Leisure and Life-Style

Author(s): Robert J. Havighurst and Kenneth Feigenbaum

Source: American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 64, No. 4 (Jan., 1959), pp. 396-404
Published by: University of Chicago Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2773953
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LEISURE AND LIFE-STYLE

ROBERT J. HAVIGHURST

and KENNETH

FEIGENBAUM

ABSTRACT
The Kansas City Study of Adult Life, studying the social role performance of people aged forty to
seventy, gave ratings of performance on various social roles. When leisure activity was related to the pattern of social role performance (called "life-style"), four general life-styles were found: community-centered, home-centered high, home-centered medium, and low level, the adjectives for altitude referring to
level of social role performance. The most successful life-styles, judged by the level of role performance,
involved patterns of leisure which were active and similar rather than contrasting with the other social
roles. Middle-class people may be community-centered or home-centered in life-style and in leisure, but
working-class people are either home-centered or generally low in social role and leisure performance.

Leisure has generally but vaguely been

seen as a source of satisfaction and even of
delight. In a society in which most people
had to work, and to work hard and long,
leisure was scarce and was regarded either
as a reward to be earned by work and to
be enjoyed because one had worked so hard
for it or as a good thing conferred by inherited wealth or by marriageto wealth.
With the coming of more leisure in the
lives of the common people, not all the rosy
promises have been realized. Some people
have found themselves with more leisure
than they really wanted. The values of increased leisure to welfare and the quality
of living of society as a whole have been
seriously questioned. It is clear that modern
leisure is not an unmixed blessing. This suggests the desirability of studying the uses
that people make of their leisure, what satisfactions they get out of it, and how it fits
into the rest of their lives.
Using the concept of "life-style" to describe a person'scharacteristicway of filling
and combining the various social roles he is
called on to play, we may see how leisure fits
into it. To do so, the Kansas City Study
of Adult Life interviewed a sample of men
and women aged f-;om forty to seventy to
get an account of the way the person spent
his time and the significance to him of his
major social roles-those of parent, spouse,
homemaker,worker, citizen, friend, club or
associationmember,and user of leisure time.
About a quarter of the interview was devoted to leisure. The individual was asked

about his favorite leisure activities, what

they meant to him, why he liked them, whom
he did them with, as well as a number of
questions about vacations, reading, television, radio, and movies, and what he did
around the house.
On the basis of this interview, ratings
were made of the competenceof the individual in his social roles. Rating scales were
devised to represent the general American
expectations or definitions of these roles.'
The rating scale for user of leisure time
follows:
a) High (8-9).-Spends enoughtimeat some
leisureactivity to be ratherwell knownamong
his associatesin this respect. But it is not so
muchthe amountof leisureactivityas its quality whichgives him a high rating.He has one
or morepursuitsfor whichhe gets publicrecognition and appreciationand which give him a
realsenseof accomplishment.
Chooseshis leisure activities autonomously,
not merelyto be in style. Gets fromleisurethe
feelingof being creative,of novel and interesting experience,sheerpleasure,prestige,friendship,andof beingof service.
b) Above average (6-7).-Has four to five
leisureactivities.Leisuretime is somewhatpatterned,indicatingthat he has plannedhis life
to providefor the satisfactionof the needsmet
throughthese activities.
Leisureinterestsshowsomevariety.Displays
real enthusiasmfor one or two-talks about
1 For the other role-performance scales and for
the pattern analysis mentioned later see Robert J.
Havighurst, "The Social Competence of Middleaged People," Genetic Psychology Monographs,
LVI (1957), 297-395.

396

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LEISURE AND LIFE-STYLE

them in such a way as to indicate that he has
put considerable energy into acquiring proficiency or the requisite understanding and skills
and prides himself on it.
c) Medium (4-5).-Has two or three leisure
activities which he does habitually and enjoys
mildly-reading, television, radio, watching
sports, handwork, etc. May do one of these
things well or quite enthusiastically, but not
more than one. Gets definite sense of well-being
and is seldom bored with leisure.

397

ment of talent; instrumentation or expressiveness; relation of leisure to work; gregariousnessor solitude; service or pleasure;
status and prestige; relaxation; ego integration or role diffusion; new experience or
repetition; vitality or apathy; and expansion or constriction of interests.
The results of the several methods of
studying leisure were related to one another
and to a set of social and personal variables,

TABLE 1
LEISURE, PERSONALITY, AND SOCIAL VARIABLES*

Sex

Content........+++
Objective significance.........
Subjectivemeaning ...........
*

Age

Social
Class

Personal
Adjustment

Manifest
Complexity

Social
Mobility

Content

Significance

+++

+++

++

......

+++

++

+++

+++

++

+++

+ +++

+++ +

Meaning

+++
++
......

+ = a smaUdegree of relationship (not more than two or three of the content or significanceor meaning variables are
reliably related to a social or personalvariable)
+ + = a fair degree of relationship
=
a
+++
high degreeof relationship(morethan half of the leisurevariablesare reliablyrelatedto a social or personalvariable)

Leisure activities are somewhat stereotyped;

they do not have a great deal of variety.
d) Below average (2-3).(1) Tends to take the line of least resistance
in leisure time. Needs to be stimulated. Looks
for time-fillers.
May have one fairly strong interest but is
content with this one which brings him some
sense of enjoyment. Leisure time is usually
spent in passive spectatorship. Or:
(2) May have very little spare time. What
time he has is taken up with activities related
to his job or profession or with work around
the house viewed as obligatory and not as a
pastime.
e) Low (0-1).(1) Apathetic. Does nothing and makes no
attempt to find outside interests. Or:
(2) Tries anxiously to find interesting things
to do and fails to find them. Is bored by leisure
and hurries back to work. Dislikes vacations
and cannot relax.
Not only was the person's use of leisure
time rated according to the foregoing scale
but the objective significance of his favorite
activities was evaluated according to a set
of nineteen variables,2 of which the most
useful appear to be: autonomy or otherdirection; creativity; enjoyment; develop-

including age, sex, social class, personal adjustment, and manifest complexity of life.
The interrelationsare summarizedin Table
1.
The procedure in studying life-style was
based upon the use of the scores for performancein the eight social roles previously
mentioned.A life-style was defined as a pattern of role-performancescores shared by
a group of people.
Life-styles in this sense were discovered
among the 234 persons in the Social Role
Sample of the Kansas City Study of Adult
Life. There were actually twenty-seven
2 In addition, two other aspects of the person's
favorite leisure activities were studied: (1) the
content of the favorite leisure activities (eleven
categories of content) and (2) the subjective meanings of the favorite leisure aetivities (a set of twelve
statements of the kinds of satisfaction a person
might get from a leisure activity, from which the
respondent picked the meanings most applicable
to his favorite activities). For details concerning
the significance, content, and meaning studies see
Robert J. Havighurst, "The Leisure Activities of
the Middle-aged," American Journal of Sociology,
LXIII (September, 1957), 152-62; Marjorie N.
Donald and Robert J. Havighurst, "The Meanings
of Leisure" (MS).

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THE AMERICANJOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

398

specific patterns, or life-styles, each characterizing from 8 to 34 members,with some

people belongingto two or more. The specific
patterns were grouped into four major
groups, using broader criteria for membership in a group than in a pattern, and these
four groups may be regarded provisionally
as life-style groups.Their characteristicroleperformance scores are shown in Figure 1.
The names given to the life-style groups,and
a brief description of each, follow:

A. Community-centered.-This is a pattern
of uniformly high performance scores in all
eight social roles. It is called "community-centered" for the sake of contrast with the following group, though the performance scores in the
community roles of citizen, club or association
member, and friend are not higher than those
in the family areas but about the same. The
social class distribution of these people in the
Kansas City Metropolitan Area is shown in
Table 2.
B. Home-centered high.-These people have

C-)

__

_..,,,, __.

Work

Parent

Spouse

Honenaker

____,.

Le sure

Friend

Ci izen

Clubs and
Associations

ROL E AREA
FIG. 1.-Life-styles of middle-aged people: A, community-centered; B, home-centered high; C, homecentered medium; D, low level.

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399

LEISURE AND LIFE-STYLE

performance scores in the roles of parent,
spouse, homemaker, worker, and user of leisure
time which are about the same as those of the
community-centered, but they fall far below
the latter in the roles of friend, citizen, and
club or association member. These people and
the community-centered group have the highest
personal adjustment scores and the highest
scores on a rating of manifest complexity of
life-style.
C. Home-centered medium.-These people
have a family-centered pattern, though below
that of the home-centered high group in roleperformance scores.
D. Low level.-This is a pattern of generally
low role-performance scores, with the family

community-centeredstyle of leisure tend to

be more autonomous, that is, to "choose
activity with purposeand regardfor its function in one's personal life" and to engage
in activities in which there was some element of novelty. They are more instrumental and more inclined to "play a game
or participate in an activity for some goal
beyond the game or activity (philanthropic
activity, etc.)." "Benefit for society" was
given quite often as the motive.
Community-centerednessis the favorite
leisure style of upper-middle-classpeople.
Being successful in business or a profession
induces them to join business and social or-

TABLE 2
SOCIALCLASSDISTRIBUTIONOFLIFE-STYLES
(Per Cent)

Social Class

U&UM

. M.

LM ...........
UL ...........

LL ............
Total group. ..

Sex

Community-centered

Homecentered
High

Homecentered
Medium

Low
Level

Ungrouped

Total
Group

M
F
M
F
M
F
M
F
M
F

7
6
8
5
4
2
0
1
19
14

3
3
11
4
8
5
0
0
22
12

1
3
10
17
18
23
6
5
35
48

0
0
3
3
8
7
7
7
18
17

2
1
1
4
2
3
1
1
6
9

13
13
33
33
40
40
14
14
100
100

NOTE.-The actual distributionof indivualsin the Study Samplewas the basis for this table, but the figureshave
been adjusted to fit the true social class distributionof adults in the Kansas City MetropolitanArea, as determined
by Richard Coleman(unpublishedworkingpaperin the files of the Committeeon Human Development). Sincesome
people fell into two groups, they were assignedto the particulargroupswhich they fitted most closely.

and work roles somewhatabove the external ganizations where they interact with each
roles. This grouphas very low scores on per- other to formwider circles of social and busisonaladjustmentand on complexity.
ness contacts. Membership in the country
club
is part of their proper and accepted
We shall first answer the question, "What
are the 'leisure styles' of the four life- style of living. The community-centeredinstyles?" By "leisure style" we mean the dividuals also tend not to have young chilGestalt formed when one observes an in- dren at home, which allows freedomfor outside activity.
dividual's kinds and number of activities.
In contrast, the people who enjoy the
The community-centeredstyle of leisure
emphasizes activities engaged in away from home-centered style of leisure engage in
home. The individual uses entertainment most of it around their residence.This style
institutions, such as the theater or the con- is strongest in lower-middle-and upper-lowcert, or social institutions, such as the coun- er-class individualsand falls off in the lowertry club, Rotary, chamber of commerce, lower class, where family values lose some
Red Cross, etc., as the context for a major importance and the few pastimes become
part of it, either jointly by the members of sex-differentiated, the men going fishing
a family or individually. On the basis of the alone or to the bar or poolroom with the
significance ratings people employing the "boys."

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400

THE AMERICANJOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

Leisure activities are engaged in jointly

by the membersof the family for the majority of the home-centered, whether it be a
church outing, a fishing trip, or watching
television. Sex-differentiatedactivities, such
as sewing and embroideringfor the women
and carpentryand "fixingaroundthe house"
for the men, still allow for conversationand
interaction between spouses. Friendship
and sociability are cultivated by visits from
neighborsrather than through any membership other than in the church or perhaps a
fraternialorganization.For some people the
family-centered style was not one of choice
but of necessity, owing to the presence of
young children.
A numberof activities such as fishing and
traveling during vacations were common to
both leisure styles, with some differentiation
as to the mannerof them. In the communitycentered style travel consists of going to
resorts and sightseeing, while for the people engaged in home-centeredleisure travel
consists of a car trip to relatives in other
cities. For the upper-lower-class members
of the home-centered style travel may be
quite circumscribed; one spoke of "taking
a trolley trip to see the city."
In spite of the relationship between lifestyle and social class position, there were
people whose life-styles did not correspond
with their class positions, as would be expected in a society with a considerable degree of social mobility. From Table 2 it
appears that some 10 per cent of the population may have patterns above their class
level and 5 per cent below it.
This scheme of leisure activities can be
further comprehendedby consulting Figure
2. Each of the concentric circles contains
examples of the type of activities engaged
in by the subjects making up the sample.
The center of the concentric circles is common living in the home, the other radiating
circles representing the physical and psychological distances of activities from it.
The "activity radius" of the communitycentered group is much greater than that
of the home-centered group, whose leisure
activities never transcend circle 8, and are

usually no broader than the kind of activities listed in circle 6. In graphic form
this illustrates the socially and spatially restricted nature of the leisure of the homecentered.
Two examples, one of a community-centered man with a high rating as a user of
leisure and the other of a high leisure homecentered man, may further the reader's
image of the difference between the two
styles of leisure.
Mr. X is a fifty-year-old executive vicepresident of a bank, with a pattern of leisure
activities which is the prototype of the community-centeredstyle of leisure. He is president of one country club, a member of
another, a Shriner, and a member of the
executive council of a national Boy's Club
movement and of a number of charity organizations. Mr. X's favorite leisure activity
is to go on trips during his vacation, to
New York City to see the Broadwaytheater,
and to see exhibitions of modern art. He is
active in encouraging the local art museum
to acquire examples of modern art. He enjoys playing golf once or twice a week at
the country club, playing cards, painting
his garage, and entertaining business people both at home and at the club. He does
not own a television set, preferringthe good
music on the radio. He goes with his wife
to the movies and to all the musicalcomedies
that come to Kansas City. As for friends,
Mr. X calls ten to twelve couples "close."
He met them through various activities:
"My business connections here at the bank,
civic clubs, church, etc." With his wife he
goes out to eat once a week and entertains
other couples.
In contrast to Mr. X, Mr. Y, a fifty-eightyear-old social worker, is an example of an
individual who employs the home-centered
style of leisure. His favorite activity is gardening, in which he spends one-half hour
to an hour a day during the growing season.
Mr. Y's hobby is model railroading,which
he engages in with his wife in the basement
of his home. He also does some woodworking
and woodcarving and manual work around
the home. Once in a while he reads historical

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LEISURE AND LIFE-STYLE

fiction.The television set plays for two hours

an evening, showing sports events, quiz
shows, and plays. With his wife he reads,
plays cards, does model railroading, and
takes walks. Living in a neighborhood of
younger adults, he claims that he has few
friends and that a large part of his time is
spent taking care of the two children of his
son. Mr. Y's "going out" consists only of
movies (with wife) and American Legion
meetings once a month.
From this one can see that both in number and in kind of activities engaged in outside the home the "leisure complexity" of
Mr. X is far greater than that of Mr. Y.

The differences between the home-centered high, home-centeredmedium,and lowlevel life-styles as far as leisure is concerned
are mainly those between high, medium,
and low ratings on the scale of competence
as a user of leisure. A higher role performance is associated with the following significance variables: autonomy, creativity, getting strong pleasure from the activity, instrumental, high energy input, ego integration, vitality, and expansion of interests and
activities.
Have those whose leisure is home-centered different personalities from the com-

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aTecrlen

401

nglisr

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402

THE AMERICANJOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

munity-centered?Or is the differencecaused

by some external factor, such as residence
in a suburbversus residencein an apartment
area in the center of the city, or having several young children versus having one or
none? It has been suggested by David Reisman3 and by Margaret Mead,4 among
others, that the trend toward suburban
living and the trend toward larger numbers
of childrenare making for values and leisure
activities that are more home- and familycentered.
Riesman speaks of "suburban styles of
life and thought" and stresses the suburban
constriction of leisure to the family and the
living-room-garden-televisionset, at the expense of theater, concert hall, downtown
meetings, country clubs, and heterogeneous
social groups. Margaret Mead says that the
generation which has marriedsince the war
is much more concerned with home and
family life than earlier generations and is
busy trying to turn home life into "a selfrewarding delight."
To explore the differencesbetween homecentered and community-centered people,
we compared a community-centeredgroup
with a similar number of home-centered
people, equating the groups for age and
socioeconomic status. There was no difference between the two groups in the proportions of suburban dwellers and the proportions who lived in single-family houses with
gardens and recreationrooms. However, the
home-centered had more children living at
home. This suggests that the presence of
children in the home, together with the desire to have children and to have a homecentered life, are more influential than the
actual physical location of one's house in
determiningleisure style. It should be borne
in mind, however, that Kansas City does
not have many apartment dwellings for
3 David Riesman, "The Suburban Dislocation,"
Annals of the American Academy of Political and
Social Science, CCCXIV (November, 1957), 12346.
'Margaret Mead, "The Patterns of Leisure in
Contemporary American Culture," Annals of the
American Academy of Political and Social Science,
CCCXIII (September, 1957), 11-15.

upper-middle-class people near the city's

center.
The foregoing facts point to the conclusion that the personality,more than the situation, determinesthe leisure style.
For each of these life-style groups there
are some people with relatively high leisure
performancescores and some with relatively
low scores. By comparing these two subgroups, it is possible to compare the leisure
characteristicsof people with high and with
low leisure scores within a life-style. However, the range of leisure performance
scores within a life-style is relatively small.
Within the community-centeredlife-style
group there is one pattern with seventeen
memberswhich consists of people with relatively high leisure scores, and another group
of nine people with somewhat lower scores.
The individuals of the higher leisure pattern show more creativity and more autonomy in their leisure and a sense of vitality
in it. The individuals of the lower leisure
pattern are less enthusiastic and speak of
pastimes as something of a burden; they
join the country club because it is expected
that they do so, but they do not enjoy it
intrinsically. Business activity dominates
the lives of some; they claim that they have
relatively little leisure time and that they
had more in the past when they were not
so busy. The low leisure individuals with
the community-centeredlife-style engage in
the same kinds of activities as the high but
are not so active in them and do not engage
in as many.
In the home-centeredhigh group the individuals with the higher leisure pattern are
more creative than those in the lower leisure
group (woodworking versus watching television), and they are more instrumental in
their activities, being members of PTA and
church service groups, being leaders in Boy
Scout work, etc. In the home-centeredmedium group the same differencesappear between those of the higher and those of lower
leisure.
In general,within a life-style groupwhich
is large enough to permit some variation in

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LEISURE AND LIFE-STYLE

leisure-role performance scores, those with
higher leisure scores are more autonomous,
more creative, more instrumental, and more
vital in their use of leisure.
It has been assumed up to this point that
there was a close correlation between personal adjustment and performance in the
leisure role. The correlation coefficient is
.32 for men and .33 for women, with socioeconomicstatus partialed out. Clearly, there
are some exceptions to this rule. Study of
these exceptions may teach us something
more about the value of leisure.
Accordingly, we selected the cases which
showed most markedly a high adjustmentlow leisure performance combination and
those who combined low adjustment with
high leisure performance. There were nine
of the former and twelve of the latter in
the sample of 234 people. The criterion for
the high adjustment-low leisure combination was an adjustment score of 6 or above
on the ten-point adjustment scale and a
score of 5 or below on the ten-point leisure
performancescale. The criterion for the low
adjustment-high leisure group was an adjustment score of 4.5 or below and a leisure
score of 6 or above.
The content of the leisure and the significance ratings of the leisure activities of
the low leisure-high adjustmentpeople were
similar to the general pattern of people with
low leisure and low adjustment scores.
There are low significance ratings as to the
autonomy of the leisure activity, the creativity expressed in it, some apathy with
respect to the activity, and either a decline
in leisure interests or no expansion of interests.
These are people who get along very well
with little or no leisure. They show a great
deal of vitality in the instrumentalactivities
of life. The men are busy with their jobs
and the women with their children, allowing
little time for leisure and restricting them
to leisure activities near home. Six out of
the nine in the group are females and follow
this pattern. Their leisure activities are centered either at home, where they sew, watch

403

television, and take care of the children, or

in the church. The relationship between the
spouses is good, and there is a general feeling of contentment and emotional security.
It is this basically which accounts for the
high adjustment scores of the group.
The group of individuals with high leisure
scores and low adjustment tend as a whole
to be maladjustedsocially or occupationally
and attempt to get through leisure what
they cannot get in the other roles. They use
their leisure as a compensation to make up
for their deficiencies and to give their life
some meaning.
The men in the group, often alienated
from work, from spouse, or from the "community," attempt to adjust to this alienation
by engaging in leisure activities where they
invest a lot of energy and through which
they can enjoy themselves and see themselves as socially acceptable. One is a factory manager. He finds no satisfaction in
this position but rather pictures himself as
an intellectual and therefore spends a great
deal of time reading. A second, an amateur
pilot, directs his leisure away from a home
where some emotional difficultiesexist. Another man was trained as an engineer and
has shifted over the years from one job to
another, finally going into a business with
his wife, which he does not enjoy. Like the
factory manager, he pictures himself as a
scholar and spends his leisure time reading
oriental history. One of the men is a lightskinned Negro, cut off socially from both
the white and the Negro community, who
engages in leisure activities that he can perform alone or with his family, such as hunting and fishing-activities which do not put
him in social contact with others.
The women in the group have difficulty
in relating to their husbands and are emotionally insecure; there are degrees of feelings of unwantedness and not being loved.
They concentratetheir energiesinto a single
activity which they engage in alone and
where they can achieve a great deal of proficiency, such as sewing, embroidery, or
petitpoint, or in church activities where
they can spend time with the "women"and

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404

THE AMERICANJOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

achieve the feeling of "doing something dle-class people, but rarely are working-class
worthwhile."
people community-centered.An individual
with a large family of childrenis more likely
CONCLUSIONS
to be home-centered.However, his place of
1. The most successful life-styles, as residence-whether in a suburb, single-famjudged by the level of role-performance ily home, or city apartment-does not seem
scores, have concomitant patterns of leisure to affect his leisure style to any great degree.
activity. The community-centeredlife-style The personality of the individual appears to
includes a leisure pattern which spreads find its own leisure style.
3. There are a few exceptionalcases where
from the home out through a variety of
community circles. On the other hand, a the life-style and the leisure style are not in
successful home-centeredlife-style contains close relation. One group of such cases cona home-centeredleisure pattern. These suc- sists of about 5 per cent of adults. They are
cessful leisure patterns tend to be autono- people with little or no leisure activity who
mous, creative, instrumental, vital, and ego have a successful life-style and good perintegrative, whether they be community- sonal adjustment. These men and women
generallyinvest most of their energy in work
centered or home-centered.
The lower-level life-styles are lower in or in home and children,with little time and
performance in roles external to the home inclination for leisure.
Another group consists of about 6 per
than in the home roles. They also have
cent
of adults. They have a high level of
lower-level leisure styles, with lower scores
leisure
activity but are dissatisfied or inadein
on the values listed
the preceding paraquate workers or parents or spouses who
graph.
2. The two major types of leisure style, attempt to compensate with a high leisure
the community-centeredand the home-cen- performance.
tered, appearto be equally accessibleto mid- UNIVERSITY OF CEICAGO

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