Part2 2

2: Diversity
2. Diversity
Some Concepts of Wireless Communication
2: Diversity
Main story
Communication over a flat fading channel has poor
performance due to significant probability that channel is
in a deep fade.
Reliability is increased by providing more resolvable
signal paths that fade independently.
Diversity can be provided across time, frequency and
space.
Name of the game is how to exploit the added diversity
in an efficient manner.
2: Diversity
Baseline: AWGN Channel
BPSK modulation
Error probability decays exponentially with SNR.

2: Diversity
Gaussian Detection
2: Diversity
Rayleigh Flat Fading Channel
BPSK:
Coherent detection.
Conditional on h,
Averaged over h,
at high SNR.
2: Diversity
Rayleigh vs AWGN
2: Diversity
Typical Error Event

Conditional on h,
When
When
error probability is very small.

error probability is large:
Typical error event is due to channel being in deep fade

rather than noise being large.
2: Diversity
BPSK, QPSK and 4-PAM
BPSK uses only the I-phase.The Q-phase is wasted.

QPSK delivers 2 bits per complex symbol.
To deliver the same 2 bits, 4-PAM requires 4 dB more transmit power.
QPSK exploits the available degrees of freedom in the channel better.
A good communication scheme exploits all the available d.o.f. in the

channel.
2: Diversity
Time Diversity
Time diversity can be obtained by interleaving and coding over

symbols across different coherent time periods.
Coding alone is not sufficient!

2: Diversity
Example:GSM
Amount of time diversity limited by delay constraint and how fast

channel varies.
In GSM, delay constraint is 40 ms (voice).
To get full diversity of 8, needs v > 30 km/h at fc = 900 MHz.
Not
Notenough
enoughat
atlow
lowspeed,
speed,then
thenFH
FHbetween
between200
200kHz
kHzchannels.
channels.
10
2: Diversity
Simplest Code: Repetition

After interleaving over L coherence time periods,
Repetition coding:
for all
where
and
This is classic vector detection in white Gaussian

noise.
11
2: Diversity
Geometry
For BPSK
Is a sufficient statistic (matched filtering).

Reduces to scalar detection problem:
12
2: Diversity
Deep Fades Become Rarer
13
2: Diversity
Performance
14
2: Diversity
Beyond Repetition Coding

Repetition coding gets full diversity, but sends only one
symbol every L symbol times.
Does not exploit fully the degrees of freedom in the
channel. (analogy: PAM vs QAM)
How to do better?
Block
Blockand
andconvolutional
convolutionalcoding
codingin
inaddition
additionto
tointerleaving
interleavingallow
allowtime
timediversity
diversity
(diversity
gain
=
minimum
Hamming
distance).
Performance
depends
on
(diversity gain = minimum Hamming distance). Performance depends onchannel
channel
statistics
statistics(Raleigh).
(Raleigh).
There
Thereare
arespecific
specificcoding
coding(based
(basedon
onIT)
IT)to
todefine
defineaaUNIVERSAL
UNIVERSALCODE
CODE
(independent
of
channle
statistics).
(independent of channle statistics).
15
2: Diversity
Example: Rotation code (L=2)

x1, x2 are two BPSK symbols before rotation.
where d1 and d2 are the distances between the codewords in the

two directions.
16
2: Diversity
Rotation vs Repetition Coding
Rotation code uses the degrees of freedom better!

17
2: Diversity
Product Distance
product distance
Choose the rotation angle to maximize the worst-case
product distance to all the other codewords:
18
2: Diversity
Antenna Diversity
Receive
Transmit
Both
Diversity
Diversitydepends
dependson
onantenna
antennadistances.
distances.
Distances
Distancesdepends
dependson
onlocal
localscattering
scattering(for
(formobile,
mobile,high:
high:lambda;
lambda;for
forbase
basestation,
station,
19
Some
Concepts
of Wireless Communication
low:
several
lambda)
and
carrier
frequency.
low: several lambda) and carrier frequency.
2: Diversity
Receive Diversity
Same as repetition coding in time diversity,

except that there is a further power gain.
Optimal reception is via matched filtering

(receive beamforming).
20
2: Diversity
Transmit Diversity
If transmitter knows the channel, send:
maximizes the received SNR by in-phase addition of

signals at the receiver (transmit beamforming).
Reduce to scalar channel:
same as receive beamforming.
What happens if transmitter does not know the channel?
21
2: Diversity
Space-time Codes
Transmitting the same symbol simultaneously at the
antennas doesnt work.
Using the antennas one at a time and sending the same
symbol over the different antennas is like repetition
coding (bad use of d.o.f).
More generally, can use any time-diversity code by
turning on one antenna at a time.
Space-time codes are designed specifically for the
transmit diversity scenario.
22
2: Diversity
Alamouti Scheme
Over two symbol times:
Projecting onto the two columns of the H matrix

yields:
double the symbol rate of repetition coding.
3dB loss of received SNR compared to transmit
beamforming.
23
2: Diversity
Space-time Code Design

A space-time code is a set of matrices
Full diversity is achieved if all pair-wise differences
have full rank.
Coding gain determined by the determinants of
Time-diversity codes have diagonal matrices and the

determinant reduces to squared product distances.
24
2: Diversity
Frequency Diversity
Resolution of multipaths provides diversity.
Full diversity is achieved by sending one symbol every
L symbol times.
But this is inefficient (like repetition coding).
Sending symbols more frequently may result in
intersymbol interference.
Challenge is how to mitigate the ISI while extracting the
inherent diversity in the frequency-selective channel.
25
2: Diversity
Approaches
Time-domain equalization (eg. GSM)
Direct-sequence spread spectrum (eg. IS-95 CDMA)
Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing OFDM (eg.
802.11a, Flash-OFDM)
26
2: Diversity
ISI Equalization
Suppose a sequence of uncoded symbols are
transmitted.
Maximum likelihood sequence detection is performed
using the Viterbi algorithm.
Can full diversity be achieved?
27
2: Diversity
Reduction to Transmit Diversity

x [1]
h0
y[1]
x [2]
h0
x [1]
h1
x [3]
h0
y[2]
Increasing
time
x [2]
h1
y[3]
h2
x [1]
x [4]
x [3]
h0
h1
y[4]
h2
x [2]
28
2: Diversity
MLSD Achieves Full Diversity

Space-time code matrix for input sequence
Difference matrix for two sequences first differing at
is full rank.
29
2: Diversity
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum

Information
sequence
Channel
encoder
Modulator
Pseudorandom
pattern
generator
Channel
Demodulator
Channel
decoder
Output
data
Pseudorandom
pattern
generator
Information symbol rate is much lower than chip rate

(large processing gain).
Signal-to-noise ratio per chip is low.
ISI is not significant compared to interference from other
users and matched filtering (Rake) is near-optimal.
30
2: Diversity
Frequency Diversity via Rake

Considered a simplified situation (uncoded).
Each information bit is spread into two pseudorandom
sequences xA and xB (xB= -xA).
w[m]
XA
h
XB
X B
h
Decision
+
X A
Estimate h
Each tap of the match filter is a finger of the Rake.

31
2: Diversity
ISI vs Frequency Diversity

In narrowband systems, ISI is mitigated using a complex
receiver.
In asynchronous CDMA uplink, ISI is there but small
compared to interference from other users.
But ISI is not intrinsic to achieve frequency diversity.
The transmitter needs to do some work too!
32
2: Diversity
OFDM: Basic Concept

Most wireless channels are underspread
(delay spread << coherence time).
Can be approximated by a linear time invariant channel
over a long time scale.
Complex sinusoids are the only eigenfunctions of linear
time-invariant channels.
Should signal in the frequency domain and then
transform to the time domain.
33
2: Diversity
OFDM
34
2: Diversity
OFDM
OFDM transforms the communication problem into the
frequency domain:
a bunch of non-interfering sub-channels, one for each
sub-carrier.
Can apply time-diversity techniques.
35
2: Diversity
Cyclic Prefix Overhead

OFDM overhead
= length of cyclic prefix / OFDM symbol time
Cyclic prefix dictated by delay spread.
OFDM symbol time limited by channel coherence time.
Equivalently, the inter-carrier spacing should be much
larger than the Doppler spread.
Since most channels are underspread, the overhead can
be made small.
36
2: Diversity
Example: Flash OFDM (Flarion)

Bandwidth = 1.25 MHz
OFDM symbol = 128 samples = 100 s
Cyclic prefix = 16 samples = 11 s delay spread
11 % overhead.
37
2: Diversity
Channel Uncertainty
In fast varying channels, tap gain measurement errors
may have an impact on diversity combining
performance.
The impact is particularly significant in channel with
many taps each containing a small fraction of the total
received energy. (eg. Ultra-wideband channels)
The impact depends on the modulation scheme.
38
2: Diversity
Summary
Fading makes wireless channels unreliable.
Diversity increases reliability and makes the channel
more consistent.
Smart codes yields a coding gain in addition to the
diversity gain.
This viewpoint of the adversity of fading will be
challenged and enriched in later parts of the course.
39

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2: Diversity

Some Concepts of Wireless Communication

Some Concepts of Wireless Communication

Baseline: AWGN Channel

Error probability decays exponentially with SNR.

Some Concepts of Wireless Communication

Rayleigh Flat Fading Channel

Some Concepts of Wireless Communication

Typical Error Event

error probability is very small.

Typical error event is due to channel being in deep fade

BPSK, QPSK and 4-PAM

BPSK uses only the I-phase.The Q-phase is wasted.

A good communication scheme exploits all the available d.o.f. in the

Time diversity can be obtained by interleaving and coding over

Coding alone is not sufficient!

Amount of time diversity limited by delay constraint and how fast

Simplest Code: Repetition

This is classic vector detection in white Gaussian

Is a sufficient statistic (matched filtering).

Some Concepts of Wireless Communication

Deep Fades Become Rarer

Some Concepts of Wireless Communication

Some Concepts of Wireless Communication

Beyond Repetition Coding

Some Concepts of Wireless Communication

Example: Rotation code (L=2)

where d1 and d2 are the distances between the codewords in the

Rotation vs Repetition Coding

Rotation code uses the degrees of freedom better!

Some Concepts of Wireless Communication

Same as repetition coding in time diversity,

Optimal reception is via matched filtering

Some Concepts of Wireless Communication

maximizes the received SNR by in-phase addition of

Some Concepts of Wireless Communication

Projecting onto the two columns of the H matrix

Space-time Code Design

Time-diversity codes have diagonal matrices and the

Some Concepts of Wireless Communication

Some Concepts of Wireless Communication

Some Concepts of Wireless Communication

Reduction to Transmit Diversity

Some Concepts of Wireless Communication

MLSD Achieves Full Diversity

Difference matrix for two sequences first differing at

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum

Information symbol rate is much lower than chip rate

Frequency Diversity via Rake

Each tap of the match filter is a finger of the Rake.

ISI vs Frequency Diversity

Some Concepts of Wireless Communication

OFDM: Basic Concept

Some Concepts of Wireless Communication

Can apply time-diversity techniques.

Some Concepts of Wireless Communication

Cyclic Prefix Overhead

Some Concepts of Wireless Communication

Example: Flash OFDM (Flarion)

Some Concepts of Wireless Communication

Some Concepts of Wireless Communication

Some Concepts of Wireless Communication

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