2.

4 Development and sustainable use of ecosystems

Ecosystem dynamics:
Succession climax community productivity stability
variety of species

Primary succession: starts on bare lifeless substrate such as rock, sand

dunes (e.g. retreating glacier, hardened lava after a volcano eruption), all
previous ecosystem destroyed

Secondary succession: starts on existing soil (e.g. if wooded area is

cleared, forest after fire, volcano ashes destroyed living, soil undamaged),
an ecosystem arises from existing undamaged soil

Definition of ecological succession:

- series of changes to an ecosystem from simple to complex
- caused by complex interactions between the community of living
organisms and their abiotic environment
- eventually a stable community develops= climax community

Steps of succession:
1. Initial conditions: unicellular photosynthetic organisms, producers,
reproduce fast
2. surface algae/mosses
3. pioneer plants(small rooted, Herbaceous (non-woody)
4. Small shrubs
5. first trees
6. Climax community

1,2,3 - Tolerance: r-selected species tolerant to harsh abiotic conditions in

barren areas
4- Facilitation: local changes in habitat that favour other
species(mutualism), K-selected start developing as r-selected reproduce
fast, die, decompose and provide fertile soil for further development
5- Inhibition: profit from mutualism, more species immigrate, increase the
variety
6- Results in dynamic equilibrium between production and
decomposition of biomass= stability

early middle late

Ratio high decreases equilibriu
reproduction/respiration m
Biodiversity low increasing high
Num of tro-levels in food low increasing high
chains
Proportion of r-strategists high decreasing decreasing
Proportion of K-strategists low increasing increasing
Biomass low increasing high

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2.4 Development and sustainable use of ecosystems

Energy transfer and trophic levels:

Food chain food web pyramid of
biomass

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2.4 Development and sustainable use of ecosystems

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2.4 Development and sustainable use of ecosystems

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2.4 Development and sustainable use of ecosystems

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2.4 Development and sustainable use of ecosystems

Many species of plants and animals coexist in an ecosystem. Together they form
biocenosis living in their common environment (biotope). Biocenosis+ biotope=
ecosystem.

Biomass: total mass of living organisms in a living area.

Organisms at higher trophic level occupy more space(competition for food-
need many organisms from lower trophic levels to survive), therefore
there is a small number of these in an area, while a high number of org
from lower trophic level is present, lager amount=higher mass.
Result: pyramid pointed up. Exception: sea: phytoplankton, crustaceans,
fish is pointed down, because of the high reproduction rate of
phytoplankton and crust.

The carbon cycle

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2.4 Development and sustainable use of ecosystems

Eutrophication
-oligotrophic=mineral-nutrient poor= no phosphates and nitrates(bound to
biomass of living in lake)

Stratification- temperature dependent

1. Epilimnion-layer of warm water and low density forms near the
surface in a stratification of a lake.
2. Hypolimnion- colder, denser layer.
3. No mixing of these strata occurs= summer stagnation= oxygen
distribution uneven.

Layers of consumption/production-light dependent

1. At upper levels production of plants by photosynthesis is higher then
respiration (photic zone) - only place where net-production takes
place.
2. From certain depths, no photosynthesis is possible (aphotic zone),
only processes of consumption occur.
3. In between is the compensation depth- dependent on light
conditions.
4. Summer profiliration- lack of light due to algae covering up the
surface- no oxygen except for on the upper level

Causes:
- small lakes with a lot of plants around and inside- much dead
organic matter- decomposers- anaerobic respiration
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2.4 Development and sustainable use of ecosystems

- high CO2 production and low O2 level

- no circulation(summer, no wind as in spring or autumn)-oxygen and
mineral concentration differs strongly on different levels
- extensive growth of algae(due to temperature and amount of
mineral nutrients available)- no production, prevent photosynthesis
at under the surface+ death due to space competition- more
detritus
- fertilizers from nearby field transported by under ground
waters(Nitrates/Phosphates)
- warm temperature- water evaporated, cannot hold as much O2 as
when cold

Effects:
- animal life (eventually diversity) decreases (fish die)
- aerobic decomposers use up oxygen+CO2 production increases
- anaerobic produce smelly gases, toxic substances(ammonia and
hydrogen sulphide)
- low O2, PO4 and NO3 are released
- vicious circle, eutrophication can progress very quickly, within hours
result in death of all higher organisms= “collapse” of a lake

Solutions:
- add oxygen- consumers increase in population- eat plants
- no fishing!
- reduce PO4 from the ground by pumping out mud
- reduce the amount of ducks(less N2),do not feed ducks

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2.4 Development and sustainable use of ecosystems

Chemical and biological pest control

Biological pest control of Aphids (=Blattläuse)

- increase the amount of present predators (Lady bugs)-immigration
- introduce new predator species(invasive, no predictable effect on
ecosystem)
high rate of growth, high rate of feeding, have to be prey-specific
- breed predator: provide nesting places, food for lady bugs
- collect aphids
- get rid of ants (in symbiosis with aphids)
- breed a different species of roses not effected by aphids

Biological
If no new species is introduced:
Not influencing the food webs/ less
invasive/does not effect the
predator species
More specified, targeted at the pest
species
Chemical
Very hard to predict the outcome
and effect on ecosystem, very
invasive, not pest-specific: might
also destroy the predator species
population, since these recover
slower(Volterra 3) than their
prey(pest)- problem only solved
short term, then increases
Some larvae lives inside the
plant(cotton worm inside the stem
of cotton plant) –not effected by
the chemicals at all, but the
predator species that lives outside
and feeds on grown worms get
killed
Population might get resistant to

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2.4 Development and sustainable use of ecosystems

the chemical if resistant individuals

survive, reproduce
Long term Short term

Takes a long time to see the effect Fast, immediate effect

Might be more costly or more time Cheap and easy
demanding

Sustainable use of ecosystems

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