"

features also provide common
adjustments without the PC.
Stock, repairs, OEMs
Flexible configuration means
fewer parts to stock and quick
duplication! Higher volume
OEM options are available.
Dimension
10516 Route 116 Suite 300, Hinesburg, VT 05461

e-mail: sales@senix.com
Fax: 802-482-2549
Object Detection
Senix Corporation, 10516 Route 116 Suite 300, Hinesburg, VT 05461 U.S.A.
Phone: 800-677-3649 or 802-482-5522 FAX: 802-482-2549
Web Site: http://www.senix.com
e-mail: sales@senix.com
Senix TSPC-30S1 ToughSonic Distance Sensor

Specifications
Optimum Range
Case Material
Temperature
Humidity
Compensation
Resolution
Repeatability
Update Rate
Voltage Output
Current Loop
Sinking Switch
Sourcing Switch
Output Select
RS-232, RS-485
SYNC feature
4 in. - 10 ft. (102 mm - 3 m)

Max Range
14 feet (4.3 meters)
316 stainless steel
Adjustment
Button "teach" or SenixVIEW
-40 to 158 F (-40 to 70 C)
Configuration Stored in non-volatile memory
0 to 100% operating
Transducer
Ruggedized piezoelectric
Temperature compensated
Protection
NEMA-4X, NEMA-6P, IP68
Digital: 0.0034 in. (0.086 mm); Analog:4099 steps (over full 0-10 VDC or 4-20 mA)
Nominal 0.2% of range @ constant temp. Affected by target, distance, environment
20 Hz (50 ms), SenixVIEW adjustable; also affected by SenixVIEW filter selections
0-10, 0-5 VDC or PC customized, 10 mA max; Push-button teachable endpoints
4-20 mA or PC customized, current sourcing, max. loop 450, teachable endpoints
150 mA max. @ 40 VDC max., teachable set point & polarity, fault indication
150 mA max. @ input voltage, teachable set point & polarity, fault indication
Defaults are voltage & current loop; see Connections below for additional info
Modbus protocol, 9600 to 115200 baud (selectable), 8 data bits, 1 stop, no parity
Permits up to 32 sensors to operate in close proximity without interaction
Target Requirements
Objects
Max. Distance
Orientation
Optical
Connections
Part Numbers
Detects flat or curved objects. Surface must reflect ultrasound back to sensor.
Affected by size, shape, orientation of target (sound level reflected back to sensor)
Flat surfaces should be oriented perpendicular to sensor output beam
Unaffected by target color, light, transparency or other optical characteristics
Cable Connection
Wire
Description
Power
Brown
10-30 VDC @ 60 mA maximum; Typical: 45 mA @ 24 VDC (**)
Ground
Blue
Power and interface common
Voltage Output
White *
0-10 VDC, 0-5 VDC or custom end values between 0 and 10 VDC
Current Loop Output
Black *
4-20 mA or user adjusted end values between 4 and 20 mA
Switch #1 Output
Black *
Sinking ("NPN") or Sourcing ("PNP"), user selected
Switch #2 Output
White *
Sinking ("NPN") or Sourcing ("PNP"), user selected
RS-232 out / RS-485Gray
Serial data connection (depends on model - see part numbers)
RS-232 in / RS-485+
Yellow
Serial data connection (depends on model - see part numbers)
(*) Outputs on the black and white wires are SenixVIEW selected. The black wire options are 4-20 mA
current loop or switch. White wire options are 0-10 VDC or switch. Switches can be sourcing or sinking.
Max current loop resistance is derated below 15 VDC input voltage.
(**) At default update rate. Output currents not included. Sensitivity reduced below 15 VDC input voltage.
Model Number
TSPC-30S1-232
TSPC-30S1-485
Description
Serial RS-232 interface (PC COM port compatible)
Serial RS-485 interface (allows addressable multi-sensor networks)
Senix also offers interconnection, communications, mounting, and display components
Dimensions
Mechanical
Dimensions are in inches (mm)
Mounting Hole: 1.2 in. (30.5 mm)
diameter
Standard Cable: 6.5ft (2m)
Ships with instructions and two
30mm stainless mounting nuts
(other options available)
Total Weight: 10.40 oz. (0.29 kg)
January 2014 Rev T2
Senix products are not recommended for applications with hazardous or explosive materials, or as a primary device for personal safety.
Copyright 2008-2014, Senix Corporation. All rights reserved. Printed in U.S.A.
B.2. C-ALS
B.2
C-ALS
MK3
MK3
95
N
s
!
K3 7
M & IP6
S rate
AL ing
C-cann
world leading laser measurement technology
EW
CAVITY AUTO SCANNING LASERSYSTEM
er
st
Fa
C-ALS MK3
INTRODUCING THE NEW CAVITY

AUTO-SCANNING LASER MK3
C-ALS MK3
C-ALS - MDLs unique laser scanner is not only

changing the way underground surveying is done, it
has begun to change the way mining operations are
carried out, making previously dangerous tasks
operable in complete safety.
MDLs newest C-ALS MK3 has an IP67 rating that ensures

the unit is protected from dust and the effects of immersion in
water to a depth of 1 metre. The unit has a much faster
scanning rate compared with the original unit that enables
surveys of underground cavities to be carried out more
quickly than ever before, saving time, money and reducing
exposure of the probe to danger. The system dramatically
improves the safety, security and planning of mines and helps
to align customers activities with that of the safety authorities
by providing timely and accurate information for decision
making. The MK3 enables users to reduce the risk of
underground surveying by deploying a laser scanner from safe
locations into broken ground and dangerous void areas.
With a diameter of just 50 mm, the compact probe can be
deployed through boreholes to survey inaccessible spaces.
The red LEDs provide illumination for the onboard
nosecone camera that permits a view of the borehole
and any obstructions encountered as well as the
opening into the void. Once in the void, the laser head
opens out to measure the three-dimensional shape of the
void and its surface reflectivity.
Key Features
IP67
50 mm diameter allows deployment along hundreds of
metres of narrow boreholes
C-ALS MK3
Faster scanning rate compared with the original unit that

enables surveys of underground cavities to be carried
out more quickly than ever
360 spherical coverage with no blind spots
Nosecone camera to assist borehole deployment
Orientation sensors ensure scan is automatically
geo-referenced to fit into existing 3D mine data
Integrated pitch and roll sensors
Abandoned corridor scan
SAFE AND FAST PRECISION SCANNING OF VOIDS AND CAVITIES

The motorised head has a 360 field of view that enables users to
gain 3D images of the void, with a range of up to 150 metres. The
C-ALS probe incorporates pitch and roll sensors and has the
option of an internal compass. These sensors ensure accurate
orientation and positioning of the scanned point cloud. A system
of hinged lightweight 1 metre rods provide a fixed azimuth capability
that enables easy deployment down-hole, up-hole or horizontally.
The C-ALS MK3 can be deployed up to 300 metres with options
for customisation if a greater depth is required.
A load-bearing cable attached to the probe transmits all measured
data back to the surface control unit and a ruggedised computer is
used for set up, control and data acquisition. MDLs control
software provides an on-screen video from the C-ALS camera
and a real-time 3D view of the void as it is scanned.
Mine Surveying
Ore pass erosion monitoring
Stope surveying
Void investigation
Mine rescue
Inspection
Abandoned mine surveying
Bridge internal void surveys
Nuclear facilities
Industrial production facilities
Bunker surveys
Geotechnical
Subsidence investigations
Tunnel surveys
Cavities under engineering works
C-ALS MK3
Plan view of two modelled cavities, scanned to calculate the

clearance between them
Scan of underground cavity
Mine fly through
Technical Specifications
Class 1 eye safe laser (IEC 60825-1:2007)
150 m / 500' passive range
Accuracy: typically 5 cm / 1.97 in
Range resolution: 1 cm / 0.4 in
Scan rate: up to 60 per second
50 mm / 1.97 in diameter (probe)
Bridge Surveys
Standard deployment up to 300 m

IP67
Data points: 250 per second
Sensor
Opto electronic encoder:

Vertical range: -90 to +90
Horizontal range: 0 to 360
Accuracy: 0.2
Resolution: 0.1
Ore-pass
Void
Environmental
Water and dust resistant IP67 (Probe)
Operating temperature: -10 C to +60 C /
14 F to 140 F (probe)
Watertight sealed surface unit
Power & Dimensions
DC 12 V (10.5 V DC to 17 V DC)
Weight: 5.9 kg / 13.0 lbs (probe)
Weight: 3.5 kg / 7.7 lbs (extension piece)
Subsidence Surveys
Stope Surveys
Size (DxL): 5 cm x 200 cm / 1.97 in x 78.7

in (with extension piece)
C-ALS MK3
Measurement Devices Ltd (MDL)

Europe, Africa & Asia Sales & Service Office
tel: +44 (0) 1904 791139 fax: +44 (0) 1904 791532
email: sales@mdl.co.uk
web: www.mdl.co.uk
CLASS 1
LASER PRODUCT
Australia Sales & Service Office

tel: +61 3 9318 9666 fax: +61 3 9318 9777
email: info@mdlaustralia.com.au
web: www.mdlaustralia.com.au
America's Sales & Service Office

tel: +1 281 646 0050 fax: +1 281 646 9565
email: info@mdl-laser.com
web: www.mdl-laser.com
2012 Measurement Devices Ltd. All Rights Reserved
Information contained is believed to be accurate. However, no responsibility is

assumed for its use. Technical information is subject to change without notice.
9001/2000 Certified
C-ALS Rev_09 18_01_12
For more information on C-ALS :
B.3. MESA SWISSRANGER SR4000 AND SR4030
B.3
100
MESA SwissRanger SR4000 and SR4030
Note: SR4030 has an enclosure rating of IP67 and its dimensions are included. Performance specifications match the SR4000.
SR4000 Data Sheet
SR4000 Data Sheet

1
Product Specifications
Standard Field of View Cameras (43 (h) x 34 (v)) and Wide Field of View Cameras (69 (h) x 56 (v))
00400001
00400002
00400006
00400009
00400014
00400011
00400015
00400013
USB
Fast Ethernet
USB
Fast Ethernet
Product Number
Communication
interface
Modulation
Frequency
29/30/31 MHz
14.5/15/15.5 MHz
Detection Range
0.1 - 5.0 m
0.1 - 10.0 m
Calibrated Range
0.8 to 5.0 m
0.8 to 8.0 m
+/-10 mm (typ.)
+/-15 mm (typ.)
Absolute accuracy
(3)
Drift with
temperature (T)
Repeatability (1 )
(2)
of central pixels
Repeatability (1 )
in Region 1
Repeatability (1 )
in Region 2
0.5 mm/C (max)

1.5 mm/C (max.)
4 mm (typ.)
7 mm (max.)
6 mm (typ.)
9 mm (max.)
120% of maximal value for central pixels

200% of maximal value for central pixels
Standard Field of View Cameras

(43 (h) x 34 (v))
Wide Field of View Cameras
(69 (h) x 56 (v))
Frequency selectable, allows multiple

cameras to operate simultaneously
Ranges are radial distances, not z
distances
For 15 MHz: values from 8 - 10 m are
1
extrapolated, not calibrated
At 99% target reflectivity, over
1,2
calibrated range
For 20C T 30C
For 10C T 50C
At 99% target reflectivity, 30 FPS, 2 m
1,4
working distance.
Measurement regions are defined in
section 1.1
Measurement regions are defined in
section 1.1
(1) All values are indicated for 30 MHz or 15 MHz respectively. Values at adjacent frequencies (14.5, 15.5 and 29, 31 MHz) will differ slightly
(2) For 11 x 11 central pixels of the camera
(3) Includes drift induced by changing integration times
(4) Typical: @ 25C. Max: over complete temperature range (+10 C to +50 C)
1.1
Definition of measurement regions
Measurement regions: definition

Region 1: Dark red Region 2: Bright red
Measurement regions: polar dimensions

Region 1: 17 Region 2: 27
Measurement regions: representation over pixel field

Standard field of view cameras (43 (h) x 34 (v))
Measurement regions: representation over pixel field

Wide field of view cameras (69 (h) x 56 (v))
August 26, 2011
We reserve the right to make technical alterations without prior notice
Data Sheet Rev. 5.1
SR4000 Data Sheet

2
General Specifications (standard and wide field of view cameras)
Imager parameters (z)
Value
Comment
Illumination Wavelength
850 nm
Central wavelength
Optical filter
Bandpass / Glass substrate
Maximum Frame Rate
50 FPS
Camera setting dependent
Imager parameters (x,y)
Value
Comment
Pixel Array Size
176 (h) x 144 (v)
QCIF
Field of View
43.6 (h) x 34.6 (v) or

69 (h) x 56 (v)
40 m
Standard field of view cameras

Wide field of view cameras
Horizontal and vertical
0.24
0.39
10 mm
5.8 mm
Standard field of view; central pixels

Wide field of view; central pixels
Standard field of view cameras
Wide field of view cameras
Manually adjustable over operating range
Environmental
Value
Comment
External light disturbances
Designed for indoor use
Not to be used in direct sunlight
Operating Temperature
+10 C to +50 C (50 F to 122 F)
Housing temperature
Storage Temperature
-20 C to +70 C (-4 F to 158 F)
Power Connections
Value
Comment
Electrical Power Requirements
Power supply available from MESA
Trigger connector
12 V (-2%; +10%), maximum 1.0 A,

(typical 0.8 A)
Lumberg M8 Male 4-pin
Power connector
Lumberg M8 Male 3-pin
Screw connector (on camera)
Software
Value
Comment
Software Drivers
Software API
Windows XP, Windows 7 (32-bit and 64-bit),

Vista (32-bit and 64-bit),
Linux 32-bit
C, C++, Matlab
Software features
Value
Comment
Modulation frequency selection
Depending on camera model
Acquisition mode
29/30/31 MHz or 14.5/15/15.5 MHz

selectable
Continuous, Triggered
Integration time
0.3 to 25.8 ms, steps of 0.1 ms
Selectable
Confidence Map
Measures quality of distance data, quality

threshold to be set by user
Pixel Pitch
Angular Resolution
Focus length / adjustment
August 26, 2011
Screw connector (on camera)
Trigger via Software or Hardware
Data Sheet Rev. 5.1
SR4000 Data Sheet

Data output
Value
Comment
Spherical distance
(Range)
0-65535 (16 Bit) <--> 0-5 m

0-65535 (16 Bit) <--> 0-10 m
Cartesian XYZ coordinates
x, y, z (m)
Signal amplitude
0-65535 (16 Bit)
@ 30 MHz modulation
@ 15 MHz modulation
Data output from camera without Cartesian
coordinate transfer
Up to 5 m distance @ 30 MHz modulation
Up to 10 m distance @ 15 MHz modulation
Value above 32767 indicates saturation
Converted grayscale Image
0-65535 (16 Bit)
Value above 32767 indicates saturation
Confidence Map
0-65535 (16 Bit)
Quality threshold to be set by user
Ratings
Value
Comment
Enclosure rating
IP 40
Eye safety
EN 60825-1: 2002: Class 1
EMC
EN 55022 : Class A
EN 61000
EN 55024
Mechanical
Value
Comment
Dimensions
65 x 65 x 68 mm
65 x 65 x 76 mm
For USB cameras

For Ethernet cameras
Excludes the connectors
Case Material
Anodized Aluminum
Color front housing
Black
Color back cover
Red
Window Material
Polycarbonate
Illumination cover
Borofloat glass
Objective cover
Mounting Holes
4 x M4; 2 x 4H7; 1 x 1/4
Weight
470 g
510 g
Passive, no fan
Cooling
August 26, 2011
For USB cameras

For Ethernet cameras
Camera always to be connected to a heat sink
Data Sheet Rev. 5.1
SR4000 Data Sheet

3
Mechanical
3.1
Camera Dimensions and Mounting - USB cameras (00400001, 006, 014 and 015)
August 26, 2011
Data Sheet Rev. 5.1
SR4000 Data Sheet

3.2
Camera Dimensions and Mounting - Ethernet cameras (00400002, 009, 011 and 013)
August 26, 2011
Data Sheet Rev. 5.1
SR4000 Data Sheet

3.3
Camera power and trigger connectors
- Schematic view of the connectors on the backplane of the camera -
Detailed description on the pins functions is given in the next two paragraphs.
The camera also includes a status LED. Regular pulsing of the status LED indicates that the camera is powered; fast pulsing of
the status LED indicates data transfer between camera and computer.
3.3.1
Power requirements
- Power Connections 1
+12 VDC; min -2%; max +10%
2
SHIELD
3
GND
3.3.2
Typ. 0.8 A @ 12 V, min 0.6 A , max 1.0 A

Connect to earth
Trigger requirements
- Trigger I/O Connections 1

External Voltage
2
Trigger In
3
Trigger Out
4
External GND
4.5 - 5.5 V / 10 mA - defines the logic level of the trigger output

4.5 - 5.5 V / 15 mA - Start acquisition frame
4.5 - 5.5 V - Frame ready to fetch
In reference to External Voltage
- Schematic view of the hardware trigger logic -
August 26, 2011
Data Sheet Rev. 5.1
SR4000 Data Sheet

3.4
Declaration of CE conformity
August 26, 2011
Data Sheet Rev. 5.1

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Remote Surveying of Underground Cavities PDF

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Remote Surveying of Underground Cavities

Excavated by Jet Boring

Carolyn Ann Ingram

A thesis submitted to the

Copyright Carolyn Ann Ingram, 2014

Cigar Lake is a high-grade uranium deposit, located in northern Saskatchewan, Canada.

Firstly, I would like to extend a multitude of thanks to my research supervisor, Dr.

Research Council of Canada (NSERC) IPS 1 scholarship.

Appendix A: MATLAB Code

Appendix B: Equipment Specification Sheets

B.1 Senix ToughSonic TSPC-30S1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

Comparison of survey device specifications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Original prototype laser scanning tool (image courtesy of Cameco Corporation). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Computer rendering of mined cavities (image courtesy of Cameco Corporation). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Vertical rod pusher deployment depth versus tool weight. Prototype

Electromagnetic spectrum [1]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Target reflective characteristics [6]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Time of Flight sampling of returned modulated signal [5]. . . . . . . .

MESA SwissRanger (ToF Camera), MDL C-ALS (Laser Scanning

Tool), Senix ToughSonic (Ultrasonic Sensor). . . . . . . . . . . .

Design and construction of test cavity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

C-ALS test apparatus in test cavity.

SwissRanger camera Cartesian coordinate system, (x, y, z) [5]. . . . .

C-ALS baseline scan (vertical) demonstrating data acquisition time.

C-ALS vertical scan 3D plots shown with increasing acquisition in-

Left: Basic image acquisition from SwissRanger using MATLAB

(amplitude (grayscale) image, range image, and confidence map). Right:

SwissRanger Data with Water Droplet on Lens. . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.10 SwissRanger data with freeze pipes in test cavity. . . . . . . . . . . .

shown on horizontal axis in meters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

C-ALS scan of freeze pipes. Scanning interval (Left to Right): 6 ,

4.14 Amplitude images from SwissRanger in fog (Auto-scaled in MATLAB ). 55

4.18 SwissRanger images acquired at an open stope at Rabbit Lake Mine.

4.20 Segmentation applied to intensity point cloud. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Cavity Auto-Scanning Laser MK3

Ultrasonic Sensor Senix TSPC-30S1 ToughSonic Distance Sensor

SONAR Sound Navigation And Ranging

1.2. PROBLEM FORMULATION

1.3. SCOPE OF WORK

1.4. FORMAT OF THESIS

1.4. FORMAT OF THESIS

Survey System History

Jet Boring System

2.1. SURVEY SYSTEM HISTORY

slurry occurs underground before being finally pumped to surface [10].

2.1. SURVEY SYSTEM HISTORY

Cavity Survey System

2.1. SURVEY SYSTEM HISTORY

2.1. SURVEY SYSTEM HISTORY

2.1. SURVEY SYSTEM HISTORY

2. Mechanical robustness: Must withstand impact from debris, pressurization

search Council (SRC), in which a Cavity Auto-Scanning Laser (C-ALS ) system1

Underground Range Measurement

3.1. UNDERGROUND RANGE MEASUREMENT

Figure 3.1: Electromagnetic spectrum [1].

3.2. SENSOR OVERVIEW

3.2. SENSOR OVERVIEW

could cause inaccuracies.

3.2. SENSOR OVERVIEW

3.2. SENSOR OVERVIEW

3.2. SENSOR OVERVIEW

Figure 3.2: Target reflective characteristics [6].