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UNIVERSITY OF LAGOS
AKOKA, YABA
FACULITY O F SCIENCE
DEPARTMENT OF GEOSCIENCES
A FIELD REPORT ON THE

INDEPENDENT GEOPHYSICAL STUDY
CARRIED OUT AT IGARRA GIRLS
JUNIOR GRAMMAR, IGARRA, EDO
STATE, SOUTH-WEST NIGERIA.
BY
NAME: AKILLO OLANIYI MOSHOOD
MATRIC NO: 110813006
DEPARTMENT: GEOSCIENCES/GEOPHYSICS
COURSE CODE: GPS 306
COURSE TITLE: FIELD TECHNIQUES
GROUP: 6
DATE: 28th of March 16th of March 2014
AKILLO OLANIYI MOSHOOD
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REPORT OUTLINE
ABSTRACT
1.0 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Location of the area.
Size of the area.
Purpose of investigation.
2.0 CHAPTER 2: THEORY/PRINCIPLE OF THE METHOD

Geophysical Method
3.0 CHAPTER 3:
INTERPRETATION
DATA
PROCESSING
AND
Geophysical Results Data Obtained

Data Interpretation and Discussion
4.0 CHAPTER 4: ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS

5.0 CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION
6.0 CHAPTER 6: BIBLIOGRAPHY
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DATA
ABSTRACT
Geophysical field mapping has been carried out in
IGARRA GIRLS JUNIOR GRAMMAR SCHOOL,Igarra, Akoko
Edo, Edo State. North-West Nigeria to study the rock
distribution, rock type and rock features and also to
determine the physical characteristics and structural
settings of the sub-surface materials using various
geophysical methods.
For the geophysical survey, a traverse measuring 140
metres with a station-station interval of 10 metres was
used for the survey. Measurements using seven (9)
different geophysical methods and various sophisticated
equipment were used for the survey.
From the geophysical survey, the depth to the basement
was determined to be about 3 m 7 m beneath the subsurface by using various geophysical methods namely
Self-Potential (SP), EM 34-3, Very low frequency(VLF),
Magnetics, Gravity, Resistivity method(VES and CST),Time
Domain(TDM) and Seismic Refraction.
The results were able to support the fact that Igarra is a
town sitting majorly on a basement complex though
sediments have been deposited on some parts of the
town. In order to get more detailed information about the
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basement complex beneath, regional geological and

geophysical survey of the area has to be carried out.
CHAPTER ONE
1. 0INTRODUCTION
The objective of this survey was to delineate the subsurface
characteristics and properties of rocks present in Igarra. As a
result of the basement complex, the depth to ground water in
Igarra would be large and the cost of drilling for ground water
would be expensive. From this survey, we were hoping to get the
depth to the basement complex and if possible, locate zones of
easily reachable ground water by delineating fracture zones in the
subsurface, layer thickness and number of layers in the
subsurface, density variations in the subsurface, magnetic
properties of the subsurface, the conductivity and resistivity of
the subsurface e.t.c. Another important objective of this survey
was for students to gain quality learning experience on how to
carry out field survey processes and their interpretation.
The main objectives of this study were achieved using various
geophysical methods. The geophysical methods employed
include;Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES), Magnetics, Very Low
Frequency (VLF), Spontaneous Potential (SP), Constant Separation
Traversing (CST), Frequency Domain (EM 34-3), Seismic
Refraction, Gravity, and Time Domain Electromagnetic (TDEM). .
All these methods were used on the field to better characterize
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the subsurface behaviour of Igarra. The traverse ran East - West

and was made to accommodate all the geophysical methods
used.
The gravity method was used to check for density variations in
the subsurface. The seismic method was used to delineate the
number of layers present depending on the energy source, the
thicknesses of these layers, the possible components of these
layers and the depth to the last layer. The magnetic method was
used to check for the variations in the magnetic susceptibility of
the subsurface depending on the mineral contents of the soil and
the basement. The self-potential method was used to delineate
the variations in the potential difference of the subsurface. The
VLF, TDEM and EM-34methods were used to check for the
horizontal and vertical variations in conductivity of the subsurface
and the profiling and VES methods were used to delineate the
lateral and vertical variations in resistivity of the subsurface.
1.0 GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING OF THE AREA

Location
Igarra lies in the northern part of Edo State and is the
headquarters of Akoko Edo Local Government Area. The Igarra
area lies within Latitudes 70245N-7030N and Longitudes 6000E60105E at the northern fringe of Edo State. The major highway
in the area runs from Auchi through, Sobe- Ogbe, Ikpeshi, Igarra
to Ibillo. Both the old and new roads were used as access paths
for the exercise. There are also other major footpaths which are
indicated in the accessibility map below.
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Location map of Igarra
Climate
The climatic condition of Igarra fall within the warm-humid
tropical climate belt where the wet and dry seasons are noticed
prominently in the area. The rainy seasons are mostly between
April and October while the dry season is between November
and February. Average rainfall is believed to be between 1450950mm, with mean annual temperature of about 30c.
Topography
The study plot is characterized by extremely high hills located on both
the western and the eastern portion of the plot. Some isolated hills also
occur in other portion of the plot. Gentle slope are also found in the
eastern section of the plot.
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A picture showing the topography of the survey

area
Vegetation
Igarra and its environs fall under the Guinea savannah
vegetation belt. The vegetation here is prominently made up of
sparsely distributed trees, herbs, shrubs, and grasses. Trees in
this area are mostly concentrated along fracture zones within
the plutonic bodies and on the Quartzite ridges were adequate
soil cover has resulted and there is adequate groundwater
retention. The vegetation in this area is mostly secondary i.e.
the natural vegetation is being altered and such agricultural
crops such as Maize, Yam, Cocoa, Cassava, Pineapple, Cashew,
Mango, and Sugar cane are grown here.
SURVEY LAYOUT
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A picture of a base map showing were the survey was carried out
CHAPTER TWO
THEORY/PRINCIPLE OF THE METHOD
Geophysical Method
The geophysical survey was carried out within Igarragirls junior grammer
School, Akoko Edo State. There were Ten (10) traverses for the survey,
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my group 6 used traverse seven (6) .In total, eight (9) methods were
used namely: Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES), Magnetics, Very
Low
Frequency (VLF), Spontaneous Potential (SP), Constant
Separation Traversing (CST), EM 34-3, Seismic Refraction,
Gravityand time domain electromagnetic (TDEM)
1.GRAVITY SURVEY: Gravity method is the measurement of

variations in the gravitational field of the earth, with the aim of
locating local masses of greater or lesser density (called anomaly)
than the surrounding formations. These variations in gravity
depend upon lateral changes in the density of the subsurface in
the vicinity of the measuring point. Because density variations are
very small and uniform, the instruments used are very sensitive.
These measurements are normally made on the earths surface,
but underground surveys also are carried out occasionally.
A gravimeter is the instrument used to measure variations in the
earths true gravitational field at a given location. The standard
unit with which gravity measurements are taken is the milligal
(mgal) or gravity unit (g.u.) [10g.u. =1mgal].
Gravity method is used as a reconnaissance tool in oil exploration,
mineral exploration during integrated base-metal surveys,
delineating buried valleys, bedrock topography, geologic
structure, voids, engineering and archaeological studies.
BASIC THEORY
The basis on which the gravity method depends is encapsulated
in two laws namely;
1.Newtons Law of Universal Gravitation which states that the
force of attraction
between two masses
separated by distance is given by:
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and
which is
Page9
.1
Where G is the gravitational constant (6.67x10-11 m3 kg2s2)
2.Newtons Second Law of Motion which that the force
acting on
a body is equal to the product of mass

and acceleration . If
the acceleration is in a vertical direction, it is then due to
gravity
2
Equations (1) and (2) can be combined to obtain another simple
relationship
This shows that the magnitude of the acceleration due to gravity

on Earth
is directly proportional to the mass
of the Earth and
inversely proportional to the square of the Earths radius
Theoretically, acceleration due to gravity should be constant over

the Earth, however, the earths ellipsoidal shape, rotation,
irregular surface relief and internal distribution cause gravity to
vary from place to place.
METHODOLOGY
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A total of 21 gravity stations comprise the data set. The gravity

stations were surveyed on 105m traverse with the base station on
an elevation of 314m. The used equipment include the gravimeter
(for measuring the gravimeter anomalies), altimeter (for elevation
readings), GPS (for longitude and latitude readings). Showing
below
ALTIMETER (for elevation measurement) GRAVIMETER (gravity anomalies)

AGeRS
A
FIELD PROCEDURE
The gravity survey method is a very stressful survey method. All
we did was take the gravimeter from one station to another, level
it and wait for it to take readings so we can record. The time to
return to the base station to take base station readings was
stipulated to be every 1 hour. After 1 hour along the traverse
taking gravimeter readings, we return to the base station. The
base station readings are taken to correct for drift. The altimeter
readings were also taken by placing the altimeter on the station
and leveling it. The longitude and latitude readings were taken by
holding the GPS and standing on the station to record the
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longitude and latitude. All these data were recorded and taken
home for processing and interpretation.
2.MAGNETIC
SURVEY
METHOD:Magnetic
survey
investigates subsurface geology on the basis of anomalies in the
Earths magnetic field resulting from the magnetic properties of
the underlying rocks. There is much uncertainty about the
origin and nature of the Earths magnetic field, modern
theories suggest the magnetic field is caused by flow of material
in the outer core which generates a flow of electrical current,
alongside current external to the Earth in the ionosphere and
magnetosphere associated with the Van Allen radiation belts, are
possible causes of overall geomagnetic field.
A magnetometer is an instrument which measures magnetic
field strength in units of gammas or nanoteslas (1 gammas
= 1 nanotesla = 0.00001 gauss). A buried ferrous object, such
as a steel drum or tank, causes local distortion of the earths
magnetic field and results in a magnetic anomaly. The common
objective of conducting a magnetic survey is to map these
anomalies and delineate the areas of burial of the sources of
these anomalies. Analysis of magnetic data estimate the regional
extent of buried ferrous targets, such as a steel tank, canister or
drum and depth of burial.
Magnetic method measurements are made easier and
cheaper than most geophysical measurements and corrections
are practically minima. It is used at a site to map various geologic
features, such as igneous intrusions, faults, and some geologic
contacts that may play an important role in the hydrogeology of a
ground water pollution site.
BASIC THEORY
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The force F between two magnetic poles of strength m1 and m2

separated by a distance r is given as
F=
0 m 1 m2
4 R r2
.1
Where 0 and R are constants corresponding to the magnetic

permeability ofvacuum and the relative magneticpermeability of
the medium separating the poles. The magnetic flux
densityB(Wb/m2) due to a pole of strength m at a distance r from
the pole is the force exerted on a unit positive pole at that point.
B=
0 m
4 R r2
..2
The magnetic field in terms of a force field which is produced by

electric current is called the magnetic field strengthH (A/m).
The ratio of the flux densityB to the magnetic field strength H
resistivity r is a constant called the absolute magnetic
permeability ()
Magnetic susceptibility k, which is a measure of how a
material(rocks) become magnetized, is the geological parameter
of interest and result in induced magnetization J of targeted
magnetic material after its interaction with the geomagnetic field.
The relationship between k , B , and H is given below;
B=
H (1+k).3
Where J= kH
All magnetic anomalies caused by rocks are superimposed
on the geomagnetic field, which varies in both amplitude and
direction. The components of this geomagnetic field are what
could be measured in any magnetic survey. There are three
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components of this geomagnetic field which can be measured in

magnetic survey, they are;
Strength of the total field vector, B
Horizontal component of the Earths magnetic field, H
Vertical component of the Earths magnetic field, Z
METHODOLOGY
The traverse surveyed was 140m long with a total of 29 stations.
We took our magnetic data at every 2.5m making a total of 29
stations. The equipment used was the magnetometer (for
recording the magnetic susceptibility) and gps (for coordinates). A
proton precession magnetometer was used.
FIELD PROCEDURE
It is a very stress free data acquisition method. We moved 2.5m
on our traverse and took measurements till we were done with
the traverse. We stripped ourselves off all metallic materials so
that they wont influence our data. We kept a constant distance of
2.5m between the precession rod and the recording device. A
base station was chosen close to the traverse and we returned
back to the base station every 5minutes to take readings. Not
more than two persons carried out the survey. One person was
with the rod and was leading while the other was with the
measuring device and was behind. The rod was aligned with the
magnetic north. The time of measurement was also recorded as
we movedalong the traverse.
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A picture showing magnetometer and how the survey was carried out
3.VERY LOW FREQUENCY METHOD:VLF method is

electromagnetic radiation generated in the low-frequencyband
of 15-30 KHz by a powerful radio transmitter used in long-range
communications and navigational systems. The VLF method
has the advantages that the field equipment is small and light,
being conveniently operated by one person, and that there is
no need to install a transmitter. The disadvantage is that the
depth of penetration is somewhat less than that attainable by
tilt-angle methods using a local transmitter. It is used for
exploration of subsurface geological features, such as ore
bodies, groundwater deposits, plume delineation, geologic
mapping and location of buried object.
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A DIAGRAM SHOWING THE PRINCIPLE OF VLF METHOD
Basic Theory
The principle of VLF geophysical surveying is the study of the
interaction of radio waves with electrically conductive geological
structures. This interaction induces secondary electrical and
magnetic fields which can be measured at the surface of the
Earth. This, in turn enables the measurement of VLF waves and
their interactions with Earth materials.
At large distances from the source of the radio wave, the
electromagnetic field is essentially planar and horizontal. A
conductor that strikes in the direction of the transmitter is cut by
the magnetic vector and the induced eddy currents produce a
secondary electromagnet field.
Field Procedure
The instrument is a radio receiver tuned to receive the particular
transmitter selected; because a transmitter does not have to be provided,
the instrument is light
and compact .
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EM-16R an instrument use for VLF survey
Our VLF data was acquired using a VLF receiver which was aligned
parallel to a distant transmitting station. This was accomplished
by careful observation of the direction of lowest frequency. The
direction in which the frequency is lowest will be the direction of
our traverse. The VLF traverses used during the survey were tilted
at an angle from our original traverse used for other method. Thus
our VLF traverse each 140m long, ran from the north-eastern to
the south-western part of our survey area as opposed to the
north-south orientation of our original traverse. Our data was
collected at a station interval of 10 m along the traverse. At every
station, the VLF receiver will be moved up and down in the
vertical plane until a point of lowest frequency is reached, at this
point the quadrature and in phase values are derived.
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A picture showing how the EM-VLF survey was carried out on the
field
4.ELECTRICAL
RESISTIVITY
METHOD:Electrical
resistivity method utilizes direct currents or low frequency

alternating currents to investigate the electrical properties of the
subsurface geology. Resistivity, which is the resistance per unit
length of unit cross-sectional area of the material concerned,
is the physical property that is to be measured in electrical
resistivity
method. In resistivity survey, artificially-generated
electric currents are introduced into the ground through the
means of electrodes and the resulting potential differences are
measured at the surface. The resistivity survey is used in the
study of horizontal and vertical discontinuities in the electrical
properties of the ground and also in the detection of three
dimensional bodies of anomalous electrical conductivity. It is
routinely used in engineering and hydrogeological investigation.
Basic Theory
Rocks are mostly insulators; electrical conduction in rocks is
electrolytic rather than electronic. Thus, resistivity of rocks
depends on the porosity, fluid content and rock type.is Resistivity
is one of the most variable of physical properties. The effective
resistivity of a rock; that is, the resistivity of the rock and its pore
water, is given by Archie (1942) empirical formula:
P = a-bf-cpw.4
Where=-porosity
f=fraction of pores containing water
w=water resistivity
a,b and care empirical constants.
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If we consider a single current electrode on the surface of a

medium of uniform resistivity, p, as shown below,
the circuit is completed by current sink at a large distance

from the electrode. At a distancerfrom the electrode the shell
has a surface area of 2r 2thus, the current density igiven by
i=
I
2 r2
.6
The associated potential gradient with this current density is

given by
y
pI
= pi=
x
2 r2
.7
The potential Vrat distance r is thus
Vr =
pI
2 r
the constant of integration is zero since Vr =0 when r =
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The potential VCat an internal electrode C is the sum of the

potential contributions VA and VBfrom the current source at A and
the sink at B.
VC = VA + VB..9
VC =
pL 1
1
2 RA RB
.10
Similarly,
V D=
pL 1
1
2 RA RB
...11
The potential difference between electrodes C and D is
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4.1Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES)

Vertical electrical sounding (VES) is one of the two main
modes of electrode arrays, which study of horizontal or nearhorizontal interfaces. The current and potential electrodes are
maintained at the same relative spacing and the whole
spread is progressively expanded about a fixed central point.
VES using four electrodes.
VES is based on the fact that the wider the current electrode
separation the deeper the current penetration and the apparent
resistivity values observed at large separations are governed by
the resistivity of deeper layers The technique is extensively
used in geotechnical surveys to determine overburden
thickness and also in hydrogeology to define horizontal zones of
porous strata.
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Resistivity Survey Equipment and Field Procedure

The equipment consists of four reel cables, ABEMTerrameter, 12V
Lead-Acid battery, minimum of four electrodes and hammer
EQUIPMENT USED FOR VES SURVEY
The survey was carried on 0NE traverse, with two soundings each
on a traverse. Schlumberger configuration was applied. The
potential electrodes M and N are kept fixed initially at 0.25m
separation, and current electrodes A and B are moved outwards
symmetrically in steps while the apparent resistivity are taken
progressively starting from 1m. At some point, the potential
voltage generally fell below the reading accuracy of the voltmeter
in the Terrameter. Thus, the distance between the potential
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electrodes MN is increased to 0.5m. At this point; there was an

overlap in the two readings with the current electrodes and the
new as well as the old potential electrodes distance. The process
was carried out progressively until the distance of 125m was
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covered.
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A Wenner VES survey
4.2. Constant Separation Traversing (CST ):Electrical

profiling, which is also Constant Separation Traversing (CST),
is electrical resistivity survey which to determine lateral
variations of resistivity. It is a method offield procedure in
electrical resistivity in which the current and potential electrodes
are maintained at a fixed separation and progressively moved
along a profile. Thus, its principle is electrical resistivity as
introduced in chapter four. This method is employed in mineral
prospecting to locate faults or shear zones and to detect
localized bodies of anomalous conductivity. It is also used in
geotechnical surveys to determine variations in bedrock depth
and the presence of steep discontinuities.
FIELD PROCEDURE
Like Vertical Electrical Sounding, the equipment consists of four
reel cables, ABEMTerrameter, 12V Lead-Acid battery, minimum of
four electrodes and hammers.
A PICTURE SHOWING THE EQUIMENT USED IN CST SURVEY
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Constant Separation Traversing uses a manual electrode array,

usually the Wenner configuration for ease of operation, in which
the electrode separation is kept fixed. The entire array is moved
along a profile and values of apparent resistivity determined at
discrete intervals along the profile. In this report, the data was
acquired for 2.5m, 5m, 10m, 15m and 20m spacing along
traverse.
5.ELECTROMAGNETIC
METHOD:Electromagnetic
(EM)
surveying methods make use of the response of the ground to the
propagation of electromagnetic field. This response varies
according to the conductivity of the ground. In electromagnetic
method, a primary EM field is generated using an alternating
current in a loop wire (coil) or a natural EM source; the response
of the ground to this primary field is the generation of a
secondary EM field.
A diagram
surveying
showing
general
principle
of
electromagnetic
The resultant field is detected by the alternating currents that

they induce in a receiver coil. Thus, electromagnetic method is a
geophysical technique based on the physical principles of
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inducing and detecting electrical current flow within geologic

strata. In the electromagnetic method, currents are induced in the
subsurface by the application of time-varying magnetic field. The
electromagnetic method measures the bulk conductivity (inverse
of resistivity) of subsurface material beneath the transmitter and
receiver coils. Electromagnetic readings are commonly expressed
in conductivity units of millimhos/meter or milliseimens/meter (1
millimho = 1 milliseimen). A mho is the reciprocal of an ohm.
Electromagnetic method can be used to locate buried pipes, utility
lines, cables, buried steel drums, trenches, buried waste, and
concentrated contaminant plumes. In exploration of metallic
ferrous deposits, engineering/construction site investigation,
archaeological investigations and sedimentary thickness in fossil
fuel search. The method can also be used to map shallow geologic
features such as lithologic changes, clay layers, and fault zones.
Basic Theory
Electromagnetic (EM) survey makes use of the response of the
ground to the propagation of electromagnetic fields which are
composed of an alternating electric intensity and magnetizing
force. Primary electromagnetic fields may be generated by
passing alternating current through a small coil made up of many
turns or through a large loop of wire. The response of the ground
is the generation of secondary electromagnetic field and the
resultant field may be detected by the alternating currents that
they induce to flow in a receiver coil by the process of
electromagnetic induction.
In general a transmitter coil is used to generate a primary EM
field which propagates above and below the ground. When the
EM radiation travels the subsurface media, it is modified slightly
relative to that which travels through the air. The transmitter
induces an electrical current into the subsurface, which produces
secondary fields. These secondary fields are sensed and recorded
by the receiver coil.
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Field Instrument and Procedure

The electromagnetic instrument used during the survey consists
of a transmitter coil(fig a)which generates the primary field and
receiver
coil(fig
b)
Fig(a) transmitter coil and a battery

and a battery
fig(b) receiver coil
Our traverse are establish normal to geologic strike and the coils
were linked by a cable which carries a reference signal and also
allows the coil separation to be accurately maintained at 10m,
20m and 40m intervals and move along the traverse. The
transmitter coil, receiver coil is also connected to EM-34 that
takes the readings. A primary field is null so that the field can be
accurately measured. Both the vertical dipole (VD) and horizontal
dipole (HD) readings were taken for 10m, 20m and 40m spacing.
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6.SELF-POTENTIAL(SP):This is the measurement of natural

electrical potential caused by electrochemical reaction of buried
conductors (rocks) with differences in soil moisture chemistry,
by seeping water, and by other causes. Thus, it is caused by
electrochemical action between minerals and groundwater
solutions. When this action occurs in the oxidizing zone above the
water table, current is generated.
An ore body containing
metallic minerals, acting as a conductor, carries the current
downward towards the reducing zone below the water table.
The overall effect is to create a negative potential in the rocks
around the ore body as the electrons move downward.
Pyrite
(iron sulfide) oxidizes readily to hematite (iron oxide) in the
groundwater environment. Therefore, ore deposits containing
pyrite develop very strong negative self-potentials.
Other
minerals which are known to generate strong negative potentials
arepyrrhotite and magnetite. Lead and zinc sulfides do not
develop strong self-potential fields.
BASIC THEORY
Studies show that for a self-potential anomaly to occur its
causative body must lie partially in a zone of oxidation. According
to Sato & Mooney 1960, the causative body must straddle the
water table.
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Below the water table electrolytes in the pore fluids undergo

oxidation and release electrons which are conducted upwards
through the ore body. At the top of the body the released
electrons cause reduction of the electrolytes. A circuit thus exists
in which current is carried electrolytically in the pore fluids and
electronically in the body so that the top of the body acts as a
negative terminal. This explains the negative SP anomalies that
are invariably observed and, also their stability as the ore body
itself undergoes no chemical reactions and merely serves to
transport electrons from depth. As a result of the subsurface
currents, potential differences are produced at the surface.
FIELD PROCEDURE
The equipment consists of a pair of non-porous electrode, a highimpedance millivolt meter, pegs, hammer and long connecting
wires, which is just 80m in length.
Diagram showing aschematic of the procedure used to collect SP data.
Two field layouts were used, and they are: fixed electrode and
constant spacing.
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For fixed electrode, an a non- polarizing electrode was dipped

into the first station of a 140m traverse and connected to a
voltmeter and kept fixed while the other electrode was moved
from the second to the third and so on. For constant spacing, in
this layout they were moved at the same time at constant
spacing.
A picture showing how the survey was carried out and showing the
instrument used.
7.SEISMIC REFRACTION: The seismic refraction surveying

method uses seismic energy that returns to the surface after
traveling through the ground along the refracted ray paths. The
first arrivals of the seismic energy at a detector offset from a
seismic source always represent either a direct or refracted ray.
This fact allows simple seismic surveys to be performed in
which attention is concentrated solely on the first arrivals (or
onset) of seismic energy and time distance plots of these first
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arrivals are interpreted to derive information on the depth to

refracting surface.
Exploration using refraction method covers a very wide
range
of
application
which includes
engineering
and
environmental survey, hydrological surveys and crustal
seismology.
Basic Theory
In seismic refraction surveying, seismic waves are generated
by a controlled source (hammer and blow) and propagated
through the subsurface. These waves are refracted at geological
boundaries within the subsurface. Geophones distributed along
the surface detect the ground motion caused by these returning
waves and hence measure the arrival times of the waves at
different ranges from the source. The geometry of the various
refracted waves relative to the incident waves can be
described using shells law of refraction. For any ray at the point
of incidence upon an interface, the ratio of the sine of the
angle of incidence to the velocity of propagation within that
medium remains a constant which is known as the ray path
parameter. In refraction seismology, for a simple horizontal
refractor, as in diagram below
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Shown above is a horizontal refraction separating two beds of

velocities
and where, > and the refracting interface is at
depth ( ). For a geophone at D, the path of refracted wave is
SABD. The travel time ( ) can be written as
; Recall that
Therefore
Where
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Solving for the depth of reflector ( );
Thus, by analysis of the travel-time curves of direct and refracted

arrival
and
could be derived (the reciprocal of the gradient)
and from theintercept ( ) the refractor depth could be determined.
METHODOLOGY
Survey was designed to identify anomalies in the subsurface. The
traverse; 140m long were mapped. Equipment such as; a seismic
source (used to send seismic waves into the ground, Consists of
various types but a sledgehammer was used on this occasion), a
metal base plate (this plate is hit by the sledgehammer instead of
hitting the ground directly), seismometer (an electromechanical
transducer plugged into the ground to convert ground motion
caused by the propagated seismic waves into electric signals),
seismograph (for recording electric signals sent from the
seismometers/geophones), geophone cables (to connect the
geophones to the seismograph), battery (to power the
seismograph), a sensor (taped to the sledgehammer so that the
time of delivery can be sensed and controlled by the
seismograph), a connecting cable (to connect the sensor on the
sledgehammer to the seismograph). A 24 geophone layout was
used and the geophone layout was moved four times on a
traverse. The methodology of seismic refraction analysis consists
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Page34
of three parts; instrumentation set up measurement and data

interpretation.
SET UP MEASUREMENT
The layout of the seismic refraction set up is schematically shown
with the figure below. The 24 geophones were placed along the
traverse and the seismograph was set to connect the 12 th and the
13th geophones. The spread line employed was 48m based on 2m
geophone spacing so a traverse was mapped four times.
Figure: Typical setup of seismic refraction
The sledgehammer was also connected the seismograph and was

moved to strategic shot points during survey. The numbers in the
diagram represent the several shot points of the impact
sledgehammer.
DATA PROCESSING
The data processing technique of seismic refraction method is
explained systematically in the diagram below. The analogue
electrical signals transferred to the seismograph by the
geophones are reconverted into digital data. This data is what is
printed out of the seismograph for processing. The important
information needed is the arrival time of the various waves to the
various geophones. The arrival times are plotted against their
110813006
Page35
corresponding geophone positions. From theses graphs, the

velocities of the mapped layers and their thicknesses can be
delineated. These parameters are then interpreted for the desired
result. The seismic section of the survey area was also drawn.
8. TIME DOMAIN ELECTROMAGNETIC: in TDEM systems, an
alternative approach to detecting weak secondary magnetic
fields. This works by simply switching the primary field off and
observing the decay of the secondary magnetic fields. This
method is often referred to as transient electromagnetic
exploration (TEM) or time domain electromagnetic (TDEM)
exploration. By the transient electromagnetic method, TEM, the
electrical resistivity of the underground layers down to a depth of
several hundred meters can be measured. Ground based
measurements as well as airborne surveys (SkyTEM) to cover
large areas are possible. The method was originally designed for
mineral investigations. Over the last two decades the TEM method
has become increasingly popular for hydrogeological purposes as
well as general geological mapping. The electromagnetic
geophysical methods are all based upon the fact that a magnetic
field varies in time the primary field and thus, according to the
Maxwell equations, induces an electrical current in the
surroundings e.g. the ground which is a conductor. The
associated electrical and magnetic fields are called
the
secondary fields.
110813006
Page36
fig A.B (A)the

form of an eddy current immediately after turn off of the primary field and
(B) downward and outward preparation of the eddy current filament at
successive interval of time.
Measuring technique
The TEM method applies an ungrounded loop as transmitter coil.
The current in the coil is abruptly turned off, and the rate of
change of the secondary field due to the induced eddy currents in
the ground is measured in the receiver coil, usually an induction
coil. The primary field is therefore absent while measuring.
summarizes the basic nomenclature and principles. Typical
measuring parameters for a groundbased system are: 1 20ms
on-time, 1 30 s turn-off ramp and 1 20 ms off-time for
measuring. The depicted waveform is often referred to as a
square waveform. Other waveforms with sine or triangular shapes
are used, but mainly in airborne systems.
110813006
Page37
Basic nomenclature and principles of the TEM method. (a) Shows the
current in the transmitter loop. (b) Is the induced electromotive force in the
ground, and (c) is the secondary magnetic field measured in the receiver
coil. For the graphs of the induced electromotive force and the secondary
magnetic field, it is assumed, that the receiver coil is located in the centre
of the transmitter loop.
The datasets are recorded in decay-time windows, often called

gates. The gates are arranged with a logarithmically increasing
width to improve the signal/noise (S/N) ratio especially at latetimes. This recording principle is called log-gating and 810 gates
per decade in decay time are commonly used.
Field procedures
When performing fieldwork, a transient electromagnetic sounding
can be conducted by placing a wire in a square loop on the
ground as the transmitter coil, Tx-coil. When investigating the
upper 150 m of the ground, a square loop Field proceduresWhen
performing fieldwork, a transient electromagnetic sounding can
be conducted by placing a wire in a square loop on the ground as
the transmitter coil, Tx-coil. When investigating the upper 150 m
of the ground, a square loop
110813006
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110813006
Page39
3.0 CHAPTER THREE

DATA PROCESSING AND DATA INTERPRETATION
1.Gravity method
The gravity data were acquired and recorded. The data is then
duly corrected. The data is taken through the following processing
steps. The latitude measured is used to correct for the latitude
correction
with
the
IGF
formula
(9.7803815(1+0.00527885sin^2-0.000023462sin^4
)).
The survey was a localized survey so there was no need for
latitude correction because the survey area was not regional. The
elevation readings can be used to make the bouguer corrections,
free-air corrections and terrain corrections. Terrain correction was
not needed for our data because our survey area was fairly
smooth. The bouguer correction was made with (0.4191hgu),
where h=elevation and =density. We assumed the average
density of crustal rocks to calculate the bouguer correction. The
free-air correction was also calculated with (3.086h gu), where
h=elevation. The drift curve was plotted and the gravity data
was also plotted against time. The gravity data graph was
removed from the drift curve so as to get the drift correction for
each recording time. After all the necessary corrections had been
made, they were either added or subtracted from the gravity
data. The base station readings were then subtracted from the
duly corrected gravity data to give us the bouguer anomaly. The
bouguer anomaly was plotted against station position to give the
bouguer anomaly graph. The general or obvious trend reflecting a
long wavelength gravity anomaly on the graph was traced out.
That was chosen as the regional anomaly. The one left behind is
noticed to be the short wavelength anomaly. This is the residual
110813006
Page40
anomaly and is the needed result for interpretation. A gravity

residual map was also plotted.
Data Sheet Showing Gravity Data Measurement
Traverse six at 5m station spacing
Statio
n
BS
TR6 0
TR6 5
BS
TR6
15
TR6
20
TR6
25
TR6
30
BS
TR6
35
TR6
40
TR6
45
TR6
50
TR6
55
TR6
60
TR6
65
TR6
70
BS
TR6
75
TR6
tim
e
(H:
m)
15.6
3
15.9
6
16.1
5
16.3
8
16.8
8.58
8.98
9.2
9.43
9.65
9.86
10.1
6
10.4
2
10.5
7
10.7
3
10.9
5
11.1
3
11.3
5
11.0
6
11.7
lat.
Cor.
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97811
Average
(mGAL)
drift
FAC
(mgal)
BC
(mGal
)
FAA
(Mgal)
BA
(Mgal)
Residu
al
Mgal
2574.284
2.5112
4
4.68
102.455
2
102.146
6
102.763
8
102.763
8
102.763
8
103.381
2670.0
76
2670.0
56
2670.1
95
2671.3
41
2672.3
46
2673.9
63
2673.6
98
2674.
765
2674.5
6
2675.9
52
2676.3
16
2676.7
84
2678.2
02
2679.3
26
2679.8
31
2731.0
14
2731.
367
2731.6
96
2731.7
3043.8
16
3041.5
66
3040.5
85
3043.9
61
3044.9
66
3048.8
23
3049.5
58
3048.
505
3046.0
7
3050.8
12
3048.9
36
3049.4
04
3053.0
62
3056.4
26
3056.9
31
3105.8
74
3106.
227
2769.5
56
3105.5
103.982
373.7
4
371.5
4
370.3
9
372.6
2
372.6
2
374.8
6
373.7
4
371.5
1
374.8
6
372.6
2
374.8
6
377.1
2574.881
2575.328
2575.857
2576.862
2577.865
2578.597
2578.97
3
2579.385
2579.851
2580.398
5.0061
6
6.0894
8.4129
6
10.650
84
12.317
52
13.298
8
14.347
3
15.402
103.072
4
102.45
52
103.381
102.763
8
103.381
2581.3
16.464
8
18.972
2582.101
20.899
103.982
377.1
2582.608
22.170
7
23.368
2
32.907
2
35.516
4
36.558
8
37.446
103.381
374.8
6
374.8
6
373.7
4
371.7
4
374.8
6
374.8
2582.113
2633.941
2634.84
3
2635.266
2635.595
103.381
103.072
4
102.45
52
103.381
103.381
110813006
Page41
2.25
3.231
0.145
1
5.007
5.742
4.6894
2.254
6.996
5.12
5.588
9.246
12.61
13.115
62.058
62.411
274.26
61.693
80
TR6
85
TR6
90
TR6
95
TR6
100
BS
TR6
105
8
11.9
7
12.1
5
12.3
7
12.5
3
12.7
2
12.9
2
49
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2636.48
2636.101
2637.481
2637.861
2638.22
2
2638.58
24
38.431
6
39.302
6
40.204
3
42.017
43.041
9
44.068
1
102.455
2
103.381
103.381
103.381
103.68
96
104.306
8
6
374.8
6
375.9
8
378.2
2
374.8
6
377.1
374.8
6
69
2731.2
76
2733.5
82
2733.9
62
2734.3
23
2734.
989
2734.9
54
09
3102.7
86
3108.4
42
3108.8
22
3109.1
83
3110.
969
3111.1
01
58.97
64.626
65.006
65.367
67.153
67.285
Table 1.0
The Bouguer Anomaly is plotted against the Stations using Microsoft

Excel Software, this produced the Bouguer Anomaly Profile as shown
below
A graph showing the relationship between bouguer anomaly and

station (m)
300
250
200
bouguer anomaly(Mgal)
150
100
50
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
STATION(m)
Graph 1.0
110813006
Page42
Direct Interpretation
For this report, direct method of interpretation was used and different
shapes were assumed for the subsurface anomaly from each of the residual
gravity anomaly as follows:
Traverse six (6)
Spherical Body
Limiting Depth
Limiting depth is the maximum depth at which the top of a body could lie
and still produce an observed gravity anomaly. Using the half-width
method, the half-width
x1
2
and gravity anomaly amplitude
A max were
recorded as follows:
For Traverse One,
Sphere;
x1
2
Assumed density= 2.64g/cm3
= 4m
A max
275mgal
z = 1.305
x1
2
z = 1.305 x 4m
Therefore z = 5.22m
A max
(Depth of anomaly)
4 G r 3
2
3z
275 =
Therefore r = 46.63m
5.22
3
2( 0.042)(2.64)r 3
(Radius of the anomaly)
Excess Mass
Excess mass is the difference in mass between the body and the mass of
country rock that would otherwise fill the space occupied by the body .
110813006
Page43
For Traverse One,

Sphere;
Total mass M = 255
x1
2
A max )
= 255(275) 4
= 280,500 tonnes
Assumed density = 2.64g/cm3
r=46.63m
(Radius of the
anomaly0
Mass of the anomaly = density x volume
= (2.64)(
(46.63)3
= 112,122 tonnes
Discussion and Conclusion

From the residual Bouguer anomaly of the traverse six, traverse
six reflect a simple dual symmetrical anomaly between 80m 90m which suggest a spherical highly denser mass sandwich by
the higher amplitude . The radius of each of the spherical body
was estimated to be 46.63m, with the rock locate at about
5.22m deep, the mass was estimated to be 280,500tonnesfor an
assumed density of 2.64g/cm3
Data Sheet Showing Magnetic Data Measurement

110813006
Page44
The data were acquired and recorded with their corresponding

time. The magnetometer gave us 4 readings. The average of
these readings was calculated and recorded. The drift of the
magnetic data was calculated with the following formula; Drift =
((Bend-Bstart) / (tend-tstart))*(tstation-tstart). The drift was
calculated for all the acquired data. The resulting drift was
subtracted from the average readings at each station to get the
Bcor (drift corrected reading at station position. The Bcor was
plotted against station position. From the resulting graph, a trend
reflecting a long wavelength of magnetic anomaly (regional) was
traced out and the short wavelength anomaly (residual) was
removed. The residual anomaly is what we need to interpret
magnetic properties of features in the shallow depth. A map of the
residual anomaly was also plotted.
MAGNETIC DATA AND INTERPRETATION

MAGNETIC DATA (2.5m)
S/N
Average
reading
Time(sec)
Drift
Anomaly
Residual
BS
22409.43
36720
22409.433
6769.03462
23481.73
36900
220.211538
23261.522
7621.12308
2.5
23889.57
36960
293.615385
23595.951
7955.55256
22136.03
37020
367.019231
21769.014
6128.61538
7.5
19049.2
37080
440.423077
18608.777
2968.37821
10
19952.2
37080
440.423077
19511.777
3871.37821
12.5
19487.77
37140
513.826923
18973.94
3333.54103
15
27084.43
37200
587.230769
26497.203
10856.8038
17.5
22394.13
37260
660.634615
21733.499
6093.1
20
16301.03
37260
660.634615
15640.399
22.5
21949.8
37320
734.038462
21215.762
5575.36282
110813006
Page45
25
20598.07
37380
807.442308
19790.624
4150.22564
27.5
22170.7
37380
807.442308
21363.258
5722.85897
30
23394.57
37440
880.846154
22513.721
6873.32179
32.5
20361.1
37500
954.25
19406.85
3766.45128
35
22145.9
37560
1027.65385
21118.246
5477.84744
BS
25784.27
37680
1174.46154
24609.805
8969.40641
37.5
24811.33
37740
1247.86538
23563.468
7923.06923
40
19126.2
37800
1321.26923
17804.931
2164.53205
42.5
19920.5
37920
1468.07692
18452.423
2812.02436
45
19205.8
37980
1541.48077
17664.319
2023.92051
47.5
19640.03
37980
1541.48077
18098.553
2458.15385
50
23404.23
38040
1614.88462
21789.349
6148.95
52.5
21443.47
38040
1614.88462
19828.582
4188.18333
55
20796.33
38100
1688.28846
19108.045
3467.64615
57.5
22892.03
38160
1761.69231
21130.341
5489.94231
60
22923.6
38160
1761.69231
21161.908
5521.50897
62.5
25228.5
38220
1835.09615
23393.404
7753.00513
65
25440.67
38280
1908.5
23532.167
7891.76795
67.5
21437.93
38340
1981.90385
19456.029
3815.63077
70
20971.53
38400
2055.30769
18916.226
3275.82692
72.5
20255.6
38400
2055.30769
18200.292
2559.89359
75
27390.57
38460
2128.71154
25261.855
9621.45641
77.5
21288.13
38520
2202.11538
19086.018
3445.61923
80
21753.97
38520
2202.11538
19551.851
3911.45256
BS
20752.63
38580
2275.51923
18477.114
2836.71538
82.5
23042.37
38640
2348.92308
20693.444
5053.04487
85
22430.4
38700
2422.32692
20008.073
4367.67436
87.5
22594.33
38760
2495.73077
20098.603
4458.20385
90
21979.93
38760
2495.73077
19484.203
3843.80385
92.5
19415.03
38820
2569.13462
16845.899
1205.5
95
21312.87
38880
2642.53846
18670.328
3029.92949
97.5
22019.1
38880
2642.53846
19376.562
3736.16282
100
24423.63
38940
2715.94231
21707.691
6067.29231
102.5
21283.2
39000
2789.34615
18493.854
2853.45513
105
20306.63
39000
2789.34615
17517.287
1876.88846
107.5
26783.43
39060
2862.75
23920.683
8280.28462
110813006
Page46
110
22800.87
39120
2936.15385
19864.713
4224.3141
112.5
22598.07
39120
2936.15385
19661.913
4021.5141
115
22369.53
39180
3009.55769
19359.976
3719.57692
117.5
23465.1
39240
3082.96154
20382.138
4741.73974
120
23714.33
39240
3082.96154
20631.372
4990.97308
122.5
21244.47
39330
3193.06731
18051.399
2411.00064
125
22306.93
39360
3229.76923
19077.164
3436.76538
127.5
20914.73
39360
3229.76923
17684.964
2044.56538
130
30559.87
39420
3303.17308
27256.694
11616.2949
BS
25054.77
39480
3376.57692
21678.19
6037.79103
132.5
22559.93
39600
3523.38462
19036.549
3396.15
135
22296.23
39600
3523.38462
18772.849
3132.45
137.5
24071
39660
3596.78846
20474.212
4833.81282
140
33795.5
39720
3670.19231
30125.308
14484.909
BS
22700.93
39840
3817
18883.933
3243.53462
Table 1.1
MAGNETIC DATA (2.5m)

35000
30000
25000
20000
MAGNETIC ANOMALY (nT)
15000
10000
5000
0
0
20
40
60
80
100 120 140 160
STATION(m)
Graph 1.1 showing relationship between magnetic anomaly (nT) and station (m)
110813006
Page47
MAGNETIC DATA (5m)

Average
S/N reading(nT)
BS 24329.5
0
28250.13333
5
23164.66667
Time(se
c)
31920
32040
32100
10
25638.93333
32160
15
25118.76667
32220
20
30051.9
32280
25
24129.8
32340
30
23422.86667
32340
35
30119.36667
32400
40
23462.13333
32400
45
23791.6
32400
50
23891.53333
32460
55
22094.3
32520
60
23365.13333
32580
65
26194.03333
32640
70
21163.53333
32700
75
22315.06667
32760
80
23417.13333
32760
BS
25353.2666
7
32820
Drift
0
-136.5022
-204.7533
273.00444
341.25556
409.50667
477.75778
477.75778
546.00889
546.00889
546.00889
Anomaly
24329.5
28386.6355
23369.42
25911.9377
8
25460.0222
2
30461.4066
7
24607.5577
8
23900.6244
4
30665.3755
6
24008.1422
2
24337.6088
9
24505.7933
3
22776.8111
1
24115.8955
6
27013.0466
7
22050.7977
8
23270.5822
2
24372.6488
9
-614.26
682.51111
750.76222
819.01333
887.26444
955.51556
955.51556
1023.766 26377.033
7
33
110813006
Residual
5623.26
9680.39555
4663.18
7205.697778
6753.782222
11755.16667
5901.317778
5194.384444
11959.13556
5301.902222
5631.368889
5799.553333
4070.571111
5409.655556
8306.806667
3344.557778
4564.342222
5666.408889
7670.79333
3
Page48
85
22527.3
32940
90
22390.36667
32940
95
10
0
10
5
11
0
11
5
12
0
12
5
13
0
13
5
14
0
21359.93333
33000
24823.6
33060
33994.86667
33060
41935.6
33120
17272.96667
33180
17294.63333
33240
30446.56667
33240
25333.2
33300
33509.53333
33300
26448.2
33360
1160.2689
1160.2689
23687.5688
9
23550.6355
6
22588.4533
-1228.52
3
26120.3711
1296.7711 1
35291.6377
1296.7711 8
43300.6222
1365.0222 2
1433.2733 18706.24
18796.1577
1501.5244 8
31948.0911
1501.5244 1
26902.9755
1569.7756 6
35079.3088
1569.7756 9
28086.2266
1638.0267 7
4981.328889
4844.395556
3882.213333
7414.131111
16585.39778
24594.38222
0
89.91777778
13241.85111
8196.735556
16373.06889
9379.986667
Table 1.2
MAGNETIC DATA (5m)
110813006
Page49
30000
25000
20000
MAGNETIC ANOMALY (nT)
15000
10000
5000
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
STATION(m)
MAGNETIC DATA (10m)
BS
Average
reading(nT)
21598.8666
7
20021
35640
-470.885714
20491.8857
2404.657143
10
48945.46667
35700
-706.328571
49651.7952
31564.56667
20
17380.9
35700
-706.328571
18087.2286
30
18571.36667
35760
-941.771429
19513.1381
1425.909524
40
24305.5
35820
-1177.21429
25482.7143
7395.485714
50
23637
35880
-1412.65714
25049.6571
6962.428571
60
22318.1
35940
-1648.1
23966.2
5878.971429
70
22450.33333
36000
-1883.54286
24333.8762
6246.647619
80
23072.03333
36060
-2118.98571
25191.019
7103.790476
90
23081.9
36060
-2118.98571
25200.8857
7113.657143
100
27383.5
36120
-2354.42857
29737.9286
11650.7
110
21921.36667
36180
-2589.87143
24511.2381
6424.009524
120
24368.9
36240
-2825.31429
27194.2143
9106.985714
130
21413.76667
36240
-2825.31429
24239.081
6151.852381
140
23240.03333
36300
-3060.75714
26300.7905
8213.561905
S/N
Time(sec)
Drift
Anomaly
Residual
35520
21598.8667
3511.63809
5
110813006
Page50
24895.0666
BS
7
Table 1.3
36360
-3296.2
28191.2667
10104.0381
MAGNETIC DATA (10m)

35000
30000
25000
20000
Magnetic anomaly (nT) 15000

10000
5000
0
0
20
40
60
80 100 120 140 160
AB/2(m)
Quantitative interpretation
In this report, only the fairly symmetric anomaly was considered
from traverse six as shown below.
At 5m spacing:
A max = 24594.38nT
width (w) = 5m
110813006
Page51
Depth estimate (z) =
w
2
Therefore z= 2.5m
At 10m spacing:
A max = 31564.57nT
=7m
Depth estimate (z) =
5
2
width (w)
w
2
7
2
Therefore z= 3.5m
Qualitative interpretation
The magnetic anomaly of traverse six (5m spacing) produce
signature within station range 105-115m and also at 10m
spacing at which the signature was pronounce range 4-18m;they
are symmetrical which suggest a uniform shape, say sphere, since
the survey line was along the East-West direction. This concurs
with the similar signature range in residual gravity anomaly. The
depths of the anomaly was estimated to be about 2.5m-3.5m
respectively, which is a little shallower than that of gravity. The
remaining magnetic anomaly are much more noise.
110813006
Page52
Data Sheet Showing VLF Data Measurement

The measured in-phase and quadrature is presented in the
table below.
110813006
Page53
Table 1.4
These data were processed by first plotting the In-phase and the
Quadrature component against the stations for each of the traverse.
Secondly, the data were processed using the KHFFILT program software to
obtain the refined VLF data, Fraser filtering and the K-H contour
VLF PROFILE SHOWING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INPHASE/QUADRATURE % WITH STATION (m)
110813006
Page54
100
80
60
40
20
IN-PHASE/QUADRATURE %
In-Phase
0
0
20
40
Quadrature
60 80 100 120 140 160
-20
-40
-60
-80
STATION(m)
Graph 1.4
A picture showing VLF measurement response
110813006
Page55
In the plot of in-phase/quadrature component against stations for
traverse six, there is a distinct envelope between 20m 40m. This
suggests the presence of a highly conductive body which is likely to be a
weathered basement.
The Fraser filtering for this traverse shows similar signature at this
range. The VLF response plot at this range reflects a negative signature
between 20m 40m which suggests the presence of a conductive
anomalous body. The K-H contour shows this anomalous high negative
110813006
Page56
component at 30m- 45m and also shows the depth of the conductive body
at the range of 5m -19m .
Data
Sheet
Showing
Electrical
Resistivity
Data
Measurement.
The field data of Traverse6 (VES1,VES2,VES3, VES4,VES5)
are shown in the table below
VES1
VES2
VES3
VES4
VES5
Resistivi
ty ()
258.571
Resistivi
ty ()
141.36
Resistivi
ty ()
307.458
ab/2
(m)
1
mn/2
(m)
0.25
Geometr
ic Factor
5.89
Resistivity()
547.181
Resistivi
ty ()
125.457
0.25
24.74
235.03
66.798
306.776
111.33
304.302
0.25
56.156
202.1616
61.7716
308.858
101.0808
280.78
0.25
100.138
190.2622
300.414
100.138
260.3588
0.25
225.802
190.938171
293.5426
114.0525
202.7476
0.5
112.312
190.9304
314.4736
112.312
235.8552
0.5
253.684
182.855427
329.7892
128.6938
173.6213
12
0.5
451.604
160.409740
157.0678
0.5
706.073
124.410062
158.4427
156.4657
15
351.858
142.432118
161.8194
155.4508
20
626.748
92.3199804
178.7485
131.9931
25
980.177
87.5298061
204.4649
129.2853
32
1606.925
80.667635
204.4008
152.8185
40
2511.703
80.8768366
211.9877
85.14673
40
2.5
1001.383
91.4262679
171.5369
99.63760
50
2.5
1566.869
98.5560601
191.9414
144.1519
65
2.5
2650.719
109.739766
200.6594
174.4173
80
2.5
4017.312
12453.6672
252.6889
228.9867
100
2.5
6279.258
167.656188
3133.739
202.126165
1812.193
8
315.5675
1
277.5432
100
312.1486
8
294.2912
2
270.0862
0
271.8832
8
240.4374
1
217.5776
4
210.2295
4
255.0522
5
226.8826
3
254.4690
2
311.7434
1
403.1283
6
295.5115
8
141.3068
15
74.11213
3
98.11096
9
105.8315
9
117.7854
8
120.6234
2
106.2639
8
103.7981
1
97.27128
9
93.01879
7
102.6825
0
96.70056
5
59.08159
7
103.0999
8
131.4756
6
152.6578
5
209.7272
1
404.5657
110813006
Page57
370.7213
Table 1.5
The apparent resistivity of each VES is plotted against its electrode

spacings (AB/2) ona tracing paper using a log-log graph sheet underneath.
Manual interpretation is thus done by using of master and auxiliary curves
to model the subsurface layers from the plot. The data alongside the
resistivities and thickness of the manually-modelled layers were further
processed by computer iteration technique with the aid of geophysical
interpretation software called WinResist. The result of the computer
iterated technique which was guided by the manual interpreted result is
presented below
VES1
110813006
Page58
VES2
VES3
110813006
Page59
VES4
VES 5
The obtained VES curves above indicate the number of layers
being probed at the point of sounding. The result presented below
shows the resistivity of value of the layers, thickness, depth of the
overburden layers and their inference lithology
110813006
Page60
STATION 1
LAYER
THICKNESS(m)
DEPTH(m)
1
2
3
RESISTIVITY
VALUE (m)
950.5
54.1
578.7
0.7
0.6
1.8
0.7
1.3
3.1
41.4
9.5
12.6
9248.3
-----
-----
LITHOLOG
Y
Top soil
Sandsoil
Weathered
Basement
Saturated
weathered
layer
STATION 2
LAYER
THICKNES DEPTH(
S(m)
m)
LITHOLO
GY
1
2
RESISTI
VITY
VALUE(
m)
124.0
27.6
0.5
0.8
0.5
1.3
201.8
5.4
6.7
35.7
13.1
19.9
Top soil
Sand
(wet/mo
ist)
Weather
ed
Baseme
nt
Fresh
Baseme
nt
1557.0
-----
------
RESISTI
THICKNES
DEPTH(
STATION 3
LAYER
110813006
LITHOLO
Page61
S(m)
m)
GY
1
2
VITY
VALUE(
m)
107.8
92.8
0.7
2.6
0.7
3.3
179.4
18.7
21.3
1663.7
-----
-----
Top soil
Sandy
soil
Weather
ed
Baseme
nt
Fresh
Baseme
nt
THICKNES
S(m)
DEPTH(
m)
LITHOLO
GY
1
2
RESISTI
VITY
VALUE(
m)
153.3
79.9
0.8
2.4
0.8
3.2
142.3
4.4
7.6
332.7
-----
-----
Top soil
Sandy
soil
Weather
ed
Baseme
nt
Fresh
Baseme
nt
STATION 4
LAYER
110813006
Page62
STATION 5
LAYER
THICKNES
S(m)
DEPTH(
m)
LITHOLO
GY
1
2
RESISTI
VITY
VALUE(
m)
368.7
217.9
1.2
4.6
1.2
5.7
100.2
31.8
37.6
2877.6
-----
-----
Top soil
Sand
Soil
Weather
ed
Baseme
nt
Fresh
Baseme
nt
Data Sheet Showing SP Data Measurement.

The table below shows the measured potential difference and the
stations midpoints for each traverse and fixed spacing length.
TRAVERSE6 fixed spacing
110813006
Page63
Table 1.6
Using Microsoft Excel software, the SP Anomaly (measured

potential difference) is plotted against the Station Midpoints for
each traverse; this gives the SP profile below:
Fixed spacing 5m
110813006
Page64
AN SP LINE PROFILE
30
20
10
0
-10
Potential Difference (mV)
10
15
20
25
30
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
-70
Station(m)
Graph 1.5
FIXED SPACING 10m
AN SP LINE PROFILE
80
60
40
20
10
15
20
25
30
-20
-40
-60
station(m)
Graph 1.6
FIXED SPACING 15m
110813006
Page65
AN SP LINE PROFILE
20
10
0
Axis Potential Difference (mV)
10
15
20
25
30
-10
-20
-30
-40
Station (m)
Q
Graph 1.7
FIXED SPACING 20m
AN SP LINE PROFILE
30
20
10
10
15
20
25
30
-10
-20
-30
-40
Station m
Graph 1.8
FIXED ELECTRODE
110813006
Page66
The table below shows the measured potential difference and the stations
midpoints for each traverse and fixed electrode spacing length.
FIXED ELECTRODE 20M SPACING

110813006
Page67
Using Microsoft Excel software, the SP Anomaly (measured potential

difference) is plotted against the Station Midpoints for the traverse; this
gives the SP profile below:
AN SP LINE PROFILE
10
8
6
4
2
0
10
15
20
25
30
-2
STATION(m)
Graph 1.8
110813006
Page68

AN SP LINE PROFILE
0
10
12
14
16
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
STATION(m)
Graph 1.9

AN SP LINE PROFILE
0
10
-5
-10
-15

-20
-25
-30
-35
Station (m)
Graph 2.0
110813006
Page69

AN SP LINE PROFILE
0
-10
-20
Axis Potential Difference (mV)
-30
-40
-50
-60
STATION(m)
Graph 2.1
QUALITATIVE INTERPRETATION
SP interpretation is purely qualitative, from the profile of the traverse;
there is major negative anomaly signature between 20m 25.6m in
traverse four for fixed spacing survey, this suggest presence of conductive
body within this area. Similarly, there is negative anomaly signature
between 30m 50m. For other profile, do not give a distinctive contrast as
the profile is likely to be due to bioelectric activity of the plant in the survey
area or groundwater movement.
QUANTITATIVE INTERPRETATION
FIXED SPACING
For 5m spacing: to calculate for the depth of the conductive body
Vmax=-66mV
and Vhalf=-33mV
110813006
X1
2
= 10.5m
Page70
X1
h = 3
10.5
3
= 6.06m (Depth of the anomaly).
For 10m spacing: to calculate for the depth of the conductive

body
X1
2
= 9m
X1
h = 3
9
3
= 5.2m(Depth of the anomaly).

body
X1
2
= 10m
X1
h = 3
2
10
3
= 5.78m(Depth of the anomaly).

body
X1
2
= 8.5m
X1
h = 3
2
8.5
= 3 = 4.90m (Depth of the anomaly)
FIXED ELECTRODE
For 5m fixed electrode: to calculate for the depth of the
conductive body
X1
2
= 10.5m
110813006
Page71
h=
X1
2
10.5
3
For 10m fixed electrode: to calculate for the depth of the

conductive body
X1
2
=m
h=
X1
2
9
3
Discussion and Conclusion

At 5m, 10m, 15m and 20m respectively for fixed spacing on
traverse one, there is presence of negative anomaly signature for
the four fixed spacing, which suggest there is conductive body.
The depth of the anomaly was estimated to be at range of
4.90m-6.06m and for fixed electrode a well formed anomaly
was found at 5m and 10m spacing, the depth of the conducing
body was calculate to be at range of 5.15m-6.06m . For other
profile, do not give a distinctive contrast as the profile is likely to
be due to bioelectric activity of the plant in the survey area or
groundwater movement.
110813006
Page72
Data Sheet Showing

Measurement.
Electrical
Resistivity
Data
The measured apparent resistivity data for each of the traverses was
rewritten (arranged) in RES2DINV format, so that it could be read by the
software as shown below
CST DATA (a=10m)
Geometric factor (K) = 62.832
A(m)
0
2.5
5
7.5
10
12.5
15
17.5
20
22.5
25
27.5
M(m
)
10
12.5
15
17.5
20
22.5
25
27.5
30
32.5
35
37.5
N(m
)
20
22.5
25
27.5
30
32.5
35
37.5
40
42.5
45
47.5
B(m)
30
32.5
35
37.5
40
42.5
45
47.5
50
52.5
55
57.5
AB/2(m)
15
17.5
20
22.5
25
27.5
30
32.5
35
37.5
40
42.5
110813006
Resistance
()
0.1943
2.4
2.6
3
3.7
4.2
10.5
37.8
27
20.2
30.7
37.2
Apparent
resistivity
(m)
12.2082576
150.7968
163.3632
188.496
232.4784
263.8944
659.736
2375.0496
1696.464
1269.2064
1928.9424
2337.3504
Page73
30
32.5
35
37.5
40
42.5
45
47.5
50
52.5
55
57.5
60
62.5
65
67.5
70
72.5
75
77.5
80
40
42.5
45
47.5
50
52.5
55
57.5
60
62.5
65
67.5
70
72.5
75
77.5
80
82.5
85
87.5
90
82.5
85
92.5
95
87.5
90
97.5
100
102.
5
105
107.
5
110
112.
5
115
117.
92.5
95
97.5
100
102.5
105
107.5
50
52.5
55
57.5
60
62.5
65
67.5
70
72.5
75
77.5
80
82.5
85
87.5
90
92.5
95
97.5
100
102.
5
105
107.
5
110
112.
5
115
117.
5
120
122.
5
125
127.
60
62.5
65
67.5
70
72.5
75
77.5
80
82.5
85
87.5
90
92.5
95
97.5
100
102.5
105
107.5
110
45
47.5
50
52.5
55
57.5
60
62.5
65
67.5
70
72.5
75
77.5
80
82.5
85
87.5
90
92.5
95
5.7
19.5
45.9
0.1499
5.7
10.4
25.5
5.1
5.8
8
5.4
6.4
12.7
0.7546
2
0.3277
15.9
8.7
19.1
20.6
13.6
358.1424
1225.224
2883.9888
9.4185168
358.1424
653.4528
1602.216
320.4432
364.4256
502.656
339.2928
402.1248
797.9664
47.4130272
125.664
20.5900464
999.0288
546.6384
1200.0912
1294.3392
854.5152
112.5
115
97.5
100
17
16.7
1068.144
1049.2944
117.5
120
102.5
105
3.3
4.9
207.3456
307.8768
122.5
125
107.5
110
8.8
25
552.9216
1570.8
127.5
130
112.5
115
8
13.9
502.656
873.3648
132.5
135
137.5
117.5
120
122.5
5.6
33.6
22.2
351.8592
2111.1552
1394.8704
110813006
Page74
110
5
120
5
130
140
125
32.1
2016.9072
CST DATA (a=15m)

Geometric factor (K) =94.248
a(m)
m(m)
n(m)
b(m)
AB/2(m)
Resistance ()
Apparent
resistivity (m)
15
30
45
22.5
2.6
245.0448
2.5
5
7.5
10
17.5
20
22.5
25
32.5
35
37.5
40
47.5
50
52.5
55
25
27.5
30
32.5
1.8
23.2
2.7
79.3
169.6464
2186.5536
254.4696
7473.8664
12.5
27.5
42.5
57.5
35
15.8
1489.1184
15
30
45
60
37.5
8.6
810.5328
17.5
32.5
47.5
62.5
40
0.7731
72.8631288
20
35
50
65
42.5
15.7
1479.6936
22.5
37.5
52.5
67.5
45
22.1
2082.8808
25
40
55
70
47.5
14.8
1394.8704
27.5
42.5
57.5
72.5
50
10
942.48
30
45
60
75
52.5
10.8
1017.8784
32.5
47.5
62.5
77.5
55
1.5
141.372
35
50
65
80
57.5
1.3
122.5224
37.5
52.5
67.5
82.5
60
27.9
2629.5192
40
55
70
85
62.5
30.4
2865.1392
42.5
57.5
72.5
87.5
65
3.3
311.0184
45
60
75
90
67.5
1.8
169.6464
47.5
62.5
77.5
92.5
70
23.1
2177.1288
50
65
80
95
72.5
19.7
1856.6856
52.5
67.5
82.5
97.5
75
18.6
1753.0128
55
70
85
100
77.5
1.3
122.5224
57.5
72.5
87.5
102.5
80
16.8
1583.3664
60
75
90
105
82.5
5.6
527.7888
62.5
77.5
92.5
107.5
85
8.4
791.6832
65
80
95
110
87.5
7.4
697.4352
67.5
82.5
97.5
112.5
90
22.9
2158.2792
70
85
100
115
92.5
17
1602.216
72.5
87.5
102.5
117.5
95
4.8
452.3904
110813006
Page75
75
90
105
120
97.5
1.4
131.9472
77.5
92.5
107.5
122.5
100
1.1
103.6728
80
95
110
125
102.5
28
2638.944
82.5
97.5
112.5
127.5
105
7.7
725.7096
85
100
115
130
107.5
16.8
1583.3664
87.5
102.5
117.5
132.5
110
9.7
914.2056
90
105
120
135
112.5
10.7
1008.4536
92.5
107.5
122.5
137.5
115
60.5
5702.004
95
110
125
140
117.5
44.4
4184.6112
CST DATA (a=20m)

Geometric factor (K) =125.664
A(m)
M(m)
N(m)
B(m)
AB/2(m)
Resistance
()
Apparent resistivity (m)
20
40
60
30
1.9
238.7616
2.5
22.5
42.5
62.5
32.5
1.7
213.6288
25
45
65
35
0.6834
85.8787776
7.5
27.5
47.5
67.5
37.5
4.1
515.2224
10
30
50
70
40
1.2
150.7968
12.5
32.5
52.5
72.5
42.5
125.664
15
35
55
75
45
0.7467
93.8333088
17.5
37.5
57.5
77.5
47.5
32.8
4121.7792
20
40
60
80
50
251.328
22.5
42.5
62.5
82.5
52.5
4.2
527.7888
25
45
65
85
55
3.1
389.5584
27.5
47.5
67.5
87.5
57.5
51.6
6484.2624
30
50
70
90
60
32.7
4109.2128
32.5
52.5
72.5
92.5
62.5
29.6
3719.6544
35
55
75
95
65
17.5
2199.12
37.5
57.5
77.5
97.5
67.5
5.1
640.8864
40
60
80
100
70
753.984
42.5
62.5
82.5
102.5
72.5
12.7
1595.9328
45
65
85
105
75
21.5
2701.776
47.5
67.5
87.5
107.5
77.5
63.6
7992.2304
50
70
90
110
80
12.9
1621.0656
52.5
72.5
92.5
112.5
82.5
31.3
3933.2832
110813006
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55
57.5
60
62.5
65
67.5
70
72.5
75
77.5
80
82.5
85
87.5
90
92.5
95
97.5
100
102.5
105
107.5
110
112.5
115
117.5
120
122.5
125
127.5
130
132.5
85
87.5
90
92.5
95
97.5
100
102.5
13
2
19.1
40
37.8
10.2
13
18.6
1633.632
251.328
2400.1824
5026.56
4750.0992
1281.7728
1633.632
2337.3504
75
95
115
135
105
14.8
1859.8272
77.5
97.5
117.5
137.5
107.5
8.6
1080.7104
80
100
120
140
110
251.328
Processing these data with RES2DINV software gives the

inversed resistivity structures below
PSEUDO-SECTION PLOT FOR TRAVERSE 6
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Withinthe range of 66m - 79m at a depth of 0.6m indicates a low
resistivity zone. Also, within the range of 91m 94m at a depth of
0.4m, lies a low resistivity zone which is not too pronounced.
Noticeable also from the section is another region of low
resistivity at a range of 116m 124m at depth 0.7m.
At a depth of 1.7m is a high resistivity zone within a range of 16m
to 28m, with even higher resistivity values recorded at depth
1.5m located within a range of a 100m and 110m.
Low resistivity values indicate a fractured zone or basement
whereas high resistivity
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Data Sheet Showing Electromagnetic Data Measurement.

The table below shows the acquired data for both Vertical Dipole
(VD) and Horizontal Dipole (HD) for traverse 6 in 10m, 20m and
40m spacing.
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Traverse One at 10m spacing

35
30
25
20
APPARENT CONDUCTIVITY (mS/m)
HD
15
VD
10
5
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
STATION(m)
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TRAVERSE SIX (20m)SPACING

40
35
30
25
APPARENT CONDUCTIVITY(Ms/m)
20
HD
VD
15
10
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
STATION(m)
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TRAVERSE six (SPACING 40M)

110813006
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40
35
30
25
APPARENT CONDUCTIVITY(Ms/M)
20
HD
15
VD
10
5
0
0
10
15
20
25
STATION(m)
Qualitative Interpretation
Traverse six, at 10m spacing the presence of crossover point
indicating likely presence of conductive zone at 7.8m, 10m,
15m and at 16.7m and also at 20m spacing 2m ,14.5m and
16m and 1m, 17.5 and 18.5m respectively also shows the
presence conductive zone due to the crossover point
Likely presence of conductive zone at 24m,18m and 22m due
to high peak at 10m, 20, and 40m spacing respectively
Seismic Refraction Data Interpretation

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The acquired data were interpreted using SeisImager software.

The Pickwin of the SeisImager was used to pick first arrival of
the primary seismic wave, which was grouped into five picks. The
picked groups are then plotted and modeled into geological layers
using Plotrefa of the SeisImager, the results are shown below
TRAVERSE 6
Shot Point
File No.
Offset
013745
Btw G6 and G7
013747
Btw G12 and G13
013750
Btw G18 and G19
013751
2m after G24
013752
Offset
013753
Btw G25 and G26
013754
Btw G30 and G36
013755
Btw G42 and G43
013756
2m after G48
013757
a
table
showing
were the
shot was
taken and
the
file
number
gotten
from the
seismogram
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A graph showing the relationship between velocity and

distance
The forward and reverse shots for each profile were plotted and
the layer velocities, layer thicknesses and depths were obtained
from the time-distance graphs.
The seismic refraction results of the layer velocities and layer
thicknesses are
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A picture showing the seimictomograpy of the subsurface
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A seismic refraction travel time
A graph showing the relationship between velocity and

distance
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A picture showing the lithology of the

subsurface
In traverse six, result shows that
threeseismicvelocitylayersweredelineatedwithvelocityrange from
300m/s 340m/s for layer 1, 1000-1200m/s for layer two and
1600-2000m/s for layer 3. The thicknesses of layers are 3.8 and
6.7m for layers 1 and 2 respectively. Data also show that velocity
increases with depth.
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CHAPTER FOUR
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS
Igarra is a town in Edo State, Nigeria in which the major
occupation is farming. This means the soil here is very rich in
both micro and macro nutrients for cultivation. The minerals found
here are mainly muscovite mica, orthoclase feldspar, biotitemica
andquartz. These minerals were not found in large economic
quantities but they could still be exploited and used for
various purposes such as construction, glass making, ceramics
etc.
Also, the whole town is sitting on the basement complex with a
system of ridges almost surrounding the whole town and this
resource could be exploited for the purpose of tourism which
would generate more income to both igarra East LGA and
Edo State, Nigeria.
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CHAPTER FIVE
GENERAL CONCLUSION
The VLF EM16R method, after its processing gave a signature which is
also found in the Constant Spacing Traversing technique. This signature
(between 20metres and 40metres) is a moderately resistive and
moderately conductive anomaly in the constant spacing traversing
technique and VLF method respectively.
At this point of the traverse, the was a spike up (showing an anomaly)
representing a material of low magnetic susceptibility. This means that the
anomaly present beneath the subsurface is not a magnetic material
The moderate resistivity and conductivity of this anomaly was noticed at
depth below 6metres, suggests that the material may not be water
saturated or a corrosive part of the subsurface
The spontaneous potential method plot of 10metres also shows an
anomaly between the distance 20m- 40m, this also correlates with the
anomalous zone of the VLF and CST technique. This 3 technique are
definitely responding to the same anomaly
In the gravity method, there was a spike up of the plot at distance
between 80m and 100m on the traverse, there was the presence of a
quartz intrusion. At this distance of the traverse, the basement was seen to
be closer to the subsurface along the traverse. This supported also by the
presence of a pegmatitic intrusion at that point on the traverse. The
magnetic signature of that section (80-100m) is spiking down, this could
be as a result of the pegmatitic intrusion in that section.
The seismic refraction method shows three layers up to about
21metres depth, this is the weathered layer shown in the Geo- electric
section during the VES technique. The differentiation of layers by both
methods however shows a distinct difference due to the fact that the
differentiate layers based on different physical properties, velocity of
seismic wave by seismic refraction and apparent resistivity of each layer by
VES. In basement complex, the lithologies are as follows; fresh basement,
partly fractured basement, fractured base, partly weathered base,
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Page91
weathered basement, top-soil. The resistivity values decreases in this order.

Therefore the aquifer unit in the basement complex are either the
weathered or fractured basement. From the VES curve obtained, the
resistivity values are
The depth to basement was found to be 20m-40metres below the
surface.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
American Geological Institute. (1957). Glossary of Geology and
Related Sciences; National Academy of Sciences for the American
Geological Institute, U.S.A
Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation.
Reynolds, J.M. (1997). An Introduction to Applied and
Environmental geophysics; John Wiley and Sons Ltd, West Sussex,
England.
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UNIVERSITY OF LAGOS

A FIELD REPORT ON THE

2.0 CHAPTER 2: THEORY/PRINCIPLE OF THE METHOD

Geophysical Results Data Obtained

4.0 CHAPTER 4: ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS

AKILLO OLANIYI MOSHOOD

AKILLO OLANIYI MOSHOOD

basement complex beneath, regional geological and

the subsurface behaviour of Igarra. The traverse ran East - West

1.0 GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING OF THE AREA

AKILLO OLANIYI MOSHOOD

Location map of Igarra

AKILLO OLANIYI MOSHOOD

A picture showing the topography of the survey

AKILLO OLANIYI MOSHOOD

1.GRAVITY SURVEY: Gravity method is the measurement of

a body is equal to the product of mass

This shows that the magnitude of the acceleration due to gravity

is directly proportional to the mass

of the Earth and

inversely proportional to the square of the Earths radius

Theoretically, acceleration due to gravity should be constant over

A total of 21 gravity stations comprise the data set. The gravity

ALTIMETER (for elevation measurement) GRAVIMETER (gravity anomalies)

The force F between two magnetic poles of strength m1 and m2

Where 0 and R are constants corresponding to the magnetic

The magnetic field in terms of a force field which is produced by

components of this geomagnetic field which can be measured in

AKILLO OLANIYI MOSHOOD

3.VERY LOW FREQUENCY METHOD:VLF method is

AKILLO OLANIYI MOSHOOD

A DIAGRAM SHOWING THE PRINCIPLE OF VLF METHOD

EM-16R an instrument use for VLF survey

AKILLO OLANIYI MOSHOOD

resistivity method utilizes direct currents or low frequency

If we consider a single current electrode on the surface of a

the circuit is completed by current sink at a large distance

The associated potential gradient with this current density is

The potential Vrat distance r is thus

the constant of integration is zero since Vr =0 when r =

AKILLO OLANIYI MOSHOOD

The potential VCat an internal electrode C is the sum of the

The potential difference between electrodes C and D is

AKILLO OLANIYI MOSHOOD

4.1Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES)

VES using four electrodes.

AKILLO OLANIYI MOSHOOD

Resistivity Survey Equipment and Field Procedure

EQUIPMENT USED FOR VES SURVEY

electrodes MN is increased to 0.5m. At this point; there was an

AKILLO OLANIYI MOSHOOD

AKILLO OLANIYI MOSHOOD

A Wenner VES survey

4.2. Constant Separation Traversing (CST ):Electrical

A PICTURE SHOWING THE EQUIMENT USED IN CST SURVEY

AKILLO OLANIYI MOSHOOD

Constant Separation Traversing uses a manual electrode array,

The resultant field is detected by the alternating currents that

inducing and detecting electrical current flow within geologic

Field Instrument and Procedure

Fig(a) transmitter coil and a battery

fig(b) receiver coil

AKILLO OLANIYI MOSHOOD

6.SELF-POTENTIAL(SP):This is the measurement of natural