Formulas and Identities

Trig Cheat Sheet

Definition of the Trig Functions
Right triangle definition
For this definition we assume that
p
0 < q < or 0 < q < 90 .
2

Unit circle definition

For this definition q is any angle.
y

( x, y )
hypotenuse

opposite

q
x

tan q + 1 = sec q

adjacent
opposite
sin q =
hypotenuse
adjacent
cos q =
hypotenuse
opposite
tan q =
adjacent

Tangent and Cotangent Identities

sin q
cos q
tan q =
cot q =
cos q
sin q
Reciprocal Identities
1
1
csc q =
sin q =
sin q
csc q
1
1
sec q =
cos q =
cos q
sec q
1
1
cot q =
tan q =
tan q
cot q
Pythagorean Identities
sin 2 q + cos 2 q = 1
2

hypotenuse
csc q =
opposite
hypotenuse
sec q =
adjacent
adjacent
cot q =
opposite

y
=y
1
x
cos q = = x
1
y
tan q =
x

sin q =

1
y
1
sec q =
x
x
cot q =
y
csc q =

Facts and Properties

Domain
The domain is all the values of q that
can be plugged into the function.
sin q , q can be any angle
cos q , q can be any angle
1

tan q , q n + p , n = 0, 1, 2,
2

csc q , q n p , n = 0, 1, 2,
1

sec q , q n + p , n = 0, 1, 2,
2

cot q , q n p , n = 0, 1, 2,

Range
The range is all possible values to get
out of the function.
csc q 1 and csc q -1
-1 sin q 1
-1 cos q 1 sec q 1 and sec q -1
- < tan q <
- < cot q <

Period
The period of a function is the number,
T, such that f (q + T ) = f (q ) . So, if w
is a fixed number and q is any angle we
have the following periods.
2p
w
2p
=
w
p
=
w
2p
=
w
2p
=
w
p
=
w

sin ( wq )

T=

cos (wq )

tan (wq )

csc (wq )

sec (wq )

cot (wq )

2005 Paul Dawkins

1 + cot 2 q = csc 2 q
Even/Odd Formulas
sin ( -q ) = - sin q
csc ( -q ) = - csc q
cos ( -q ) = cos q

sec ( -q ) = sec q

tan ( -q ) = - tan q

cot ( -q ) = - cot q

Periodic Formulas
If n is an integer.
sin (q + 2p n ) = sin q

csc (q + 2p n ) = csc q

cos (q + 2p n ) = cos q sec (q + 2p n ) = sec q

tan (q + p n ) = tan q

cot (q + p n ) = cot q

Double Angle Formulas

sin ( 2q ) = 2sin q cos q
cos ( 2q ) = cos 2 q - sin 2 q
= 2 cos 2 q - 1
= 1 - 2sin 2 q
2 tan q
tan ( 2q ) =
1 - tan 2 q
Degrees to Radians Formulas
If x is an angle in degrees and t is an
angle in radians then
p
t
px
180t
=
t=
and x =
180 x
180
p

Half Angle Formulas

1
sin 2 q = (1 - cos ( 2q ) )
2
1
2
cos q = (1 + cos ( 2q ) )
2
1 - cos ( 2q )
2
tan q =
1 + cos ( 2q )
Sum and Difference Formulas
sin (a b ) = sin a cos b cos a sin b
cos (a b ) = cos a cos b m sin a sin b
tan a tan b
1 m tan a tan b
Product to Sum Formulas
1
sin a sin b = cos (a - b ) - cos (a + b )
2
1
cos a cos b = cos (a - b ) + cos (a + b )
2
1
sin a cos b = sin (a + b ) + sin (a - b )
2
1
cos a sin b = sin (a + b ) - sin (a - b )
2
tan (a b ) =

Sum to Product Formulas

a + b
a - b
sin a + sin b = 2 sin
cos

2
2
a + b a - b
sin a - sin b = 2 cos
sin

2 2
a + b
a - b
cos a + cos b = 2 cos
cos

2
2
a + b
cos a - cos b = -2sin
2
Cofunction Formulas

a - b
sin

sin - q = cos q
2

csc - q = sec q
2

cos - q = sin q
2

sec - q = csc q
2

tan - q = cot q
2

cot - q = tan q
2

2005 Paul Dawkins

Unit Circle
y

3 1
- ,
2 2

( -1,0 )

3p
4

5p
6

( 0,1)

p
2

1 3
- ,
2 2

2 2
,

2 2

Inverse Trig Functions

Definition
y = sin -1 x is equivalent to x = sin y

2p
3

p
3

90
120

y = cos -1 x is equivalent to x = cos y

1 3
2 , 2

-1

45

135

y = tan x is equivalent to x = tan y

2 2
,

2 2

p
4

60

30

p
6

Domain and Range

Function
Domain

3 1
2 , 2

y = sin -1 x

-1 x 1

-1

150

p 180

360

2p

y = cos x

-1 x 1

y = tan -1 x

- < x <

(1,0 )

3 1
- ,-
2 2

7p
6

2
2
,
2
2

330
225

5p
4

4p
3

240

1
3
- ,
2 2

315
7p
300
270
4
5p
3p
3
2

( 0,-1)

11p
6

For any ordered pair on the unit circle ( x, y ) : cos q = x and sin q = y

cos -1 x = arccos x
tan -1 x = arctan x

Law of Sines
sin a sin b sin g
=
=
a
b
c

Law of Tangents
a - b tan 12 (a - b )
=
a + b tan 12 (a + b )

Law of Cosines
a 2 = b 2 + c 2 - 2bc cos a

b - c tan 12 ( b - g )
=
b + c tan 12 ( b + g )

c = a + b - 2ab cos g
2

5p 1
cos
=
3 2

tan -1 ( tan (q ) ) = q

b 2 = a 2 + c 2 - 2ac cos b

Example

tan ( tan -1 ( x ) ) = x

3 1
,-
2 2

1
3
,
2 2

sin -1 ( sin (q ) ) = q

Law of Sines, Cosines and Tangents

2
2
,

2
2

sin ( sin -1 ( x ) ) = x

Alternate Notation
sin -1 x = arcsin x

Range
p
p
- y
2
2
0 y p
p
p
- < y<
2
2

c
210

Inverse Properties
cos ( cos -1 ( x ) ) = x
cos -1 ( cos (q ) ) = q

a - c tan 12 (a - g )
=
a + c tan 12 (a + g )

Mollweides Formula
a + b cos 12 (a - b )
=
c
sin 12 g

3
5p
sin
=2
3

2005 Paul Dawkins

2005 Paul Dawkins

Common Derivatives and Integrals

Common Derivatives and Integrals

Derivatives

Integrals

Basic Properties/Formulas/Rules
d
( cf ( x ) ) = cf ( x ) , c is any constant. ( f ( x ) g ( x ) ) = f ( x ) g ( x )
dx
d n
d
( c ) = 0 , c is any constant.
( x ) = nxn-1 , n is any number.
dx
dx
f f g - f g
(Quotient Rule)
( f g ) = f g + f g (Product Rule) =
g2
g
d
f ( g ( x ) ) = f ( g ( x ) ) g ( x ) (Chain Rule)
dx
g ( x)
d
d g ( x)
g x
ln g ( x ) ) =
e
= g ( x ) e ( )
(
dx
g ( x)
dx

( )

Common Derivatives
Polynomials
d
d
(c) = 0
( x) = 1
dx
dx

d
( cx ) = c
dx

Trig Functions
d
( sin x ) = cos x
dx
d
( sec x ) = sec x tan x
dx

d
( cos x ) = - sin x
dx
d
( csc x ) = - csc x cot x
dx

d
( tan x ) = sec2 x
dx
d
( cot x ) = - csc2 x
dx

Inverse Trig Functions

d
1
sin -1 x ) =
(
dx
1 - x2
d
( sec-1 x ) = 12
dx
x x -1

d
1
cos -1 x ) = (
dx
1- x2
d
( csc-1 x ) = - 12
dx
x x -1

d
1
tan -1 x ) =
(
dx
1 + x2
d
( cot -1 x ) = - 1 +1x2
dx

d n
( x ) = nxn-1
dx

d
( cxn ) = ncxn -1
dx

Basic Properties/Formulas/Rules
cf ( x ) dx = c f ( x ) dx , c is a constant.

f ( x ) g ( x ) dx = f ( x ) dx g ( x ) dx
a f ( x ) dx = F ( x ) a = F (b ) - F ( a ) where F ( x ) = f ( x ) dx
b

a cf ( x ) dx = c a f ( x ) dx , c is a constant. a f ( x ) g ( x ) dx = a f ( x ) dx a g ( x ) dx
a

a f ( x ) dx = 0
b

a f ( x ) dx = -b f ( x ) dx
c

a f ( x ) dx = a f ( x ) dx + c f ( x ) dx
If f ( x ) 0 on a x b then

a c dx = c ( b - a )

a f ( x ) dx 0

If f ( x ) g ( x ) on a x b then

a f ( x ) dx a g ( x ) dx

Common Integrals
Polynomials
1

dx = x + c

k dx = k x + c

x dx = n + 1 x

1 dx = ln x + c

-1

dx = ln x + c

1 dx = 1 ln ax + b + c

ax + b
a

p
q

-n

dx =

p
q

+ c, n -1

1
x - n +1 + c , n 1
-n + 1

dx =

n+1

1 q +1
q
x +c=
x
+1
p+ q

Trig Functions
cos u du = sin u + c

p+q
q

+c

sin u du = - cos u + c
sec u du = tan u + c
sec u tan u du = sec u + c csc u cot udu = - csc u + c csc u du = - cot u + c
tan u du = ln sec u + c
cot u du = ln sin u + c
1
sec u du = ln sec u + tan u + c
sec u du = 2 ( sec u tan u + ln sec u + tan u ) + c
2

Exponential/Logarithm Functions
d x
d x
( a ) = a x ln ( a )
(e ) = ex
dx
dx
d
d
( ln ( x ) ) = 1x , x > 0
( ln x ) = 1x , x 0
dx
dx
Hyperbolic Trig Functions
d
( sinh x ) = cosh x
dx
d
( sech x ) = - sech x tanh x
dx

csc u du = ln csc u - cot u + c

d
( log a ( x ) ) = x ln1 a , x > 0
dx

Visit http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu for a complete set of Calculus I & II notes.

2005 Paul

u du =

1
( - csc u cot u + ln csc u - cot u ) + c
2

Exponential/Logarithm Functions
u
u
e du = e + c

d
d
( cosh x ) = sinh x
( tanh x ) = sech 2 x
dx
dx
d
d
( csch x ) = - csch x coth x
( coth x ) = - csch 2 x
dx
dx

csc
u
a du =

au
+c
ln a

e au
( a sin ( bu ) - b cos ( bu ) ) + c
a + b2
e au
au
e
cos
bu
du
=
(
)
( a cos ( bu ) + b sin ( bu ) ) + c

a 2 + b2

Dawkins

au

sin ( bu ) du =

Visit http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu for a complete set of Calculus I & II notes.

ln u du = u ln ( u ) - u + c
ue du = ( u - 1) e
u

+c

1 du = ln ln u + c

u ln u
2005 Paul

Dawkins

Common Derivatives and Integrals

Inverse Trig Functions

1

u
du = sin -1 + c

2
2
a
a -u

sin

1
1
u
du = tan -1 + c
2
2
a
a +u
a
1
1

u
du = sec-1 + c

a
a
u u2 - a2
Hyperbolic Trig Functions
sinh u du = cosh u + c

sech tanh u du = - sech u + c

tanh u du = ln ( cosh u ) + c

-1

tan

u du = u sin -1 u + 1 - u 2 + c
1
u du = u tan -1 u - ln (1 + u 2 ) + c
2

-1

cos

-1

u du = u cos - 1 u - 1 - u 2 + c

cosh u du = sinh u + c
sech
csch coth u du = - csch u + c csch
sech u du = tan sinh u + c

Miscellaneous
1 du = 1 ln u + a + c
2
a - u2
2a u - a

2au - u 2 du =

u du = tanh u + c

u du = - coth u + c

1 du = 1 ln u - a + c
2
u - a2
2a u + a

-1

u
a2
a + u du =
a 2 + u 2 + ln u + a 2 + u 2 + c
2
2
2
u
a
u 2 - a 2 du =
u 2 - a 2 - ln u + u 2 - a 2 + c
2
2
u 2
a2
u
2
2
2
a - u du =
a - u + sin -1 + c
2
2
a
2

Common Derivatives and Integrals

Factor in Q ( x )

u Substitution

a f ( g ( x ) ) g ( x ) dx then the substitution u = g ( x ) will convert this into the

b
g ( b)
integral, f ( g ( x ) ) g ( x ) dx =
f ( u ) du .
a
g ( a)
b

Integration by Parts
The standard formulas for integration by parts are,

udv = uv - vdu

a udv = uv a - a vdu

Choose u and dv and then compute du by differentiating u and compute v by using the
fact that v = dv .

Visit http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu for a complete set of Calculus I & II notes.

Term in P.F.D Factor in Q ( x )

ax + b

A
ax + b

ax 2 + bx + c

Ax + B
ax 2 + bx + c

( ax + b )

( ax

Term in P.F.D
A1
A2
Ak
+
+L +
k
ax + b ( ax + b ) 2
( ax + b )

+ bx + c )

Ak x + Bk
A1 x + B1
+L +
k
2
ax + bx + c
( ax2 + bx + c )

Products and (some) Quotients of Trig Functions

n
m
sin x cos x dx

u-a
a2
a -u
2 au - u 2 + cos-1
+c
2
2
a

Standard Integration Techniques

Note that all but the first one of these tend to be taught in a Calculus II class.

Given

Trig Substitutions
If the integral contains the following root use the given substitution and formula.
a
a 2 - b2 x2

x = sin q
and
cos2 q = 1 - sin 2 q
b
a
b2x2 - a 2

x = sec q
and
tan 2 q = sec 2 q -1
b
a
a2 + b2 x2

x = tan q
and
sec 2 q = 1 + tan 2 q
b
Partial Fractions
P ( x)
If integrating
dx where the degree (largest exponent) of P ( x ) is smaller than the
Q (x)
degree of Q ( x ) then factor the denominator as completely as possible and find the partial
fraction decomposition of the rational expression. Integrate the partial fraction
decomposition (P.F.D.). For each factor in the denominator we get term(s) in the
decomposition according to the following table.

2005 Paul

Dawkins

1. If n is odd. Strip one sine out and convert the remaining sines to cosines using
sin 2 x = 1 - cos2 x , then use the substitution u = cos x
2. If m is odd. Strip one cosine out and convert the remaining cosines to sines
using cos 2 x = 1 - sin 2 x , then use the substitution u = sin x
3. If n and m are both odd. Use either 1. or 2.
4. If n and m are both even. Use double angle formula for sine and/or half angle
formulas to reduce the integral into a form that can be integrated.
n
tan
x
sec m x dx

1. If n is odd. Strip one tangent and one secant out and convert the remaining
tangents to secants using tan 2 x = sec 2 x - 1 , then use the substitution u = sec x
2. If m is even. Strip two secants out and convert the remaining secants to tangents
using sec 2 x = 1 + tan 2 x , then use the substitution u = tan x
3. If n is odd and m is even. Use either 1. or 2.
4. If n is even and m is odd. Each integral will be dealt with differently.

Convert Example : cos 6 x = ( cos 2 x ) = (1 - sin 2 x )

3

Visit http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu for a complete set of Calculus I & II notes.

2005 Paul

Dawkins

%!

#
%

,,!"

!"

"

cos

&

&

"

$
!

"

x = r cos '
y=r '
z = r cos

!"

sin #

p
r = x2 p
+ y2 + z2
= arctan( x2 + y 2 /z)
' = arctan(y/x)

ur =
cos 'ux +

u =
cos 'ux +

u' = 'ux + cos 'uy

'uy + cos uz
'uy
uz

r = rur

r = u + zuz

dr = dl u + dl' u' + dlz uz = du + d'u' + dzuz

d = dl dl' dlz = dd'dz

!"#

p
= x2 + y 2
' = arctan(y/x)
z=z

dS' = dl dlz = ddz ;

"

sin

u = cos 'ux +
'uy
u' = 'ux + cos 'uy
uz = uz

dS = dl' dlz = d'dz ;

"

x = cos '
y=
'
z=z

sin #

!"

"

"

!"

#!

%!

"!

"

$!

"

dSz = dl dl' = dd'

dr = dlr ur + dl u + dl' u' = drur + rdu + r

dSr = dl d' = r2

dd' ;

dS = dlr dl' = r

d = dlr dl d' = r2

drd' ;
drdd'

d'u'

dS' = dlr dl = rdrd

f = f (r, , ')
A' (r, , ')u'
f = f (x, y, z)
Az (x, y, z)uz

A(x, y, z) = Ax (x, y, z)ux + Ay (x, y, z)uy +

@f
@f
@f
ux +
uy +
uz
@x
@y
@z
@Ax @Ay @Az
rA =
+
+
@x
@y
@z

!
@Az @Ay
@Ax @Az
@Ay @Ax
rA =

ux +

uy +

uz
@y
@z
@z
@x
@x
@y
@ 2f
@2f
@ 2f
r (rf ) r2 f =
+ 2 + 2
@x2
@y
@z
rf =

@f
1 @f
1 @f
ur +
u +
u'
@r
r @
r @'
2
1 @(r Ar )
1 @( A )
1 @A'
rA = 2
+
+
r
@r
r
@
r @'

!
1
@( A' ) @A
1
1 @Ar @(rA' )
rA =

ur +

u
r
@
@'
r
@'
@r

!
1 @(rA ) @Ar
+

u'
r
@r
@

!
1 @
@f
1
@
@f
1
@ 2f
r2 f = 2
r2
+ 2

+ 2 2
r @r
@r
r
@
@
r
@'2
rf =

A B
f = f (, ', z)
Az (, ', z)uz

A(, ', z) = A (, ', z)u +A' (, ', z)u' +

@f
1 @f
@f
u +
u' +
uz
@
@'
@z
1 @(A ) 1 @A' @Az
rA =
+
+
@
@'
@z
rf =

A (B C) = B (C A) = (A B) C
A (B C) = B(A C) C(A B)
f = f (r)

1 @Az @A'
@A @Az
rA =

u +

u'
@'
@z
@z
@

!
1 @(A' ) @A
+

uz

@
@'

!
1 @
@f
1 @ 2f
@ 2f
r2 f =

+ 2 2+ 2
@
@
@'
@z

A(r, , ') = Ar (r, , ')ur + A (r, , ')u +

g = g(r)

r(f + g)
r(f g)
r (A + B)
r (f A)
r (A B)
r (A + B)
r (f A)
r (r A)
r (rf )
r (r A)

A = A(r)

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

rf + rg
f (rg) + g(rf )
rA+rB
f (r A) + A (rf )
B (r A) A (r B)
rA+rB
f (r A) A (rf )
0
0
r(r A) r2 A

B = B(r)

Dierential Equations Study Guide1

Second Order Linear Equations

General Form of the Equation

First Order Equations

dy
= f (x, y)
dx
Initial Value Problem: y 0 = f (x, y), y(x0 ) = y0

(1)

General Form of ODE:

(2)

(22)

General Form: a(t)y 00 + b(t)y 0 + c(t)y = g(t)

(23)

00

Homogeneous: a(t)y + b(t)y + c(t) = 0

(24)

Standard Form: y 00 + p(t)y 0 + q(t)y = f (t)

(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)

General Form: y 0 + p(x)y = f (x)

R

p(x)dx

Integrating Factor: (x) = e

d
=)
((x)y) = (x)f (x)
dx
Z

1
General Solution: y =
(x)f (x)dx + C
(x)

Homeogeneous Equations
(7)
(8)

General Form: y = f (y/x)

Substitution: y = zx
=) y 0 = z + xz 0

(9)

@
2. Set
= N (x, y)
@y
3. Simplify and solve for h(y).

4. Substitute the result for h(y) in the expression for

1 and then set = 0. This is the solution.

from step

Alternatively:
R
1. Let = N (x, y)dy + g(x)

(26)

dz
dx
=
f (z) z
x

Bernoulli Equations
(11)
(12)

General Form: y 0 + p(x)y = q(x)y n

Substitution: z = y 1

(18)

P (x, y) =

My

2. {y1 , y2 } are a fundamental set of solutions.

Cauchy-Euler Equation

Nx
N

=) (y) = e

P (x)dx

z 0 + (1

n)p(x)z = (1

then
n)q(x)

(19)

(28)
(x)M (x, y)dx + (x)N (x, y)dy = 0

Case 2: If Q(x, y) depends only on y, where

(14)

(20)

(15)
(16)
(17)

Q(x, y) =

Nx

My
M

=) (y) = e

(29)
R

Q(y)dy

Then
(21)

(30)
(31)
(32)

(y)M (x, y)dx + (y)N (x, y)dy = 0

is exact.
1

p(t)dt

(40)

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(34)
(35)

Auxilliary Equation: ar(r

1) + br + c = 0

The solutions of (39) depend on the roots of (40):

8 00
< y + p(t)y 0 + q(t)y = 0
y(t0 ) = y0
: 0
y (t0 ) = y1

(41)

00

Real Roots: y = C1 xr1 + C2 xr

(42) Repeated Root: y = C1 xr + C2 xr ln x

(43)

Homogeneous: ay + by + cy = 0
Non-homogeneous: ay 00 + by 0 + cy = g(t)
2

Characteristic Equation: ar + br + c = 0
p
b b2 4ac
Quadratic Roots: r =
2a

The solution of (29) is given by:

(33)

ODE: ax2 y 00 + bxy 0 + cy = 0

(39)

Linear Equation: Constant Coefficients

is exact.

Exact Equations
General Form: M (x, y)dx + N (x, y)dy = 0
@M
@N
Text for Exactness:
=
@y
@x
Solution: = C where
@
@
M=
and N =
@x
@y

Abels Formula: W (t) = Ce

Initial Value Problem

The result is always linear in z:

(13)

y10 (t)y2 (t)

4. W (y1 , y2 )(t) 6= 0 for all t.

Case 1: If P (x, y) depends only on x, where

p(t)dt

1. {y1 , y2 } are linearly independent.

3. W (y1 , y2 )(t0 ) 6= 0 at some point t0 .

Integrating Factors

y10 y2 = Ce

Method of Variation of Parameters

Wronskian: W (t) = y1 (t)y20 (t)

and the following are all equivalent:

from step

y1 y20

(36)

If y1 (t) and y2 (t) are a fundamental set of solutions to (23) then

a particular solution to (24) is
Z
Z
y2 (t)f (t)
y1 (t)f (t)
(38)
yP (t) = y1 (t)
dt + y2 (t)
dt
W (t)
W (t)

(27)

4. Substitute the result for g(x) in the expression for

1 and then set = 0. This is the solution.

When solving (23), given y1 , then y2 can be found by solving

The solution is given by

Two functions f (x) and g(x) are linearly dependent if there
R
Z
exist numbers a and b, not both zero, such that af (x) + bg(x) = 0
e p(x)dx dx
y2 = y1
for all x. If no such numbers exist then they are linearly inde- (37)
y1 (x)2
pendent.
If y1 and y2 are two solutions of (23) then

@
= M (x, y)
@x
3. Simplify and solve for g(x).

then guess that yP =

ts (A0 + A1 t + + An tn )
ts (A0 + A1 t + + An tn )eat
ts eat [(A0 + A1 t + + An tn ) cos bt
+(A0 + A1 t + + An tn ) sin bt]

Method of Reduction of Order

Linear Independence and The Wronskian

The result is always separable in z:

(10)

y = C1 y1 (t) + C2 y2 (t) + yp (t)

where y1 (t) and y2 (t) are linearly independent solutions of (23).

Method for Solving Exact Equations:

R
1. Let = M (x, y)dx + h(y)

2. Set
0

The general solution of (22) or (24) is

(25)

Linear Equations

Heuristics for Undetermined Coefficients

(Trial and Error)
If f (t) =
Pn (t)
Pn (t)eat
Pn (t)eat sin bt
or Pn (t)eat cos bt

Real Roots(r1 6= r2 ) : yH = C1 er1 t + C2 er2 t

Repeated(r1 = r2 ) : yH = (C1 + C2 t)er1 t
t

Complex(r = i ) : yH = e (C1 cos t + C2 sin t)

The solution of (30) is y = yP + hH where yh is given by (33)

through (35) and yP is found by undetermined coefficients or
reduction of order.

Complex: y = x [C1 cos( ln x) + C2 sin( ln x)]

Series Solutions
(44)

(x

x0 )2 y 00 + (x

x0 )p(x)y 0 + q(x)y = 0

If x0 is a regular point of (44) then

(45)

y1 (t) = (x

x0 ) n

1
X

ak (x

xk ) k

k=0

At a Regular Singular Point x0 :

(46)

Indicial Equation: r2 + (p(0)

(47)

First Solution: y1 = (x

1)r + q(0) = 0
1
X
x 0 ) r1
ak (x xk )k
k=0

Where r1 is the larger real root if both roots of (46) are real or
either root if the solutions are complex.