Effective Lecture Preparation and Delivery

The term "lecturing" refers to both planning and delivering a classroom presentation. While the
lecture has certain elements in common with a formal speech, a classroom lecture places
greater emphasis on the importance of presenter-audience (instructor-student) interaction.
Below is a brief listing of suggestions for effective lecture preparation and delivery. The
suggestions are arranged under one of three phases of a lecture the introduction, the body,
and the closing.

Beginning the Lecture

A. Plan an introduction to catch the listener's interest.
Suggestion: Raise a question to be answered by the end of the lecture.
Example: "By the end of the hour, you should be able to answer the question 'Are essay test
questions better than objective test questions?'"
Suggestion: State a historical or current problem related to the lecture content.
Example: "It was conjectured by Gauss that the number of primes up to any point X was less
than a certain smooth, easily calculated function of X. This conjecture was supported by
extensive numerical evidence. However, in 1914, Littlewood proved that, in fact, the relation
becomes false for an infinite sequence of large X's. Let's take a look at Littlewood's
reasoning."
Suggestion: Explain the relationship of lecture content to laboratory exercises, homework
problems, professional career interests, etc.
Example: "Today, I'll lecture on cost-of-living indices, a topic in macroeconomics which will
help you understand the recent discussions in Congress related to inflation."
Suggestion: Relate lecture content to previous class material.
Example: "For the past few weeks, Skinner, Osgood, and others, who take a behaviorist
view of language acquisition, have occupied our attention. Today, I'll introduce another,
different perspective on language acquisition and learning. We'll spend the rest of this week
and the next on understanding this view and comparing it with the behaviorist position."
Alternative: Ask a student to summarize previous course content.

B. Provide a brief general overview of the lecture's content.

Example: "In Victorian England the conflict between religion and science was well reflected in
the literature. Today we'll look at two poems, 'In Memoriam' and 'Dover Beach,' which illustrate
this conflict."

C. Tell students how you expect them to use the lecture material.
Example: "Today I'll offer a specific model of evaluation and illustrate its applicability in several
kinds of settings. When you meet in your discussion groups this week, you'll be asked to apply
the model as you discuss the Brown v. Board of Education decision."

D. Define or explain unfamiliar terminology.

Example: "In physics, the term 'work' has a precise technical meaning. The work done by a
force F when the object on which it acts moves a distance (puts a drawing on the board) is
defined by W-F . 'denotes' the work. It is assumed that F does not change much during the
motion and can be positive, zero or negative. Now, let's look at this diagram and see how well
you understand the definition of work."

The Body of the Lecture

A. Organization
Allow for some flexibility in the presentation in order to respond to student questions and
comments.
Determine which key points can be effectively developed during the class session. It is
necessary to strike a balance between depth and breadth of coverage. When every nuance,
detail or instance of a topic is discussed students often lose sight of the main ideas. Or, when
too many ideas are presented and not developed, students fail to gain understanding.

B. Organize material in some logical order.

Suggested organizational schemes include:

Cause-Effect: Events are cited and explained by reference to their origins. For
example, one can demonstrate how the continental revolutionary movements of the late
1700s affected British politics at the turn of the century.

Time Sequential: Lecture ideas are arranged chronologically. For example, a lecturer
explaining the steps in a clinical supervision model talks about the first step to be
undertaken, the second step, and so forth.

Topical: Parallel elements of different discussion topics are focused on successively.

For example, a professor lecturing about the differential features of common diseases in
canines and felines may speak about their etiologies, typical histories, and predisposing
factors.

Problem-Solution: The statement of a problem is followed by alternate solutions. For

example, a lecture on the Cuban missile crisis could begin with a statement of the foreign
policy problem followed by a presentation of the alternative solutions available to President
Kennedy.

Pro-Con: A two-sided discussion of a given topic is presented. For example, the lecture
is organized around the advantages and disadvantages of using the lecture method of
instruction.

Ascending-Descending: Lecture topics are arranged according to their importance,

familiarity, or complexity. For example, in a lecture introducing students to animal diseases,
the diseases of primary importance could be discussed first, the tertiary ones last.

C. Allow time within the lecture to summarize key ideas and prepare
relevant examples to illustrate key ideas.
Provide transitions which show the relationships between key ideas. Throughout the lecture
check on student understanding by:
1.

Asking students to answer specific questions: e.g., "Who can describe in his/her own
words the theory of neuron transmission?"

2.

Asking for student questions: e.g., "Did you have any questions about the application
of Kirchoff's rules in problem 6?"

3.

Presenting a problem or situation which requires use of lecture material in order to

obtain a solution; "Over the last few days we have been discussing regression analysis.
How can we use this information to predict your final grade in this course given your
midterm scores and the correlation between midterm and final scores?"

4.

Watching the class for nonverbal cues of confusion or misunderstanding: e.g., look for
such behaviors as loss of eye contact, talking, or clock watching.

D. Ask for and answer student questions.

Closing the Lecture

A. Answer any questions raised at the beginning of the lecture and provide
closure for the lecture.
Suggestion: Briefly summarize lecture material and preview what lies ahead.
Example: "Today I have identified five phases of the reflective thinking process. Tomorrow
we will see how these phases can be useful for our understanding of human learning."
Suggestion: Relate lecture material to past or future presentations.
Example: "During the next lesson, we'll break into discussion groups and get some
experience applying this evaluation model to the first three case studies in your file."
Suggestion: Ask a student to summarize the lecture's key ideas.

Example: "Who will summarize the key issues developed during today's lecture?"

B. Restate what you expect the students to gain from the lecture material.
Example: "As I stated in the introduction, given the appropriate data you should be able to plot
the appropriate supply-and-demand curves."

Delivering the Lecture

The following questions relating to lecture delivery should be considered throughout all three
phases of lecturing:

A. Vocal Delivery
Do you:
1.

Cue important ideas by varying speech rate, volume, and pitch?

2.

Speak to students and not to the blackboard, walls, notes, or floor?

3.

Enunciate clearly?

4.

Let your sense of humor show?

5.

Avoid repetition of pet words or phrases (e.g., okay, you know, uh)?

B. Physical Delivery
Do you:
1.
2.

Establish and maintain eye contact with your students?

Use gestures and physical movements which complement your verbal statements
(e.g., looking at students while asking for student questions)?

3.

Practice in advance with audiovisuals?

4.

Avoid using distracting gestures or physical movements (e.g., grooming, pacing)?

The lecture can be an immensely effective tool in the classroom, allowing an instructor to
provide an overarching theme that organizes material in an illuminating and interesting way. The
instructor must take care, however, to shape the lecture for the specific audience of students

who will hear it and to encourage those students to take an active and immediate part in
learning the material. It is essential to see lectures as a means of helping students learn to think
about the key concepts of a particular subject, rather than primarily as a means of transferring
knowledge from instructor to student.
Preparing
During the Lecture
After the Lecture
Links and References

Preparing
Create a comfortable, non-threatening environment.
Introduce yourself and explain your interests in the topic on the first day. Encourage questions
from the outset. For example, require each student to submit a question about the course during
the first day or week. Students can submit these questions via an online discussion forum, such
as that which is available on Blackboard; this assignment can also serve as a way for you to
ensure that they have each figured out how to log on to a discussion forum that you are using
throughout the course.

Incorporate visuals.
The human brain has independent processing streams for visual and verbal information
(Baddely, 1992). Research has shown that dual-channel processing is better than single
channel, or that learning can be improved when instruction includes both visual and verbal
information (Mayer, 2005). Incorporating visuals into your lecture can help your students learn.
However, make sure that each visual has a clear purpose, and design your visuals carefully. For
example, reduce or eliminate extraneous information, highlight key phrases or ideas, and place
keywords in close proximity to the graphics they describe. Each of these strategies can enhance
learning when using visuals (Mayer, 2008).

Reset the "attention clock": Include opportunities for active

learning.
Most university classes last 50-90 minutes, much longer than the attention span of a typical
student. Sustained attention varies widely, and the quality of attention depends on several
factors, including time of day (DeYoung et al., 2007; May et al., 1993), motivation and
enjoyment (Freitas and Higgins, 2002), and emotion (Reisberg and Heurer, 2004). However,
active-learning activities may "reset" your students' "attention clocks." A recent study of student
attention (Bunce et al. 2010) found that students reported fewer attention lapses when
instructors were using active-learning methods (a demonstration or a question) compared to
those reported during lecture segments. The researchers also found that there were fewer
reported lapses in attention during lecture segments in the period immediately following activelearning methods, when compared to lecture segments that preceded these methods. This
finding hints at the possibility that active learning may have dual benefits: engaging student
attention during the segments when faculty use these methods and "refreshing" attention
immediately afterward. (For more information about this study, see our review article on
student attention.)

Organize the lecture like a good speech, with a clear structure

and signposts marking key points and transitions.
As Barbara Gross Davis suggests, you should prepare your lecture for the ear, not the eye
(104). Use short, straightforward sentences and informal diction. Include transitions and
signposts that will help your students follow the sequence of your lecture. Plan to summarize
and ask questions at several points throughout the lecture to help ensure that students have
grasped key concepts.
The lecture should have a clear structure, with a beginning, middle, and end. It should relate
back to the previous lecture. The lecture should have an overarching theme or objective that fits
the course as a whole.

Prepare notes that will serve as a road map rather than a script
to be read verbatim.
Notes that are too comprehensive will take your attention away from the students. Instead, write
down key concepts and examples, including any essential details such as formulas, dates, or

other information. Use color and other cues to mark those points that are most important and to
signal when you will use the board or other aids. Experiment with different formats until you find
one that works for you. Include notes of moments when you will pause for questions or ask
students to solve a problem applying the concept you have just presented.

If you are a professor who is working with Teaching Assistants

(TAs), communicate with the TAs frequently to ensure coherence
between lectures and TA-facilitated sessions such as discussion
sessions, recitations, and office hours.
It is essential that TAs understand your expectations of their roles in assisting with the teaching
of the course. Consider defining clear objectives for the time that they spend with students in
discussions, recitations, and office hours. Speak with them often about how to use this time to
help students learn the material and about any problems that develop. Ask TAs to share their
impressions of where students are getting lost or otherwise struggling with the material;
students may be more likely to ask a TA for help if they are hesitant about approaching a faculty
member.

Review and practice the lecture before class begins.

After writing the lecture, leave at least 30 minutes before your class to organize your thoughts
and gather any material you need. Practicing the lecture will help you identify points where you
will want to slow the pace, pause, or offer a summary or a question.

If you plan to use audiovisual aids or instructional technology, do

so with care and preparation.
Use audiovisual aids and instructional technology only when doing so contributes to student
learning. Seek out any training you need to master the use of equipment and technology. Seek
out advice from The Teaching Center and your colleagues on why and how you might integrate
technology with more traditional tools to improve student learning. Practice using these tools so
that you can integrate their use smoothly into the lecture. If you are using PowerPoint, be
careful to limit the amount of information you include on each slide so that your lecture, rather
than the PowerPoint, is the focus. (For additional guidance on using PowerPoint and other
visual aids, see Improving Presentation Style.) If you are teaching in a University-managed

classroom, you may call The Teaching Center at 935-6810 to schedule a multimedia training
session.
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During the Lecture

Interact with your students.
Arrive to class early, especially on the first day, and greet students who are already in the room.
Students will feel more comfortable asking you questions and will feel more engaged in the topic
of the course if they have an opportunity to interact with you in this way. If time does not permit
for students to approach you for questions before or after the lecture, encourage them to see
you during office hours.
The more an instructor interacts with the students during a lecture, the more active the learning
will be. The judicious use of questions throughout a class session can move the lecture forward,
engage the students, increase the use of higher-order thinking processes, and make the lecture
more interesting.

Provide students a clear sense of the days topics and their

relation to the course as a whole.
Write an outline on the board before class begins. This strategy will help students organize the
material you are presenting. An outline can also help students when they are studying to identify
ideas and connections that they did not grasp during the lecture itself.
Take time at the beginning of class to connect the days ideas, concepts, or problems to material
that you presented in the previous class and to the overarching themes of the course.

Show passion for the subject.

Tell students what you find fascinating about what you are teaching. If you are teaching a course
that you have taught many times, recall what is interesting about the subject to someone
learning about it for the first time. Find new applications and examples that will enable you to
communicate why the topic should be studied and understood.

Focus on communicating with your audience: speak clearly, so

that all students can hear you.
Project your voice. When lecturing in a large room, use a microphone. Ask students to tell you if
they cannot hear you; some may feel too intimidated to speak up unless you ask. Speak with an
animated tone, but more slowly than you would in an informal conversation. (See Improving
Presentation Style).

Use gestures, eye contact and movement around the room to

engage student attention.
Make eye contact with students in all areas of the room, not just with those students who
routinely answer your questions or otherwise appear engaged.

When asking questions, do not be afraid of silence.

Give students 5-10 seconds to think and formulate a response. If 10-15 seconds pass without
anyone volunteering an answer and the students are giving you puzzled looks, rephrase your
question. Do not give in to the temptation to answer your own questions, which will condition
students to hesitate before answering to see if you will supply the answer. Patience is key; do
not be afraid of silence. The longer you wait for students to respond, the more thoughtful and
complex their responses are likely to be.

Demonstrate respect for, and interest in, student ideas and

questions.
Make it clear that you are interested in what and how students are thinking about the material.
Show that you value their questions and insights by referring back to these responses later in
the lecture or on a subsequent day. This strategy is especially important in a large group. It is
common for students to be very sensitive to an instructors reaction.
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After the Lecture

Rethink, retool, revise.

Each time you deliver a lecture, you learn something about how best to present the material. Jot
down brief notes on how each lecture went and use these as the basis for improving your
presentation skills, rethinking the material included, rewriting the lecture, or developing ideas for
future teaching and research projects. Include these notes with your lecture notes so that they
are readily accessible the next time you teach the course.
Speak with your colleagues about their approaches and ideas. Stay abreast of new scholarship
on teaching and teaching with technology. Arrange to have one of your classes observed or
videotaped so that an observer can help you evaluate what went well and what you can do to
improve student learning. To schedule a class observation or videotaping, contact The Teaching
Center at 935-6810.
Lectures are the major teaching method employed in many academic departments and schools.
As you reflect on how best to prepare and deliver lectures, keep in mind that a primary goal
should be to foster critical thinking and active learning.
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Links and References for Teaching with Lectures

Baddeley, A. (1992). Working memory. Science, 255, 556-559.
Bonwell, Charles C. and Eison, James A. "Active Learning: Creating Excitement in the
Classroom." National Teaching and Learning Forum. ERIC Clearinghouse on Higher
Education.http://www.oid.ucla.edu/about/units/tatp/old/lounge/pedagogy/downloads/activ
e-learning-eric.pdf
Bunce, D. M., Flens, E A., & Neiles, K. Y. (2010). How long can students pay attention in class?
A study of student attention decline using clickers. Journal of Chemical Education, 87, 14381443.
Davis, Barbara Gross. "Preparing to Teach the Large Lecture Course." Tools for Teaching. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. 1993.

Davis, Barbara Gross. "Delivering a Lecture." Tools for Teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass
Publishers. 1993.
DeYoung, C. G., Hasher, L., Djikic, M., Criger, B., & Peterson, J. B. (2007). Morning people are
stable people: Circadian rhythm and the higher-order factors of the Big Five. Personality and
Individual Differences, 43(2), 267-276.
Freitas, A. L., & Higgins, E. T. (2002). Enjoying Goal-Directed Action: The Role of Regulatory
Fit. Psychological Science, 13(1), 1-6.
May, C. P., Hasher, L., & Stoltzfus, E. R. (1993). Optimal Time of Day and the Magnitude of Age
Differences in Memory.Psychological Science, 4(5), 326-330.
Mayer, R. E. (2005). Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning. In R. E. Mayer, & R. E. Mayer
(Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning. (pp. 31-48). New York, NY US:
Cambridge University Press.
Mayer, R. E. (2008). Applying the science of learning: Evidence-based principles for the design
of multimedia instruction. American Psychologist, 63(8), 760-769.
McKeachie, Wilbert, et al. McKeachie's Teaching Tips: Strategies, Research, and Theory for
College and University Teachers. 12th ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2005.
Reisberg, D., & Heuer, F. (2004). Memory for Emotional Events. In D. Reisberg, & P. Hertel
(Eds.), Memory and emotion. (pp. 3-41). New York, NY US: Oxford University Press.