Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Weight
Weight is the force on an object due to a gravitational field
Gravitational field
g =Gmr2
• F = mg
Projectile Motion
• If two objects of the same or different mass are released from the same
height and allowed to fall straight down, they reach the ground at the
same time, assuming air resistance is ignored. Similarly, one object falling
straight down and another projected horizontally from the same height,
also reach the ground at the same time.
• The horizontal motion has no effect on the vertical motion of a projectile
(i.e. they are both independent)
• Horizontal and vertical equations for projectile motion:
ux = u cosθ uy = u sinθ
vx = ux vy = uy + ayt
Δy = uyt + ½ayt2
Escape Velocity
• The necessary velocity to leave a planet
• During this rise, the projectile’s kinetic energy transforms into
gravitational potential energy, so that: Ek initially = Ep finally
• The escape velocity depends upon the universal gravitational constant,
the mass of the planet and the radius of the planet
Circular Motion
• Objects do not perform uniform circular motion unless they are subject to
a centripetal force
• This is a force that is always perpendicular to the velocity of the object,
which causes the moving object to continually change direction so that it
follows a circular path
• The centripetal force is always directed toward the centre of the circular
motion
• Centripetal force for a range of circular motions:
Centripetal Acceleration
ac =v2r
Centripetal Force
Fc =mv2r
Launching a Rocket
• Rocket propulsion is derived from a force pair, as described in Newton’s
third law (F = -F)
• The backward force of the rocket on the exhaust gases equals the forward
force of the gases on the rocket
• Force is equal to the rate of change of momentum
• The initial momentum of the rocket and its fuel is zero. This sum must be
preserved (the Law of Conservation of Momentum)
• Since momentum = mass x velocity, and the mass is constantly
decreasing as the fuel is used up, then the velocity of the rocket increases
because the momentum is constant
Forces on Astronauts
As fuel is consumed and the exhaust gases expelled, the mass of the rocket
decreases. By Newton’s second law (F = ma), if the mass decreases, then the
rocket will increase in acceleration, and the force experienced by the astronauts
will also increase. The astronauts experience increasing g-forces, until such time
as the rocket uses up fuel in its first tank. At this time, the forces on the
astronauts reduce to zero, as no fuel is burned for a short period of time. As the
next tank begins to burn fuel and expel gases, the g-forces on the astronauts
begin to increase again.
Geostationary Orbits
• Geostationary orbits are at an altitude of ~35,800km and have a period of
24 hours
• They are useful for communications and weather satellites
Orbital Decay
• Satellites in low Earth orbit are subject to friction with the sparse outer
fringes of the atmosphere. This friction results in a loss of energy. The loss
of energy means that this orbit is no longer viable and the satellite drops
down to an altitude that corresponds with its new, lower energy density
where it will lose more potential energy to heat energy
• This is the process of orbital decay, and it is cyclical, as the satellites new
lower orbit resides in slightly denser atmosphere, which leads to further
friction and loss of energy. The process is not only continuous but speeds
up as time goes on
Safe Re-Entry
• Heat: The considerable kinetic and potential energy possessed by an
orbiting spacecraft must be lost during re-entry. As the atmosphere
decelerates the spacecraft, the energy is converted into a great deal of
heat. This heat must be tolerated, which is done by using heat shields that
use ablating surfaces or insulating surfaces. The heat can be minimised by
taking longer to re-enter, thereby lengthening the time over which the
energy is converted to heat
• g-forces: The deceleration of a re-entering spacecraft also produces g
forces. High g-forces can be tolerated by reclining the astronaut, so that
blood is not forced away from the brain, and by fully supporting the body.
The g-forces can be minimised by extending the re-entry, slowing the rate
of descent
• During re-entry there is a radio blackout caused by overheated air
particles ionising as they collide with the spacecraft. This may be a safety
issue if contact is needed between the spacecraft and earth at this phase
of its flight
• Reaching the surface: Even after surviving the issues listed above, the
spacecraft must touchdown softly onto the surface of the Earth. Several
solutions to this problem have been employed, such as first using
parachutes and then splashing into ocean, using many parachutes before
crunching onto the ground, or by landing on an air strip (as performed by
the space shuttle).
Angle of Descent
The angle of re-entry is critical:
• Too shallow and the spacecraft will bounce off the atmosphere back into
space (due to compression of the atmosphere)
• Too steep and g-forces will be too great for the crew to survive (and the
temperature generated with the atmosphere will be too high even for the
refracting materials used)
The Aether
• The aether was the proposed medium for light and other electromagnetic
waves, before it was realised that these waveforms do not need a medium
to travel
• The aether should:
– fill all of space and be stationary in space
– be perfectly transparent
– permeate all matter
– have low density
– have great elasticity in order to propagate the light waves
Frames of Reference
• An inertial frame of reference is one that is moving with constant velocity
or is at rest
• A non-inertial frame of reference is one that is accelerating
• No, the reflection will not appear. This is the result predicted by the aether
model, since light can only travel at a set speed (3 × 108 m s-1) through
the aether. If the train is travelling at that speed then the light cannot
catch the mirror to return as a reflection. Unfortunately, this violates the
principle of relativity, which states that in an inertial frame of reference
you cannot perform any experiment to tell that you are moving
• Yes, the reflection will be seen because, according to the principle of
relativity, it would not be possible for the person in the train to do
anything to detect the constant motion with which he or she is travelling.
However, a person watching this from the side of the track would see the
light travelling at twice its normal speed
Measurement
• The current definition of the metre is much more precise and accessible.
One metre is defined as the length of the path travelled by light in a
vacuum during a fraction of a second.
• This modern definition takes advantage of the constancy of the speed of
light, as well as the capability technology has given us to measure time
and the speed of light with great precision
• The light-year is another length standard defined in terms of time and the
speed of light
To rearrange this formula to find the velocity of the object we use the formula v
= c1- lo2lv2
Time Dilation
Time dilation of a moving object relative to a stationary observer can be found
using the formula tv = to1- v2c2 where:
• tv is the rate that time passes inside the object as viewed by a stationary
observer
• to is the rate that time passes as viewed by an observer inside the object
To rearrange this formula to find the velocity of the object we use the formula v
= c1- to2tv2
This also works with mass dilation.
Mass Dilation
Mass dilation of a moving object relative to a stationary observer can be found
using the formula
Mass-Energy
When we do work on an object we increase its kinetic energy. As the speed
approaches c we still do work but the kinetic energy does not increase
significantly. The work goes into increasing the objects mass according to
Einstein’s famous equation: E = mc2