Mechanical

Springs
Elastic Deformation
Energy storage
Modulus of resilience
M S Dasgupta, BITS Pilani

Spring Types

Helical springs (Tension /

Compression)
Torsion spring
Leaf springs
Spiral spring
Belleville Springs

M S Dasgupta, BITS Pilani

Helical Wire Compression Spring

M S Dasgupta, BITS Pilani

Compression Spring end designs

M S Dasgupta, BITS Pilani

Helical Wire Tension Spring

M S Dasgupta, BITS Pilani

Helical Wire Torsion Spring

M S Dasgupta, BITS Pilani

Helical Wire Spring Nomenclature

Spring Index C

For most springs, C ranges between 6 and 12.

D
d

M S Dasgupta, BITS Pilani

Stresses in Helical Springs

inside

T FD / 2
Tr F 16FD / 2 4 F 8FD 4 F
max
2
2
3
3
J A
d
d
d
d

Shear Stress in spring

Expressed in terms of spring index:
max

8FD 4 F 8FD
d 8FD
1

d 3 d 2 d 3 2 D d 3 2C

max

8FD
Ks
d 3

Where Ks is called as the shear stress correction factor and serves to

correct the shear stress estimated from the torsion alone for the direct
shear. Here Ks is
2C 1
Ks

2C
M S Dasgupta, BITS Pilani

Curvature effect in fatigue loading

Due to curvature, the shear stress is not equally
distributed. Many factors have been suggested for
correction. Prominent are Wahl factor (Kw) and
Bergstrasser factor (KB).
As the surface is smooth, and there is no size transition,
there is no other correction factor to be incorporated

4C 1 0.615
Kw

or
4C 4
C

4C 2
KB
4C 3

Check for critical frequency

Energy Stored:
The total strain energy for a helical spring consists of
torsional component and shear component.

The strain energy

T 2l
F 2l
U

2GJ 2 AG

4 F 2 D 3 N 2 F 2 DN
U

4
Gd
Gd 2

N- Number of active coil (Na )

where,
FD
T
;
2
l DN a ;
J

d 4

32
d 2
A
4

; and

4 F 2 D 3 N 2 F 2 DN
U

Gd 4
Gd 2

Deflection and Stiffness:

Castiglian o' s second theorem :

U 8FD 3 N a 4 FDN a
y

4
2
F
Gd
Gd
Introducing spring index C D/d,
8 FD 3 N a
1 8 FD 3 N a 8 FC 3 N a
y

1
4
2
4
Gd
Gd
Gd
2C
Spring rate or Spring constant
4

F
Gd
k
3
y 8D N a

Compression Springs
Check for buckling

Formulas for the Dimensional Characteristics of Compression-Springs

Table 101

M S Dasgupta, BITS Pilani

SPRING MATERIALS
Music wire, Oil-tempered wire, Hard drawn wire,
Chrome-vanadium wire and Chrome-silicon wire

A
Minimum tensile strength, Sut m
d

Table 104

Use Table 10-4 for A and m.

Presetting of Compression Spring (static loading)

Is a process used in the manufacturing of compression
springs to induce useful residual stresses
The spring is made to a longer free length than required and
then is compressed beyond the elastic limit by 30% of the
length
Residual stress sets up that are opposite in direction to the
working stresses
Hence the springs behave stronger in service
The same operation is also
called set removal !

Spring properties related to presetting

Table 106
Maximum Allowable Torsional Stresses for Helical Compression
Springs in Static Applications

Check for stability:

A compression spring is stable if it does not buckle under the
1/ 2
load

'
C

eff

L0
D

ycr L0C1' 1 1 22
eff

E
C1'
2E G

Slenderness ratio

2
E G
2

C2'
2G E

Elastic constants

For absolute stability and buckling not to occur,

C2'

2eff

D 2E G
1 L0
2G E

1/ 2

End -condition constants () for helical compression springs

Table 102, page 522

Design for Fatigue Load:

Shot peening is used on large spring to improve the
fatigue strength of dynamically loaded springs. Shot
preening can increase the torsional fatigue strength by 20
percent or more.
Springs are designed for infinite life based on
Zimmerlis data.

Zimmerlis Data:
Unpeened & Peened springs were tested from a minimum torsional
stress of 138 MPa to a maximum of 620 MPa and peened springs in
the range 138 MPa to 930 MPa . The corresponding endurance
strength components for infinite life were found to be

Unpeened :
S sa 241 MPa

S sm 379 MPa

Peened :
S sa 398 MPa
S su 0.67 S ut

S sm 534 MPa
or

0.35S ut S sy 0.557 S ut

Design for Fatigue Loading Based on Zimmerlis Data

Fmax , Fmin given, find

Fa , Fm , a , m , Se , S sy or S su ,

and then apply a fatigue failure criterion.

Fmax Fmin
Fmax Fmin
Fa
and Fm
2
2
8Fa D
8Fm D
a KW
and m KW
3
3
d
d

Zimmerlis Data (Gerber criteria)

Then find the endurance limit
2

S sa S sm
S sa
1 S se

2
S se S su
S sm

1-
S su
Inter sec tion coordinate for given load line
2

2
su

r S
S sa
2 S se

1 1 2S se
rS

ut

a Fa
r
m Fm

Factor of Safety, n f

S sa

Ssa and Ssm are

from Zimmerlis
data.
Ssu= 0.67Sut

Refer Table 6-7 ; page 307

Zimmerlis Data (Goodman criteria)

Then find the endurance limit

Ssa and Ssm are from

Zimmerlis data.

S sa S sm
S sa
1 S se

Ssu= 0.67Sut
S se S su
S sm

1-
S su
Inter sec tion cordinate for given load line
rSse S su
Refer Table 6-6 ; page 307
S sa
rSsu S se

a Fa
r
m Fm

Factor of Safety, n f

S sa

Zimmerlis Data (ASME- Elliptic criteria)

Then find the endurance limit
S sa

S se

Ssa and Ssm are from

Zimmerlis data.

S sm
1 S se

S
sy

S sa
2

S sm

1-
S
sy
Inter sec tion cordinate for given load line

r 2S 2 S 2
se sy
S sa
2
2 2
S

r
S sy
se
a Fa
r
m Fm

Factor of Safety, n f

S sa

0.35Sut S sy 0.557Sut

Refer Table 6-8 ; page 308

Tension/ Extension springs: end preparation

Combined axial tension and bending stress at A
Only torsion at B

Improved design

Side view
Spring testing

Analysis of stresses in tension springs

The maximum tensile stress at A due to combined axial tension bending moment
4
16 D
A F K A 3 2
d
d

K A Bending strss correction factor for curvature, given by

4C12 C1 1
2r
KA
, C1 1
4C1 C1 1
d
The maximum torsional shear stress at B is given by
8 FD
B KB
d 3
K w Torsional strss correction factor for curvature, given by
4C2 1
2r2
KB
, C2
4C2 4
d

Initial tension in close-wound tension springs

When extension springs are made with coils in contact with one
another, they are said to be close-wound.
Spring manufacturers prefer some initial tension in close-wound
springs in order to hold the free length more accurately.

F Fi ky

Free length : Lo 2D d N b 1d 2C 1 N b d
Active number of coils , N a N b

G
E

No of body coils

INITIAL TENSION IN CLOSE-WOUND TENSION SPRINGS:

The initial tension in an extension spring is created in the

winding process by twisting the wire as it is wound onto
the mandrel.
When the spring is completed and
removed from the mandrel, the
initial tension is locked in because
the spring cannot get any shorter.
Preferred range of uncorrected torsional stress is,

231
e 0.105C

C 3 MPa

6.9 4

6
.
5

TORSION SPRINGS:
Close wound like helical coil
extension spring
Negligible initial tension

The ends connect a force at a

distance from coil axis to apply
a torque
Wound with a pitch that just
separates the body coils to avoid
intercoil friction.
The wire in the torsion
spring is under bending load
M S Dasgupta, BITS Pilani

TORSION SPRING
In specifying Torsion spring, the ends
must be located relative to each other

Angular rotation,
proportional to Fl

Back
angle

Free
End

Free end
location angle

Fixed End

For all positions of the moving end + = constant.

N b integer
integer N p
o
360
N b body turns; N p partial turns M S Dasgupta, BITS Pilani

Bending Stress :
The bending stress can be expressed as
Mc
K
I
where ' K ' is stress correction factor
4C 2 C 1
4C 2 C 1
Ki
and K o
4C (C 1)
4C (C 1)
K o is always less than K i and also less than unity
I
d 3
Substituti ng M Fl and z
c
32
32 Fl
the bending equation is , K i
d 3

Torsional stiffness:
The angle subtended by the end deflection of a cantilever,
when viewed from the built-in ends, is y/l radian.
From Table A91,

End deflection :
y
Fl 2
Fl 2
64 Ml
e

4
l
3EI
3E d / 64
3d 4 E

64 Ml
e
3d 4 E

radians

radians

Torsional stiffness
The end deflection is bending of a cantilever beam whereas
the coils undergo bending action under M = Fl requiring
application of Castigliano theorem.

M 2 dx
Strain energy in bending, U
2EI

The Force F will deflect through a distance l

U
l c

DN b

F 2l 2 dx

2 EI

I d 4 / 64
64 FlDN b 64 MDNb
c

4
d E
d 4E

DN b

Fl 2 dx

EI

Torsional stiffness
The total angular deflection (rad), t c e 1 e 2
64 MDNb 64 Ml1 64 Ml2
64 MD
l1 l2
t

Nb

4
4
4
4
d E
3d E 3d E
d E
3D
Defining
l1 l2
Ne
,
3D

64 MD
N a Nb N e ; t
Na
4
d E

Torsional stiffness
Stiffness expressions in torque/radian units:
4

d E
ks

t 64 DNa

kc

d E
64 DNb

3d 4 E
ke

e 64l1 l2
M

Stiffness values in torque/turn values (i.e 2 rad /turn) :

4
d
E
k s' '
2
t 64 DNa

4
d
E
kc' '
2
c 64 DNb

4
M
3

d
E
ke' '
2
e 64l1 l2

Tests show that the effect of friction between the coils is such that the constant
10.186 (i.e 64/2) should be increased to 10.8

d 4E
k '
t 10.8DNa
'
s

d 4E
k '
c 10.8DNb
'
c

3d 4 E
k '
e 10.8l1 l2
'
e

Torsion spring supported on round bar or pin:

When the load is applied to a torsion spring, the spring winds up, causing
a decrease in the inside diameter of the coil body.
Ensure that the inside diameter of the coil never becomes equal to or less
than the diameter of the pin,
The helix diameter of the coil D becomes
D'

Nb D
, from volume balance before and after deformation
'
Nb c

A D' N

c' A D N b

The new inside diameter Di = D d makes the diametral clearance

between the body coil and the pin of diameter Dp
Di' D pin D' d D pin
Nb

c' d D pin
D d D pin

Nb D
d D pin
N b c1

Leaf Springs:
Consists of a series of flat plates,
usually of semi-elliptical shape.
The leaves are held together by means
of two U-bolts and a centre bolt

Rebound clips are provided to keep

the leaves in alignment and prevent
lateral shifting of the plates during
operation
The master leaf (longest leaf) is bent
to form the spring eye
Leaf springs are capable of exerting
large forces within comparably small
spaces

Leaf Springs:
F

Extra full length leaves are

provided to protect the ends.
They are not uniform strength
beams and hence 50% more
bending stress exists in them. To
protect them they are sometimes
pre-stressed
during
the
assembly.

2F
Without pre-stress
F

2F
Pre-stressed

The multi-leaf spring shown and the single triangular section beam both have the same stress
and deflection characteristics with the exceptions that the multi-leaf spring is subject to
additional damping due to friction between the leaves

 The bending stress in the plate which is uniform throughout is given

by
Mc
F L h / 2
6 FL

1
3
( ng b)h
12

ng bh 2

Where ng is no. of graduated leaves including master leaf

The deflection at load point is given by (deflection of a triangular
plate)
F L3
F L3
6 FL3

2 EI
E ng b h 3
1
3
2E
(ng b)h
12

The Spring rate is given by

En g bh 3
6L3