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Department of Process and Food Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
c
Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
b
art ic l e i nf o
a b s t r a c t
Article history:
Received 6 November 2014
Received in revised form
15 May 2015
Accepted 11 July 2015
The harvested Jatropha fruits need to be cleaned, dehulled and stored properly as part of the production
of Jatropha biodiesel. During processing, the oil yield and quality of the extracted crude oil can be further
improved by removing the husks (outer coating) of the seeds before any necessary seed treatment. This
report attempts to provide an insight into the major issues of the process from harvesting the Jatropha
fruits to the nal storage of the seeds and pretreatment of the Jatropha seeds prior to the oil extraction
process in production. This report describes a few aspects of the processes including common methods,
research and technologies involved so that some improving strategies can be devised. The nal part of
this report also describes current development trends and the future prospect of Jatropha as a biodiesel.
The paper has determined that both the harvest and shelling processes are basically performed
manually, especially in rural areas. These activities are time consuming and introduce a high labour
cost (80% of the feedstock cost) that can potentially make the Jatropha oil economically uncompetitive. A
solution consisting of process mechanisation and mechanical device development are proposed to
improve the sustainability of the industry and to meet the increasing world demand. An improvement in
oil yield can also be achieved by fruit/seed pretreatment such as drying, shelling and heating. However,
improper control may lead to the formation of oxidation products such as free fatty acids which will
affect the efciency of biodiesel production. This is an important sustainability issue which is related to
the future development of Jatropha biodiesel.
& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Jatropha curcas L.
Process mechanisation
Harvesting
Pretreatment
Shelling process
Seed storage
Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 992
Botanical description of Jatropha curcas L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 992
Jatropha fruit harvesting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 993
Jatropha fruit pretreatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 994
Shelling Jatropha fruits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 994
5.1.
Removal of outer shells from whole fruits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 994
5.2.
Removal of husks from seed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995
The use of physical and mechanical properties of Jatropha for equipment design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 997
The use of shells and husks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 998
Storage of seeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 999
Suggested pretreatment steps for oil extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 999
The cost of Jatropha postharvesting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 999
The current development of the Jatropha industry in Malaysia and future prospects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1000
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.07.077
1364-0321/& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
992
B.Y. Lim et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 52 (2015) 9911002
1. Introduction
Fossil fuels such as crude oil, coal and natural gas have been widely
used for generating electricity and for vehicle power, heat and many
other purposes. However, the high reliance on fossil fuels for the
development of the country has led to the problem of over usage
which consequently means that fossil fuels are in danger of exhaustion. The price hikes and unstable supplies of fossil fuels in the global
market can also affect the economies of developing countries. In 2013,
the usage of crude oil, coal and natural gas together reached more
than 80% of the total energy consumption of the World [1]. Further,
the overall world energy demand is estimated to keep growing by 37%
from 2013 to 2035 [2]. The statistics show the world strongly relies on
traditional fossil fuels as a primary resource to generate energy in
order to full current demand.
The high demand placed on energy and fossil fuels as a main
resource has drawn attention towards developing sustainable energy
to confront the fossil fuel depletion issue. Among the alternative
resources, biodiesel which has the same function as diesel, is gaining
worldwide acceptance and has been reported as a promising substitute for conventional diesel [3]. Biodiesel is derived from vegetable
oil or animal fats for use in a compression ignition engine [4]. Blends
of 20% (B20) or lower of biodiesel can be used with minor or no
engine modication [5]. Biodiesel also produces less carbon dioxide,
carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, hydrocarbons and particulate
matter [6]. Thus, the mix will directly reduce the dependence on
fossil fuel as well as reduce the impact on the environment. In
addition, the world trend shows the usage of fossil fuel based diesel
is slowly being replaced by biodiesel.
Different vegetable oils are used in different countries for biodiesel
production. The United States is an exporter of edible oil. The country
uses soybean for biodiesel production. The European countries use
rapeseed oil as the raw material. Tropical countries such as Malaysia
use palm oil or coconut oil for the purpose. However, India is trying to
reduce its reliance on edible oils. Therefore, India prefers using nonedible oils such as Simarouba, Jatropha and Karanja to produce
biodiesel [7]. In order to be a future prospective fuel, biodiesel must
be readily available, economically competitive, technically feasible and
environmentally friendly [8]. It has to compete economically with
petroleum diesel fuels. One of the means to reduce the cost is to use
the less expensive sources of fatty acids such as animal fats, waste
food oil, inedible oils and the by-products of rening vegetables
oils [9].
The plant sources that are currently used as the feedstock for
biodiesel production include coconut oil, palm oil, rapeseed, soyabean,
jatropha and so forth. Most of them are edible and require a large area
of land for growing. Over usage of food based crops in the biodiesel
industry will eventually cause a food crisis problem which can impact
human life. Inedible vegetables oils, mostly produced by tree bearing
oil (TBO) seeds and shrubs, can provide a more suitable alternative.
The current world emphasis is focused in terms of food security
during feedstock selection with ongoing bioenergy development. The
cultivation of biodiesel feedstock should not compromise future needs
in terms of food supply [10]. Hence, with no displacement of food
crops and disturbance of food production, the focus has shifted to
Jatropha curcas L. to be the energy crop of choice [1114]. The wide
acceptance of Jatropha is mainly due to the high adaptation of
Jatropha trees to marginal or waste land. Moreover, the requirement
for nutrients and water is lower for Jatropha because it is a perennial
crop which has a deeper root system to help retain water and
nutrients more effectively [15,16,89]. There are many benets offered
by Jatropha including reclamation of waste land, control of erosion
and stimulation of rural development [1719].
There are few steps involved in the production of Jatropha biodiesel
including cultivation, harvesting, fruit pretreatment, oil extraction, oil
purication and biodiesel production [14,20] (Fig. 1). High production
of biodiesel is required to cope with the depletion of current energy
sources. Hence, a large amount of Jatropha seeds need to be prepared
prior to the oil extraction process in order to meet the demand.
Jatropha is a promising crop for biodiesel production but the
technology is still in its infancy [24,25]. The development is still in
progress but not much has been realised to date. Further, most of the
studies focus on Jatropha plantations, oil extraction and biodiesel
production. However, a comprehensive study on Jatropha postharvesting has not been widely carried out at present. The objective
of this review is to share the most recent knowledge of the processing
of Jatropha prior to extraction. It is important to compile information
about the collection and processing of seeds as the activities have
become one of the major challenges in the Jatropha cultivation
programme [90]. Within this context, the primary focus will be on
the fruit harvesting, fruit pretreatment, the shelling process and seed
storage as part of Jatropha biodiesel production.
B.Y. Lim et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 52 (2015) 9911002
Fruit Harvesting
Seeds/kernels storage
Crude oil
purification
(Sedimentation,
filtration and
centrifuging)
Biodiesel storage
Pretreatment
(Cleaning,
drying,
fruit decapsulation
and seed dehulling)
Biodiesel production
(Transesterification)
Biodiesel purification
(Separation of
glycerol and biodiesel
washing biodiesel
and drying)
Whole fruit
Mean size:25.3 x 21.4 x 20.5
Outer shell
Whole seed
Mean size: 18.4 x 11.2 x 8.8
993
black when dried under the sun [32]. Jatropha fruits are best
harvested when mature (yellow-brown) [15]. Jatropha seed yield
is still difcult to predict, the earlier reported yield showing a very
wide range (0.412 t/ha/yr) [15,27].
Another issue is that the Jatropha fruit ripening is uneven
making harvesting a challenging process. Basically the harvesting
cannot be completed at one time, unlike for rice and other crops,
due to the fact that the fruits ripen over a long period of time and
require a few weeks to months of picking [23,46,91]. Further, the
low density of fruits in the eld is a cause of concern because of
the greater distance required to transport the fruits in the eld.
The fruits are basically hand-picked. Sometimes, the workers use a
long stick to hit the fruits or shake the tree during harvesting [32].
This method is strenuous and can cause the fruits to fall on the
grass. Therefore, a long wooden stick, with a circular comb and a
bag at one end, has been invented to make the harvesting process
easier [21,47]. The fruits can be directly collected in the bag on the
stick. In Tanzania, a pole is used to pull down the branches of a tree
to reach the higher fruits [37].
In order to ensure quality harvesting, the proper tools and
baskets should be provided. In the Philippines, a harvesting shear
has been developed as shown in Fig. 3 [48]. The fruit is inserted
into the slots of the tool which is then pulled and the fruit sheared
during harvesting. A bucket is connected to the harvesting shear
by a exible hose in order to convey the harvested fruits directly
into the bucket. Further, a motorised harvesting rod has also been
developed to pull the fruits from the tree using a rotating claw
[48]. Training on the use of the tools has to be conducted in order
to improve the effectiveness of the harvesting activity. Further, the
shading of neighbouring crops can be reduced through pruning to
facilitate harvesting [15,27].
There is a large variation in harvesting rate as tabulated in Table 1
as it depends on the picking method and plantation strategies (space,
nutrients, water) [17,49]. The fruits have to be harvested manually at
regular intervals causing this step to be very labour intensive and this
potentially affects the production cost [27]. Mechanisation of the
process has been proposed to mitigate the cost issue. FACT in 2010
stated that Viridas PLC (a Brazilian company) gave a presentation
about a prototype mechanical harvester in Jatropha World Miami
2008. The conceptual design was based on a shaker design used in the
olive industry. An American company, Oxbo International Corporation,
introduced the Korvan 9240 mechanical Jatropha harvester, as illustrated in Fig. 4, that utilised a dynamic rotor to pick the fruits and
allowed continuous harvesting. On the other hand, a robotic arm
might be an alternative method but it is not currently feasible due to
the low density of yield and low cost of the end product.
Mechanical harvesting ensures continuously efcient harvesting, as well as providing cost control and a strong ability to harvest
on demand. Although mechanical harvesting provides several
benets, a suitable and convenient technology has still to be
developed for harvesting [37] as mechanical methods can damage
To bucket
Fig. 3. A sketch of a harvesting shear (left) and motorised harvesting rod (right)
developed by the University of the Philippines Los Baos [48].
B.Y. Lim et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 52 (2015) 9911002
Table 1
Manual harvesting rate in different countries
[23,37].
Country
Brazil
Congo
Honduras
India
Indonesia (model based)
Nicaragua
Sudan
Sumbawa, Indonesia
Tanzania
Harvesting rate
48 kg seeds/day
4050 kg seeds/day
40 kg seeds/day
8 kg seeds/h
7.5 kg seeds/h
18 kg seeds/h
3 kg seeds/h
30 kg fruits/day
210 kg seeds/h
994
100.00
90.00
89.48
84.39
82.90
80.00
74.26
66.77
70.00
60.00
77.68
5.83
8.18
10.30
74.68
64.77
11.15
B.Y. Lim et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 52 (2015) 9911002
whole seeds or broken seeds are normally produced without removing the husks (the outer coating of the seeds). The steps to separate
the shells from the whole seeds can be carried out by using a screen or
mesh and a blower which uses the difference in terms of size and
density as the basis to achieve separation. The other separation
devices which might be useful for this application include a spiral
Rotating mesh
995
Motor
Fig. 6. A sketch of separator used in the Gota Verde project in Honduras [23].
Just as for the shells, the husks also do not contain any oil. The
husks are the hard and brittle coating of the kernels. The husks can
Table 2
Summary of Jatropha shelling equipment in the market [23,32,6165].
No. Machine
Input
Output
Hand-operated Jatropha
curcas L. fruit decorticator
Hand-operated decorticator
Whole
fruit
Whole
fruit
Whole
fruit
Whole
fruit.
Whole
fruit
Whole
fruit
Whole
fruit
Whole
fruit
3
4
5
Jatropha decorticator
Discharge Supplier/developer
Whole seed
Shell
Whole seed
Shell
Whole seed
Shell
Whole seed
Shell
Broken seed
Shell
Whole seed
No
Capacity
Footprint
Status
50 kg/h
Unknown
Commercialised
40 kg/h
Unknown
R&D
3060 kg/h
Unknown
Commercialised
NA
Unknown
Commercialised
NA
Unknown
Commercialised
500
700 kg/h
43.16kg/h
Unknown
Commercialised
0.6 m 1.6 m
R&D
1000 kg/h
Fruit inlet
Rotating blade
with sieve
Upper sieve
Rotating inner
piece
Lower sieve
Outlet
Fig. 7. Examples of hand-operated shelling machines [23,32].
996
B.Y. Lim et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 52 (2015) 9911002
Cracking
rollers
Vibratory
sieve
Blower
Shaking
Air-screen
Rotating
blade with
sieve
Outlet
Table 3
Summary of separation mechanism to produce seeds from whole fruits for the machines in the market [23,32,6166].
No.
Machine
Supplier/developer
Dehulling
Separation
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Vertical mill
Impact and shear
Impact and shear
Cracking roller
Impact and shear
Impact and shear
Cracking roller
No
Screen
No
Screen
Blower
Air-screen
Screen
B.Y. Lim et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 52 (2015) 9911002
Oil
Protein
997
kernels were lost throughout the various stages in the process [75].
However, the technology is not mature and is still under development.
Fig. 10. A sketch of the sieve in the shelling drum for a Jatropha seed cracker built
by Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Ghana [72].
Jatropha fruits
Fibre
First stage
Percentage (%)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Undehulled
30
25
15
Husk content (%)
Second stage
Fig. 9. Effect of husk content during the oil extraction process [69].
Table 4
The oil yield improvement along with the reduction of husk content.
Reference
[70]
[71]
[72]
50
95
100
45%
Around 20%
26.8%
Discharge
Collect
Fig. 11. The concept to recover kernels directly from whole fruits [75].
998
B.Y. Lim et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 52 (2015) 9911002
properties such as the rupture energy, rupture force and hardness [76].
The energy or work used to rupture the kernels is the lowest and that
of the fruits is the highest as shown in Table 6. This suggests that the
kernels can be broken easily during the shelling process [76]. The
hardness and the rupture force of the seeds are the highest as the
seeds consist of a hard skin [76]. The fruits have the least hardness due
to the weak connection lines of the outer shells [76]. Further, the
rupture force of the kernels is much lower due to the soft texture of
the kernels [31,76]. The deformation ratio at the rupture point can be
obtained by dividing the deformation at the rupture point by the
dimension of the fruit components in the direction of the applied
force at the loading point [76]. The fruits require a lower strain to
rupture compared to the seeds and kernels as the deformation ratio of
the fruit is the lowest [76]. Moreover, the angle of repose of the fruits
or seeds decides the feeder and storage design [76].
Table 5
Summary of seed cleaning systems available in the market [73,74].
No. System name
Supplier
Capacity
Footprint
400 kg/h
2.8 m 11.4 m Commercialised Material loading hopper, elevator, grading screen machine, screw
elevator, shelling and separating machine, sorting machine
Unknown
Commercialised Feed elevator, Impact huller, three deck ne grader, air classier
Jatropha seed
cleaning system
Jatropha seed
dehulling system
100
200 kg/h
Status
Components
Table 6
A comparison of physical and mechanical properties between Jatropha fruits, seeds and kernels [32,76].
Properties
Fruit
Seed
Kernel
E71.68
E44.73
E28.32
Highest
Lowest
Lowest
Highest
Smallest
Larger
Higher
Lowest
Lowest
Highest
E63.02
E37.13
Higher
Higher
Higher
Higher
Larger
Smallest
Highest
Higher
Highest
Higher
Lowest
Highest
Highest
Lowest
Largest
Largest
Lowest
Highest
Higher
Lowest
a
b
B.Y. Lim et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 52 (2015) 9911002
Table 7
The potential uses of shells and husks [5,23,29,80].
Discharged fruit components
Potential uses
Shells
Husks
Fertilisers, combustibles
Fertilisers, combustibles, charcoal production
8. Storage of seeds
One of the factors that make Jatropha suitable for small-scale
production is that it can be stored for a prolonged period of time
under good conditions before further processing [81]. It faces less
deterioration problems as compared to other crops such as oil palm
and cassava. The long storage period eases production planning and
can ensure that the seeds are available for processing even when there
is high demand. Most of the storage is in the form of whole seeds
without the outer shells. The outer shells are larger and can add to the
weight. Therefore, storage in the form of whole fruits will increase the
transportation cost and require more storage space. The stored seeds
may be further processed to remove the husks prior to extraction.
The degradation of oil is basically caused by hydrolysis and
oxidation reactions which are a function of storage temperature
and relative humidity [93]. The seeds must be properly stored
before oil extraction to prevent the formation of oxidation products and free fatty acids which can inhibit alkaline-catalysed
transesterication reactions during biodiesel production [93]. The
moisture content of the seeds for storage should be in the range 5
7% and not more than 8% [21,23]. This control is necessary to
prevent the seeds from deteriorating which could result in the
formation of free fatty acids during storage [23]. The dried seeds
are basically stored in woven sacks and must be placed in a wellventilated room [21]. A long storage period of more than 8 months
and long exposure to the sun should be avoided since these can
degrade the oil quality [23]. Another report suggested it is better
to store the extracted oil in closed containers to prevent it from
being exposed to oxygen and light, rather than storing whole
seeds, especially under tropical climate conditions [93].
999
6.10
10.89
0.19
Transesterification (%)
Biodiesel distribution
(%)
82.83
Harvest
Remove shell
Remove husk
60
50
Cost (US$/ha)
Before extraction, the seeds must be dried if they are too humid
(4 8%) [23,47]. The seeds can be dried in an oven at 105 1C or sun
dried [36]. Beerens [59] reported that cooking seeds in water at
80 1C for one hour could achieve the highest oil recovery based on
a mechanical press (89% for BT50 and 91% for the Sayari expeller
(dual pass)). However, the contact of seeds with water is risky as
free fatty acids may form. Further, the seeds must be free of sand
and stones or any hard impurities which could destroy a mechanical expeller [47]. The thresher or vibrating sieve is most commonly used to remove the stones and sand [23]. In a separate
study, Mehla [21] stated that steaming is necessary to improve the
oil extraction efciency. However, Sirisomboon and Kitchaiya [82]
reported that heat pretreatment by steaming did not improve the
oil yield in a Soxhlet extractor. Drying in an oven at a higher
temperature (4080 1C) has been reported to improve oil yield
(36.8347.06% by weight) but resulted in a higher acid value [82].
In conclusion, the control of temperature and moisture content
parameters during pretreatment is important so as to maintain the
oil quality.
40
30
20
10
0
Year 2 (0.50) Year 3 (1.25) Year 4 (2.50) Year 5 (5.00) Year 6 (7.50)
Yield per ha (tonnes)
Fig. 13. An estimation of the cost of the traditional harvesting and shelling
processes. Adapted from Openshaw [29].
1000
B.Y. Lim et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 52 (2015) 9911002
Table 8
Data concerning the harvesting cost (cultivation of 1 ha Jatropha for 5 years)
adapted from Achten [49].
Country
Cost (TSH/kg)
Equivalent to USD
(1 TSHE0.0006USD)
Reference
Global study
Africa
Tanzania
120210
210471
80100
0.070.13
0.130.29
0.050.06
[84]
[85,86]
[87,88]
from that, the following are other factors that make Jatropha a
strong candidate as a future biodiesel source [11,14,19,95,96]:
a. Unstable edible oil price depending on food demand and
unstable conventional fuel prices.
b. Availability of marginal land.
c. Lower carbon and emission of greenhouse gases.
d. Launch of biodiesel mandate by government as shown in
Table 10.
e. Jatropha biodiesel can meet ASTM standards and is suitable for
diesel engines.
f. Fast growth The rst yield can be expected after 6 months of
cultivation. The tree has a long life expectancy of more than
45 years.
g. Low maintenance due to lower nutrient and water requirements and the use of pesticides is not required.
As a result, the cultivation and production of Jatropha biodiesel
can be expected to offer environmental and economic benets
while playing a role to be a substitute for fossil fuels in tropical and
sub-tropical region countries, especially for the top world oil net
importers such as India and Indonesia [105].
12. Conclusion
Attention needs to be paid to the harvesting and shelling
process due to the fact that the majority of the cost of manual
processing is introduced during the seed preparation stage in
biodiesel production. The reported labour cost was more than 90%
of cost of harvesting, fruit shelling and seed cleaning [29]. Manual
processing, which is time consuming and cost ineffective due to
the high reliance on workers, will cause the Jatropha industry to
be less sustainable especially when large scale production is
envisaged. In Malaysia, a total of 259,906 ha of Jatropha plantation
area have already been identied in 2012 [97]. Further, the coverage of Jatropha plantations has been estimated to increase to
9.0 million hectares worldwide in 2015 [84]. The processing of
large quantities of Jatropha seeds cannot be accomplished effectively without the assistance of mechanisation. All of the abovementioned machines or tools can play a role in the business
operations and the technical activities that must be conducted so
that the technology is effective and protable. Even though there
is no mature technology as yet to speed up the harvesting, the
Table 9
A comparison of biodiesel prices from different
feedstock [104].
Feedstock Price of B100 biodiesel (USD/tonne)
Jatropha 400500
Palm oil
720750
Soybean 800805
Rapeseed 940965
Table 10
Some Biodiesel targets and mandates in different countries [90,95].
Country
Target
China
EU
India
Japan
Malaysia
Tax exemption
20% of renewable content in diesel fuel by 2020
Meet 20% demand within 20112012
5% Biodiesel blend by 2010
Target 5% of palm oil blend
B.Y. Lim et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 52 (2015) 9911002
seed production can be undertaken efciently using a handoperated or motorised shelling machine. Currently, a 1000 kg/h
of shelling rate is achievable using a dehuller for whole seed
recovery. However, the further processing of Jatropha seeds to
produce cleaner kernels has turned out to be characterised by
various bottlenecks such as the difculty of separating the kernels
and husks mechanically. Dehulling seeds mechanically without
causing crush damage is a challenging task. Broken husks and
broken kernels tend to have irregular sizes and similar mass and
thus they are not easy to be separated mechanically. The research
to achieve breakage free kernels has become a research gap that
needs to be solved to further stimulate the growth of the Jatropha
biodiesel industry. Another concern is that process mechanisation
can require a high capital cost that can burden small-scale farmers.
However, this is a xed capital cost and can be solved provided
sufcient support/subsidies are provided by the government if the
biodiesel industry is part of the development plan of the country.
On the other hand, the seeds should be stored under the conditions with 57% of moisture content, less than 8 months of storage
period, well-ventilated room and without exposure to the sun
[23]. Proper storage and seed pretreatment can increase the oil
yield. In contrast, any improper conditions (e.g. temperature and
moisture content) can contribute to the formation of oxidation
products and free fatty acids leading to a degradation of the
extracted crude oil.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank the Prototype Research Grant
Scheme (Reference no. 5529200) from Universiti Putra Malaysia
for nancially supporting this research.
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