TOPIC:

COMPUTER HARDWARE
ASSIGNMENT NO. 1
SESSION:
AUTUMN 2015

COURSE NAME:
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

COURSE CODE:
360

STUDENT NAME:
AHMEDHUSSAIN

ROLL NO.:
BC-333172

TUTORS NAME:
MR. RIZWAN AHMED SIDDIQUI

DATE OF SUBMISSION:
7-9-2015

INTRODUCTION

Hardware refers to all of the physical parts of a computer system. For a typical desktop
computer this comprises the main system unit, a display screen, a keyboard, a mouse, a
router/modem (for connection to the Internet), and usually a printer. Speakers, a webcam
and an external hard disk for back-up storage are often also included. Many of these items
are integrated into a single unit on a laptop or other form of mobile computer.

PROCESSOR :A central processing unit (CPU) is the electronic circuitry within a computer that carries
out the instructions of a computer program by performing the basic arithmetic, logical,
control and input/output (I/O) operations specified by the instructions. The term has been
used in the computer industry at least since the early 1960s. Traditionally, the term "CPU"
refers to a processor, more specifically to its processing unit and control unit (CU),
distinguishing these core elements of a computer from external components such as main
memory and I/O circuitry.
The form, design and implementation of CPUs have changed over the course of their history,
but their fundamental operation remains almost unchanged. Principal components of a CPU
include
the arithmetic
logic
unit (ALU)
that
performs
arithmetic
and
logic
operations,processor registers that supply operands to the ALU and store the results of ALU
operations, and a control unit that fetches instructions from memory and "executes" them
by directing the coordinated operations of the ALU, registers and other components.
Most modern CPUs are microprocessors, meaning they are contained on a single integrated
circuit (IC) chip. An IC that contains a CPU may also contain memory, peripheral interfaces,
and other components of a computer; such integrated devices are variously called
microcontrollers or systems on a chip (SoC). Some computers employ a multi-core
processor, which is a single chip containing two or more CPUs called "cores"; in that
context, single chips are sometimes referred to as "sockets".Array processors or vector
processors have multiple processors that operate in parallel, with no unit considered central.
The speed of a computer's processor chip (technically known as its "clock speed") in
measured in gigahertz (GHz), with the fastest modern processors currently running at up to
4.7GHz. However, for most computing tasks -- including web browsing, sending e-mails,
word processing and spreadsheet work -- any processor running at 1GHz or more remains
perfectly sufficient. (No really guys, it does!).
Where higher processor speeds become more important is for applications such as video
editing, 3D graphics work and (for the majority of "power users") playing computer games!
For any of these applications, within reason the faster the processor the better. This said,
people in need a very powerful computer have to be aware that CPU performance is now
determined by far more than raw speed alone. Intel made this very clear when it introduced
its system of processor numbers. These provide an indication of a processor's
"architecture", "cache" and "front side bus (FSB) speed" in addition to its clock speed.
Alongside clock speed, the architecture of a processor is the most important factor to
determine its performance, and refers to its basic design and complexity. Some processors
are simply more sophisticated than others, with Intel (for example) producing "basic"
processors called Celerons and Pentiums, as well as more powerful processors under its

"Core" processor family. The later include the Core 2, Core i3, Core i5 and Core i7, with the
last of these being the most powerful.
All Intel Core processors feature more than one "core" -- or in other words more than one
physical processor -- manufactured as a single component. Intel's "Core 2 Duo" chips, for
example, feature two processors core on a single chip, whilst "Core 2 Quad" processors
have four processor cores. In most situations multi-core processors are far more powerful
than traditional single core processors. Quite literally this is because they can do several
things at the same time (something single core processors can only achieve by constantly
switching back and fourth between doing one thing and doing another). In turn this means
that multi-core processors can run at lower speeds than single-core processors and yet be
far more powerful. A 2.4GHz Core 2 processor, for example, usually proves far more
productive than a single core 3GHz Pentium processor. All of this hopefully makes it clear
why clock speed by itself is no longer a straight-forward indicator of processor power, with
the architecture of the processor -- and most notably including its number of cores -- now
being at least as significant.
Intel Celeron, Pentium and Core processors are today all to be found at the heart of new
desktop and laptop PCs. Intel additionally also manufacture very-high-specification chips
named Xeons and Itaniums to drive the most powerful business workstations and servers. If
this range of choice all sounds a bit confusing then to be honest it is -- with Intel itself
having resorted to a range of processor section wizards in an effort to explain its processor
ranges on its own website.
To add further to Intel's abundance of processor choice and complexity, the company also
offers a range of low-power processors called Atoms. These are highly energy efficient, and
were primarily first intended to be used in mobile computers including netbooks. However,
today the latest dual core Atom processors are increasingly finding their way into highly
energy-efficient desktop computers. For many people a computer with the latest 1.66GHz or
1.8GHz dual core Atom processor will be capable of undertaking any computing task they
require, and probably at least four times more energy efficiently than a Celeron, Pentium or
Intel Core based computer. You can watch me construct a dual core Atom-based computer
in the following video:
In addition to clock speed and architecture, a processor's cache and front side bus (FSB)
speed also determine a computer's overall power. In brief, cache is a form of very fast
memory integrated into the processor chip, and used to store up instructions (work for the
processor) so that it has to slow down as little as possible between tasks. Cache is
measured in megabytes (MB), with (for example) low-end Celeron processors having as
little as 0.25MB of cache (256KB), and high-end Itaniums having up to 24MB. The simple
message is, the more cache the better -- though high levels of cache still come at a very
significant price.
Front side bus (FSB) speed is a measure of how fast a microprocessor communicates
with the computer's main circuit board (or "motherboard") into which it is physically
connected. Again, the higher the measure the better for overall performance, with FSB

speeds currently ranging from 533MHz (still perfectly sufficient for the vast majority of
applications) up to 1600Mhz.
NOTE: Whilst the examples in the above section all refer to Intel microprocessors, it should
be noted that the PC processor market is dominated by both Intel (with about 80 per cent
market share) and its main rival AMD. AMD's low specification processors are called
Semprons, its mid-range chips called Athlons, and its high-end chips called Phenoms and ASeries.

DISPLAY SCREEN :Display screen remain the dominant form of computing output peripheral, with most new
modern desktop displays being flat panels of between 15" and 19" in diagonal. However, far
more bulky cathode ray tube (CRT) monitors are still favoured by some in high-end graphics
work where absolute colour control is required. For other types of visual output (especially
in education and training) video projectors are now also in widespread use. Whilst most flat
computer displays are currently based on TFT (thin-film transistor) LCD (liquid crystal
display) technology, over the next decade these are likely to be replaced with OLED (organic
light emitting diode) screens as already used on some mobile phones and media
players. [Note that OLED screens should not be confused with LED-backlit LCD screens
however much some manufactures try to confuse potential buyers otherwise. LED-backlit
screens are very nice indeed. OLED are amazing, if currently incredibly expensive.]

RAM :RAM -- or "random access memory" -- is the temporary storage space that a computer
loads software applications and user data into when it is running. All current RAM
technologies are "volatile", which means that everything held in RAM is lost when a
computer's power is removed. To a large extent, the more RAM a computer has the faster
and more effectively it will operate. Computers with little RAM have to keep moving data to
and from their hard disks in order to keep running. This tends to make them not just slow in
general, but more annoyingly intermittently sluggish.
[The above all said, those hoping to speed up thier PC by installing more RAM need to note
that any PC with a 32 bit operating system can only access a maximum of 4GB of RAM.
Add more, and the PC simply will not recognise it. In practice this that means the vast
majority of PCs in use and being sold today cannot benefit from more than 4GB of RAM -and this includes many PCs running Windows 7 (which is very widely sold in its 32 rather
than 64 bit format to maximise compatabilty with older software and perhipherals).]
RAM is measured in megabytes (MB) and gigabytes (GB), as detailed on the storage page.
Just how much RAM a computer needs depends on the software it is required to run
effectively. A computer running Windows XP will usually function quite happily with 1GB of
RAM, whereas twice this amount (ie 2GB) is the realistic minimum for computers running

Windows 7. Mostmobile computers usually feature far less RAM, and indeed even desktop
computers running smaller operating systems (such as some versions of Linux or Windows
98) can run very effectively with as little as 128MB of RAM in certain situations.

GRAPHICS SYSTEM :A computer's graphics system determines how well it can work with visual output. Graphics
systems can either be integrated into a computer's motherboard, or plugged into the
motherboard as a separate "video card". Graphics systems integrated into the motherboard
(also known as "onboard graphics") are now quite powerful, and sufficient for handling the
requirements of most software applications aside from games playing, 3D modelling, and
some forms of video editing.
Any form of modern computer graphics system can now display high-resolution colour
images on a standard-sized display screen (ie any monitor up to about 19" in size). What
the more sophisticated graphics cards now determine is how well a computer can handle the
playback of high definition video, as well as the speed and quality at which 3D scenes
(including games!) can be rendered. Another key feature of separate graphics cards is that
most of them now allow more than one display screen to be connected to a computer.
Others also permit the recording of video.
In effect, modern graphics cards have become dedicated computers in their own right, with
their own processor chips and RAM dedicated to video decoding and 3D rendering. Hardly
surprisingly, when it comes to final performance, the more RAM and the faster and more
sophisticated the processor available on a graphics card the better. This said, top-end
graphics cards can cost up to a few thousand dollars or pounds.
As a basic rule, unless a computer is going to be used to handle 3D graphics or to undertake
a significant volume of video editing or recording, today there is little point in opting for
anything other than onboard graphics (not least because separate graphics cards consume
quite a lot of electricity and create quite a lot of heat and noise). Adding a new graphics
card to a computer with onboard graphics is also a very easy upgrade if required in the
future.
Graphics cards connect to what is known as either a "PCI Express" or an "AGP" slot on a
computer's motherboard. PCI Express is the more powerful and modern standard, with the
best graphics cards requiring the use of two PCI Express slots. A PC being upgraded from
onboard graphics sometimes also requires an upgraded power supply if it is to continue to
run in a stable fashion.

HARD DRIVE SPEED AND CAPACITY :-

Hard disk drives are the high capacity storage devices inside a computer from
which software and user data are loaded. Like most other modern storage devices, the
capacity of the one or more internal hard disks inside a computer is measured in gigabytes
(GB), as detailed on the storage page. Today 40GB is an absolute minimum hard drive size
for a new computer running Windows 7, with a far larger capacity being recommended in
any situation where more than office software is going to be installed. Where a computer
will frequently be used to edit video, a second internal hard disk dedicated only to video
storage is highly recommended for stable operation. Indeed, for professional video editing
using a program like Premiere Pro CS5, Adobe now recommend that a PC has at
least three internal hard disks (one for the operating system and programs, one for video
project files, and one for video media). This is also not advice to be lightly ignored if you
want your computer to actually work!
Most computers are configured to use a proportion of a computer's internal hard disk to
store temporary files. Such a "swap file" enables the computer to operate effectively, and
means that some free hard disk space always needs to be available for a computer to run
properly. However, providing that a hard disk is large enough to store the
required software and user data without getting beyond about 80 per cent full, hard disk
capacity will have no impact on overall system performance. However, what does impact
significantly on overall system performance is the speed of a computer's main internal hard
disk. This is simply because the longer it takes to read software and data from the disk, and
to access temporary files, the slower the computer will run.
Two key factors determine the speed of traditional, spinning hard disks. The first is the
rotational velocity of the physical disk itself. This can currently be 4200, 5400, 7200, 10000
or 15000 rpm (revolutions per minute). The faster the disk spins, the quicker data can be
read from or written to it, hence the faster the disk the better (although faster disks
consumer more power, make more noise, and generate more heat). Most desktop hard disks
run at either 5400 or 7200 rpm, whilst most laptop hard disks run at 4200 or 5400.
However, upgrading to a 10000 or 15000 rpm disk -- such as a Velociraptor from Western
Digital -- can prove one of the most cost-effective upgrades for increasing the performance
and responsiveness of a desktop computer.
The second key factor that determines performance of a traditional, internal hard disk is the
interface used to connect it to the computer's motherboard. Three types of interface
exist:SATA, which is the most modern and now pretty much the norm on new
PCs; IDE (also known as UDMA), which is a slower and older form of interface, and
finally SCSI, which is happens to be the oldest but in it most modern variant is still the
fastest disk interface standard. This said, SCSI is now all but redundant in desktop
computing since the introduction of SATA, as SATA provides a fairly high speed interface at
much lower cost and complexity than SCSI.

FLOPPY DISK :-

Floppy diskettes employ magnetic storage technology. The disks are 3.5-inches in
diameter and are easily portable. A single floppy can hold 1.44 MB.
COMPACT DISK :Compact disks are optical storage media that employ laser technology. CDs are
4.75 inches in diameter and can hold up to 680 MB (the equivalent of 450 floppies).
CDs are often read-only, although many PCs are now equipped with CD drives that
allow the user to record information on the CD. Some writable CDs can be recorded
on only once. These are designated as CD-R (compact disc-recordable). Others CDs
can be recorded on multiple times and are designate as CD-RW (compact discrewritable). Video data (e.g., movies) can be stored on a specialize type of CD
called CDDVDs (digital video discs). As with CDs, there is recordable variation of
DVDs (DVD-R) that allows the user to record video data from his or her computer,
provided that the computer is equipped with a DVD writer.
MAGNETIC TAPE:Magnetic tape cartridges use magnetically treated plastic ribbon to store
information. Tape cartridges can hold large amounts of information, up to 80 GB.
One disadvantage of tape storage is that information must be accessed
sequentially. For example, to retrieve information storage in the middle of the tape,
the entire first half of the tape must be run. Disks, on the other hand, allow for
direct (or random) access, which means that a piece of information may be located
immediately. Magnetic tape cartridges, of course, require magnetic tape drives
KEYBOARD :The keyboard is one of the most common input devices. In addition to keys that
represent letters, numbers, and special characters, keyboards often contain
function keys, to which the user can assign personalized commands, and specialpurpose keys, such as the enter key. Some keyboards contain a numeric keypad (a
set of keys in the form of a calculator keypad) that is used for entering numbers
conveniently and easily. Keyboards may also have Internet keys, CD/DVD controls,
and multimedia keys. While most keyboards are connected to the computer by a
cable, there are wireless keyboards that transmit their input by means of infrared
signals.
Mouse :Connected to many modern microcomputers is a hand-sized input device called a
mouse, or pointing device. A mechanical mouse contains a ball that rolls along a
flat surface, moving a cursor (pointer) on the computer screen. An optical mouse
uses light signals to detect the movement of the mouse and thereby move the
pointer on the screen. Through the use of one to four buttons on top of the mouse
(and a wheel on some versions of the mouse), the user can select and manipulate
objects represented on the screen as icons (symbols). The mouse is a convenient

and effective way to interact with the graphical user interfaces (GUIs) that
dominate the current computer environment.
Touchpad :This input device is a small rectangular surface that operates by means of pressure
and motion, and allows the user to perform all of the functions of a mouse by
touch. Moving the fingertip across the touch pad moves the cursor across the
screen. Tapping the touch pad acts as clicks and double-clicks. Touchpads are most
commonly found on laptop computers.
Pointing Stick :- Like the touchpad, this pressure-sensitive input device fills the
role of the mouse in some laptops. It is shaped like a pencil eraser and fits between
keys in the keyboard. Moving the pointing stick moves the cursor. This device is
mostly found on laptop computers.
Trackball :The trackball is basically an upside-down mouse. Instead of rolling the ball on a
surface as with the mouse, the user rotates the trackball with the hand directly to
position the cursor on the screen.
Touch Screen :This input device is often used in public places, such as shopping centers, hotels,
and airports, where users may not have much experience working with computers.
The user simply touches the screen for the desired menu item.
Light Pen :This light-sensitive device is used for entering data by writing on a computer
screen. Engineers, designers, and architects use light pens to draw and modify
shapes on the screen.
Graphics Tablet :A graphics tablet is a flat rectangular board used to input drawings or other
graphical data. The user draws on the graphics tablet with an electronic pen or a
mouse-like device (called a puck). The drawing movements are converted into
digital signals that are sent to the computer as input. Architects and mapmakers
commonly use this input device.
Speech Recognition Devices:These devices recognize the words spoken by users. Sample voice patterns are
analyzed, digitized, and stored in a database. Later, during operations, actual voice
inputs are compared with the stored voice pattern. Speech or voice recognition
technology is best suited to structured input applications in work environments
where the users hands are occupied. For example, a receiving clerk may enter data
about items received with the following phrases:

Invoice 998810

Item 56213

Quantity 100

Condition Good

From these inputs, the speech recognition system will create a record of items
received by a receiving clerk.