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REPRODUCTION IN ORGANISMS
8. How does the progeny formed from asexual reproduction differ from those formed by sexual reproduction?
The progeny formed from asexual reproduction are genetically similar to the parents, but offsprings formed by
sexual reproduction show genetic variations due to genetic recombination occurred during gamete formation
and random fertilization.
9. Name the species of plant that flowers once in life time.
Bamboo species flowers only once in life time generally after 50 100 years.
10. Between an annual and a perennial plant, which one has shorter juvenile phase? Give reason.
An annual has a shorter juvenile phase as its entire life cycle has to be completed in one growing season within a year.
Vegetative propagation is a type of asexual reproduction in plants in which the somatic cells or vegetative parts
give rise to new individuals. It is not biparental and does not involve the formation of gametes. So it is also called
asexual reproduction.
7. What are vegetative propagules? Mention them with examples.
The somatic structures of plants involved in vegetative propagation are called vegetative propagules.
Vegetative propagules
Examples
Runner
Grass, Gladiolus, oxalis
Rhizome
Ginger, Banana
Sucker
Chrysanthemum
Tuber (eyes)
Potato
Offset
Water hyacinth(Eichhornia),Pistia
Bulb
Onion
Bulbils
Agave
Epiphyllous buds
Bryophyllum
Stolon
Marsilea
Adventitious tuberous roots
Dahlia
Stem cutting
Sugarcane
8. Although potato tuber is an underground part. It is considered as a stem. Give two reasons.
1. Potato tuber has nodes & internodes
2. Leafy shoots appear from the nodes
9. Which is a better mode of reproduction, sexual or asexual? Why?
Sexual reproduction is the better mode of reproduction, because the better offspring are produced with genetic
variations. Such variations enable the organisms to survive in unfavorable conditions or adapt to changing
environmental conditions.
10. Define the following with examples
a) Oestrus cycle : The cyclical changes in the activities of ovaries & accessory ducts as well as hormones
secretion during the reproductive phase of non-primate mammals like cows, sheep, rats, deers, dogs, tigers etc.,
is called Oestrus cycle.
Monoestrus animal: Single oestrus cycle in a year. Eg: Deer.
Dioestrus animal: Two oestrus cycle a year. Eg: Dog.
Polyoestrus animal: Many oestrus cycles in a year. Eg: Mouse.
b) Menstrual cycle: The cyclical changes in the activities of ovaries & accessory ducts as well as hormones
secretion during the reproductive phase of primate mammals like monkeys, apes & humans is called Menstrual
cycle.
c) Seasonal breeders: These are the organisms that reproduce only in some favorable seasons.
Eg: Mammals living in natural & wild conditions.
d) Continuous breeders: These are the organisms that are reproductively active throughout their reproductive
phase are called continuous breeders.
Eg: Human beings.
11. The cell division involved in gamete formation is not of the same type in different organisms. Justify.
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In haploid organisms showing haplontic life cycle, gamete formation involves only mitosis. In these diploid
zygote undergoes meiosis to produce haploid organisms.
In diploid organisms showing diplontic or haplo-diplontic life cycle, gamete formation involves meiosis. In these
the zygote undergoes mitosis to produce diploid organisms.
12. Fertilization is not an obligatory event for fruit production in certain plants. Explain the statement.
Some fruits are developed from unfertilized ovary called parthenocarpic fruits. These are seedless fruits.
Parthenocarpy can be induced by spraying growth hormones. So fertilization is not an obligatory event for fruit
production. Example: grapes, pomegranate etc.
13. Define the following with examples
a) Bisexual animals or Hermaphrodites: The animals which possess both male and female reproductive organs
in the same body. Eg: Tape worm, earth worm, leech, sponges etc.,
b) Unisexual animals or homophrodites: The animals which possess male or female reproductive organs.
Eg: Cockroach, round worm, human. These exhibit sexual dimorphism.
c) Homothallic plants or bisexual or monoecious: The plant body having both male and female reproductive
structures. Eg: Fungi, Hibiscus, cucurbita, coconut, chara, sweet potato.
d)Heterothallic plants or unisexual or dioecious: The plant body having either male or female reproductive
structures. Eg: Papaya, Date palm, Marchantia
The flowers with only stamens are called male flowers or staminate flowers.
The flowers with only pistil are called female flowers or pistillate flowers.
14. The probability of fruit set in a self pollinated bisexual flower of a plant is far greater than dioecious plant.
Why?
In bisexual flowers, the anther and stigma lie close to each other and when the anther dehisce the pollen grains
fall on stigma and pollination is effected even in the absence of pollinator. But in dioecious plants pollinator is
necessary to bring about effective pollination.
15. Which of the following are monoecious and dioecious?
Earthworm monoecious/hermaphrodite
Chara monoecious
Marchantia dioecious
Cockroach dioecious/homophrodites
16. Both coconut and date palm produce staminate flowers. One is monoecious & the other is dioecious. Write
the difference.
Coconut palm is monoecious. It bears staminate and pistillate flowers in the same plant.
Date palm is dioecious. It bears staminate flowers in one plant & pistillate flowers in another.
ZYGOTE
1. It is a microscopic haploid spore produced in It is a diploid cell formed by the fusion of male &
sporangia.
female gametes.
2. It Is motile having flagella.
It is non motile, does not have flagella.
Eg: Phycomycetes, Green algae, Brown algae
Eg: Sexually reproducing plants & animals.
18. Identify each part in a flowering plant & write whether it is haploid or diploid or triploid.
a) Ovary diploid
b) Anther diploid
c) Egg cell haploid
d) Pollen haploid
e) Male gamete haploid
f) Zygote diploid
g)Endosperm - triploid
f) Embryo sac (female gametophyte) haploid
19. What is parthenogenesis? Name an animal that shows parthenogenesis.
The process of development of unfertilized egg into an individual is called parthenogenesis.
Eg: Formation of drones (male bees) in honey bee colony.
20. Suggest a possible explanation why the seeds in pea pod are arranged in a row whereas those in tomato are
scattered in the juicy pulp.
The pea pod is derived from a monocarpellary unilocular ovary with marginal placentation. So seeds are borne in
rows along the junction of two margins of pod.
Tomato fruit is developed from bicarpellary ovary with axile placentation. So the seeds are embedded in the
juicy pulp.
Asexual reproduction
1. Uniparental
2. Somatic cells are involved
3.It involves the production of asexual spores
4. Offsprings are genetically similar to parents
5. The rate of reproduction is faster
Sexual reproduction
Uniparental or biparental
Germ cells are involved
It involves the formation & fusion of gametes
Offsprings are genetically dissimilar to parents
The rate of reproduction is slower
3. Define the following. / Explain the different stages of life cycle of living organisms.
a) Juvenile phase: It is a period of growth of organism before they can reproduce sexually.
It is followed by the reproductive phase. It is called vegetative phase in plants.
b) Reproductive phase: It is a period of growth of an organisms after juvenile phase, during which the organism
undergoes morphological and physiological changes to attain sexual maturity and capable of producing
gametes.
In angiosperms, flowering marks the beginning of reproductive phase.
c) Senescent phase or old age: It is the end of reproductive phase of an organism characterized by slowed
metabolism and ultimately leads to death.
The transition of these three phases is regulated by hormones and environmental conditions.
4. Higher organisms have resorted to sexual reproduction in spite of its complexity. Why?
Higher organisms have resorted to sexual reproduction
To ensure healthy progeny
To produce genetically varied off springs that adapt to changes in environment & survive in all climatic
conditions.
As it ensures the genetic recombination that results in variation which are food for evolution.
5. What are the differences between menstrual cycle & oestrus cycle?
MENSTRUAL CYCLE
OESTRUS CYCLE
1. The cyclical changes in the activities of ovaries & The cyclical changes in the activities of ovaries &
accessory ducts as well as hormones during the accessory ducts as well as hormones during the
reproductive phase of primate mammals is called reproductive phase of non-primate mammals is called
Menstrual cycle.
Oestrus cycle.
2. Females do not show irresistible sexual urge.
3. The shedding of endometrium & bleeding occurs.
4. There is no heat period & copulation occurs during
any part of the cycle.
Eg: monkeys, apes & humans
Male gamete is called sperm or antherozoid & female gamete is called ovum or egg.
The type of cell division differs during gamete formation.
The haploid parents produce haploid gametes by mitosis.
Eg: Monera, algae, fungi & bryophytes.
The diploid parents produce haploid gametes by meiosis.
Eg: Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms, Angiosperms & human beings.
The diploid organisms have specialized diploid gamete producing cells called meiocytes or gamete
mother cells which undergo meiosis to produce haploid gametes.
b) Gamete transfer:
In most of the organisms male gamete is motile & female gamete is stationary.
But in some fungi & algae both are motile.
In algae, bryophytes & Pteridophytes, the gamete transfer takes place through water.
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In seed producing plants pollen grains carry male gametes & ovules carry egg cell. The pollen grains are
transferred to stigma called pollination.
The dioecious animals have evolved some mechanisms and structures to transfer gametes for
successful sexual reproduction.
ii) Fertilization events: Fertilization is a process of fusion haploid male gamete with haploid female gamete to
produce a diploid zygote. It is also called syngamy.
There are two types of fertilization based on fertilization medium. They are,
a) External fertilization: The syngamy occurs outside the body of the parents in water medium.
Eg. Algae, fish, amphibians
b) Internal fertilization: The syngamy occurs inside the body of the female in body fluid.
Eg. Fungi, bryophytes, Pteridophytes, gymnosperms, angiosperms, cartilaginous fish, reptiles, birds and
mammals
In animals, the motile male gametes reach the egg in accessory reproductive structures.
In flowering plants, the non-motile male gametes are carried to egg cell by pollen tube.
iii) Post fertilization events: The events in sexual reproduction after the formation of zygote are called post
fertilization events.
a) The growth of the zygote differs in different individuals as follows.
In algae and fungi, the zygote develops a thick wall which is resistant to desiccation and damage. It
undergoes a period of rest before germination
In the organisms of haplontic life cycle, the diploid zygote divides meiotically to produce haploid spores
which grow into haploid individuals. Eg. Volvox, Spirogyra
In the organisms of diplontic life cycle, the diploid zygote directly develops into a diploid individual.
Eg. Gymnosperms, Angiosperms
b) Embryogenesis: It is the development of the embryo from the zygote. During this, zygote divides mitotically
to produce a mass of cells which on differentiation forms specialized tissues and organs to form an organism.
In flowering plants, the post fertilization events include the development of
Zygote into embryo
Primary endosperm cell into endosperm
Ovules into seeds
Ovary into fruit with a thick fruit wall called pericarp
Sepals, petals and stamens fall off
Antipodals and synergids disappear
Seeds after dispersal germinate into new plants under favorable conditions
OR
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CHAPTER 10
MICROBES IN HUMAN WELFARE
A. One mark questions:
1. Name a bacterium that is involved in the conversion of milk into curd.
Lactic acid bacteria / Lactobacillus bacteria.
2. Give the scientific name of bakers yeast.
Saccharomyces cervisiae.
3. Large holes in Swiss cheese are due to production of large amount of CO2 by a
bacterium. Name the bacterium cause for it.
Propionibacterium sharmanii.
4. Name the vessels in which microbes are grown in the large scale industrial
production.
Fermentors.
5. Name a fungus from which penicillin antibiotic is obtained.
Penicillium notatum.
6. Name an organic acid produced by Aspegillus niger
Citric acid.
7. Name a bacterium that produces acetic acid.
Acetobacter aceti.
8. Name a bacterium that produces butyric acid
Clostridium butylicum.
9. Name a chemical produced by streptococcus bacterium used as a clot buster, for
removing clots from the blood vessels of patients who have undergone myocardial
infarction.
Streptokinase .
10. Name a fungus that produces Cyclosporin-A.
Trichoderma polysporum
11. Cyclosporin-A is produced by a fungus called Trichoderma polysporum. Write its
significance.
Cyclosporin-A is used as immunosuppressive agent during organ transplantation.
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12. Name a chemical produced by the yeast Monascus purpureus used as blood
cholesterol lowering agents.
Statins
13. Statins used as blood cholesterol lowering agents. Name the fungus that produces
Statins.
Monascus purpureus
14. Statins produced by Monascus purpureus used as blood cholesterol lowering agents.
How does it work?
It acts as competitive inhibitor for the enzyme responsible for the synthesis of cholesterol.
15. What is sewage?
The waste water generated in cities and towns containing human excreta, organic matter
and microbes.
OR
The municipal waste water is called sewage.
16. Expand the abbreviation BOD.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand
17. Define BOD.
BOD refers to the amount of oxygen required to oxidize total organic matter by bacteria,
present in one liter of water.
18. How does BOD of sewage water determine polluting potential?
Greater the BOD of the waste water more is its polluting potential and vice versa.
19. What is a biogas?
Biogas is a mixture of gases containing predominantly methane produced by the microbial
activity and is used as fuel.
20. Name a bacterium (archaebacterium) involved in the production of biogas.
Methanogens or Methanobacterium
21. What is biocontrol?
Biocontrol refers to the use of biological methods for controlling plant diseases and pests.
22. Name a bacterium that is present in the root nodules and fix atmospheric nitrogen.
Rhizobium.
23. Name the genus to which Baculoviruses belong.
Nucleopolyhedrovirus.
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24. How does Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) used to protect plants from butterfly
caterpillers?
Dried spores of Bt are mixed with water and sprayed onto vulnerable plants such as
brassicas and fruit trees, where these are eaten by the insect larvae. In the gut of the
larvae, the toxin are released and the larvae get killed.
25. Name the organism commercially used for the production of single cell protein.
Spirulina.
26. Which of the folowing is a cyanobacterium that can fix atmospheric nitrogen?
a) Spirulina, b) Rhizobium, c) Oscillatoria.
Oscillatoria.
27. How is the presence of cyanobacteria in the paddy fields beneficial to rice crop?
Cyanobacgeria can fix atmospheric nitrogen into nitrates and increase soil fertility.
28. Write the scientific name of the fungal microbe used for fermenting malted cereals
and fruit juices.
Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
29. What causes doughing of flour?
Release of CO2 during fermentation.
30. Name a bacterium used in the production of Swiss cheese.
Propionibacterium sharmanii.
31. Expand the term STP.
Sewage Treatment Plant.
32. What are baculoviruses?
Viruses used in biological control of insects, pests and other arthropods.
33. What are flocs?
Flocs are masses of bacteria associated with fungal hyphae which form mesh-like structures
during secondary treatment of sewage.
34. What function do methanogens perform in the rumen of cattle?
Digestion of cellulose.
35. Mention the importance of Lactic acid bacteria to humans other than setting milk into
curd.
LAB increases vitamin B12 in the curd.
36. Name a genus of fungi that forms a mycorrhizal association with plants.
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Glomus.
1. Describe any five useful household products in which microbes are involved.
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a) Lactic acid Bacteria: Lactic acid Bacteria (LAB) grow in milk and convert it to curd.
LAB produces acids that coagulate and partially digest milk proteins. A small amount
of curd added to fresh milk as inoculums or starter. LAB improves nutritional quality of
milk by increasing vitamin B12. LAB plays very important role in checking disease
causing microbes.
b) Dough, used to make dosa and idli is also fermented by bacteria. The puffed-up
appearance of dough is due to the production of CO2.
c) Bakers yeast (Saccharomyces cervisiae) is used to making bread.
d) Toddy a traditional drink is made by fermentation of sap from palms.
e) Large holes in Swiss cheese are due to production of large amount of CO2 by a
bacterium named Propionibacterium sharmanii.
f) The Roquefort cheese is ripened by specific fungi, which gives specific flavor.
2. Describe the role of microbes in sewage treatment.
a) The primary effluent is passed into large aeration tanks.
b) This allows vigorous growth of useful aerobic microbes into flocs.
c) The growth of microbes consumes the major part of the organic matter in the effluent.
This significantly reduces the BOD (biochemical oxygen demand) of the effluent.
d) BOD refers to the amount of oxygen required to oxidize total organic matter by
bacteria, present in one liter of water.
e) BOD is the measures of the organic matter present in the water.
f) Greater the BOD of the waste water more is its polluting potential.
g) Once the BOD of sewage reduced significantly, the effluent is then passed into the
settling tank where the bacterial flocs are allowed to sediment. This sediment is
called activated sludge.
h) Small part of activated sludge is pumped back to aeration tank to serve as the
inoculums.
i) The remaining sludge is pumped into anaerobic sludge digester.
j) In the anaerobic sludge digester there is other kinds of bacteria which grow
anaerobically, digest the bacteria and fungi in the sludge.
k) During this digestion bacteria produce biogas, (mixture of methane, hydrogen
sulphide and carbon dioxide)
l) The effluent from the secondary treatment plant is released into natural water body
like rivers and streams.
3. Describe process of primary treatment of sewage water.
a) Involves the physical removal of particles large and small from sewage through
filtration and sedimentation.
b) Initially floating debris is removed by sequential filtration.
c) The grit (soil and small pebbles) are removed by sedimentation.
d) All solids that settle form the primary sludge, and the supernatant forms the effluents.
e) The effluents are from the primary settling tank taken for secondary treatment.
4. Describe the structure of biogas plant with a neat labelled diagram.
a) The biogas plant consists of a concrete tank (10-15 ft deep) in which bio-wastes are
collected and slurry of dung is fed.
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b) A floating cover is placed over the slurry, which keeps on rising as the gas is
produced in the tank due to microbial (methanogens) activity.
c) The biogas plant has an outlet, which is connected to a pipe to supply biogas to
nearby houses.
d) Used slurry is removed through another outlet and may be used as fertiliser.
e) The biogas thus produced is used for cooking and lighting.
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CLASS: II PUC.
SUBJECT : BIOLOGY.
UNIT IX .
CHAPTER 11: BIOTECHNOLOGY : PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES.
9. What is bioreactor ?
Ans : It is a vessel in which raw materials are biologically converted in to specific products using microbial
plants, animal or human cells.
10. What is down stream process ?
Ans : Separation, purification of the products obtained from recombinant DNA technique is called
downstream processing (DSP).
11. Name the enzyme used in linking the DNA segments together.
Ans : DNA ligase.
12. Which technique is commonly used to isolate DNA fragments ?
Ans : Gel- electrophoresis.
13. What do mean by Ori ?
Ans : Sequence from where replication starts and any piece of DNA when linked in this sequence can be
made to replicate within the host cells.
14. Name the enzyme which is also called molecular scissors.
Ans : restriction endonuclease.
15. What is transformation ?
Ans : A process by which a piece of DNA is introduced into a host bacterium.
16. What is elution ?
Ans : In gel-electrophoresis, the separated bands of DNA are cut out from the agarose gel and extracted
from the gel piece. This step is called elution.
17. Who constructed the first artificial recombinant DNA molecule ?
Ans : Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer .
18. Name the scientists who constructed pBR 322.
Ans : Bolivar and Rodringuez.
19. What is signeficance of selectable marker in plasmids ?
Ans : selectable markers help in identifying and eliminating non-transformants and selectively
permitting the growth of the transformants.
2). Endonucleases .
Ans : Restriction enzymes, Polymerase enzymes , DNA ligases , vectors, host organism and bioreactors.
( Any four)
5. Name the selectable markers of E, coli.
Ans : the genes encoding resistance to antibiotics like ampicillin, tetracycline, chloramphenicol and
kanamycin are selectable markers in E.coli.
Ans :
4. Give a brief account of vectors used for cloning genes in plants and animals.
Ans :
1.
Tumour inducing Ti plasmid of `Agrobactrium tumifaciens , has now been modified into a
cloning vector which is no more pathiogenic to the plants but can be used to deliver genes of
our interest in to variety of plants.
2. Retroviruses. Have been disarmed and are used to deliver desirable genes into animal cells.
5. .Explain briefly the process of isolation of DNA.
Ans : In order to cut the DNA with restriction enzymes, It needs to be in pure form , free from other
macro-molecules like RNA, histones, chitin, cellulose, etc,. the contents of the cell is treated with enzymes
like chitinase, lysozymes, cellulose , ribonuclease and proteases and ultimately chilled ethnol is added to
get purified DNA.
These are enzymes naturally occurring in bacteria (for defence) which recognize specific
palindromic sequences in the DNA and cut it at those places. Palindromic sequences are invert
repeats which have the same nucleotide sequences when read in 5' 3' on both the strands. Some
RENs are Eco RI, Hind III, Sma I, Hae III, etc.,. These RENs are also called molecular knives or
molecular scissors or naturess scalpels as they cut DNA. The fragments of DNA produced are
called restriction fragments. The fragments of DNA may have blunt ends or staggered ends
(sticky ends).
Endonuclease : They breaks DNA double helix at any point except the ends. They produce internal
cuts called nick's or cleavage.
Exonuclease : They breaks or cuts the 5' or 3' ends of DNA molecule i.e. they remove nucleotides
from terminal ends of DNA in one strand of double helix.
The fragments obtained after cutting with restriction enzymes are separated by using gel
electrophoresis.
Electric field is applied to the electrophoresis matrix (commonly agarose gel) and negatively
charged DNA fragments move towards the anode.
Fragments separate according to their size by the sieving properties of agarose gel. Smaller the
fragment, farther it moves.
Staining dyes such as ethidium bromide followed by exposure to UV radiations are used to visualise
the DNA fragments.
DNA fragments are visible as bright orange coloured bands in the agarose matrix.
These bands are cut from the agarose gel and extracted from the gel piece (elution).
DNA fragments are purified and these purified DNA fragments are used in constructing
recombinant DNAs
4. Explain with the help of a neat labeled diagram structure of pBR322 plasmid.
Ans : The best known vector which is available commercially is pBR322. (plasmid of Boliver and
Rodringuez).
It is modified from natural plasmid of Escherichia coli .
It is about 4.3 Kb in size.
It has the following features:
permitting the growth of the transformants. The genes encoding resistance to antibiotics such as
ampicillin, chloramphenical , tetracyclin or canamycin , are considered as useful selectable markers for
E.coli.
3. Cloning site or restriction site :The vector should have single or few recognition site for the
commonly used restriction enzymes in order to insert foreign DNA. In pBR322 alian DNA is ligated in
the area of Bam HI site of tetracycline resistance gene. The recombinanat plasmide does not possess
tetracycline resistance but continues to have ampicilline resistance.
6. Write short notes on :
(a) Bio -reactor .
(3 marks)
contents. The stirrer facilitates even mixing and oxygen availability. Air also can be bubbled through
the reactor. The reactor has an agitator system, an oxygen delivery system and a foam control
system, a temperature control system , pH control system and sampling ports.
(b) Downstream processing: Separation, purification of the products obtained from recombinant DNA
technique is called downstream processing (DSP). The product has to be formulated with suitable
preservatives . Thorough clinical trials and strict quality control testing is also conducted before
marketing of the product.
10) Plasmids of which bacteria were used to produced the A-chain and B-chain separately
the bacteria's.
Ans. E.Coli or Escherichia coli
11) What is Gene Therapy?
Ans. Gene therapy is a collections of methods that allows correction of a gene defect that
has been diagnosed in a child or an embryo.
12)What are GMOs? Give two examples.
Ans.GMOs are the genetically modified organisms
Eg., Bt -cotton, rice , Bt- Corn ,potato and tomato( any four)
13) Name the disease that can be cured through gene therapy.
Ans. SCID(Severe Combined Immuno Deficiency )Due to absence of ADA
14) Name the hormone produced by genetic engineering.
Ans. Human insulin.
15)Name the vector used to incorporate the cDNA of ADA into the lymphocytes in gene
therapy.
Ans. Retrovirus.
16) Define biopiracy.
Ans. The term is used to refer to the use of bioresearches by multinational companies and
other organizations without taking the consent by the people concerned.
17)Mention the functions of GEAC (Genetic Engineering Approval Committee).
Ans. GEAC will make decisions regarding the validity of GM research and the safety of
introducing GM-Organisms for the public services.
18)Name the protein produced by Bacillus thuringiensis .
Ans. Toxin protein(Insecticidal protein) in the form of crystals.
19)Define the term bioethics .
Ans. Ethics includes a set of standards by which a community regulates its behavior and
20) Which two patents Indias biological resources have been revoked ?
Ans. On pesticides on Neem and healing properties of Turmeric decides as to which activity
is legitimate and which is not.
21) Name the inactive form of insecticidal protein.
Ans. Protoxin
22) Expand BT.
Ans. Bacillus thuringiensis
1) Insulin extracted from the pancreas of slaughtered cow and pigs cannot be used why?
Ans. Insulin extracted from the pancreas of slaughtered cow and pigs causes allergy and
other types of reactions.
2).Mention the four areas which have been responsible for the recent advances in
biotechnology
Ans. The areas in recent advances in biotechnology are (I) Agriculture (ii) Medicine (iii) Food
industry and (iv) Environmental engineering.
4) How many recombinant therapeutics are been approved for the use of humans?
Ans.At present, about 30 recombinant therapeutics have been approved for human use the
world over, In India12 of these are presently being marketed.
THREE MARKS QUESTIONS
1) Write short on insulin.
Ans. Insulin is taken at regular intervals to manage diabetes. Insulin consists of two short
polypeptide chains A-chain and B-chain that are linked together by a disulphide bridges. In
humans ,insulin is synthesized as pro-hormone which contains an extra stretch called Cpeptide. C-peptide is removed during maturation.
2) Name three group of insects killed by insecticidal protein.
Ans.Lepidopteron, Coleopterans and Dipterans.
3) What are cry genes? Mention the types and the specific insects they kill.
Ans. The genes that produce the Bt toxin are called cry genes there are a number of them,
for example ,the protein encoded by the genes cryIAc and cryIIAb control the cotton
bollworm and the cryI Ab controls corn borer.
4) Write short notes on gene therapy.
Gene therapy is a collection of methods that allows correction of a gene defect that has
been diagnosed in a child or embryo. Genes are inserted into persons cells and tissues to
treat a disease. It involves the delivery of a normal gene into the individual or embryo to
take over the function of and compensate for the non-functional gene.
1) Discuss the biotechnological applications in agriculture. With special reference to Btcotton. Bt Cotton
Bacillus thuringiensis is a bacterium that produces proteins to kill certain insects such as
lepidopterans (armyworm), coleopterans (beetles), and dipterans (flies/ mosquitoes). B.
thuringiensis produces a protein crystal containing a toxic protein (inactivated state).
Inactivated toxin Activated toxin (gut of insect)
Activated toxin binds to the epithelial cells in the midgut of insect and creates pores that
cause lyses and swelling and eventually death of insect.
This toxin is encoded by a gene called Cry in the bacterium. Genes encoded by Cry
IAc and Cry II Ab control cotton bollworms and those encoded by Cry IAb control corn
borer. Cry genes are introduced into the cotton plants to produce Bt cotton, which is an
insect resistant variety of cotton.
2) What is gene therapy ? Explain the steps involved in the process.
Gene therapy is a collections of methods that allows correction of a gene defect that has
been diagnosed in a child or an embryo.
The gene therapy is performed to cure ADA enzyme deficiency. This enzyme is crucial for
the immune system to function. This disorder is caused due to the deletion of the gene for
adenosine deaminase.
As a first step towards gene therapy, Lymphocytes from blood of the patient are cultured
outside the body.
Second a functional ADA c DNA is introduced into these lymphocytes by using retrovirus as
a vector, which are subsequently returned to the patient.
The patient requires periodic infusion of such genetically engineered
lymphocytes.However,if the genes isolated from bone marrow cells producing ADA is
introduced into cells at early embryonic stages,it could be a permanent cure.
The Indian parliament has recently introduced second amendment of Indian patents bill to
deal with these issues.
5) Write short notes on Ethical issues.
Ans. Genetically modification of organism can have unpredictable results such organisms
are introduced into the ecosystems. Hence the manipulation of living organisms by human
race cannot go on any further without regulation. Therefore ethical standards are required
to evaluate the mortality of all human activities that might help or harm living organism.
The genetic modifications of organisms can have unpredictable results when such
organisms are introduced into the ecosystems. Therefore Indian government has setup an
organization such as GEAC(Genetic Engineering Approval Committee).Which will make
decisions regarding the validity of GM research and safety of introducing GM organism for
public service.
CHAPTER 13
ORGANISMS AND POPULATIONS
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Hibernation is a process by which the animals like bear avoid the stress and become inactive
during winter.
14. What is aestivation?
Aestivation is a process by which the animals like snails and fishes avoid the stress and
summer related problems like heat and desiccation and become inactive during summer.
15. What is diapause?
It is a stage of suspended development seen in many zooplanktons to avoid unfavorable
conditions.
16. "In animals, the organism, if unable to migrate, might avoid the stress by escaping in
time". Justify the statement by giving one example.
1. Bears going into hibernation during winter.
OR
2. Snails and fishes going into aestivation in summer.
OR
3. Many Zooplankton species undergoing a stage of suspended development called diapause.
17. What is adaptation?
Adaptation is any attribute of the organism (morphological, physiological, and behavioral) that
enables the organism to survive and reproduce in its habitat
18. Define the term, population.
Population can be defined as a group of individual living in a well defined geographical area,
share or compete for similar resources, potentially interbreed.
19. What is an age pyramid?
It is the graphical representation of population of an area at a given time, in which percentage of
individuals of an age group is plotted for the population.
20. What does the age pyramid reflects?
It shows whether the population is growing or stable or decreasing.
21. What is population density?
The size of the population in numbers of a given area.
22. What is Allens rule?
Allens rule states that those animals, e.g., mammals from colder climates generally have
shorter ears and limbs to minimize heat loss.
23. Give an example for Allens rule.
Seals of polar aquatic seas have a thick layer of fat called blubber below their skin that acts as
insulator and reduces loss of body heat.
24. Why the seals of polar aquatic seas posses a thick layer of fat below the skin?
It is an adaptation to reduce loss of body and also acts as insulator.
25. Why body develops nausea, fatigue and heart palpitations when a person move to
high altitude (>3,500 meter)?
This is due to low atmospheric pressure of high altitudes; the body does not get enough
oxygen.
26. Mention any one behavioral adaptation observed in animals.
Some species burrowing into the soil to hide and escape from the above-ground heat.
27. Define population.
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A group of individual living in a well defined geographical area, share or compete for similar
resources, potentially interbreed is called population.
28. What is an age pyramid?
The graphical representation derived when the age distribution is plotted for a population the
resulting structure is called age pyramid.
29. What is the letter used to designate population density?
N
30. List the methods used to estimate population size during tiger census recently.
Pug marks and fecal pellets for tiger census.
31. Define Natality.
Natality refers to the number of birth in given period in the population.
32. Define Mortality
Mortality refers to the number of deaths in the population in a given period of time.
33. Define Birth rate
The birth rate is the total number of births per 1000 of a population each year
34. Define death rate
Mortality rate is a measure of the number of deaths (in general, or due to a specific cause) in a
population, scaled to the size of that population, per unit of time.
35. Define Immigration
Immigration refers to the number of individuals of same species that have come into the habitat
from elsewhere during a given period of time.
36. Define emigration.
Emigration refers to the number of individuals of the population who left the habitat and gone
elsewhere during a given time period.
37. Mention the significance of the study of population ecology.
Population ecology is an important area of ecology because it links ecology to population
genetics and evolution.
38. "Although total number is generally the most appropriate measure of population
density, it is in some cases either meaningless or difficult to determine. What is the
alternative method?
In such cases, the per cent cover or biomass is a more meaningful measure of the population
size.
39. if N is the population density at time t, mention the formula to show its density at time
t +1.
N t+1 = N t + [(B + I) (D + E)]
40. Mention the formula to express exponential growth.
dN/dt = rN
41. In the formula dN/dt = rN, 'r" represents what?
'r' represents intrinsic rate of natural increase'.
42. Write the equation for describing the Verhulst-Pearl Logistic Growth
dN/dt = rN (KN / N)
43.What is Carrying capacity?
The maximum population size that an environment can sustain is called carrying capacity.
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Declining population
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67. "Abingdon tortoise in Galapagos islands became extinct within a decade after goats
were introduced in that island". Can you cite the possible reason for the same?
Goats have greater browsing efficiency and hence the tortoises died of lack of food.
68. If a marine fish is placed in fresh water aquarium, will the fish be able to survive?
Why?
No, it will not survive in fresh water aquarium because of osmotic problem it would face.
69. Which are the factor responsible for the wide variety of habitat formed within
each biome?
Regional and local variations
70. Fresh water animals are unable to survive for long in sea water. Give reason.
Due to osmotic problems.
71. With which population growth model is the Verhulst Pearl equation associated?
Logistic Growth.
72. Define diapause.
A stage of suspended development,
73. Name the group of organisms that exhibit diapause.
zooplanktons.
74. In biological control method, one living organism is used against another to
check its uncontrolled growth. Which kind of population interaction is involved in
this?
Predation.
75. Why thermoregulation is more effectively achieved in larger animals than in smaller
ones?
Because, thermoregulation is a function of surface area. larger animals possess larger surface
area and so they can achieve thermoregulation easily when compared to smaller animals.;
76. Calculate the death rate if 6 individuals in a laboratory population of 60 fruit
flies died during a particular week.
6/60 =0.1 individuals per fruit fly per week
77. Very small animals like shrews and humming birds are rarely found in Polar
Regions. Why?
They have large surface area relative to their volume so lose body heat very fast in
colder regions. Hence, occur rarely in polar region.
78. Write what do phytophagous insects feed on?
Plant sap and other parts of plant..
79. Why are the Polar Regions not a suitable habitat for tiny humming birds?
When volume is considered surface area is large, loss of heat is more in cooler areas/difficult to
generate more heat.
80. What is sex ratio?
The ratio between male female in a population
2 MARK QUESTIONS:
1. Most living organisms cannot survive at temperatures above 45c. How are some
microbes able to live in habitats with temperature beyond 100c?
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Microbes posses physiological and biochemical adaptations which allow them to live in habitats
with temperature exceeding. 100c. There are branched chain lipids in the cell membrane and
special resistant enzymes which deal with high temperatures.
2. People living in higher altitudes have higher RBC count. Give reasons
Due to low atmospheric pressure at higher attitudes body compensates low oxygen availability
by increasing red blood cell production, decreasing the binding affinity of hemoglobin and
by increasing breathing rate.
3. Write a note on temperature as abiotic factor.
Temperature is the most ecologically relevant ecological factor.
Temperature affects the kinetics of enzymes, BMR (Basic Metabolic Rate) and other
physiological actions in organisms.
Eurythermal: A few organisms which can tolerate wide range of temperatures. They are called
eurythermal organisms.
Stenothermal: Many organisms which can tolerate narrow range of temperatures are called
stenothermal organisms.
4. Write a note on water as abiotic factor.
Life is originated in water and it is unsustainable without water.
The productivity and distribution of plants is also heavily dependent on water.
For aquatic organisms, the quality (chemical composition, pH) is very important.
Euryhaline: The organisms which can tolerate wide range of salinity are called euryhaline
organisms.
Stenohaline: The organisms which can tolerate narrow range of salinity stenohaline organisms.
5. Explain the mechanism by which humans regulate their body temperature.
We maintain a constant body temperature of 37oC.
When outside temperature is high we sweat profusely and evaporative cooling take place to
bring body temperature down.
In winter due to low temperature outside our body temperature falls below 37oC, we start to
shiver, to generate heat to raise body temperature.
6. Write a note on Conformers.
Majority (99%) of animals and plants cannot maintain a constant internal environment and
hence their body temperature varies according to ambient temperature.
In aquatic animals the osmotic concentration of body fluid varies with ambient water osmotic
concentration. Such animals and plants are simply called as conformers.
7. Write a note on migration.
The organism can move away temporarily from the stressful habitat to a more hospitable area
and return when stressful period is over. This is called migration.
Many animals, particularly birds, during winter undertake long-distance migrations to more
hospitable areas.
Every winter the famous Keolado National Park (Bharatpur) in Rajasthan host thousands of
migratory birds coming from Siberia and other extremely cold northern regions.
8. Write a note on suspend.
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In bacteria, fungi and lower plants, various kinds of thick walled spores are formed which help
them to survive unfavorable conditions these germinate on availability of suitable
environment.
In higher plants, seeds and some other vegetative reproductive structures serve as means to
tide over periods of stress besides helping in dispersal.
They germinate to form new plants under favorable moisture and temperature conditions. They
do so by reducing their metabolic activity and going into a state of dormancy.
9. How is kangaroo rat adapted for lack of external source of water?
Kangaroo rat meets their water requirement from oxidation of fat, in which water is a byproduct.
They excrete very concentrate urine to conserve water.
10. List the adaptation seen in animals for cold climate.
Mammals from colder climates generally have shorter ears and limbs to minimize heat loss.
This is called Allens Rule.
Seals of polar aquatic seas have a thick layer of fat called blubber below their skin that acts as
insulator and reduces loss of body heat
11. How the body of humans gets adapted for high altitudes?
The body compensates low oxygen availability by increasing red blood cell production.
The body compensates decreasing binding capacity of hemoglobin with oxygen by increasing
rate of breathing.
12. Desert lizards are conformer hence they cope with the stressful environment by
behavioral adaptations. How?
They bask in the sun and absorb heat when their body temperature drops below the comfort
zone in winter.
They move to shade when the ambient temperature starts increasing
13. Mention any two attributes that as individual organism does not have but shown by a
population.
Birth rate, Death rate and sex ratio.
14. List the methods used to estimate population size.
Counting the number
Percent cover estimation.
Biomass estimation.
Counting Pug marks and fecal pellets for tiger census
15. Write a note on Allens rule.
Allens Rule states that animals i.e., mammals from colder climates generally have shorter ears
and limbs to minimize heat loss.
Seals of polar aquatic seas have a thick layer of fat called blubber below their skin that acts as
insulator and reduces loss of body heat.
16. What are the symptoms of altitude sickness?
Symptoms developed are nausea, fatigue and heart palpitations.
17. How the body solves the problem of Altitude sicknes?
The body compensates low oxygen availability by increasing red blood cell production.
The body compensates decreasing binding capacity of hemoglobin with oxygen by increasing
rate of breathing.
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18. How the desert lizards cope with the stressful environment by behavioral
adaptations?
They bask in the sun and absorb heat when their body temperature drops below the comfort
zone in winter.
They move to shade when the ambient temperature starts increasing.
19. In a pond there are 20 lotus plants last year and through reproduction 8 new plants
are added, taking the current population to 28, calculate the birth rate.
8/20 = 0.4 offspring per lotus per year.
20. If 4 individuals in a laboratory population of 40 fruit flies died during a specified time
interval, say a week, calculate the death rate in the population during that period.
4/40 = 0.1 individuals per fruit fly per week.
21. Mention the characteristic features of age pyramid.
1. The age pyramids generally show age distribution of males and females in a combined
diagram.
2. The shape of the pyramids reflects the growth status of the population - (a) whether it is
growing, (b) stable or (c) declining.
22. Give the diagrammatic representation of an expanding age pyramid.
25. What are the observations one can make from the study of population?
1. The outcome of competition with another species.
2. The impact of a Predator or the effect of a pesticide application.
26. "Although total number is generally the most appropriate measure of population
density, it is in some cases either meaningless or difficult to determine."Justify with an
example.
For example, in an area, if there are 200 Parthenium plants but only a single huge banyan tree
with a large canopy, stating that the population density of banyan is low relative to that of
Parthenium amounts to underestimating the enormous role of the Banyan in that community.
27. Mention the four basic processes, becase of which density of a population in a given
habitat during a given period, fluctuates.
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In the rocky intertidal communities of the American Pacific Coast the starfish Pisaster is an
important predator.
In a field experiment, when all the starfish were removed from an enclosed intertidal area, more
than 10 species of invertebrates became extinct within a year, because of inter-specific
competition.
37. How monarch butterfly survives from its predator?
The Monarch butterfly is highly distasteful to its predator (bird) because of a special chemical
present in its body.
Interestingly, the butterfly acquires this chemical during its caterpillar stage by feeding on a
poisonous weed.
38. Kangaroo rats can survive in the absence of an external source of water. How do
they adapt themselves to such conditions?
Kangaroo rat is capable of meeting its entire water requirement through its internal fat oxidation
in which water is a by -product. It has the ability to concentrate urine.
39. Small animals are rarely found in Polar Regions. Give reasons.
Smaller animals tend to lose more body heat due to large surface area relative to their volume.
Therefore, they have to spend more energy to generate body heat.
40. An organism has to overcome stressful condition for a limited period of time.
Which strategies can it adopt to do so?
(i) Migration
(ii) Suspension of active life by hibernation/aestivation/ thick walled spore formation.
41. Why do clown fish and sea anemone pair up? What is this relationship called?
This is the interaction in which clown fish species benefits and the sea anemone is neither
benefited nor harmed.
Commensalism.
42. Why are the small birds like humming birds are not found in Polar Regions?
Thermoregulation is energetically expensive for many organisms and this is particularly true for
small animals like shrews and humming birds.
43. State two important defense mechanisms in plants against herbivory, with an
example each.
Plants have evolved an astonishing variety of morphological and chemical defenses against
herbivores.
Thorns (Acacia, Cactus) are the most common morphological means of defence.
Many plants produce and store chemicals that make the herbivore sick when they are eaten,
inhibit feeding or digestion, disrupt its reproduction or even kill it.
The weed Calotropis growing in abandoned fields. The plant produces highly poisonous cardiac
glycosides and that is why you never see any cattle or goats browsing on this plant.
A wide variety of chemical substances that we extract from plants on a commercial scale
(nicotine, caffeine, quinine, strychnine, opium, etc.,) are produced by them actually as defenses
against grazers and browsers
44. Some organisms suspend their metabolic activities to survive in unfavourable
conditions. Explain with the help of four examples.
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Thick walled spores are formed in microbes to overcome unfavorable stressful external
environment. Spores germinate in favorable condition.
In higher plants seeds and other vegetative reproductive structures are means to tide over the
stress. They reduce their metabolic activity and going into a state of dormancy.
Hibernation: during winter animals like bears escape in time
Aestivation: animals like snail and fish avoid summer related problem like heat and desiccation.
Diapause: many zooplanktons undergo a stage of suspended development in unfavourable
conditions.
45. Why are herbivores considered similar to predators in the ecological context?
Explain.
Transfer of energy fixed by plants to the next trophic level - carnivores,
Maintain the plant population under control = +
46. "Snow leopards are not found in Kerala forests and tuna fish are rarely found beyond
tropical latitude in the ocean". Study the above two cases and states the possible
reasons for the same.
Change in temperature from their established habitats affects the kinetics of the enzymes
and through it the basal metabolism, activity and other physiological functions of the
organism.
47. How do the increase and the decrease in the value of r affect the population size?
The value of r is affected by increase or decrease in birth rates and death rates.
48. When and why do some animals like snails undergo aestivations?
Summer
To survive from heat/to avoid dessication.
49. What are the four levels of biological organisation with which ecology basically
deals?
Organisms, population, communities and biomes.
50. Differentiate between stenohaline and euryhaline organisms.
Euryhaline: Organisms tolerant in wide range of salinities.
Stenohaline: Organisms tolerant to narrow range of salinities.
51. List four features which enable the Xeric plants to survive in the desert
conditions.
(i) Thick cuticle
(ii) Stomata in deep pits
(iii) Stomata closed during day time
(iv) Leaves reduced to spines (CAM photosynthetic pathway).
52. Mention the attributes which a population has but not an individual organism.
Birth rate, Death rate, Sex ratio, age groups.
53. Differentiate between stenothermal and eurythermal organisms.
Eurythermal : Organisms that can tolerate and thrive in wide range of temperatures
Stenothermal: Organisms restricted to a narrow range of temperature.
54. What are the four ways through which the living organisms respond to abiotic
factors?
(i) Regulate (ii) Conform (iii) migrate (iv) Suspend
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55. Why do clown fish and sea anemone pair up? What is this relationship?
Clown fish lives in tentacles of sea Anemone and gets protection from predators.
Interaction commensalism.
56. What does S-Shaped pattern of population growth represent? How is J-shaped
pattern different from it and why?
S shaped pattern is represents:
S shaped growth represents
A kind of growth when responses are limiting the Growth.
Resources for growth for most animal populations are finite and become limiting.
The logistic growth model is a more realistic one.
J shaped pattern represents a kind of growth when the resources are not limiting, where as the
S shaped curve represents when resources are limiting the Growth.
57. Bear hibernates whereas some species of zooplankton enter diapause to avoid
stressful external conditions. How are these two ways different from each other?
Bears suppress their metabolic activity in winter and avoid stressful conditions in winter, where
as zooplanktons suspend their development during unfavorable conditions.
3 MARKS QUESTIONS
1. Write a note on the importance of light as abiotic factor for plants.
Plants produce food by photosynthesis, which is possible only in the presence of light. Hence it
is very important for autotrophs.
Plant species (herbs and shrubs) adapted for photosynthesize optimally under low light
conditions because they are constantly overshadowed by tall canopied trees.
Sunlight is required for photoperiodic response like flowering in plants.
2. Write a note on soil as abiotic factor.
Properties of soil vary according to the climate, the weathering process.
Soil composition, grain size and aggregation determine the percolation and water holding
capacity of the soil.
These characteristic along with pH, mineral composition and topography determine to a large
extent the vegetation in any area. This in turn dictates the type of animals that can be
supported.
The sediment-characteristic often determine the type of benthic animal in aquatic environment.
3. "The conformer had not evolved to become regulators". Justify the statement.
Thermoregulation is energetically expensive for many animals.
Small animal like shrews and humming birds cannot afford so much energy for
thermoregulation.
Heat loss or heat gain is a function of surface area.
Small animals have larger surface area relative to their volume. They tend to lose body heat
very fast when it is cold outside. Then they have to expend much energy to generate body heat
through metabolism.
4. Describe the adaptation of desert plants.
The presence of thick cuticle on their leaf surfaces.
The presence of sunken stomata to reduce transpiration.
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They have special photosynthetic pathway (CAM), in which stomata closed during day time and
remained open during night.
Desert plants like Opuntia have no leaves and they are reduced to spines.
In such plants,photosynthesis takes place in flat green stems
5. How behavioral responses are achieved by animals during variation in the
environment?
Desert lizards are conformer hence they cope with the stressful environment by behavioral
adaptations:
They bask in the sun and absorb heat when their body temperature drops below the comfort
zone in winter.
They move to shade when the ambient temperature starts increasing.
Some species burrowing into the soil to hide and escape from the above-ground heat.
6. What is the significant of age pyramids? List the different types of age pyramids.
The shape of the pyramids reflects the growth status of the population.For example growing,
stable or declining population.
7. Population size, more technically called population density (designated as N), need
not necessarily be measured in numbers only. Explain the reasons for this with
examples.
If the population is huge and counting is impossible or very time-consuming. If you have a
dense laboratory culture of bacteria in a Petri dish what is the best measure to report its density
for certain ecological investigations, there is no need to know the absolute population densities;
relative densities serve the purpose equally well.
For example, the number of fish caught per trap is good enough measure of its total population
density in the lake.
For example, the tiger census in our national parks and tiger reserves is often based on pug
marks and fecal pellets.
8. Mention factors that keeps the population size changing in time.
Food availability, predation pressure and adverse weather.
9. In the equation, dN/dt = rN (KN / N), r,K,N stand for what?
N = Population density at time t
r = Intrinsic rate of natural increase
K = Carrying capacity.
10. Graphically represent the exponential growth curve with the equation.
11. Graphically represent the logistic growth curve with the equation.
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One petal of Ophrys resembles the female of a bee, male bees are attracted to it / perceives it
as female, pseudocopulates, same male bee pseudocopulates with another flower of Ophrys
and pollination is completed.
18. How do organisms like fungi, zooplanktons and bears overcome the temporary shortlived climatic stressful conditions? Explain.
Fungi - produce thick walled spores to survive unfavorable condition
Zooplanktons - diapause to suspend development
Bear undergo hibernation in winter
19. How does our body adapt to low oxygen availability at high attitudes?
Increased RBC production
Decreasing binding capacity of haemoglobin
Increasing breathing rate
20. Why are small animals rarely found in Polar Regions?
Heat loss or heat gain is a function of surface area
Small animals large surface area relative to volume
Lose body heat fast have to expend more energy through metabolism
21. How do organisms cope with stressful external environmental conditions which are
localized or for short duration?
If the stressful external environmental conditions which are localized or for short
duration, the animals have two options.
Migrate: The organism can move away temporarily from the stressful habitat to a more
hospitable area and return when stressful period is over. In human analogy, this strategy is like
a person moving from Delhi to Shimla for the duration of summer. Many animals, particularly
birds, during winter undertake long-distance migrations to more hospitable areas. Every winter
the famous Keolado National Park (Bharatpur) in Rajasthan host thousands of migratory birds
coming from Siberia and other extremely cold northern regions.
Suspend: In bacteria, fungi and lower plants, various kinds of thick-walled spores are formed
which help them to survive unfavourable conditions these germinate on availability of suitable
environment. In higher plants, seeds and some other vegetative reproductive structures serve
as means to tide over periods of stress besides helping in dispersal they germinate to form
new plants under favourable moisture and temperature conditions. They do so by reducing their
metabolic activity and going into a state of dormancy
22. Mr. Ram on a trip to Rohtang Pass Suddenly experienced heart Palpitations, Nausea,
fatigue etc on reaching the destination. Suggest the reasons for his sudden deterioration
of health and also state Whether his body will withstand this problem if he stays there
for long and how?
1) Atmospheric pressure in Rohtang pass, which is at high altitude, is low and hence the body
does not get enough oxygen. Ram is suffering from altitude sickness. 1+1
If he stays for long the following change will occur in the body and he will become acclimatised
to the conditions. 1
a) RBC production increases
b) Breathing rate increases
c) Binding capacity of hemoglobin decreases.
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23. Anand on a visit through an under the ocean aquarium found that many sea
anemones are attached to hermit crab shells, sucker fisher attached to the ventral
surface of sharks and clown fish living among the sea anemones. He wondered whether
all these associations are of the same type; can you help him to arrive at the correct
conclusion. 3
a) Relation between sea anemones and hermit crab is mutualism since sea anemones protects
the hermit crab and crab provides bits of food to sea anemone, thus both benefitted. 1
b) Relation between shark and suckerfish is commensalisms because only sucker fish gets
food and is benefitted while shark is neither harmed nor benefitted. 1
c) Relation between sea anemone and clown fish is also commensalism since only the fish gets
protection from predators.
24. Darwin showed that even a slow growing animal like elephant could reach
enormous number in absence of checks. With the help of your understanding of
growth models, explain when is this possible? Why is this notion unrealistic?
Possible if the growth model is Exponential, i.e., having unlimited resources.
It is an unrealistic situation because resources are limited. Hence, it follows logistic growth
model.
25. How will you measure population density in following cases?
(i) fish in a lake (ii) tiger census in a national park (iii) single huge banyan tree with large
canopy.
(a) Fish caught per trap.
(b) Number per unit area
(c) Percentage covers in biomass.
26. List the characteristic features of endoparasites.
Life cycle is more complex in endoparasites.
Morphological and anatomical features are greatly simplified.
Highly developed reproductive system.
27.Explain brood parasitism with the help of an example.
Brood parasitism in birds is fascinating examples of parasitism in which the parasitic bird lays its
eggs in the nest of its host and lets the host incubate them. During the course of evolution, the
eggs of the parasitic bird have evolved to resemble the hosts egg in size and color to reduce
the chances of the host bird detecting the foreign eggs and ejecting them from the nest. Try to
follow the movements of the cuckoo (koel) and the crow in your neighborhood park during the
breeding season (spring to summer) and watch brood parasitism in action
5 MARK QUESTIONS
1. Explain Physiological adaptation to high altitude by humans. How the bodies solve the
problem?
Adaptation in high altitude:
A person move to high altitude (>3,500 meter), develop altitude sickness.
Symptoms developed are nausea, fatigue and heart palpitations.
This is due to low atmospheric pressure of high altitudes; the body does not get enough
oxygen.
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The body compensates low oxygen availability by increasing red blood cell production.
The body compensates decreasing binding capacity of hemoglobin with oxygen by increasing
rate of breathing.
2. Explain Different strategies developed by animals to escape in time.
In animals, the organism, if unable to migrate, might avoid the stress by escaping in time.
The familiar case of bears going into hibernation during winter is an example of escape in time.
Some snails and fish go into aestivation to avoid summerrelated problems-heat and
desiccation. Under unfavorable conditions many zooplankton species in lakes and ponds are
known to enter diapause, a stage of suspended development
3.Explain different Adaptation of plants and animals for dry conditions.
Adaptation of animal in desert:
Kangaroo rat meets their water requirement from oxidation of fat.
Excrete very concentrate urine to conserve water.
Adaptation of plant in desert (xerophytes)
Thick cuticle on their leaf surfaces.
Sunken stomata, both to reduce transpiration.
Have special photosynthetic pathway (CAM), stomata closed during day time and remained
open during night.
Opuntia has no leaf- they are reduced to spines.
Photosynthesis takes place in flat green stems.
4. Explain Exponential growth and its characteristics.
Exponential growth:
The Exponential growth equation is Nt = N0ert
Nt = Population density after time t
N0 = Population density at time zero
r = intrinsic rate of natural increase
e = the base of natural logarithms (2.71828)
Exponential growth (J shape curve is obtained).
When resources are not limiting the growth.
Any species growth exponentially under unlimited resources conditions can reach
enormous population densities in a short time.
Growth is not so realistic.
5. Explain Logistic growth and its characteristics..
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When this same bee pseudocopulates with another flower, it transfers pollen to it and thus,
pollinates the flower.
This is an example for how co-evolution operates. If the female bees colour patterns change
even slightly for any reason during evolution, pollination success will be reduced unless the
orchid flower co-evolves to maintain the resemblance of its petal to the female bee.
9. Draw and explain a logistic curve for a population of density (N) at time (t) whose
intrinsic rate of natural increase is (r) and carrying capacity is (k).
A population growing in a habitat with limited resources show initially a lag phase , this is
followed by phases of acceleration and deceleration , and finally an asymptote when the
population density reaches carrying capacity (K) , A plot of N in relation to time (t) result in a
sigmoid curve (Verhulst - Pearl Logistic Growth)
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1) Curve 'a' represents exponential growth where the resources are not limiting the growth.
1
b) Curve 'b' represents logistic growth where the resources are limiting the growth 1
2)
a) Which type of growth curve does it represent?
2) a) Logistic growth curve
b) What do the notations represent in the above equation?
b) N= population density at-timet1
r=Intrinsic rate of increase
K= carrying capacity
19. Species facing competition might evolve mechanism that promotes coexistence rather than exclusion. Justify this statement in light of Gauses
competitive exclusion principle, citing suitable examples.
Gauses Competitive Exclusion Principle states that two closely related species competing for
the same resources cannot co-exist indefinitely and the competitively inferior one will be
eliminated eventually. This may be true if resources are limiting, but not otherwise.
More recent studies do not support such gross generalizations about competition. While they do
not rule out the occurrence of inter-specific competition in nature, they point out that species
facing competition might evolve mechanisms that promote co-existence rather than exclusion.
One such mechanism is resource partitioning.
If two species compete for the same resource, they could avoid competition by choosing, for
instance, different times for feeding or different foraging patterns.
MacArthur showed that five closely related species of warblers living on the same tree were
able to avoid competition and co-exist due to behavioral differences in their foraging activities
20. What is altitude sickness? What its causes and symptoms? How does human body
try to overcome altitude sickness?
Breathlessness at high attitudes:
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Cause : Low atmospheric pressure at high altitudes due to which body does not get
enough oxygen.
Symptoms: Nausea, fatigue and heart palpitations.
Body adapts by:
(a) Increasing red blood cell production
(b) Decreasing binding affinity of haemoglobin
(c) By increasing breathing rate.
21.Orchid flower, Ophrys co-evolves to maintain resembelance of its petal to
female bee. Explain how and why does it do so?
Ophrys employs Sexual deceit
1.one petal bears uncanny resemblance to female of the bee.
2.Male bee is attracted to what it perceives as a female pseudocopulates, during which
pollen dusted on male bees body.
3. Male bee transfers pollen to another flower when the same bee pseudocopulates with
another flower.
4.Ophrys does so because pollination success will be reduced unlessit co-evolves with
female bee.
21. Study the 3 representative figures of age pyramid relating to human population given
below and answer the following question:
(a) Mention the names given to the 3 kinds of age profiles (i), (ii), and (iii).
(b) Which one of them is ideal for a population and why?
a)Expanding, Stable and Declining.
b) Stable (ii) is ideal for a population. Because such growth helps in maintenance of resources.
22. Answer the following questions:
(a) Write an equation for Verhulst Pearl logistic Growth Where
N = Population density at a time t
r = Intrinsic rate of natural increase
and
K = Carrying Capacity 1
(b) Draw a graph for a population whose population density has reached the carrying
capacity.
(c) Why is this logistic growth model considered a more realistic one for most animal
populations? 1
Ans:
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a) dN/dt = rN (KN / N)
b)
c) Since resources for growth for most animal populations are finite and become limiting sooner
or later, the logistic growth model is considered a more realistic one.
26. Name the type of interactions seen in each of the following examples:
(a) Ascaris worms living in the intestine of Human
Ans:Parasitism
(b) Wasp pollinating fig inflorescence :
Ans:Mutualsim
(c) Clown fish living among the tentacles of Sea anemone
Ans:Commensalism
(d) Mycorrhizae living on the roots of higher plants
Mutualsim
(e) Orchid growing on the branch of a Mango tree.
Ans:Commensalism
(f) Disappearance of smaller barnacles when Balanus dominated in the coast of Scotland.
Ans: Competitive release
27. Name the interaction in each of the following:
a) Cuscuta growing on a shoe flower plant.
b) Mycorrhizaa living on the roots of higher plants.
c) Clown fish living among the tentacles of sea anemone.
d) Koel laying her eggs in crow's nest.
e) Five closely related species of warblers living on the same tree
a. Parasitism
b. Mutualism
c. Commensalism
d. Brood parasitism
e).Competition with resource partitioning.
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ECOSYSTEM
1 MARK QUESTIONS
1. Define ecosystem.
An ecosystem can be visualized as a functional unit of nature, where living organisms interact
among themselves and also with the surrounding physical environment.
2. Mention the two categories of ecosystem.
Terrestrial and the aquatic
3. Give an example for manmade ecosystem.
Crop fields and an aquarium is considered as man-made ecosystems.
4. Define primary production.
Primary production is defined as the amount of biomass or organic matter produced per unit
area over a time period by plants during photosynthesis.
5. What is the unit for measuring primary production?
It is expressed in terms of weight (g 2) or energy (kcal m 2)
6. Define the term "productivity".
The rate of biomass production is called productivity.
7. What is the unit of measurement for productivity?
It is expressed in terms of g 2 yr 1 or (kcal m 2) yr 1 to compare the productivity of different
ecosystems.
8. Define Gross Primary Productivity.
Gross primary productivity of an ecosystem is the rate of production of organic matter during
photosynthesis.
9. Why GPP is not equal to NPP?
A considerable amount of GPP is utilized by plants in respiration.
10. Define Net primary productivity.
Gross primary productivity minus respiration losses (R), is the net primary productivity (NPP)
11. What is secondary productivity?
Secondary productivity is defined as the rate of formation of new organic matter by consumers.
12. What is the annual net primary productivity of whole biosphere?
The annual net primary productivity of the whole biosphere is approximately 170 billion tons (dry
weight) of organic matter.
13. What is the productivity of oceans?
The productivity of the oceans is only 55 billion tons. Rest of course, is on land.
14. What is decomposition?
The process by which decomposers break down complex organic matter into inorganic
substances like carbon dioxide, water and nutrients and the process is called decomposition.
15. What is detritus?
Dead plant remains such as leaves, bark, flowers and dead remains of animals, including fecal
matter, constitute detritus,
16. What is the raw material for decomposition?
Detritus is the raw material for decomposition.
17. What are producers in an ecosystem?
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The reservoir of gaseous cycle exists in the atmosphere and for the sedimentary
cycle it is located in earth's crust
33. Decomposition is faster if detritus is rich in nitrogen and water soluble
substance like sugars. When is the decomposition process slower?
Its slower if detritus is rich in lignin and chitin.
34. If we count the number of insects on a tree and number of small birds
depending on those insects as also the number of larger birds eating the smaller,
what kind of pyramid of number would we get?
Inverted Pyramid of Number.
35. Differentiate between Sere and Seral communities.
Sere: Entire sequence of communities that successively change in a given area.
Seral community: Individual transitional community.
36. Who are generally the pioneer species in a Xerarch succession and in a
Hydrarch succession?
Pioneer species in Hydrarch succession are usually the small phytoplanktons and that in
Xerarch succession are usually lichens.
37. What percentage of photosynthetically active radiation is captured by plants?
10%
38. Name the pioners of primary succession in water.
Phytoplanktons
39. Why an earth worm is called a detrivore?
Earthworm breaks down detritus into smaller particles.
40. When is the structure and composition of a community expected to remain
unchanged?
When the environment remains unchanged.
41. What is the starting point of a detritus food chain?
Death of an organism is the starting point of detritus food chain.
42. Give an example to show how the same species can occupy more than one
trophic level in the same ecosystem.
Sparrow is primary consumer when eats seeds and secondary consumer when it eats
worms.
43. What is a climax community?
A community that is in near equilibrium with the environment.
44. What is ecological succession?
The gradual and fairly predictable change in the species composition of a given area is called
ecological succession.
45. What are sere(s)?
The entire sequence of communities that successively change in a given area are called
sere(s).
46. What are seral communities?
During succession, the individual transitional communities are termed seral stages or seral
communities.
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47. What is the characteristic feaure that is observed in searl communities during
different stages succession?
In the successive seral stages there is a change in the diversity of species of organisms,
increase in the number of species and organisms as well as an increase in the total biomass.
48. What is primary succession?
Succession is hence a process that starts where no living organisms are there.
49. Give an example for an area where the primary succession begins.
Newly cooled lava, bare rock, newly created pond or reservoir.
50. What is secondary succession?
Succession that occurs in areas that somehow, lost all the living organisms that existed there.
51. Give an example for an area where secondary succession begins.
Secondary succession begins in areas where natural biotic communities have been destroyed
such as in abandoned farm lands, burned or cut forests, lands that have been flooded.
52. Why secondary succession is faster than primary succession?
Since some soil or sediment is present, succession is faster than primary succession.
53. Based on the nature of the habitat, what are the types of succession is present?
Two types-hydrarch or xerarch
54. What is hydrarch succession?
Hydrarch succession takes place in wetter areas and the successional series progress from
hydric to the mesic conditions
55. What is xerach succession?
Xerarch succession takes place in dry areas and the series progress from xeric to mesic
conditions.
56. What is a pioneer species?
The species that invade a bare area are called pioneer species.
57. Define 'standing state'
The amount of nutrients, such as carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, etc., present in the soil
at any given time, is referred to as the standing state
58. What is nutrient cycling?
The movement of nutrient elements through the various components of an ecosystem is called
nutrient cycling.
59. What is the other name for nutrient cycling?
Another name of nutrient cycling is biogeochemical cycles.
60. What is the reservoir for the carbon cycle?
Atmosphere
61. What is the reservoir for the phosphorus cycle?
Earth's crust
62. What is the function of reservoir in nutrient cycling?
The function of the reservoir is to meet with the deficit which occurs due to imbalance in the rate
of influx and efflux.
63. Write one difference between net primary productivity and gross productivity.
Gross productivity - Rate of production of organic matter during photosynthesis
Net primary productivity - Available biomass for the consumption to heterotrophs /
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GPP - R = NPP
64. Name the dominant producers in a aquatic ecosystem. What other name could you
give to primary consumers?
Plants, Herbivores.
65. What is meant by saying that the energy flow in an ecosystem is unidirectional?
The energy flow in an ecosystem is unidirectional means energy flows in one direction only from
producer to consumers and does not come back to source.
66. Name the ecological pyramid that can be inverted in a tree eco-system.
Pyramid of Number
67. What are the starting points of grazing food chain and detritus food chain?
Grass and Detirus respectively.
68. What is meant by species composition of any ecosystem?
Species composition means all the plant, animal and microbial species present in an ecosystem
69. What is the approximate value of net primary productivity of the Biosphere?
170 billion tons (Dry Weight)
70. What % of Productivity is contributed by Oceans?
55 billion tons
71. What is meant by Humification?
It is the process of formation of humus.
72. What is meant by PAR?
Photosynthetically Active Radiation
73. What are producers in an Eco System?
Green Plants
74. Why is food chain formed in a nature?
Food chain is formed because one organism depends on other for food.
75. What are consumers in an eco system?
Animals
76. Name the trophic level occupied by a secondary & tertiary consumers.
Primary Carnivores and Secondary Carnivores
77. Why is measurement of bio-mass in terms of dry weight more accurate than fresh
weight?
Measurement of bio-mass in terms of dry weight more accurate than fresh weight because
fresh weight contains a large amount of water which decreases due to drying.
78. Name the ecological pyramid that is always upright.
Pyramid of Energy
79. Why is pyramid of biomass inverted in a water body?
Pyramid of Biomass is inverted in a water body because the biomass possessed by fish
(Consumer) is larger than the phytoplanktons (producers)
80. Mention one similarity between hydrach & xerarch succession
Both type of succession leads to medium water conditions or mesic conditions i.e. neither too
dry nor too wet.
81. Name any two factors on which the type of pioneer species if plant develops in
secondary succession.
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Condition of Soil
Availability of water
82. How much of carbon is fixed in the biosphere through photosynthesis annually?
4x10 13 kg
83. How much carbon is dissolved in the Ocean?
71% of global carbon.
84. Which metabolic process causes a reduction in the Gross Primary Productivity?
Respiration
2 MARKS QUESTIONS
1. Why the primary productivity differs in different ecosystems?
Primary productivity depends on the plant species inhabiting a particular area. It also depends
on a variety of environmental factors, availability of nutrients and photosynthetic capacity of
plants. Therefore, it varies in different types of ecosystems.
2. Depict a simple grazing food chain.
A simple grazing food chain (GFC) is depicted below:
Grass
Goat
Man
(Producer) (Primary Consumer) (Secondary consumer)
3. Write a note on detritus food chain.
Detritus food chain: Begins with dead organic matter (detritus) and pass through detritus
feeding organism in soil to organisms feeding on detritus-feeders.
In aquatic ecosystem GFC is the major conduit for energy flow.
In terrestrial ecosystems a much larger fraction of energy flows through the detritus food chain
than through GFC.
4. Cite an example of an inverted ecological pyramid. What kind of pyramid of energy
would it have?
Pyramid of biomass of sea.
Always upright.
5. List the two types of nutrient cycles.
Nutrient cycles are of two types: (a) gaseous and (b) sedimentary.
6. Explain the impact of human activity of carbon cycle.
Human activities have significantly influenced the carbon cycle.
Rapid deforestation and massive burning of fossil fuel for energy and transport have
significantly increased the rate of release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere
7. What are decomposers? Write their function.
a) Saprotrophs feed on dead bodies of organisms,
b) Decomposition and mineralization.
8. What is the difference between gaseous and sedimentary cycle?
a) Gaseous-Reservoir in atmosphere, Carbon/Nitrogen cycle
b) Sedimentary-Soil, eg-phosphorus.
9. Why is the length of a food chain in an ecosystem generally limited to 3-4 trophic levels?
As 90% energy is lost in the form of heat from one trophic level to another, residual energy
decreases drastically within 2-3 trophic levels.
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10. What are the differences between detritus and grazing food chains?
Ans-a) Begins with Detritus-dead and decaying organic matter. b) Grazing-Begins with
living green plants.
11. What are the two basic catagories of ecosystem? Give example.
Ans-a) Terrestrial-Forest, grassland, desert. b) Aquatic-Pond, lake, sea, ocean
12. Mention two factors by which productivity is limited in an aquatic ecosystem.
Ans-a) Light-decreases with increasing water depth. b) Nutrient Limiting factor in
Deep Ocean.
13. What is food chain? Give an example.
Ans-a) Food and feeding relation among organisms makes a chain like structure b) Grass
DeerLion
14. "Flow of energy is unidirectional but nutrient flow is in a cycle" Give reason
Energy flow is always from the sun to 'producers' and to the different trophic levels. so it is
unidirectional. But the nutrients are moving from the living to non-living and vice-versa.
15. "Decomposition is an oxygen requiring process" comment.
Detritus is rich in nitrogen and sugars. For oxidation of nitrogen and sugars oxygen is required
by a class of aerobic microbes.
16. Some organisms are called top carnivores. Why? Give some examples.
Top carnivores do not have direct predators. so they are referred to as top carnivoreseg: Man,
Lion, Tiger etc.
17. Given below is the primary hydrarch succession. Bring out the missing sere stages
in the process.
A-Submerged plant stage, B-Reed swamp stage C-scrub stage, D-Forest
18. Given below is a simplified model of phosphorus cycle. Write down the natural
reservoir of phosphorus and also the processes that put in phosphorus to the soil.
A. Rock minerals B. Weathering C. Decomposition
19. What is the shape of pyramid of biomass in sea? Why?
Inverted, because biomass of fishes far exceeds that of phytoplankton.
20. Give an example of an ecological pyramid which is always upright. Justify your
answer.
Pyramid of energy is always upright and can never be inverted, because when energy
flows from a trophic level to the next trophic level some energy is always lost as heat
at each step.
21. Differentiate between primary succession and secondary succession. Which one
occurs faster?
Primary Succession: A process that starts where no living organisms are there.
Secondary succession : A process that starts in areas which have lostall the living
organisms that existed there.
22. Gaseous nutrient cycle and sedimentary nutrient cycles have the reservoir. Name
them. Why is a reservoir necessary?
Reservoir for Gaseous nutrient cycle: Atmosphere; for sedimentary
Nutrient cycle: Earths crust. Reservoir is needed to meet with the deficit
which occurs due to imbalance in the rate of influx and efflux.
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23. Fill up the missing links depicted as A, B, C and D in the given model of
primary succession.
2. Nutrient cycling
3. Generate fertile soil
4. Provide habitat for wildlife
5. Pollinate flower
6. Maintain Biodiversity
7. Provide aesthetic, cultural & spiritual values
Robert Constanza gave price tags to ecosystem services.
Most important ecosystem services provider: Soil formation.
29. State the difference between the first trophic levels of detritus food chain and grazing
food chain
DFC-Dead and decaying organic matter/ Dead remains of plants and animals
GFC-Living green plants/producers
30. Cite an example for inverted ecological pyramid. What kind of pyramid of energy
would it have?
Sea/ forest large tree. Upright.
31. When is the structure and composition of a community remain unchanged?
When the environment remains unchanged
32. a) Compare detritus food chain and grazing food chain in terms of their origin.
b) Which among the two is the major contributor to energy flow in aquatic
ecosystem?
Detritus food chain begins from the dead and decaying matter while grazing food chain starts
from the green plants (Producers).
Major contributor to energy flow: Grazing food chain.
33. Name the type of food chains responsible for the flow of larger fraction of energy in
an aquatic and a terrestrial ecosystem respectively. Mention one difference between the
two food chains.
Aquatic ecosystem - Grazing Food Chain / GFC.
Terrestrial ecosystem - Detritus Food Chain / DFC.
Difference: GFC begins with phytoplanktons / producers whereas DFC begins with dead
organisms/ detritus.
34. How are standing crop and biomass related to each other?
Each trophic level has a certain mass of living material at a particular time called as the
standing crop.
The standing crop is measured as the mass of living organisms (biomass) or the number in a
unit area. The biomass of a species is expressed in terms of fresh or dry weight.
35. Differentiate between a detrivore and a decomposer giving an example of each.
Detrivore feeds on dead plants and animals / detritus
Example: Earthworm / Nematodes
Decomposer breaks down complex ( organic ) matter into simpler ( inorganic ) matter
Example: Fungus / Bacteria.
36. The gradual and predictable change in the species composition of a given area is
called ecological succession. What do you understand with the pioneer and climax
community in this context?
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3 MARKS QUESTIONS
1. What are the limitations of ecological pyramids?
It does not take into account the same species belonging to two or more trophic levels.
It assumes a simple food chain, it never exits in nature.
It does not accommodate food web.
Saprophytes are not given place in ecological pyramids
2. How does phosphorus cycle differs from carbon cycle?
There is no respiratory release of phosphorus into atmosphere.
Atmospheric inputs of phosphorus through rainfall are much smaller.
Gaseous exchange of phosphorus between organism and environment are negligible.
3. Study the table given below and fill the blanks from A to F.
8. Name the pioneer species on a bare rock. How do they help in establishing the next
type of vegetation? Mention the type of climax community that will ultimately get
established.
Lichens
Lichens which are able to secrete acids to dissolve rock, helping in weathering and soil
formation.
Climax community is forest community.
9. Construct an ideal pyramid of biomass
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12. Explain how does a primary succession start on a bare rock and reach climax
community.
The species that invade a bare area are called pioneer species. In primary succession on rocks
these are usually lichens which are able to secrete acids to dissolve rock, helping in weathering
and soil formation. These later pave way to some very small plants like bryophytes, which are
able to take hold in the small amount of soil. They are, with time, succeeded by bigger plants,
and after several more stages, ultimately a stable climax forest community is formed. The
climax community remains stable as long as the environment remains unchanged. With time
the xerophytic habitat gets converted into a mesophytic one.
13. Answer the following:
a) Explain primary productivity and the factors influence it.
b) Describe how oxygen and chemical composition of detritus control decomposition do.
a) Primary productivity depends on the plant species inhabiting a particular area. It also
depends on a variety of environmental factors, availability of nutrients and photosynthetic
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capacity of plants. Therefore, it varies in different types of ecosystems. The annual net primary
productivity of the whole biosphere is approximately 170 billion tons (dry weight) of organic
matter. Of this, despite occupying about 70 per cent of the surface, the productivity of the
oceans is only 55 billion tons. Rest of course, is on land.
b) Decomposition is largely an oxygen-requiring process. The rate of decomposition is
controlled by chemical composition of detritus and climatic factors. In a particular climatic
condition, decomposition rate is slower if detritus is rich in lignin and chitin, and quicker, if
detritus is rich in nitrogen and water-soluble substances like sugars. Temperature and soil
moisture are the most important climatic factors that regulate decomposition through their
effects on the activities of soil microbes. Warm and moist environment favor decomposition
whereas low temperature and anaerobiosis inhibit decomposition resulting in buildup of organic
materials.
14. Interspecific interactions of two species of any population may be beneficial,
detrimental or neutral. Explain each of them with the help of suitable examples.
Secondary succession begins in areas where natural biotic communities have been destroyed
such as in abandoned farm lands, burned or cut forests, lands that have been flooded.
Since some soil or sediment is present, succession is faster than primary succession
17. Explain why ecological succession will be faster in a forest devastated by fire than on
a bare rock? Also compare succession in case of an abandoned land after floods with
that on a bare rock?
Since some soil or sediment is present, succession is faster in a forest devastated by fire than
on a bare rock.
In secondary succession in an abandoned land after floods, the species that invade depend on
the condition of the soil, availability of water, the environment as also the seeds or other
propagules present. Since soil is already there, the rate of succession is much faster and
hence, climax is also reached more quickly.
On a bare rock, the establishment of a new biotic community is generally slow. Before a biotic
community of diverse organisms can become established, there must be soil. Depending mostly
on the climate, it takes natural processes several hundred to several thousand years to produce
fertile soil on bare rock
18. What will happen to an ecosystem if:- (a) all producers are removed; (b) All
organisms of herbivore level are eliminated and; (c) All top carnivore population is
removed.
a. Reduction in Primary Productivity and biomass of producers. No biomass available for
transfer to next higher tropic levels.
b. Increase in Primary productivity and biomass of producers. Carnivore population will
dwindle.
c. Overgrazing leading to desertification
20. How does primary succession start in water and lead to the climax community?
Explain.
In primary succession in water, the pioneers are the small phytoplanktons, they are replaced
with time by free-floating angiosperms, then by rooted hydrophytes, sedges, grasses and finally
the trees. The climax again would be a forest. With time the water body is converted into land
21. Schematically represent simplified model of carbon cycle.
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23. Explain the function of reservoir in a nutrient cycle. List the two types of nutrient
cycles in nature.
The function of reservoir is to meet with the deficit which occurs due to imbalance in the rate of
influx and efflux.
Gaseous cycle and Sedimentary cycle.
5 MARKS QUESTIONS
1. Describe pond ecosystem.
The abiotic components include all dissolved inorganic and organic substances and the rich soil
deposit at the bottom of the pond.
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The solar input, cycle of temperature, day length, regulates the rater of function of the entire
pond.
The producer (autotrophic) includes phytoplankton, some algae and the floating, submerged
and marginal plants found in edge of pond.
The consumers are represented by zooplankton, free swimming and bottom dwelling animals.
2. Describe the process of decomposition.
The decomposers are the fungi, bacteria especially abundant at the bottom of the pond.
Detritivores (e.g., earthworm) break down detritus into smaller particles. This process is called
fragmentation.
By the process of leaching, water- soluble inorganic nutrients go down into the soil horizon and
get precipitated as unavailable salts. Bacterial and fungal enzymes degrade detritus into simpler
inorganic substances. This process is called as catabolism.
It is important to note that all the above steps in decomposition operate simultaneously on the
Humification and mineralization occur during decomposition in the soil.
Humification leads to accumulation of a dark colored amorphous substance called humus that is
highly resistant to microbial action and undergoes decomposition at an extremely slow rate.
Being colloidal in nature it serves as a reservoir of nutrients.
The humus is further degraded by some microbes and release of inorganic nutrients occurs by
the process known as mineralization.
3. Explain the factors affecting the process of decomposition.
Decomposition is largely an oxygen-requiring process.
The rate of decomposition is controlled by chemical composition of detritus and climatic factors.
In a particular climatic condition, decomposition rate is slower if detritus is rich in lignin and
chitin, and quicker, if detritus is rich in nitrogen and water-soluble substances like sugars.
Temperature and soil moisture are the most important climatic factors that regulate
decomposition through their effects on the activities of soil microbes.
Warm and moist environment favor decomposition whereas low temperature and anaerobiosis
inhibit decomposition resulting in buildup of organic materials
4. Schematically represent decomposition cycle with a simplified model.
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Fossil fuel also represents a reservoir of carbon. Carbon cycling occurs through atmosphere,
ocean and through living and dead organisms. According to one estimate 4 10 13 kg of carbon
is fixed in the biosphere through photosynthesis annually. A considerable amount of carbon
returns to the atmosphere as CO2 through respiratory activities of the producers and
consumers. Decomposers also contribute substantially to CO2 pool by their processing of waste
materials and dead organic matter of land or oceans. Some amount of the fixed carbon is lost to
sediments and removed from circulation. Burning of wood, forest fire and combustion of organic
matter, fossil fuel, and volcanic activity are additional sources for releasing CO2 in the
atmosphere.
7. Detrivores like earthworm are involved in the process of decomposition of dead
plants and animals. Describe the different steps involved in the process of
decomposition.
The dead remains of plants and animals called detritus undergo decomposition and are
converted into simpler substances. The steps of this process are:
(i) Fragmentation : Breakdown of detritus into smaller pieces by detrivores like
earthworm.
(ii) Leaching : Water soluble inorganic nutrients go down into soil horizon and get precipitated
as unavailable salts.
(iii) Catabolism: Bacterial and fungal enzymes degrade detritus into simpler inorganic
substances.
(iv) Humification : It leads to accumulation of dark coloured amorphous substance called
humus which is highly resistant to microbial action so decomposes at slow rate and is
rich in nutrients.
(v) Mineralization : Humus is further degraded by some microbes and release of inorganic
nutrients occurs.
8. Answer the following:
(a) Trace the succession of plants on a dry bare rock.
(a) Primary succession - lichens, secrete acids to cause weathering of rock and soil formation,
Small plants like bryophytes, to hold the soil,
Herbs, scrubs, shrubs succeed in existence,
Trees, forest, climax community.
(b) How does phosphorus cycle differ from carbon cycle?
(b) No respiratory release of phosphorus unlike CO2. In carbon cycle / No gaseous exchange
Inputs of phosphorus through rainfall is less than carbon input.
9. Answer the following:
(a) Explain primary productivity and the factors that influence it.
Ans. (a) Primary productivity: amount of biomass / organic matter produced per unit area over a
time period by the plant during photosynthesis.
Factors: availability of nutrients / quality of light available / availability of water / temperature of
the given place / type of plant species of the area / photosynthetic capacity of the plants. (Any
Four)
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(b) Describe how oxygen and chemical composition of detritus control decomposition
do.
(b) Oxygen increases rate of decomposition
Chemical: decomposition is slow when chitin and lignin are present
10. Answer the following:
(i) Define decomposition and describe the process of decomposition.
(ii) Draw schematically the phosphorus cycle in nature.
(i) The process by which decomposers break down complex organic matter into inorganic
substances like carbon dioxide, water and nutrients and the process is called decomposition
The decomposers are the fungi, bacteria especially abundant at the bottom of the pond.
Detritivores (e.g., earthworm) break down detritus into smaller particles. This process is called
fragmentation.
By the process of leaching, water- soluble inorganic nutrients go down into the soil horizon and
get precipitated as unavailable salts. Bacterial and fungal enzymes degrade detritus into simpler
inorganic substances. This process is called as catabolism.
It is important to note that all the above steps in decomposition operate simultaneously on the
Humification and mineralization occur during decomposition in the soil.
Humification leads to accumulation of a dark colored amorphous substance called humus that is
highly resistant to microbial action and undergoes decomposition at an extremely slow rate.
Being colloidal in nature it serves as a reservoir of nutrients.
The humus is further degraded by some microbes and release of inorganic nutrients occurs by
the process known as mineralization.
(ii)
able to take hold in the small amount of soil. They are, with time, succeeded by bigger plants,
and after several more stages, ultimately a stable climax forest community is formed. The
climax community remains stable as long as the environment remains unchanged. With time
the xerophytic habitat gets converted into a mesophytic one.
(ii) Phosphorus is a major constituent of biological membranes, nucleic acids and cellular
energy transfer systems. Many animals also need large quantities of this element to make
shells, bones and teeth. The natural reservoir of phosphorus is rock, which contains
phosphorus in the form of phosphates. When rocks are weathered, minute amounts of these
phosphates dissolve in soil solution and are absorbed by the roots of the plants. Herbivores and
other animals obtain this element from plants. The waste products and the dead organisms are
decomposed by phosphate-solubilising bacteria releasing phosphorus. Unlike carbon cycle,
there is no respiratory release of phosphorus into atmosphere
12. Explain xerarch succession.
The species that invades bare area are called pioneer species.
In primary succession on bare rock the pioneer species is the lichen.
Lichen secretes acid to dissolve rock, helping in weathering and soil formation.
The little soil, leads to growth of bryophytes (mosses).
The mosses speed up the process of soil accumulation by trapping wind-blown particles.
Lichen moss carpet provides suitable substratum for the germination of seeds of herbaceous
plants.
Gradually more soil is accumulated and herbaceous species make way for the invasion of
shrubs followed by trees.
The climax community is generally dominated by trees.
13. Explain hydrarch succession.
In primary succession in water, the pioneers are the small phytoplanktons,
They are replaced with time by free-floating angiosperms,
Then by rooted hydrophytes, sedges, grasses and finally the trees.
The climax again would be a forest. With time the water body is converted into land
All the succession whether taking place in water or on land, proceeds to a similar climax
community the mesic.
14. Explain Carbon cycle.
Carbon constitutes 49 percent of dry weight of organism.
Out of total global carbon,71 percent carbon found dissolved in ocean. About 1 percent in the
atmosphere. 4 X 1013 kg of carbon is fixed in the biosphere by photosynthesis, annually.
Large amount of carbon returned to the atmosphere as CO2 through respiration of producers
and consumers.
Decomposers also return CO2 to reservoir during decomposition process.
Some amount of Carbon is lost to sediments and removed from circulation.
Burning wood, forest fire, combustion of organic matter, fossil fuel, volcanic activities are
additional sources for releasing CO2 to atmosphere.
15. Explain phosphorus cycle.
Phosphorus is a major constituent of biological membranes, nucleic acids and cellular energy
transfer system (ATP)
Page | 21
Page | 22
Chapter-15
BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION
Define biodiversity.
A.
The totality of all living organisms OR A collection of variety of all life forms.
Q2.
A.
Q3.
A.
Walter Rosen.
Q4.
A.
Edward O. Wilson
Q5.
A.
Q6.
A.
Q7.
A.
Q8.
Define a species.
A.
A group of closely related organisms which can interbreed to produce viable and fertile
offsprings.
Q9.
A.
Q10.
A.
Diversity of living organisms within the community or different communities sharing the
same habitat.
Q11.
A.
Q12.
A.
Q13.
A.
Q14.
A.
Eastern Himalayas
Q15.
A.
Habitats with rich endemism and the species are prone to endanger.
Q16.
A.
Q17.
Expand UNEP.
A.
Q18.
A.
Diversity index used to show the distribution of flora and fauna from the poles to the
tropics.
Q19.
Why does tropics contain rich species diversity than temperate region ?
A.
Tropics are subjected to lesser temperature fluctuations and receive more solar energy.
Q20.
A.
Q21.
A.
Q22.
A.
Q23.
A.
A foreign species that grow and reproduce rapidly causing major disturbance in the
habitats.
Q24.
A.
Organism that helps to maintain species diversity within an ecosystem by keeping the
number of other species in a ecosystem constant.
Q25.
Expand RDB.
A.
Q26.
A.
Q27.
A.
Q28.
A.
Q29.
A.
Q30.
A.
A small population which are neither endangered nor vulnerable but are at the risk.
Q31.
A.
Species which are in the dangers of extinction due to the loss of natural habitats.
Q32.
A.
Q33.
Expand IUCN.
A.
Q34.
A.
Q35.
A.
Q36.
A.
The species which is traditionally conserved and dedicated to the local deities and are of
cultural /religious values.
Q37.
A.
They are the small patches of natural forests dedicated to the local deities so that no
one harms them.
Q38.
A.
Q39.
What is cryopreservation ?
A.
Placing the cells / tissues /seeds in liquid nitrogen of -196oC for indefinite period of time
without losing their viability.
Q40.
A.
Q41.
A species which is found only in a particular area because of isolation and climatic
condition.
A.
Any community with more species generally tends to be more stable than those with
less species. The stable community must be resilient to the occasional disturbances. The
stable community should not show any variation in less period of time. Increased
diversity contributes to higher productivity of any ecosystem.
Q2.
A.
The four major causes of biodiversity loss are; i) Habitat loss degradation of natural
habitats are threatening the species. ii) Over-exploitation Need turned greed has led
to over exploitation of natural resources. iii) Alien species Invasion of alien species in
the natural habitats cause decline in the native species. iv) Co-extinction when one
organism becomes extinct , the other associated obligatory species also tend to extinct.
Q3.
A.
In-situ conservation
Conservation of species in the natural
habitat
Most appropriate method
Species protection/assemblage
protection/habitat preservation/national
parks/sanctuaries/reserves/sacred
groves/sacred landscape etc.
Ex-situ conservation
Conservation out of the natural habitat.
Alternative method.
Botanical gardens/zoo/seed
bank/cryopreservation etc.
Q4.
What are sacred groves and sacred species ? Give one example each.
A.
Sacred groves are traditionally conserved forest patches and are dedicated to the local
deity. Ex. Mausmai in Meghalaya, Western Ghat region of Karnataka.
Sacred species are traditionally conserved and protected plant or animal species which
are of cultural and religious importance. Ex. Tulsi, Neem, Cow etc.
Q5.
Despite having the great biodiversity why is Amazon rain forest is under the risk of
desertification.
Naturally the soil is not fertile but the continuous falling of leaves from the vegetation
cover covers the soil. Deforestation reduces this enrichment. In the deforested areas
when the rain water falls directly on to the soil causes erosion. Moreover deforestation
does not allow recycling of essential nutrients for the plants. Hence the rainforests and
their neighbourhood areas are under the threat of desertification.
Biodiversity is important for maintaining the balance in the ecosystem. The continuous
flow of energy is maintained in the ecosystem.
The loss of biodiversity is the cause of great concern. It includes habitat loss, over
exploitation, intensive farming, mining, desertification, erosion, over grazing,
deforestation, pollution, acidification of soil and water, urbanization etc. have
accelerated the process of biodiversity depletion.
Habitat loss is the destruction of ecosystem by unwanted human activities such as
urbanization, intensive farming, deforestation, mining activities and so on. When the
vegetation is cleared for human activities the continuous habitats become fragmented.
This is called habitat fragmentation. When fragments are formed it restricts the
movement of organism across the fragments thereby reducing the gene flow and there
will be decline the species composition. Thick forests receive large amount of water
thereby evaporation and transpiration maintains water cycle. Disappearance of large
habitats makes it vulnerable to draught and desertification.
Over exploitation is the harvesting of renewable resources to the extent of diminishing
returns. Such act would lead to complete destruction and extinction of the natural
resources.
Alien species invasion into the natural grounds has resulted in thinning the indigenous
species. There will be no predation to such alien species and there number keeps
increasing causing a problem.
Co extinction is the simultaneous extinction of multiple species when one is directly
associated with other. When hosts become extinct the parasites also become extinct.
Q2.
biodiversity is known for the multiple benefits such as economical (narrowly utilitarian),
ecological (Broadly utilitarian) and ethical benefits.
Narrow utilitarian includes economical benefits such as food, medicine, industrial and
bioprospecting.
Foods include cereals, pulses, fruits, vegetables, wheat, rice, millets, rice etc are
obtained from plants. From over 10000 varieties of cereals wheat, rice and corn fulfills
1/3rd of the total food demand. IARI identified lesser known plants and animal having
food value. Medicines such as morphine form poppy seeds, taxol from bark of yew tree.
Indian system of medicine uses over 25000 different plant based formulations as drugs.
Majority of cancerous drugs are obtained from the plants itself.
Industrial products such as tannins, dyes, resins are also obtained from the plants.
Bioprospecting is the exploration of molecular, genetic and species level diversity for the
products of economic importance.
Broadly utilitarian deals with unlimited ecological services rendered by biodiversity to
the mankind. Viz., pollination, release of oxygen, esthetic value related to the integrity
of ecosystems.
Pollination by insects, birds, bats and animals is the supreme ecological service which is
crucial to the plants. Plants by way of photo-ionization of water during photosynthesis
produce elemental oxygen as one of the end products. This oxygen gas is responsible for
keeping all the aerobic organisms alive. Modern man has been utilizing habitats for
recreational and aesthetic values. The economical upliftment and awareness about the
biodiversity conservation comes from activities like hiking, camping, gardening, cliff
hanging, mountaining, bird watching, sport fishing etc.
Peter Raven said biodiversity keeps the planet habitable and the ecosystems functional.
These natural services if calculated in terms of money it would be around 3 trillion US $
per year.
Ethical aspects put certain moral principles to the conservation of biodiversity. These
are propagated through cultural, religious and spiritual beliefs.
Chapter-16
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES.
Q1.
Define pollution.
A.
Q2.
A.
The pollutants which are degraded in the nature by the microbes over a period of
time.
Q3.
A.
Q4.
What is CNG ?
A.
CNG is Compressed Natural Gas which burns completely and is a good substitute for
diesel.
Q5.
A.
Q6.
A.
Mercury.
Q7.
A.
Q8.
Define eutrophication.
A.
It is a natural process of ageing of any waterbody due to the influx of rich nutrients.
Q9.
What is biomagnifications ?
A.
The process of accumulation of toxins in the cells and tissues with increased
concentrations along the food chain.
Q10.
Expand DDT.
A.
Dichloro-Diphenyl-Trichloroethane.
Q11.
A.
Certain species whose presence or dominance foretell or predict the change in the
environment in the near future.
Q12.
What is ecosan ?
A.
Ecosan is ecological sanitation. This approach is useful in converting the solid human
excreta into manure.
Q13.
A.
Q14.
What is E-waste ?
A.
Q15.
A.
Q16.
A.
Q17.
A.
Q18.
A.
Q19.
A.
Q20.
A.
A.
When the large amount of sewage water enters into the ponds, rivers, lakes, seas
and oceans, it reduces the amount of free oxygen. This depletes the respiratory
oxygen levels and causes suffocation for aquatic fauna thereby killing aquatic life.
BOD is measured to assess the quality of water with respect to the amount of
organic load.
Q2.
A.
Q3.
A.
When the water is eutrophic, BOD values cross 1.0 level. It is a test used to
determine the amount of oxygen needed by microbes to breakdown organic matter
completely into inorganic materials over a period of time. When the amount of
organic load is more in the water the BOD value also increases.
Q4.
A.
The wastes have increased immensely in the present time due to anthropocentric
activities. As the industrialization produces maximum residues, the nature is not able
to degrade it completely in the given period of time. Hence they accumulate and
cause adverse effects to organisms including man. To overcome this havoc, waste
depositories could be used where the wastes are compressed and buried
underground which may be hazardous in the future days. Alternative method being
incineration where wastes are burnt completely yet there is a risk of air pollution.
Q5.
What are the reasons for the degradation of natural resources by improper
resources utilization and maintenance ?
A.
Soil erosion removal of the fertile top soil by wind and water action, human
interventions like modern agricultural practices, deforestation etc.
Desertification degradation of fertile and into sterile barren land. It results in the
destruction of natural vegetation cover making prone to erosion thereby losing the
nutrients. The main causes are climatic changes, over grazing, intensive cultivation,
deforestation, improper irrigation methods etc.
Water logging irrigation without proper drainage makes water log. It brings
underground salts to the surface. It is called soil salinity. When this is absorbed by
the roots hinders the growth of the plants.
Model Questions of five marks each.
Q1.
Discuss the causes and effects of global warming. What measures to be taken to
control global warming ?.
A.
The largest ecological unit is the biosphere. Global warming & green house effect are
the two faces of a single coin. 'The raised atmospheric temperature by the increase
in concentration of green house gases is global warming.' CO2 & water vapour
absorb IR radiation & become hot. PIERRE LAPLACE observed the operation of the
atmosphere to a green house. The earth harbouring all forms of life is a green house.
It is covered by an atmospheric blanket having gases. These gases reflect 30% of
suns heat & traps 70%. This is called green house effect. Water vapour, CO2, N2O,
CH4, O3 gases are trapped by the atmosphere. These gases are called green house
gases (GHGs). Increased global warming causes problem to all organisms.
Causes
It is caused mainly due to CO2, automobiles, burning coals by power plants, soil
erosion, desertification, increased CFC output into atmosphere etc.
Effects
The effects are extreme heat waves killing life. Arctic polar ice cap is declining at the
rate of 9% per decade, rise is the sea level to flood certain countries like Bangladesh,
Maldives etc. It causes food & water shortage. Destruction of underwater cities
(coral reefs) & meadows result in extinction. But only in the colder climatic regions
global warming brings comfort but in various other places its effect is negative.
Control measures
Constructing green houses in winter for plants. The green house allows only light
to enter into the house & the heat is kept inside the house. This provides warmth
to the plants.
Reforestation replaces maximum carbon dioxide by oxygen.
Reduction of fossil fuel burning can minimize global warming.
Hybrid gas electric engines can cut global warming by one third.
Recycling products can conserve energy as they are made from used ones.
Using natural resources like wind energy, solar energy and wave energy may help
to overcome global warming.
Conservation of energy by using eco-friendly bulbs, carpooling & adopting CFC
free zone.
Q2.
What is ozone layer? How will the enhanced ultraviolet radiation affect us ?
A.
Ozone is a form of oxygen that is in the form of unstable O3 gas which lies as a belt
with pungent odour in the stratosphere of the earths atmosphere. This layer
absorbs ultraviolet radiation shorter than 290n wavelength & prevents UV
radiation from reaching the earths surface.
It is also contributed by oxides of Nitrogen & hydrocarbons. Burning of fossil fuels
contribute oxide of Nitrogen. Hydrocarbons & Nitrogen oxides react together in the
presence of UV radiation resulting in Peroxy-Acetyl-Nitrate (PAN) & ozone, together
they form photochemical smog.
Suphate aerosol emitted through volcanic eruptions cause O3 depletion. ChloroFluoro-Carbon from air conditioners, refrigerators, coolers, coolants cross the ozone
& react with UV rays & chlorine is separated from CFC. And the chlorine atom
attacks ozone and converts as many as 100,000 molecules of ozone into oxygen and
nascent oxygen. (MOLINA CRUTZEN ROWLAND)
CFCs result in the formation of ozone holes through which UV radiation reaches
earths surface directly causing skin cancer, blindness, cataract, herpes, reduces
immune functioning etc. Plants show reduced rate of photosynthesis, retarded
growth. UV damages nucleic acids leading to more number of mutations. Minimizing
the burning of fossil fuels, replacing CFC with substitutes & ban on CFC emitting
materials, reducing rocket firing activities are certain measures to control ozone
depletion.
Q3.
solid
Discuss briefly i)Radio-active wastes. ii) Defunct ships and e-wastes iii) Municipal
wastes.
A.
Radioactive wastes are the products of nuclear power stations or weapons which
emit radioactive particles. Low level radiation wastes have low level radioactivity.
These are produced in the laboratory while using radioactive isotopes, radiotherapy
etc. High level radioactive wastes are destructive and are produced from the atomic
reactors. These pollutants are highly dangerous and the wastes need to be buried
deeper into the earth.
Defunct ships are the worn out and damaged, sunken ships or vessels that need to
be dismantled as scrap. They are also hazardous to the health as they contain
asbestos, mercury, lead etc.
E-wastes are the electronic wastes that are not useful anymore to the computer and
need to be recycled as they contain copper, iron, silicon, gold, and cause hazard to
the health of organisms.
Municipal solid wastes are the debris generated from human habitation, offices,
schools, colleges, hospitals and other public utility buildings. The waste may include
unused food, spoilt food, medicines, waste clothes, garbage, garden waste, dust,
used furnitures, old appliances, news papers, plastics, bottles, broken objects,
metallic goods, bandages, syringes, urine, stool, blood, worn and torn foot wares etc.
all these wastes need to be segregated and disposed either by natural composting,
vermicomposting, dumping in the dumping yard or burning into ashes.
CHAPTER 2
CHAPTER 2
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS
CHAPTER 2
CHAPTER 2
CHAPTER 2
CHAPTER 2
Epicotyl
The portion of the embryonic axis above the level of
cotyledon is called epicotyl that terminates in plumule.
Coleorhiza
In monocot seeds, radical and root cap are covered by
a protective sheath called coleorhizae.
Testa
The outer protective seed layer is called testa.
Pericarp
The wall of ripened ovary or fruit is called pericarp.
CHAPTER 2
17. If one can induce parthenocarpy through the application of growth substances, which fruit would you select
to use parthenocarpy and why?
Parthenocarpy can be induced in banana, grapes and guava to obtain seedless fruits.
18. Are pollination and fertilization necessary in apomixes? Give reasons.
Pollination and fertilization are not necessary because in apomicts, the embryos develop directly develop from
the cells of nucellus, integument or megaspore mother cell.
19. Embryo sacs of some apomictic species appear normal but contain diploid cells. Why?
It is true that many apomicts possess normal looking embryo sacs. The only possibility of the embryo sac
possessing diploid cells is due to failure of meiotic division of megaspore mother cell. The MMC undergo mitosis
instead of meiosis to produce all diploid cells.
20. Can an unfertilized, apomictic embryo sac give rise to a diploid embryo? If yes, How?
Yes. If the embryo develops from the cells of nucellus or integument as they are diploid.
21. Name the mechanism responsible for the formation of seed without fertilization in angiosperms. Give an
example.
Apomixis Eg: grasses and members of asteraceae.
22. Are parthenocarpy and apomixis different phenomenon?
Parthenocarpy and apomixis are different phenomena. Parthenocarpy is the formation of fruits without
fertilization and hence the fruits are seedless. Whereas, apomixis is the phenomenon of formation of seeds
without fertilization. These embryos are genetically identical to the parental plant.
CHAPTER 2
23. In case of Polyembryony, if an embryo develops from synergid, and another from the nucellus, which is
haploid and which is diploid?
Synergid embryo is haploid and Nucellar embryo is diploid.
CHAPTER 2
5. What are the differences between a matured unfertilized embryo sac and a fertilized embryo sac?
Unfertilized embryo sac
Fertilized embryo sac
All the cells are haploid
Zygote is diploid, PEN is triploid and other cells are
haploid
Antipodals and synergids are distinctly present
Antipodals and synergids gradually degenerate
The haploid polar nuclei may fuse to form a diploid Diploid secondary nucleus fertilizes with a haploid male
secondary nucleus
gamete to form a triploid PEN
Egg cell is haploid
Egg cell fertilizes with the male gamete to form a
diploid zygote
6. What are chasmogamous flowers? Can cross pollination occur in cleistogamous flowers? Give reasons.
Chasmagamous flowers open at maturity and expose their anthers and stigma.
Cross pollination does not occur in cleistogamous flowers as they do not bloom or bloom after self pollination.
They are autogamous. Eg: Viola, Oxalis and Commelina
7. What are the characters of insect pollinated flowers (entamophilous flowers)?
The insect pollinated flowers are
Large
Colourful
Showy
fragrant
rich in nectar
provide reward in the form of nectar and pollen
safe place to lay eggs
some flowers produce foul odour to attract flies and beetles
pollen grains are sticky
8. What are the characters of wind pollinated flowers (anemophilous flowers)? Give example.
Pollen grains are light and non-sticky.
Stigma is large & feathery to trap pollen grains.
They have single ovule in each ovary and numerous flowers packed into an inflorescence.
Eg: corn cob & grasses.
8
CHAPTER 2
CHAPTER 2
14. What is meant by emasculation? When and why does a plant breeder employ this technique?
The technique of removal of anthers from the floral bud before their dehiscence using a pair of forceps or
scissors is called emasculation.
Plant breeders employ this technique in artificial hybridization technique to perform crossing experiments and
also to produce commercially superior varieties of plants.
15. What is bagging technique? How is it useful in a plant breeding programme?
The process of covering of emasculated flowers with a bag made of butter paper to prevent the contamination
of stigma from unwanted pollen is called bagging.
It is used to carry out cross breeding by desired pollen for crop improvement programmes.
It is used in the production of commercially superior hybrid varieties.
16. What is triple fusion? Where does it take place? Name the nuclei involved in the triple fusion.
The fusion of one haploid male gamete with two haploid polar nuclei or one diploid secondary nucleus to
produce a triploid endosperm nucleus in the embryo sac is called triple fusion.
It occurs in the central cell of embryo sac.
The nuclei involved in triple fusion are one nucleus from male gamete and two polar nuclei.
17. Explain the development of embryo in angiosperms.
The process of development of embryo from zygote is called embryogenesis. The embryo develops from a
diploid zygote located at the micropylar region of embryo sac. The zygote development takes place after the
formation of certain amount of endosperm from PEN as it requires nourishment. The zygote divides mitotically
to form pro embryo and subsequently into the globular, heart shaped and mature embryo. The mature embryo
has cotyledon/s and an embryonic axis with plumule and radicle.
10
CHAPTER 2
They are
Calyx units called sepals (for protection)
Corolla units called petals (to attract pollinators)
Androecium units called stamens (microsporophylls to produce microspores in their microsporangia)
Gynoecium/pistil units called carpels (megasporophylls to produce megaspores in their
Mega sporangia/ovules)
2. Explain the T.S of mature dithecous anther lobe with a neat labelled diagram.
The androecium is a male reproductive whorl of flower composed of units called stamens. The stamen has a
long narrow slender stalk called filament and a knob like bilobed anther.
The bilobed anther (dithecous) is made up of two anther lobes connected by a sterile connective. It has four
microsporangia (pollen chambers). So it is called tetrasporangiate anther lobe. Each microsporangium has a
sporogenous tissue surrounded by an anther wall made up of four wall layers. These wall layers are produced
from primary parietal cells derived from archesporial cells.
11
CHAPTER 2
CHAPTER 2
together by callose. Each haploid microspore separates from microspore tetrad by callase enzyme secreted by
tapetum layer.
Microspore or pollen grain is the first cell of gametophytic generation. As it produces the male gametes, it is
called male gametophyte. As the microspores develop within the microsporangium, it is called precocious
germination.
MICROSPOROGENESIS
ARCHESPORIAL CELL
SPOROGENOUS CELLS
MITOSIS
MICROSPORE MOTHER
CELL
MEIOSIS
MICROSPORE TETRAD
MICROSPORE
(POLLEN GRAIN)
4. Explain the development and structure of male gametophyte or pollen grain or microspore.
Development of male gametophyte: Microspore is the first cell of gametophytic generation. The nucleus of the
microspore migrates from center to periphery and divides to produce a large vegetative cell (tube cell) and a
small generative cell. Temporary callose wall is laid between the two cells. It dissolves by callase enzyme and the
nucleus of generative cell floats in the cytoplasm of tube cell. This two celled pollen grain is ready to liberate
from pollen sac.
CHAPTER 2
5. Describe the structure of an anatropous ovule or megasporangium with a neat labelled diagram.
The ovule is a small structure attached to the placenta by means of a stalk called funicle. The body of the ovule
fuses with funicle in the region called hilum. The ovule has one or two protective envelopes called Integuments.
These encircle the ovule except at the tip where a small opening called micropyle is organized. The chalaza is
present opposite to the micropylar end representing the basal part of the ovule. The integuments enclose a
mass of cells with reserved food called nucellus. Nucellus encloses the embryo sac or female gametophyte.
OR
Ovule ( megasporangium) has
Funicle stalk of ovule
Hilum body of ovule that attaches to funicle
Raphe a ridge formed by funicle
Integuments covering of nucellus
14
CHAPTER 2
Nucellus a mass of thin walled parenchymetous tissue that covers embryo sac
Embryo sac seven celled, eight nucleated female gametophyte
Chalaza basal portion of the ovule from where integuments arise
Micropyle a small opening left at the apex of integuments
6. Explain the process of megasporogenesis and megagametogenesis (the development of female gametophyte)
(embryosac).
Megasporogenesis: The process of formation of megaspore from megaspore mother cell by the process of
meiosis is called megasporogenesis.
The process of megasporogenesis occurs in megasporangia (ovules) present inside the ovary. Each ovule has
outer integuments enclosing the nutritive tissue called nucellus. Some cells of nucellus develop into diploid
archesporial cells. The archesporial cells undergo periclinal divisions to form outer parietal layer which adds cells
to sporogenous mass during division and inner sporogenous cell that develop into megaspore mother cell
(MMC).
The MMC divides by meiosis to produce a linear tetrad of haploid megaspores. Out of 4 megaspores usually the
upper three degenerate and the lowermost towards
micropylar region enlarges to become a functional
megaspore called embryosac. (This type of development is
MEGASPOROGENESIS &MEGAGAMETOGENESIS
called monosporic development)
ARCHESPORIAL CELL
15
CHAPTER 2
7. Differentiate between microsporogenesis and megasporogenesis. Which type of cell division occurs during
these events? Name the structures formed at the end of these events.
Microsporogenesis
Megasporogenesis
1) The process of formation of microspores from 1) The process of formation of megaspores from
microspore mother cell through meiosis is called megaspore mother cell through meiosis is called
microsporogenesis.
megasporogenesis.
2) It occurs inside the microsporangium of anther.
2) It occurs in nucellus of ovule.
3) Many microspore mother cells are differentiated.
3) Only one megaspore mother cell is differentiated.
4) Microspore mother cell produces tetrad of 4) Megaspore mother cell produces a linear tetrad of
microspores.
megaspores.
5) All the four cells of microspore tetrad are functional. 5) Three megaspores degenerate and only one
megaspore becomes functional and develops into
embryo sac (female gametophyte)
Meiosis occurs during these events.
Microspore and megaspore are the cells produced at the end of these two events.
8. What is pollination? Explain the types and factors favouring self pollination.
Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from anther to receptive stigma of same or another flower.
The types are
I. Autogamy: It is the transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma of the flowers of the same plant.
a) Homogamy It is the transfer of pollen grains from anther to the stigma of the same flower
b) Geitonogamy: It is the transfer of pollen grain from anther of one flower to the stigma of another flower of
the same plant.
Autogamy is favored when
Synchronisation in the release of pollen and stigma receptivity
The flowers are bisexual
Anther and stigma of a flower attain maturation at the same time
Cleistogamy : The flowers do not bloom. Eg: Oxalis, Viola (common pansy) commelina
The anther and stigma lie close to one another
II. Allogamy or cross pollination: The transfer of pollen from anther of one flower to stigma of another flower of
another plant is called allogamy.
Xenogamy: The transfer of pollen grains for anther of one flower to stigma of another flower of a different
plant. It results in genetic recombination.
16
CHAPTER 2
9.
Self sterility or self incompatibility: The pollen grains do not germinate on stigma of same flower due to mutual
inhibition. In this the genetic mechanism prevents the pollen germination on stigma
Eg: Potato, Tobacco, Petunia.
Suppression of one sex: In bisexual flower stamen or carpel is completely suppressed and become sterile
11. Explain the post pollination events or double fertilization process in angiosperms.
The pollen grains usually shed at two celled stage namely vegetative cell and generative cell. Further the
generative cell divides to produce two haploid male gametes in pollen tube. In some plants, the pollen grains
shed at three celled stage where pollen tube carries two male gametes from the beginning.
17
CHAPTER 2
After pollination, the compatible pollen grain germinates on stigma by obtaining nourishment from stigmatic
tissue. The vegetative cell or tube cell germinates into pollen tube through the style called siphonogamy. Then
the pollen tube enters the embryo sac through different regions of ovule. They are
Chalazogamy pollen tube enters through chalaza
Mesogamy - pollen tube enters laterally through integuments
Porogamy pollen tube enters through micropyle
Normally the pollen tube enters through micropyle into the embryosac through synergids. Synergids have
filiform apparatus that guide the entry of the pollen tube into embryo sac. The tip of the pollen tube ruptures to
release two haploid male gametes into embryosac.
One haploid male gamete fertilizes with the diploid secondary nucleus of central cell to form a triploid primary
endosperm cell. This process is called triple fusion. The other haploid male gamete fertilizes with the haploid
egg cell to form a diploid zygote.
Double fertilization: In the above process one haploid male gamete fertilizes with a diploid secondary nucleus to
form a triploid primary endosperm nucleus and the other haploid male gamete fertilizes with the haploid egg
cell to form a diploid zygote (syngamy). Hence is called double fertilization.
12. Write the post fertilization events that occur in angiosperm flower.
The post fertilization events are
Antipodals and synergids disappear
Sepals, petals and stamens wither off
Ovules develop into seeds
Integuments form the seed coats namely testa and tegmen
Primary endosperm cell develops into endosperm that provides nourishment for developing embryo
Zygote develops into embryo
Ovary develops into fruits
Changes occur in flowering plants:
Sepal
Fall off
Petal
Fall off
Stamen
Fall off
Zygote
Embryo
Endosperm (3 N)
Synergid
Disintegrate
18
CHAPTER 2
Antipodals
Disintegrate
Ovary
Fruit
Ovule
Seed
Ovary wall
Integument
.
15. Explain the structure of a typical monocot embryo with a labelled diagram.
The monocot embryo possesses only one cotyledon called scutellum, which is situated towards one side of the
embryonic axis. The embryonic axis has the radicle and root cap enclosed in an undifferentiated sheath called
coleorrhiza. The portion of the embryonic axis above the level of attachment of scutellum is the epicotyl.
Epicotyl has a shoot apex and a few leaf primordial enclosed in a hollow foliar structure called coleoptile.
19
CHAPTER 2
20
CHAPTER 2
The segregation of characters does not take place in the seeds of apomictic hybrids. This helps in conserving
desired traits of hybrids. Hence extensively used in agriculture and horticulture.
Reduced cost of hybrid production.
Accelerated breeding.
Maintain hybrid vigour.
Free from diseases.
Nucellar seedlings of citrus provide better clones.
19. What is Polyembryony? How do they develop? How can it be commercially exploited?
Polyembryony is the occurrence of more than one embryo in a seed.
Polyembryos develop from:
Diploid egg cells
Haploid egg cells (Parthenogenesis)
Secondary nucleus (Parthenogamy)
Megaspores (Diplospory)
Synergids & Antipodals
Nucellar cells & Integument cells (Citrus, Mango) (Adventative embryony)
Cleavage Polyembryony (Gymnosperms, Nicotiana)
All these embryos can be isolated and cultured in artificial medium under aseptic conditions in vitro. Through
micropropagation, many plants can be raised from one seed.
21
2|Page
It acts as a barrier and prevents the entry of microorganisms and some harmful materials like blood proteins and
sex hormones from mothers blood into the foetal blood.
It also acts as an endocrine gland and secretes several hormones like human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG),
human placental lactogen (hPL) progesterone, estrogen, and relaxin (secreted more at the later stages of
pregnancy) & helps to maintain pregnancy.
48. List the hormones that are secreted only during pregnancy in women.
Estrogen, progesterone, prolactin and thyroxin
49. List any four reproductive events in humans.
Gametogenesis, insemination, fertilization, implantation, gestation and parturition
THREE MARKS QUESTIONS
50. Draw a neat labeled diagram of section view of ovary
51. Write diagrammatic enlarged sectional view of a seminiferous tubule showing spermatogenesis.
52. List the different parts of the male reproductive system and mention their specific function each
PARTS OF MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
FUNCTIONS
Testes
Productions of sperms and male sex hormone
Epididymis
Storage and maturation of sperms
Vas deferens
Transportation of sperms
Ejaculatory duct
Conduction of sperms
Penis
Organ of copulation
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Accessory glands:
Seminal vesicle
Prostate gland
Bulbourethral gland/ Cowpers glands
53. List the different parts of the female reproductive system and mention their specific function.
PARTS OF THE FEMALE
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Ovary
Oviduct
Uterus
FUNCTIONS
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Spermatogenesis
Oogenesis
5. There is no vitellogenesis
5. There is vitellogenesis
FIVE MARKS QUESTIONS
58.
59. Explain the process of oogenesis with the help of schematic representation .Oogenesis: The formation of functional
haploid ovum in the ovary by meiosis is called oogenesis.
Phases of oogenesis: It occurs in three phases.
1. Multiplication phase
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2. Growth phase
3. Maturation phase
Multiplication phase: The diploid oogonial cells of the ovarian follicles divides repeatedly by mitosis produce more
oogonium cells.
Growth phase: During this phase the diploid oogonium synthesis (yolk reserve food material) or vitelline in the cytoplasm,
increases in its size and volume to form primary oocyte. This process is called vitellogenesis.
Maturation phase: This phase involves two successive division namely meiosis I and meiosis II. The meiosis I is
reductional and produce two unequal sized cells from each primary oocyte are produced. In which one cell is smaller in
size is often called I polar body, and the other one is larger in size called secondary oocyte.
They undergo meiosis II, resulting in the formation of four haploid cells, in which one is larger in size called ootid and other
three are smaller in size called polar bodies. Finally the ootid converted into functional ovum. So at
the end of
oogenesis one functional ovum and 3 polar bodies are formed. These polar bodies will not survive they undergo
disintegration.
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Middle piece: It contains distal centriole. It gives rise to a long slender axial filament. Around the axial filament double
row of mitochondrial sheath is present called Neubenkern, which provides energy needed for the movement of the
sperm, hence middle piece may also be referred to as engine room of the sperm.
Axial filament is also called Axoneme and arises from the distal centriole which forms the axis of tail.
Tail: It is divided into two parts namely, main piece covered by a cytoplasmic sheath and end piece and it is naked
forms terminal part of the tail.
Human male ejects about 200 to 300 million sperms during coitus. For normal fertility at least 60% of sperms must
have normal shape and size, about 40% of them must shoe vigorous motility.
63. What is menstrual cycle? Explain the phases of menstrual cycle.
A series of rhythmical changes that take place in female reproductive system from puberty (menarche) to menopause
in woman is called menstrual cycle
Menstrual phase: it involves shedding off uterine endometrium. Hence there will be discharge of blood, tissue fluid,
mucous and epithelial
cells. This phenomenon is also called menses. It lasts from about 1st to 5th day of the
cycle.
Pre-Ovulatory phase or proliferative phase: During this phase regeneration and thickening of endometrium of the
uterus occurs. It lasts from about 6th to 13th day of the cycle. During this phase, the secretion of gonadotropins (LH
and FSH) increases gradually during the follicular phase, and stimulates follicular development as well as secretion of
estrogens by the growing follicles.
Ovulatory phase: It involves the release of ovum from the Graafian follicle called ovulation. It takes place on 14th day
of menstrual cycle. During this phase, both LH and FSH attain a peak level in the middle of cycle (about 14th day).
Rapid secretion of LH leading to its maximum level during the mid-cycle called LH surge (increased concentration of
LH) induces rupture of Graafian follicle and thereby the release of ovum (ovulation).
Post Ovulatory phase or secretary phase: During this phase Graafian follicle will be converted into yellow coloured
body corpus luteum. The corpus luteum secretes large amounts of progesterone which is essential for maintenance
of the endometrium. The endometrium is necessary for implantation of the fertilized ovum and other events of
pregnancy. In the absence of fertilization corpus luteum degenerated into corpus albicans and leading to menstrual
phase. In human beings, menstrual cycles cease around 50 years of age; that is termed as menopause. Post
Ovulatory phase lasts for about 15th to 28th day of the cycle.
8|Page
CHAPTER-4
RERPODUCTIVE HEALTH
1. Define reproductive health
Healthy reproductive organs with normal functions.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
OR
A total well-being in all aspects of reproduction, i.e., physical, emotional, behavioral and social.
Expand the abbreviation WHO.
World health organization
Expand the abbreviation RCH.
Reproductive and Child Health Care programmes
Expand the abbreviation STD.
Sexually Transmitted Disease
What is amniocentesis?
Amniocentesis is a foetal sex determination test based on the chromosomal pattern in the
amniotic fluid
surrounding the developing embryo.
Expand the abbreviation CDRI.
Central Drug Research Institute
Name the new oral contraceptive of female developed by CDRI.
Saheli
Expand the abbreviation MMR.
Maternal mortality rate
Expand the abbreviation IMR.
Infant mortality rate
Progestogens alone or in combination with estrogen are used as injections or implants under the skin by female.
Mode of action is similar as in pills
It is very effective for long periods.
SURGICAL METHODS Tubectomy
vasectomy
MTP
55. Explain briefly any five assisted reproductive technologies to overcome from infertility problems.
The most recent line of treatment for infertility involves the use of several progressive techniques, which are collectively
known as assisted conception or assisted reproductive technologies (ART).
The couples could be assisted to have children through some special techniques like IVF and ET, GIFT, ZIFT, IUT, ICSI.
IVF and ET Invitro fertilization and Embryo transfer: Popularly called test tube baby programme.
Fertilization taken place outside the female body means in the lab i.e., in the test tube called invitrofertilization.
GIFT- Gamete intra-fallopian transfer technique: the healthy ova and potent sperms are introduced into the upper
part of the fallopian tube, where fertilization takes place.
ZIFT-Zygote intra-fallopian transfer technique: In this method, after invitro fertilization, the zygotes are transferred
into the fallopian tube.
IUT( intra uterine transfer): Embryos with more than 8 blastomeres, into the uterus, to complete its further
development.
ICSI (Intra cytoplasmic sperm injection): It is another specialized procedure to form an embryo in the laboratory in
which a sperm is directly injected into the ovum.
AI (Artificial insemination): Infertility cases either due to inability of the male partner to inseminate the female or
due to very low sperm counts (oligospermia) in the ejaculates, could be corrected by artificial insemination
technique
IUI (Intra-uterine insemination): In this technique, the semen collected either from the husband or a healthy donor
is artificially introduced either into the vagina or into the uterus of the female.
5|Page
Chapter 5
PRINCIPLES OF INHERITANCE AND VARIATION
One mark questions:
1. What is genetics ?
Study of heredity and variation OR study of gene.
2. What is an allele ?
An alternate form of a gene for a character present on identical loci of two
homologous chromosomes.
3. What is phenotype ?
A physically expressed external character in an individual.
4. What is genotype ?
Genetic make up of an individual for a phenotype.
5. What is dominance?
A gene or a character expressed in heterozygous condition of an organism.
6. What is recessiveness ?
A gene or a character which fails to express in heterozygous condition.
7. What is linkage ?
Genes present on a chromosome remain together and inherited in a
group.
Two mark questions
1. Differentiate homozygous individual from heterozygous individual.
Homozygous Individual having similar genes in allelic pair.
Heterozygous- Individual having dissimilar genes in allelic pair.
2. What is test cross ? Mention its significance.
F1 hybrid
Tt
T
X
X
Recessive parent
tt
t
t
Monohybrid Test cross Ratio
T
Tt
Tall
1
t
tt
Dwarf
:
Significance:
Test Cross is conducted to know the genotype of F1 hybrid .
3. a) In Drosophila melanogaster, the cross between
i. yellow body, white eyed one with its wild type, the percentage of recombination is less.
ii. white eyed, miniature winged one with its wild type, the percentage of
recombination is high.
Give reason for the above statements.
b) Who studied the phenomenon of linkage in Drosophila?
a)
b)
4. Explain the experiment carried out by Morgan in Drosophila to demonstrate linkage. What
is the observation made by him in that experiment?
Morgan hybridized yellow bodied, white eyed females to brown-bodied, red eyed male
and intercrossed their F1 progeny. He observed that the two genes did not segregate
independently of each other and the F2 ratio deviated very significantly from 9:3:3:1.
Morgan found that even when genes were grouped on the same chromosome, some
genes were very tightly linked (showed very low recombination) while others were loosely
linked (showed higher recombination).
5. What is codominance ? Explain with reference to human blood group.
It is the phenomenon of inheritance where both the alleles of heterozygote express
themselves equally at a time.
Eg., In human the blood group AB having the alleles IA and IB express equally by
producing both the sugars antigen A and antigen B.
6. What is polygenic inheritance ? Explain with an example.
II.
III.
Genotypes
IAIA / IA i
IA IB
IBIB/ IBi
i i
2. A red flowered snapdragon plant crossed with white flowered one produce a pink
flowered plant, name and explain the inheritance pattern with schematic representation till
the F2 generation.
Incomplete Dominance:A phenomenon where both the alleles of a character express incompletely producing
a new intermediate phenotype in the heterozygous condition is called incomplete or partial
dominance or blended inheritance.
Eg: Flower colour in Dog flower or snapdragon [Antirrhinum majus]
Explanation:Correns crossed homozygous red flowered plant (RR) with homozygous white
flowered plant (rr), surprisingly in F1 generation all hybrids were pink flowered plants (Rr).
Because the dominant gene (R) fails to mask the recessive gene(r) completely.
When F1 pink flowering plants were self crossed, the F2 generation produce 25% red
flowered plants, 50% pink flowered plants and 25% white flowered plants in 1:2:1 ratio.
Parental
Phenotype
Red flowered
plant
Parental
genotype
Gametes
RR
White flowered
X
plant
rr
F1 hybrid
Selfing
F1
Genotype
Gametes
Rr
F2 generation
Gamete
s
R
r
RR
Red
Rr
Pink
Rr
Pink
rr
White
From the above checker board we can observe that both F2 phenotypic & genotypic
ratio in incomplete dominance are same
i.e., 1
:
2
:
1
Homozygous Heterozygous Homozygous
Red
Pink
White
The Appearance of red and white flowered plants in F2 generation indicates 2 important
features.
The genes for Red & white colour did not mix.
Genes segregated in F2 indicates that there is no specific gene for pink colour.
3. What is a monohybrid cross? Explain the inheritance of one gene, taking height of plant
as a trait in Pisum sativum. Work out the cross upto F2 generation.
It is a cross made between two individuals of a species, considering the inheritance of the
contrasting pair of a single character/trait
OR
Cross between two individuals differing in a pair of contrasting characters
To study the inheritance of one gene, Mendel crossed tall and dwarf Pea plants.
He collected the seeds produced as a result of this cross and grew them to generate
plants of the first hybrid generation. This is also called F1 generation
Mendel observed that all the F1 progeny plants were tall, like one of its parents;
none were dwarf
Mendel then self pollinated the tall F1 plants and to his surprise found that in the F2
generation some of the offspring were dwarf; the character that was not seen in the
F1 generation was now expressed
The proportion of plants that were dwarf were of the F2 plants while of the
plants were tall
Parents
Genotype
Gametes
F1 generation
Selfing of F1 plants
Genotype
Gametes
Tall
TT
T
x
x
Tt
x
x
Tall
Tt
T
Dwarf
tt
t
Tall
Tt
T
T t
T TT Tt
t Tt tt
F2 generation
Phenotypic ratioGenotypic ratio-
Male
44+XY
Gametes
22+X
Female
44+ XX
22+Y
44+ XX
Male progeny
22+X
22+X
44+XY
Female progeny
pure round yellow seed pea plant X pure wrinkled green seed pea plant
Genotype :
RRYY
rryy
Gametes:
RY
ry
F1 generation
F2 generation
Gametes
RY Ry rY ry
RY
Ry
rY
ry
RY
RRYY
RRYy
RrYY
RrYy
Ry
RRY
RRyy
RrYy
Rryy
rY
RrYY
RrYy
rrYY
rrYy
ry
RrYy
Rryy
rrYy
rryy
Chapter-6
MOLECULAR BASIS OF INHERITANCE
I ONE MARKS QUESTIONS
1. Name the nitrogen base present in DNA, but absent RNA.
ANS - Thymine
2. Define transcription.
ANS- the process of synthesis of mRNA from DNA by enzymes
3. What are purines / pyrimidines?
ANS - Double ring nitrogen base called purines. Ex- A& G
Single ring nitrogen base called purines. EX- C, T & U.
4. Name the bond linked between nitrogenous base & sugar.
ANS N glycosidic linkage
5. What is polynucleotide chain?
ANS- more than 5 nucleotide are join end to end to form chain called polypeptide
chain.
6. Who elucidate the structure of DNA?
ANS- Watson & crick
7. Define Erwin Chargaff rule.
ANS amount of purines are equal to Pyrimidines.
8. Define central dogma.
ANS - flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to polypeptide or protein.
9. What is nucleosome?
ANS- The negatively charged DNA is wrapped around the positively charged
histones octomer to form a structure called nucleosome
10. What is replication?
ANS DNA produce an exact copy of itself called replication.
11. What is RNA splicing?
ANS The introns are removed & exons are joined in a definite order
12. How many sensible codons in genetic code dictionary?
ANS - 61
13. UAA, UAG & UGA are called Nonsense codon, why?
ANS these codons do not code for any amino acids.
14. What is mutation?
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ANS- the alteration of DNA sequences results in changes in the genotype &
phenotype of an organism.
15. Define DNA finger printing.
ANS- an analytical technique, sequence of DNA repeats to Identify of individual at
DNA level is known as DNA finger printing
16. Define bioinformatics.
ANS- the management & analysis of the biological information stored in the
databases using computers.
17. In a double strand DNA the percentage of Adenine (A) is 15%. Calculate the % of
Guanine (G).
ANS 35%
II TWO MARKS QUESTIONS
1. Nucleosome composed off?
Histones octomer & DNA
2. Name the amino acids residue carry positive charge of histones.
Lysines & arginines
3. Mention 4 properties of genetic material.
i.
Undergo replication
ii.
Chemically & structurally be stable
iii.
Slow changes (mutation) that are required for evolution.
iv.
Able to express itself in the form of Mendelian Characters
4. Differentiate template strand & coding strand.
One of the DNA strand act as template to produce mRNA called template strand.
The DNA strand which does not code for anything is referred as coding strand
5. Write the function of DNA- dependent RNA polymerase & RNA- dependent DNA
polymerase.
DNA- dependent RNA polymerase - synthesis of mRNA, dependent on DNA strand
RNA- dependent DNA polymerase - synthesis of DNA, dependent on genetic RNA
strand.
6. What are exons & introns?
The coding sequences or expressed sequence of mRNA called Exons.
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Code
- DNA
Codon
- mRNA
Anticodon - tRNA
4. Mention the function of RNA polymerase I, II & III.
RNA polymerase I - Transcribe rRNA
RNA polymerase II - Transcribe precursor of mRNA
RNA polymerase III - Transcription of tRNA, 5srRNA & snRNAs
5. What are the goals of HGP?
i.
Mention a Identify genes in human DNA
ii.
Determine the sequence of human DNA
iii.
Store information in databases.
iv.
Improve data analysis
6. Mention any three level of regulation of gene expression.
i.
Transcriptional level
ii.
Splicing level
iii.
Translational level
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constant and equals to one (That is amount of A=T, and G=C) this is called
Chargaffs rule of base equivalence.
iv. The bases in two strands are paired through hydrogen bond (H bonds) forming
base pairs (bp). There are two hydrogen bonds between A and T, three hydrogen
bonds between G and C.
v. The two chains are coiled in a right handed fashion.
vi. The pitch of the helix is 3.4 nm or 34 & there are roughly 10 bp in each turn.
vii. Double stranded DNA molecule has a diameter of 20 and distance between two
successive base pairs is 0.34nm (3.4 ).
viii. The plane of one base pairs stacks over the other in double helix. This in addition
to H bonds, confers stability of the helical structures.
2. With labeled diagram explain packaging of DNA helix.
The human DNA in a cell contains 6.6 109 base pairs and its length is about 2.2
meters (6.6 109x0.34x109m/bp). It is greater than the dimension of the nucleus (106).
The long polymer DNA is present in highly folded or packed form in the nucleus.
In prokaryotes the negatively charged DNA held with some positively charged proteins
in a region called nucleoid. Thus DNA forms large loops held by proteins in
prokaryotes.
In eukaryotes
A positively charged protein called histones held with DNA.
Histones contain amino acids lysine and arginines residues that carry positive
charges in their side chains.
Eight histones molecules are organized to form a structure called histone
octomer.
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The negatively charged DNA is wrapped around the positively charged histone
octomer to form a complex called nucleosome.
A typical nucleosome contains 200 bp of DNA helix.
Nucleosomes constitute the repeating unit of a structure in nucleus called
chromatin. The nucleosomes in chromatin are seen as beads on string
The chromatin fibers are further coiled and condensed at metaphase stage of cell division to
form chromosomes. The packaging of chromatin at higher level requires additional set of
proteins called Non-histone Chromosomal (NHC) proteins. In a typical nucleus, some
regions of chromatin are loosely packed and lightly stained called euchromatin. The highly
coiled and darkly stained regions of chromatin are called heterochromatin. Euchromatin is
said to be transcriptionally active chromatin, whereas heterochromatin is inactive.
3. Explain Griffith transforming principle to search for genetic material.
Frederick Griffith showed transformation in the bacterium Diplococcus
pneumoniae which cause pneumonia disease in mammals.
This bacterium (Diplococcus pneumonia) is found in two forms or strains as
Smooth Strain (S) and Rough strain (R). The S strains are with mucous (polysaccharide)
coat and pathogenic hence called Virulent Strains. The R Strains are without mucous coat
and non-pathogenic called avirulent strains.
Griffith showed that injections of S-strains into mice produce Pneumonia disease.
But an injection of R-strains does not produce the disease. The heat killed S-strains does
not produce the disease. But the mixture of live R-strains and heat killed S-strains produce
the disease in mice. Griffith recovered S-strains of bacteria from the dead mice.
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Requirements:
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- Breaking and
resealing DNA strand.
- Unwinding DNA helix
- Catalyze replication
d) RNA Primase:
e) DNA Ligase:
The main enzyme is referred to as DNA dependent DNA polymerase. The average rate
of polymerization has to be approximately 2000 bp per second.
The synthesis of new strand always proceeds in 5'"3' direction. During the initiation
of replication a short segment of RNA is synthesized with the help of an enzyme RNA
primase called RNA primer.
d. Initiation and elongation of DNA strand:
The DNA nucleotides are now added to exposed bases of parental DNA strand from
the end of RNA primer. This process is catalyzed by DNA Polymerase III and Mg+2. The
addition of nucleotides of DNA proceeds only in 5'"3' direction. The two new strands of
DNA produced in opposite or antiparallel direction called bidirectional replication.
In one strand the synthesis of new DNA strand goes on continuously in 5'"3'
direction and this new strand is called leading strand. In the opposite strand (3'"5') the
addition of nucleotides proceeds as short segments away from the replication fork called
lagging strand. The short single stranded fragments of DNA of the lagging strand are called
Okazaki fragments. The lagging strand has many RNA primers.
Later the RNA primers are removed and replaced by DNA nucleotides by an enzyme
DNA polymerase I. The Okazaki fragments are joined by DNA Ligase enzyme.
e. Termination of replication:
The termination of replication is signaled by specific sequence of DNA nucleotides.
After replication the DNA polymerase II takes an editing role to remove abnormal nitrogen
bases and incorporate the normal bases (proof reading). This process is called genetic
repair mechanism. (In E.coli the replication of DNA completes in 38 minutes. The average
rate of polymerization is approximately 2000 base pairs per second. It contains 4.6x106
bp.)
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10 | P a g e
In eukaryotes the introns are removed from precursor m-RNA, the exons are joined
in defined order to produce functional m-RNA. This process is called splicing
(Capping and tailing processes occurs in hnRNA)
In eukaryotes there are at least three types of RNA polymerases performs different
functions. (RNA polymerase I transcribes t-RNA, RNA polymerase II
transcribes precursor m-RNA and heterogeneous nuclear RNA or hnRNA and RNA
polymerase III transcribes t-RNA, r-RNA and small nuclear RNA or snRNAs)
6. Explain any 5 salient feature of genetic code.
i. Genetic code is triplet in nature: The sequence of three nucleotides or nitrogen
bases codes for one amino acid. Ex: AAA, UAC, AAU, etc.
ii. Genetic code is universal: A particular codon codes for the same amino acid in all
organisms from bacteria to higher plants and animals. Ex: AUG codes for
Methionine, UUU codes for phenylalanine. (some exceptions in mitochondrial and
protozoan codons)
iii. Genetic code is non-overlapping: The nitrogen bases are read continuously in
groups of three without sharing or overlapping.
iv. Genetic code is degenerate: Most of the amino acids are coded by more than one
codon, such codons are called degenerate or synonymous Codons and the
phenomenon is called degeneracy. Ex: Alanine is coded by GCA, GCC, GCU and
GCG.
v. Genetic code is comma less: The codons are read continuously from one end to
other without any break or punctuation marks between the codons.
vi. Genetic code is non-ambiguous or specific: A particular codon always codes for
the same amino acid without any mistake this characteristic is called nonambiguity.
vii. Genetic code has an initiator codon: The protein synthesis starts or initiates by a
particular codon called initiator codon. Ex: AUG present near the 5' end of the mRNA act as initiator codon in most of the organisms which codes for methionine.
Therefore methionine is the first amino acid in most of the proteins. Rarely GUG act
as initiator codon in some bacteria which codes for formyl-methionine.
viii.
Genetic code has non-sense or terminator codons: The codons which do
not code for any amino acid and signal the termination of protein synthesis are called
non-sense codons. Ex: UAA, UAG and UGA.
ix. Principle of co linearity: The linear order of the nitrogen bases in DNA determines
the linear order of m-RNA codons. This in turn determines the linear order of amino
acids in a polypeptide. This principle is called co linearity.
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=61
12 | P a g e
When the small subunit encounters an mRNA, the process of translation of the
mRNA to protein begins. For initiation, the ribosome binds to the mRNA at the start
codon (AUG) that is recognized only by the initiator tRNA.
There are two sites in the large subunit, for subsequent amino acids to bind to and
thus, be close enough to each other for the formation of a peptide bond. The
ribosome also acts as a catalyst (23S rRNA in bacteria is the enzyme- ribozyme) for
the formation of peptide bond. The ribosome moves from codon to codon along the
mRNA. Amino acids are added one by one.
At the end, a release factor binds to the stop codon, terminating translation and
releasing the complete polypeptide from the ribosome.
An mRNA also has some additional sequences that are not translated and are
referred as untranslated regions (UTR). The UTRs are present at both 5' -end
(before start codon) and at 3'-end (after stop codon). They are required for efficient
translation process.
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The elucidation of the lac operon was also a result of a close association between a
geneticist, Francois Jacob and a biochemist, Jacque Monod. They were the first to elucidate
a transcriptionally regulated system.
In lac Operon (here lac refers to lactose), a Polycistronic structural gene is regulated by a
common promoter and regulatory genes. Such arrangement is referred to as operon.
To name few such examples, lac operon, trp operon, ara operon, his operon, Val operon,
etc.
The lac operon consists of
A.one regulatory gene.
i. The i gene codes for the repressor of the lac operon.
(Control gene regulatory gene, operator gene & promoter gene)
b. Three structural genes (z, y, and a).
ii. The z gene codes for beta-galactosidase (b-gal), which is primarily
responsible for the hydrolysis of the disaccharide, lactose into its
monomeric units, galactose and glucose.
iii. The y gene codes for permease, which increases permeability of the
cell to b-galactosidase.
iv. The a gene encodes a transacetylase
Lactose is the substrate for the enzyme beta-galactosidase and it regulates switching on
and off of the operon. Hence, it is termed as inducer.
The lactose then induces the operon in the following manner.
The repressor of the operon is synthesized (all-the-time constitutively) from the i gene.
In the absence of inducer-The repressor protein binds to the operator region of the
operon and prevents RNA polymerase from transcribing the operon. The process is switch
off.
In the presence of an inducer, such as lactose or allolactose, the repressor is inactivated
by interaction with the inducer. This allows RNA polymerase access to the promoter and
transcription proceeds. The process is switched on.
Regulation of lac operon by repressor is referred to as negative regulation.
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8. What is DNA finger printing? Mention the steps of DNA finger printing.
The identification of an individual at genetic level through sample of DNA is called DNA
finger printing. As we know 99.9% of human DNA is same among human beings. The
DNA finger printing is based on identifying differences in some specific regions in DNA
sequence that repeated many times called repetitive DNA. These repetitive DNA are
separated from bulk genomic DNA by density gradient centrifugation. The small peaks of
DNA separated from bulk DNA referred as satellite DNA. Depending upon the base
composition, length of segment and number of repetitive units there are many types of
satellite DNA as micro satellites, mini satellites, etc. these repetitive units show high
degree of polymorphism and form the basis of DNA finger printing.
The junk DNA containing specific repeated sequence of nitrogen bases in different
persons is called variable number of tandem repeats (VNTR). Therefore each individual
has a unique type of VNTRs (except identical twins). Persons are genetically identified
depending upon these specific VNTRs.
Steps of DNA finger printing technique:
Collection of biological samples like blood, saliva, semen, root hair cells, skin
cells, etc.
Isolation of DNA from the sample and multiplying DNA by polymerase chain
reaction (PCR) or DNA amplification. (If sample of DNA is very little).
The DNA samples are cut into fragments using specific REN. The different
length DNA fragments produced by REN are called restriction fragment
length polymorphs (RFLP). They are the outcome of VNTRs hence specific
to each person.
The DNA fragments are separated according to their length and arranged on
electrophoretic gel slab by a process called gel electrophoresis.
The double stranded DNA is split into single stranded DNA by the action of
alkaline chemicals.
The separated DNA fragments are transferred from the gel slab into nylon or
nitro-cellulose sheet. This technique is called southern blotting.
Radioactive DNA probes are added to hybridize complementarily with VNTR
sequence on nitrocellulose sheet. The un-hybridized radioactive probes of
DNA are washed off with water.
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Chapter-8
HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES
ONE MARK QUESTIONS
1. Who disproved the good humor hypothesis of health?
William Harvey
2. Define health.
A state of complete physical, mental and social well-being is called health.
3. What is a pathogen?
A disease causing organism is called pathogen.
4. Name the confirmation test for typhoid disease.
Widal test
5. Name the antibody secreted through colostrum.
IgA
6. What are genetic disorders?
Disorders due to defective genetic material transferred from parents to offsprings.
7. What is vaccine?
A suspension of killed or attenuated pathogen or an antigenic preparation of pathogen that provides
artificial active immunity.
8. Define allergy.
The exaggerated response of the immune system to certain antigens present in the environment is
called allergy. OR
The hypersensitivity of immune system towards a generally harmless foreign substance or antigen
present in the environment is called allergy.
9. Name the type of antibody responsible for allergy.
IgE (Present only in Mammals)
10. Name the diagnostic test widely used for the detection of AIDS.
ELISA (Enzyme linked immuno sorbent assay) preliminary test. Western Blotting - confirmatory
test.
11. What is cancer?
A condition with uncontrolled cell division resulting in abnormal growth or excess tissue is called
cancer.
12. What is metastasis?
Spreading of tumour cells to different parts of the body through circulatory system or blood is called
metastasis.
13. What is drug abuse?
Drugs are taken for other than medical use or in amounts or frequency that impairs ones physical,
physiological or psychological function is called drug abuse.
14. Define alcoholism.
An addiction to excessive consumption of alcohol is called alcoholism. OR
The mental illness and compulsive behaviour resulting from alcohol dependence is called alcoholism.
15. What is adolescence?
A period and a process during which a child becomes mature in terms of his or her attitudes and
beliefs for effective participation in society is called adolescence. (The transitional age from childhood
to adulthood)
16. Name the plant that gives cocaine.
Erythroxylum coca
17. What is addiction?
Psychological attachment to certain effects associated with drugs and alcohol is called addiction
18. What is an interferon?
Antiviral protein produced from virus infected cells is called interferon.
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4. In severe cases, the lips and finger nails may turn gray to bluish in colour.
C) Common cold: The most common infectious human disease
Causative organism/pathogen: Rhino viruses.
Mode of infection: cough or sneezes of infected persons through inhalation. It may be also
transmitted through contaminated objects like books, pens, cups, doorknobs, computer mouse & key
board, etc. (They infect the nose and respiratory passage but not the lungs.)
Symptoms:
1. Nasal congestion and discharge
2. Sore throat, hoarseness & cough
3. Headache,
4. Tiredness, etc., which usually last for 3-7 days.
D) Amoebiasis (amoebic dysentery):Causative organism: Entamoeba histolytica. (Protozoa) That inhabits in the large intestine of
human beings.
Mode of infection: The infection occurs by house flies through faecal contaminated food and water.
Symptoms:1. Constipation
2. Abdominal pain and cramps
3. Stools with excess mucous and blood clots
It can be controlled by hygienic condition, preventing the contamination of water, food, fruits,
vegetables, etc.
E) Ascariasis:Causative pathogen: Ascaris lumbricoides. (Ascaris is an intestinal parasite)
Mode of infection: contaminated water, vegetables, fruits, etc.
Symptoms:
1.internal bleeding
2.muscular pain,
3.fever,
4. Anaemia
5.blockage of the intestinal passage.
The eggs (about 15000/day) of the parasite are excreted along with the faeces of infected
persons which contaminate soil, water, plants, etc.
F) Filariasis (Elephantiasis):Causative pathogen: Wuchereria bancrofti and W. malayi.
Mode of infection: The pathogens are transmitted to a healthy person through the bite by the female
mosquito vectors (Culex and Aedes species).
Symptoms:
1. head ache 2. Mental depression
3. Fever (in mild cases).
4. Inflammation of the organs in which they live for many years.
5. The blockage of lymphatic vessels resulting in gross enlargement of lower limbs called
elephantiasis or Filariasis.
6. The genital organs are also often affected leads to deformation.
G) Ring worm (Tinea):The ring shaped or circular scaly patches of the skin by the infection of some fungi is called ring
worm (tinea). It is one of the most common infectious diseases in man.
Causative pathogen: The common fungal genera that produce ring worm are Microsporum,
Trichophyton and Epidermophyton.
Mode of infection: Ringworms are generally acquired from contact with soil or by using towels,
clothes or even the comb of infected individuals
Symptoms:1. Appearance of dry, scaly lesions on various parts of the body such as face and neck (tinea
barbae/barbers itch), foot (tinea pedis or athletes foot), groin (tinea cruis) scalp (tinea
capitis) and nails.
2. These lesions are accompanied by intense itching.
3. Heat and moisture helps to thrive in skin folds such as those in the groin or between the toes.
H) Malaria:Causative pathogen: a protozoan parasite Plasmodium
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There are four species of plasmodium such as Plasmodium vivax, P. malaria, P. falciparum and P.
ovale are responsible for different types of malaria. Of these, most serious and fatal malignant malaria
caused by Plasmodium falciparum.
Mode of infection: bite of vector - Female Anopheles mosquitoes.
Symptoms: 1. Loss of appetite and nausea
2. Head ache
3. Muscular pain and joint pain
4. Chill and high fever
5. Alternate high and low body temperature 6. Weakness and anaemia
7. Enlargement of liver and spleen
2. What is acquired immunity? Differentiate primary and secondary immune responses.
The ability of the body to resist any specific living or non-living agent that can cause disease is called
specific body defence. It is acquired by an individual after the birth & it forms the third line of body
defence.
The response produced by the body when it encounters a pathogen for the first time is called primary
response.
The response of the body against the same pathogen during subsequent encounter is called
secondary or anamnestic response. The secondary response is highly intensified and faster as
our body has memory of the first encounter.
3. Write a note on mode of infection and prevention of AIDS.
Mode of HIV infection:
(a) Sexual contact with infected person
(b) By transfusion of contaminated blood and blood products
(c) By sharing infected needles as in the case of intravenous drug abusers
(d) From infected mother to her child through placenta.
Prevention of AIDS:
Making transfusing blood (from blood banks) safe from HIV
ensuring the use of only disposable needles and syringes in public and private hospitals and
clinics
Free distribution of condoms & advocating safe sex
Controlling drug abuse, and
promoting regular check-ups for HIV in susceptible populations
4. Write a note on cancer detection and diagnosis.
The early detection of cancer by following diagnostic methods is essential for successful treatment.
biopsy and histo-pathological studies of tissues (A piece of the suspected tissue cut into thin
sections, stained and examined under microscope by a pathologist).
Blood and bone marrow test helpful to identify increased cell counts in case of leukemia.
Techniques like radiography (use of X-rays), CT (Computed tomography) and MRI (magnetic
resonance imaging) scanning are used to detect cancers of internal organs.
CT uses X-rays to generate a three dimensional image of the internal structure. MRI uses strong
magnetic fields and nonionizing radiations to accurately detect pathological and physiological
changes in the living tissue.
Antibodies against specific cancer antigens are also used for the detection of certain cancers.
Some techniques of molecular biology can be applied to detect genes in individuals with inherited
susceptibility to certain cancers. Ex: tobacco smoke in case of lung cancer.
5. What are carcinogens? Mention any two types of carcinogens.
The agents causing cancer are called carcinogens. There are three groups of carcinogens as physical,
chemical and biological carcinogens.
Physical carcinogens: - Ionising radiations like X-rays and gamma rays and non-ionizing radiations
like UV radiations.
Chemical carcinogens: - Tobacco smoke, industrial chemicals like vinyl chloride, arsenic, nickel
compounds, Azo dyes, etc.
Biological carcinogens:- The viruses causing cancer called oncogenic viruses with oncogenes.
Ex:- Rous sarcoma viruses(RSV) cause fowl cancer.(Peyton Rous got noble prize in 1966), Human
Papilloma virus(HPV) cause cervical cancer, etc.
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Cellular oncogenes (c-onc) or proto oncogenes have been identified in normal cells, activated under
certain conditions leads to oncogenic transformation of the cells.
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Chapters 9
STRATEGIES FOR ENHANCEMENT IN FOOD PRODUCTION
A. One mark questions:
1. What is animal husbandry?
Animal husbandry is the agricultural practice of breeding and raising livestock like cows,
buffaloes, pigs, horses, sheep, camels, goats etc., that are useful to mankind.
2. What is dairy farm management?
Dairying is the management of animals for milk and its products for human consumption.
3. Name an improved breed of cow.
Jersy.
4. What is poultry?
Poultry is the class of domesticated fowl (birds) used for food and eggs.
5. Name an improved breed of poultry bird.
Leghorn
6. What is a breed?
Breed is group of animals related by descent and similar in most characters like general
appearance, features size, configuration, etc.
7. What is inbreeding?
It is a cross made between same breed.
OR
It is a mating between closely related individuals within the same breed for 4-6
generations.
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9. What is out-crossing?
Mating of animals within the same breed but having no common ancestor on either side
of their pedigree upto 4-6 generations.
10. What is cross-breeding?
Superior male of one breed is mated with superior female of another breed.
11. What is inbreeding depression?
Continuous inbreeding reduces fertility and productivity is called inbreeding depression.
12. Name a breed of sheep developed in Punjab by crossing Bikaneri ewes and Marino
rams.
Hisardale.
13. What is interspecific hybridisation?
It is the cross between two different species.
14. Name an animal which is the progeny of interspecific hybridisation between
donkey and horse.
Mule.
15. What is artificial insemination?
The semen collected from the selected male is injected into the reproductive tract of
the selected female.
16. What is plant breeding?
Plant breeding is the purposeful manipulation of plant species in order to create desired
plant types that are better suited for cultivation, give better yields and are disease
resistant.
17. How is a mule produced?
The mule is produced by breeding between male donkey and female horse (mare).
18. Name a Nobel Laureate who developed semi dwarf variety of wheat.
Norman E.Borlaug.
19. Name an organism that causes black rot of crucifer.
Bacteria.
20. Define Biofortification.
Breeding crops which produce higher levels of nutrients like vitamins, minerals, protein
and fats to improve public health.
21. Define single cell protein.
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Production of protein biomass in large scale using micro organisms and growing them in
low cost raw material is called single cell proteins.
22. Name a micro-organism that can produce large amount of single cell protein.
Methylophilus methylotophus
23. Give the meaning of the term Totipotency.
Ability of a plant cell, tissue or organ that can multiply and regenerated into a new plant is
called totipotency.
24. Give the meaning of the term Explant.
Explant is any parts of plant like cell, tissue or organ grown in a test tube containing
artificial nutrient medium, under sterile condition.
25. Give the meaning of the term Micropropagation.
The method of production of thousands of plants using explant through tissue culture
technique is called micropropagation.
26. Give the meaning of the term Somaclones.
Plants obtained by micropropagation using somatic cells and they are genetically
identical.
27. What is somatic hybridisation?
It is a technique of fusion of protoplasts isolated from two different plants which have
desirable characters to obtain a hybrid a protoplast.
28. Name the chemical used to fuse two protoplasts.
PEG or Polyethylene glycol.
29. Give an example for a plant which is an outcome of somatic hybridisation.
Pomato.
30. A plant growing in a natural habitat infected by virus. Which part of the plant do
you suggest which is suitable to get a viral free plant through tissue culture.
Using apical meristem which is free from virus.
31. What is the economic value of spirulina?
Spirulina can serve as food rich in proteins, minerals, vitamins, fats and carbohydrates.
32. Mention the strategy used to increase homozygosity in cattle for desired character.
Inbreeding.
33. Name the Indian variety of rice patented by an American company.
Basmati rice.
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a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
More milk per lactation is the criteria for superior female for cow and buffalo.
Superior male which gives rise to superior progeny.
Inbreeding increases homozygosity.
Inbreeding is necessary to create pure line in any animal.
Inbreeding exposes harmful recessive gene that are eliminated by selection.
Helpful in accumulation of superior genes.
1. Selected pure lines are evaluated for their yield and other agronomic traits of
quality, disease resistance etc.
2. This evaluation is done in the research fields and recording their performance
under ideal fertilizer, irrigation
3. Testing is done in the farmers fields at least for three generation.
4. The material is compared with best available local crop cultivar (a reference
cultivar).
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