Professional Documents
Culture Documents
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Copyright 2010, Institut franais du ptrole
DOI: 10.2516/ogst/2009067
Dossier
Fractured Reservoir Simulation
Simulation des rservoirs fracturs
Rsum Simulation des rservoirs naturellement fracturs. tat de lart : Partie 2 changes
matrice-fracture et spcificits des tudes numriques Les rservoirs naturellement fracturs
contiennent une partie significative des rserves en huile mondiales. La production de ce type de
rservoirs constitue un dfi pour les ingnieurs de rservoir. Lutilisation des simulateurs de rservoir
peut aider lingnieur de rservoir mieux comprendre les principaux mcanismes physiques, choisir
le procd de rcupration le mieux adapt et loptimiser. Des progrs sensibles ont t raliss
depuis les premires publications sur le concept double-milieu dans les annes soixante. Cet article et
le prcdent (Partie 1) prsentent les techniques actuelles de modlisation utilises dans les simulateurs
industriels. Il ny a pas de rponse dfinitive pour simuler de manire optimale les changes matricefracture, et, diffrentes mthodes sont mises en uvre dans les simulateurs industriels de rservoir. Ce
papier se concentre sur la modlisation de la physique des coulements au sein des milieux matrice et
fracture et des changes entre ces deux milieux afin de mieux comprendre les diffrentes formulations
proposes dans la littrature. Plusieurs problmes particuliers lis la simulation numrique des rservoirs
fracturs sont aussi abords avec une prsentation de la prise en compte des effets gomcaniques, une
application de la mthodologie dvaluation des incertitudes un cas de rservoir gaz fractur, et
enfin une prsentation de la mthodologie de calage dhistorique des rservoirs fracturs.
Abstract Simulation of Naturally Fractured Reservoirs. State of the Art: Part 2 Matrix-Fracture
Transfers and Typical Features of Numerical Studies Naturally fractured reservoirs contain a
significant amount of the world oil reserves. The production of this type of reservoirs constitutes a
challenge for reservoir engineers. Use of reservoir simulators can help reservoir engineers in the
understanding of the main physical mechanisms and in the choice of the best recovery process and its
optimization. Significant progress has been made since the first publications on the dual-porosity
concept in the sixties. This paper and the preceding one (Part 1) present the current techniques of
modeling used in industrial simulators. The optimal way to predict matrix-fracture transfers at the
simulator cell scale has no definite answer and various methods are implemented in industrial
simulators. This paper focuses on the modeling of physical mechanisms driving flows and interactions/
exchanges within and between fracture and matrix media for a better understanding of proposed flow
formula and simulation methods. Typical features of fractured reservoir numerical simulations are also
described with an overview of the implementation of geomechanics effects, an application of uncertainty
assessment methodology to a fractured gas reservoir and finally a presentation of a history matching
methodology for fractured reservoirs.
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NOMENCLATURE
INTRODUCTION
a, b, c
A
cT
Ckp
D
Fkp
g
J
K
kr
l
N
p
pc
Q
R
S
Swi
t
u
Z
Subscripts
eq
g
i
k
o
p
w
Equilibrium
Hydrocarbon gas phase
Direction, x, y or z; matrix block face index
Component
Hydrocarbon liquid phase
Phase
Water phase
Superscripts
f
m
mf
Fractures
Matrix
Matrix-fracture
pf Ckpf S pf + div
(
p
pf CkpfQ pf
Fkpmf
m m
Sp +
mp Ckp
(
p
f
pf Ckpf u p + J kpf
(1)
=0
) (
p
m m m
p C kp Q p
)+ F
mf
kp
=0
(2)
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P Lemonnier and B Bourbiaux / Simulation of Naturally Fractured Reservoirs. State of the Art:
Part 2 Matrix-Fracture Transfers and Typical Features of Numerical Studies
kfy
kfz
Matrix block
Two superposed
grids
kfx
Matrix cell
Fracture cell
Parallelepipedic
fracture network
Fracture node
Matrix node
Fkpmf =
1 mf
1
f =
fikp
abc kp
abc i =1
(3)
z+
y+
s
x-
x+
c
y-
b
z-
Ai
(4)
Whereas dispersion often predominates under the significantflow-velocity conditions encountered in single-medium
li
Figure 2
Scheme of a matrix block.
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( ft )ikp = (Ckp p )
( m, f )
( m, f )
Ai m krp
K
ipf m
sp
li i p
i
2
(5)
f
p pm
(6)
4 N ( N + 2)
a2
(7)
6
1
1
1
1
Ai
2 bc ac ab
=
+ + = 4 2 + 2 + 2
c
a
abc i=1 li abc a b
b
c
2 2
2
2
(9)
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Part 2 Matrix-Fracture Transfers and Typical Features of Numerical Studies
K mt
m cTm a 2
180
160
140
Constant shape factor
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120
100
80
60
40
20
1D
2D
3D
Warren
and Root
(1963)
Kazemi
et al.
(1976)
Coats
(1989)
12
32
60
4
8
12
8
16
24
Lim
and Aziz
(1995)
Quintard
and Whitaker
(1996)
2 (9.87)
22 (19.7)
32 (29.6)
12
28.4
49.6
00
0.0001
0.001
0.01
0.1
t/td
Figure 3
Evolution in time of shape factor a2 for a square block (after
Bourbiaux et al., 1999).
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D
( fd )ikp = m S pm mkp + u mf
pi
i
Ai ( m, f ) f
m
(Ckp - Ckp
)(1 - Swf )
li p
2
with D the molecular diffusion coefficient.
(10)
The diffusion transmissibility, computed by the simulator with respect to the grid structure (radial, Cartesian,
CPG, etc.) as for the permeability transmissibility, is
defined as:
im Ai
l
i i
2
(11)
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Part 2 Matrix-Fracture Transfers and Typical Features of Numerical Studies
269
1
wo
gc
0
wo gc
Sw ( pcw )dpcw
(12)
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2 K pcw .t
S w + o l 2
krw kro
(13)
pc min
og g
(14)
1
og
og gc
gc 0
Sg ( pcg )dpcg
(15)
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Part 2 Matrix-Fracture Transfers and Typical Features of Numerical Studies
performed the same kind of experimental study and introduced a critical fracture aperture size, depending on the interfacial tension, the spreading coefficient, the rock wettability
and the surface roughness.
Conversely, the existence of flow barriers in the matrix
medium, for instance impermeable shaly laminations, may
reduce the effective block height. All intermediate situations
are frequent where heterogeneities reduce the flow ability
while keeping the capillary continuity.
Kinetics of Drainage
Let us consider a pure gravity-driven flow in a matrix block
of height l, with a negligible impact of capillary forces, i.e.
no capillary retention at the base of the block. Again, the displacement is assumed frontal (or piston-type) but with both
phases flowing in the same direction (cocurrent flow). The
viscous pressure gradient in the gas phase is also neglected
by comparison with the oil phase pressure gradient. Applying
mass conservation law and generalized Darcy law in both
phases, the recovered proportion of recoverable oil can then
be formulated as a function of time as:
R(t ) =
K kro .og g
S o .l
(16)
ipf
m
sp
in matrix-fracture
) (
) (
f
m
f
f
m
sp = sp sp + ip sp
(17)
m
sp
f
so
f
cp
m
cp
m
p
f*
m
so
f
ip
(18)
f
sp
m
p
f*
(19)
f
ip
+ v
f
ip
+ g
( ) = ( p p )
+(p p )
+ ( ) g ( z z )
+ ( ) ( ) g ( z z )
+ c
) (
)
( p )
( ) g ( z z )
g ( z z )
) (
)
(
f
m
m
sp = pso pso
pcpf
m
cp
m
p
f*
f
ip
f
sp
(20)
m
p
f*
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1300
03_ogst08104
1100
900
700
500
0
0.09
0.19
0.27
Injected water volume pore volume
Figure 4
Fractured column. Cumulative oil production, high-fracturepermeability case (after Quandalle and Sabathier, 1989).
0.37
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Part 2 Matrix-Fracture Transfers and Typical Features of Numerical Studies
80
1300
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1100
900
Double porosity model
PC
PCGR
PCGRVI
Single porosity model
T1
700
500
0
0.09
0.19
0.27
Injected water volume pore volume
0.37
60
40
20
0
0.1
10
Time (day)
100
1000
Figure 5
Figure 6
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Gravity Drainage
The exact average saturation of a matrix block at the end of a
gravity drainage process can be determined by integration of
the saturation values derived from the capillarity-gravity
equilibrium at each block height, that is, for a gas-oil
drainage and a zero fracture capillary pressure:
m
Sgeq
=
om
gf
0(
( )
om gf glz
glz
m
m
Sgm pcg
dpcg
(21)
( ) (
lz
2
m
m*
pcg
Sgeq
= om gf g
(22)
m
(om gf )g lz pcg
(om
gf )g lz
2 c
min
m
pcg
min
50
40
30
20
Single-porosity model (reference)
Dual-porosity model (basic formulation)
Dual-porosity model (improved form.)
10
0
0
10
15
Time (year)
60
03_ogst08104
(23)
Figure 7
Cumulative oil recovery of a 10-feet cubic block by gas-oil
gravity drainage (after Sabathier et al., 1998).
The limits of that improved formula stems from an adjustment that concerns the final average saturation of the matrix
block and the initial matrix-fracture transfer rate alone, without considering the exact transient rates. A more accurate
prediction could be obtained by introducing a matrix-saturation dependent scaling factor, but with the remaining question of its general validity for any matrix-fluids system. The
necessity of such improvement should also be evaluated with
respect to the practical accuracy required for the transient
states of matrix blocks.
Complex Transfers
The difficulties are even greater if we deal with multiphase
transfers of fluids in thermodynamic non-equilibrium
because mass transfer of components occurs at the interface
between phases in addition to convective and diffusive transfers occurring within each phase. Bourbiaux and Lacroix
(2008) proposed a reliable formulation for simulating multiphase compositional transfers between a matrix block filled
with oil and a fracture filled with non-equilibrium gas, without having to discretize the matrix block. The modeling is
based on the underlying principles:
a component transfer takes place through the interface
between oil and gas so as to establish local equilibrium
between both phases: this local equilibrium is obtained
instantaneously compared to the time required to establish
a global equilibrium between fracture and matrix fluids,
by means of diffusion phenomena at block scale;
a molecular diffusion occurs within each phase as a result
of the composition difference between the phase interface
and the phase taken as a whole;
due to volumetric changes within each phase, the liquid
phase expands (swelling) or shrinks (vaporization) within
the matrix block.
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275
m
is A K kr , as it appears in Equation (5). The absolute
l
permeability, Km, is the possibly anisotropic matrix cell
permeability. The area, A, of each matrix block face and the
distance of exchange, l, are computed from the block dimensions, which constitute specific input properties assigned to
each cell or group of cells. Phase viscosity, , is a function of
the pressure and composition, the latter variables being taken
in the upstream cell. A specific point, developed hereafter,
concerns the choice of the relative permeabilities, kr. This
choice depends on the phase flow direction, from matrix to
fracture or inversely.
(24)
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m
krg
(Sg = Sg max ) =
m
krg
max
*m
m
krw
= krw
(Sw = Sw max ) = krwm max
(25)
(26)
Sw* f =
Sgf
1 Swif
Swf Swif
1 Swif
(27)
(28)
(29)
Sof
1 Swif
(30)
Sof Somf
1 Swif Somf
(31)
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( )
= max f So*
(32)
where max is the maximum value of the reimbibition fraction, and f(So*) is a vertical reimbibition function that is
defined versus the normalized matrix oil saturation S*o.
2 IMPLEMENTATION OF GEOMECHANICS
IN FRACTURED RESERVOIR SIMULATION
Geomechanical effects can be particularly pronounced in
some reservoirs, such as poorly compacted reservoirs and
fractured or faulted reservoirs, and need in this case to be taken
into account. The set of equations underlying a thermohydro-mechanical problem may differ according to the level
of coupling between thermal-hydraulic and mechanical
phenomena.
After space-time discretization, the coupled problem can
be written in the following matrix form (Settari and Walters,
1999):
(33)
u + L P = F
t
L t u + E t P = R
T
(34)
(35)
277
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role played by water imbibition of the matrix which, depending on the fracture density and rock properties, can significantly delay water breakthrough. Assessing the impact of
such spontaneous imbibition phenomena on the field recovery requires first, experimental measurements (Egermann et
al., 2004) to quantify the involved matrix petrophysical properties, then field-scale simulations of gas production on a representative model of the reservoir.
The simulated reservoir example, considered as representative, is a fractured carbonate reservoir with a tight vuggy
and dolomitized matrix, of less than 1 md, and a strong
underlying aquifer in a tilted structure. The effective fracture
permeability is in the order of 20 mD. The reservoir thickness is 50 m. Gas is produced by a single up-dip well perforated over the entire reservoir thickness. Depletion is performed at a constant rate, such that the Original Gas In Place
(OGIP) would be recovered after 10 years of water-free production. Production is however stopped as soon as some
water, corresponding to a water-gas ratio of only 5 10-6
vol/vol at surface conditions, is produced, that is before
10 years. Fractures provide the main contribution to well productivities but are also responsible for matrix gas bypassing
and early water breakthroughs leading to premature well
shut-ins.
The matrix petrophysical properties measured on a set of
representative samples were also input in the simulation
model. Correlations were formulated between these measured properties and were then introduced in the simulation
model in order to minimize the number of uncertain parameters in the uncertainty analysis. For the case under consideration, satisfactory linear correlations could be derived between
the porosity and the logarithm of permeability with a -K
law: = a ln(K) + b, and between the gas relative
TABLE 2
Uncertainty ranges
Short name
Long name
PERMF
POROSF11
BLOCK12
PERMM11
SWI
KRWM11
COREYW
COREYG
a_PHI
b_PHI
a_SGRM
b_SGRM
a_KRGM
b_KRGM
PCGref
Fracture permeability
Fracture porosity
Cubic block size
Matrix permeability
Initial water saturation
Maximum water relative permeability
Water Corey coefficient
Gas Corey coefficient
a coefficient of the PHI-K law
b coefficient of the PHI-K law
a coefficient of the SGRM-SWI law
b coefficient of the SGRM-SWI law
a coefficient of the KRGM-SWI law
b coefficient of the KRGM-SWI law
Reference maximum capillary pressure
Min value
Max value
Unit
10.0
0.001
10.0
0.1
0.15
5.0E-5
2.0
2.0
0.015
0.095
3.3
1.05
2.3
1.2
10.0
100.0
0.005
20.0
2.0
0.25
5.0E-4
4.0
4.0
0.019
0.115
3.0
1.15
2.0
1.3
15.0
mD
adim
m
mD
adim
adim
adim
adim
adim
adim
adim
adim
adim
adim
bars
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The results of these properly-selected simulations (experiments) are summarized in Figure 8. The recovery factor,
defined as the cumulated gas production at well shut-in
divided by the Original Gas In Place (OGIP), is shown as a
function of the water breakthrough time. Note that the proportionality between the recovery factor and the water breakthrough time is only the result of a gas production rate taken
in proportion to the OGIP. The main observation is that
recovery values range from 11 up to 85%, that is, the recovery factor is very sensitive to the uncertain parameters under
consideration. The mean value, equal to 43%, looks realistic
for such fractured gas reservoirs where early water breakthrough leads to rather low recovery efficiencies.
90
First phase recovery factor (%)
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
Water breakthrough time (day)
Figure 8
Recovery factor versus water breakthrough time.
3000
Taking profit from the sensitivity analysis results, the experimental design technique was applied again to determine a
proxy model. The latter was used to obtain a probabilistic estimation of the gas recovery factor in the uncertainty space under
consideration. The proxy model building involved two steps:
a second experimental design focused on the main
parameters, including the parameterization of a polynomial function modeling the gas recovery factor as a
function of those parameters (the proxy model);
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POROSF11
KRWM11
PERMF:a_PHI
PERMF
PERMF:POROSF11
PERMF:COREYW
BLOCK12
PERMF:COREYG
COREYW
SWI
PERMM11
b_PHI
a_PHI
COREYG
PERMF:SWI
PERMF:KRWM11
PERMF:a_KRGM
a_SGRM
PERMF:BLOCK12
b_SGRM
POROSF11:PCGref
b_KRGM
PERMF:PERMM11
PERMF:b_KRGM
a_KRGM
PERMF:a_SGRM
PERMF:b_PHI
PCGref
22.963
8.456
7.744
7.589
6.899
5.486
5.360
4.434
4.145
3.016
2.912
2.513
2.328
2.222
1.933
1.531
1.434
1.344
1.307
1.300
0.928
Contributions
Positive
Negative
Significant level
0.895
0.849
0.838
0.722
0.414
0.224
0.217
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Parameter contribution (%)
Figure 9
Sensitivity diagnosis for recovery factor.
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POROSF11
PERMF
KRWM11
PERMM:KRWM11
6.720
BLOCK12
6.144
POROSF11:PERMM11
5.897
BLOCK12:PERMM11
5.528
BLOCK12:KRWM11
4.126
b_PHI
2.951
PERMM11
2.229
PERMF:A2
PERMM11:A2
2.145
1.827
POROSF11:b_PHI
1.569
PERMF:POROSF11
1.527
POROSF11:KRWM11
1.415
PERMF:COREYG
COREYG 0.011
0
28.742
10.590
9.750
8.829
Contributions
Positive
Negative
Significant level
10
12
14
16
18
Parameter contribution (%)
20
22
24
26
30
28
Figure 10
Sensitivity diagnosis for recovery factor (the vertical line represents a sensitivity threshold).
P50
37%
100
P90
20%
80
P10
53%
0.02
60
Density
0.03
40
Recovery factor
0.01
20
0
0
20
40
60
80
Recovery factor (% OGIP)
10
100
20
30
40
50
60
Response values (%)
RSM model 1
70
80
90
Figure 11
Figure 12
3.3 Conclusions
It is necessary to underline that uncertainty diagnosis has to
be carried out with great care regarding the consistency
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Figure 13
Initial realization of the stochastic fracture network (left) and
final realization of the stochastic fracture network after global
optimization (right) (after Jenni et al., 2004).
1.0
P1
0.9
Reference network
Initial realization
Realization after global optimization
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
10
20
30
40
50
Figure 14
Comparison of the water-cut curves (function of time in
years) of the reference network (), the initial realization
() and the realization after global optimization ()
(after Jenni et al., 2004).
the reservoir field was subdivided into four zones, each zone
containing an injector and a producer. The local calibration
was then performed sequentially zone by zone, giving a satisfactory match for all wells.
This application shows that an object-based stochastic
model of large scale fractures, constrained only to orientation
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