THE BRAIN

Structures of the brain that are implicated in schizophrenia focus on three systems
in the brain: the Basal Ganglia, Limbic System and Tegmentum.
BASAL GANGLIA
The basal ganglia is a collection of subcortical (beneath the cortex) nuclei
in the forebrain (front area of the brain). The cortex is the brain matter that
makes up the outside of the brain; cortex literally means "bark," so you
can think of it as the bark of the brain.
The major parts of the basal ganglia consist of the caudate nucleus, the
putamen and the globus pallidus.

of

The basal ganglia is involved in the control

movement. The nucleus accumbens contains neurons that are
part of the basal ganglia. Thus, this structure may play a
role in the regulation of movement, including the
control of complex motor activity and the cognitive
aspects of motor control. In addition, this structure
has been found to possibly be the area that becomes
activated in situations that involve reward and
punishment.
The nucleus accumbens is a nucleus of the basal
forebrain. It receives dopamine-secreting terminal
buttons from neurons of the ventral tegmental area
(VTA) and is thought to be involved in
reinforcement and attention.

LIMBIC

SYSTEM

This system consists of a couple of brain structures.

First it includes several regions of one form of cortex
called the limbic cortex; this cortex is also known as the
cingulate cortex as shown in the picture.
Besides the limbic cortex, the most
important parts of the limbic system are
the hippocampus and the amygdala.
The limbic system has been implicated in learning and
memory and emotions. The implication in emotions
involves feelings and expressions of emotions, emotional
memories and recognition of emotions in other people.

TEGMENTUM
The tegmentum consists of an area of the midbrain. It includes the bottom end of the reticular
formation, the periaqueductal gray matter, the red nucleus, the substantia nigra and the ventral
tegmental area.

The
many

reticular formation is a large structure consisting of

nuclei. It is also characterized by a diffuse,
interconnected network of neurons with complex
dendritic and axonal processes. The reticular
formation receives sensory information and
projects axons to the cerebral cortex,
thalamus and spinal cord.

NEURONS

Cells in the
nervous system
are
called
neurons. The neuron is an
information processing and transmitting
cell that undermines all bodily functions. It is estimated that the human brain contains over 100
billion neurons, with each neuron potentially communicating with hundreds of other neurons.
This vast interconnectedness allows simple neuronal activity to translate into complex neuronal
messages creating human behavior.

NEUROTRANSMISSION

The basic structure of a neuron includes a cell body (soma), dendrites, axon and axon
terminal.

Neurotransmission is an electrochemical message that allows neurons to communicate

information with one another neuron.

Electrochemical messages pass from the dendrites (projections from the cell body)

Through the soma or cell body

Down the axon (long extended structures)

And across the synapses (gaps between cells)

To the dendrites of the next neuron

NEUROTRANSMITTERS

Neurotransmitters are the chemical substances manufactured in the neuron that aid in the
transmission of information throughout the body. They either excite or stimulate an action
in the cells (excitatory) or inhibit or stop an action (inhibitory).
These neurotransmitters fit into specific receptor cells embedded in the membrane of the
dendrite.
After neurotransmitters are released into the synapse and relay the message to the
receptor cells, they are either transported back for later use (reuptake) or are metabolized
and inactivated by enzymes, primarily monoamine oxidase
These neurotransmitters are necessary in just the right proportions to relay messages
across synapses

GABA
GABA
is

is

the most common inhibitory neurotransmitter in the nervous system and

found throughout the body. Produce calming effects and are target sites for
benzodiazepines.

Glutamate

Glutamate is an excitatory neurotransmitter that is involved in learning

and memory. Alterations in production may play a role in the
underpinnings of neurodegenerative disorders, such as
Alzheimers disease and schizophrenia.

Acetylcholine
Acetylcholine is responsible for muscular movement and has been
shown to have a role in memory formation. It was the first
neurotransmitter to be discovered, and thus is the best known.

Epinephrine and Norepinephrine

Epinephrine and norepinepherine act very similarly. They are
associated with vigilance and the fight-or-flight response. Their activity
up the sympathetic nervous system, preparing a body to face
or run away from it.

revs
danger
Serotonin

Serotonin plays a role in mood,

apptetite, sleep rhythms and arousal.
Decreases in serotonin have been
shown to correlate with clinical
depression and risk for suicide.
Dopamine
Dopamine has been implicated in numerous functions within the body, including
movement, attention, learning, and the reward and reinforcement. Schizophrenia and
other psychotic disorders are associated with increased or dysregulation of dopamine