MOTHERS PERCEPTIONS ABOUT DAUGHTERS

EDUCATION: A CASE STUDY OF VILLAGE REGI

0345-9035674
By
SAMREEN BADAR
(M.Sc. B.Ed.)

INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION AND RESEARCH

UNIVERSITY OF PESHAWAR
JULY 2011

MOTHERS PERCEPTIONS ABOUT DAUGHTERS

EDUCATION: A CASE STUDY OF VILLAGE REGI

Uzma Yousaf
(M.Sc. B.Ed.)

Submitted to the Institute of Education and Research, University of

Peshawar in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Award of the
Degree of Master in Education

INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION AND RESEARCH

UNIVERSITY OF PESHAWAR
JULY 2011

DEDICATION

I dedicate this humble effort to Almighty Allah Who blessed me with

the ability to achieve my goals
and
also to my respectable and nice teacher Dr. Syed Munir Ahmad who
has been the guiding light of my life and to whom I owe whatever
little I have been able to achieve.

ABSTRACT

The present research study was conducted to explore mothers perceptions

about daughters education in village Regi Peshawar. This village is situated a
few kilometres away from the University of Peshawar, but it still remains
backward in female education. Given this, research on various aspects of
education and especially concerning female education needs special attention
in the village. The present study therefore aimed to explore the various
perceptions mothers held about their daughters education and various socio
cultural and economic obstacles that restricted girls from seeking education.
The research was conducted on purposively selecting 20 houses of village Regi
that were considered to represent the household from various socio-economic
strata. The sample size of this research study was 20 respondents. In this 7
mothers were literate while the rest 13 were uneducated. The study revealed
that there were various obstacles to female education, which include: socioeconomic restrictions, poverty, strict pardah system, non-availability of
educational institutions, early marriages of girls, male dominancy, and parental
negative attitudes. At the end the researcher gives some suggestions and
recommendations in order to promote female education in the area.

ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank Almighty ALLAH who gave me the courage and potential for
conducting this research work.
I wish to express my sincere and deep sense of gratitude to my research
supervisor Dr. Syed Munir Ahmad for his immense help, advice, guidance and
encouragement during the course of my research work. I am thankful to the
staff of the Institute for their cooperation.
The contribution of my parents cannot be described in words in this regard.
Without their support and encouragement it would have not been possible to
complete this task.
Finally, I am thankful to all those mothers who greeted me with great affection
and fully cooperated with me and participated in the research.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract.............................................................................................................. ii
Acknowledgements...........................................................................................iii
Table of contents...............................................................................................iv
CHAPTER 1......................................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................1
1.1

Statement of the Problem.................................................................1

1.2

Objectives of the study.....................................................................1

1.3

Research Questions..........................................................................2

1.4

Significance of the study..................................................................2

1.5

Methodology....................................................................................3

1.6

Delimitation of the study..................................................................3

1.7

Organisation of thesis.......................................................................3

CHAPTER-2......................................................................................................5
LITERATURE REVIEW...................................................................................5
2.1 The role of female children and women in traditional Pakhtun society 5
2.2 The influence of family........................................................................5
2.3 Issue of gender discrimination..............................................................6
CHAPTER 3..................................................................................................14
METHODOLOGY AND METHODS.............................................................14
3.1 Introduction........................................................................................14
3.2 Qualitative case study methodology...................................................14
3.3 Research methods...............................................................................14
3.4 Informed Consent...............................................................................15
3.5 Selection of research sites...................................................................15
3.6 Access to research sites......................................................................15
3.7 Data gathering tools and procedures...................................................16
3.7.1 Semi-structured interview............................................................16
3.8 Interview sampling.............................................................................17
3.9 Recording of interview.......................................................................17
3.10 Data analysis and interpretation........................................................17
3.11Validity and Reliability......................................................................18
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3.11.1 Internal validity..........................................................................18

3.11.2 Reliability or dependability.......................................................18
Chapter summary.....................................................................................19
CHAPTER 4....................................................................................................20
MOTHERS PERCEPTIONS AND EXPERIENCES REGARDING
DAUGHTERS EDUCATION.........................................................................20
4.1 Introduction........................................................................................20
4.2 Age of marriage..................................................................................20
4.3 Family size.........................................................................................20
4.4 Treatment of daughters: Gender discrimination..................................21
4.5 Mothers feelings at the birth of first daughter....................................22
4.6 Feelings of family members at the birth of the first daughter.............23
Chapter summary.....................................................................................23
CHAPTER 5....................................................................................................25
THE EFFECT OF DIFFERENT SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS ON
DAUGHTER EDUCATION............................................................................25
Introduction:.............................................................................................25
5.1 Mothers perceptions about daughters education.................................25
5.2 Importance of education or early marriage for daughters...................26
5.3 Expenditure on daughters education..................................................27
5.4 Standard of education for daughters and sons....................................27
5.5 Engagement in household chores.......................................................29
5.6 Feeling proud to educate daughter......................................................30
5.7 Daughters as a source of financial support.........................................31
5.8 Female education wastage of money time..........................................32
5.9 Corrupting influence on girls education..........................................33
5.10 Strict pardah system.........................................................................33
5.11 Poverty as an issue/barrier................................................................34
5.12 Illiteracy...........................................................................................35
5.13 Female education un-Islamic?..........................................................35
Chapter summary.....................................................................................36
CHAPTER 6....................................................................................................38
CONCLUSIONS..............................................................................................38
Introduction..............................................................................................38
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6.1 Summary of findings and conclusions................................................38

6.2 Implications of the findings................................................................39
6.3 Limitations of the study......................................................................39
6.4 Recommendations..............................................................................40
6.4.1 Parents Perceptions......................................................................40
6.4.2 Financial Support to Parents for Female Education.....................41
6.4.3 Sufficient Educational Institutions for Girls................................41
6.4.4 Mass Awareness campaign about importance of female education..
................................................................................................41
6.4.5 Pardah arrangement.....................................................................41
6.4.6 Emphasis on small family:...........................................................41
6.4.7 Early marriage as an obstacle:.....................................................42
6.4.8 Role of Mass Media.....................................................................42
6.5 Suggestions for further research:........................................................42
6.6 Reflections..........................................................................................43
References........................................................................................................45
APPENDIX A: INTERVIEW SCHEDULE.....................................................49
MOTHERS PERCEPTIONS ABOUT DAUGHTERS EDUCATION............49

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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
In Pakistan, and especially in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK) girl education is an
important public issue in rural areas. The people of these areas are strictly
bound to their cultural norms and values and if they wish to educate their
daughters they can't due to their social and cultural norms.
No body can deny the importance of knowledge; proper education is the utmost
need of each and every member of the society. We know from experience and
traditions that an educated mother means an enlightened home. There is a well
known expression in this regard:
''If you educate a female she will educate the whole nation''.
In this research study my focus is mainly on the perceptions of mothers
towards their daughters education in village Regi, district Peshawar. This
village is situated a few kilometres away from Peshawar University but still it
remains backward in education. The reasons behind this backwardness could be
due to illiteracy, unawareness, low socio-economic conditions and the social
structure and norms that are in play.
1.1

Statement of the Problem

''The perceptions of mothers towards daughters education in village Regi,

Peshawar''.
1.2

Objectives of the study

The objectives of the study were:

1. To find out the level of awareness of mothers about the importance
of girls education.
2. To investigate the main hindrances in the way of girls education.
3. To explore the perceptions of mothers regarding their daughters
education.

4. To identify different socio-economic factors that affect girls

education, such as poverty, illiteracy, religion, gender discrimination
and early marriage etc.
1.3

Research Questions

The research questions that this research sought to explore are:

What perceptions do mothers hold about their daughters and their
education?
Do mothers treat their sons and daughters differently?
How does culture influence mothers perception about their daughters
education?
1.4

Significance of the study

Women have the fundamental responsibilities for the upbringing of their

children. However, in Pakistan, female education has not been considered
important, especially in the rural areas. Traditions and cultural restrictions have
kept the women away from the joint economic activities. The majority of
women have been restricted to the boundaries of their homes. It is well
documented that in our culture a male child receives care in the socio-cultural
and economic setup and is considered as old age insurance by the parents.
However, a girl child for parents is an economic burden.
Islam lays much emphasis on treating children equally. It declares that all
human beings are equal. Islam does not consider woman inferior to man. It
takes them as equal partners in the business of life. They are the two wheels of
the same carriage and the carriage cannot travel without either.
The Holy Quran says
''O people, be careful of your duty to your Lord who created you
from a single being and created its mate of the same kind and
spread from these many men and women''.

These verses show that men and women came from the same root; they are
branches of the same tree. The Prophet (peace be upon him) declared that
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female children should be treated in the same manner as boys. For example:Ibni Abbas reported that Holy prophet said,
''If a daughter is born to a person and he brings her up, gives her a
good education and trains her in the arts of life, I shall myself
between him and the hell fire''.

According to another report from Anas bin Malik, The Prophet said,
''Girls are a model of affection and sympathy and a blessing to the
family''.

Given the above mentioned quotations and village Regi as one of the backward
areas of district Peshawar special attention for providing education facilities
and changing the perceptions of parents towards female education is of prime
importance.
1.5

Methodology

A qualitative case study methodology was adopted for the study. Semistructured interview schedules were used to gather data from the participants.
In total, 20 mothers between the ages of 18 and 55 years were interviewed.
They were of various backgrounds and included mothers who had been to
school and mothers who had never been to school, either because schooling
was unavailable to them or because their family did not allow them to go to
school. The data so collected were analyzed and interpreted for drawing
conclusions.
1.6

Delimitation of the study

The study was delimited to village Regi district Peshawar.

1.7 Organisation of thesis
The structure of the thesis is in the following order. It consists of 6 chapters.
Chapter 1 discusses the overall design and framework of the research study
and begins by an introduction of the research context .The chapter discusses the
significance of the topic, the main research questions and the objectives of the
study. The chapter then introduces the methodological framework of the study.

Finally, organization of the thesis follows which briefly details the theme and
structure of each chapter.
Chapter 2 presents and reviews research literature that concerns mothers
perceptions and related socio-economic factors that affects their views in a
number of ways.
Chapter 3 is about the research methodology and methods that aims to explore
the main research questions. What perceptions do mothers hold about their
daughters? Do mothers treat their sons and daughters differently? How does
culture influence mothers perception about their daughters education?
Chapter 4 discusses mothers personal feelings and experiences regarding
daughters education. The chapter also deals with the effect of large family size
on daughters education and the issue of gender discrimination that prevail
especially in our Pashtun society. The chapter further explores the feelings of
mothers and other family members such as father and grand parents at the birth
of first daughter.
Chapter 5 throws light on socio-economic factors such as poverty, illiteracy,
strict pardah system, gender discrimination, early marriage tradition that seem
greatly affect girls education in village Regi .
Chapter 6 is the final chapter of the thesis, which draws on the findings of the
previous two chapters and provides the key conclusions to the thesis. In
presenting a summary of findings and conclusions, the main research question
and subsidiary questions act as a guide. The chapter then considers implications
of the study, before discussing limitations of the research study. It then
proceeds to discuss recommendations from the study. Towards the end of the
chapter, the discussion focuses on suggestions for further research and my
reflections on the research experience.

CHAPTER-2
LITERATURE REVIEW
In this chapter I present the review of literature concerning mothers
perceptions about daughters education.
Parental perception plays a vital role in children education in terms of
performance and career choice. Parents with different demographic and
psychographic characteristics have different expectations for the education of
their children. A lot of researches have been done in this regard at national and
international level but it is matter of fact that very few focus on the insight of
parent perception.
2.1 The role of female children and women in traditional Pakhtun
society
The Pakhtun society is basically characterized by the dominance of men in
virtually all spheres of life. Women in traditional Pakhtun society were
expected to be subservient to their husbands. Men's views on family matters
and reproduction took the upper hand over those of women. The social norms
which supported these gender relations were culturally transmitted from one
generation to another through the process of socialization. From childhood, a
girl internalized these social norms, including those that defined women's status
as subordinate to those of men. She grew up to become an obedient and
good wife so to speak.
2.2 The influence of family
The environment of family plays a very significant role in child development
and success. As the child first relation starts with family and home so the
family and home environment has a great influence on the attitude of the child
and it also affects the personality of the child. The family and home is
considered as the agency of socialization. Parental involvement is the basic and
essential factor for child future success. The children of involved parents are
highly self directed and spends an independent life but on the other hand the
children of less involved parents are non initiative and mostly weak
5

academically. According to Wolfendale and Bastiani (2000) family is the

primary influence of young children and sets the stage for how they grow and
develop. The more parents are involved with their children, the more positive
learning and general life outcomes occur.
Vernon (1999) seems to agree with the above authors and argues that children
of involved parents typically display higher levels of achievement, more
acceptable behaviour and greater motivation in school. Student who excel
academically often have parents who are interested in their childrens learning
activities, such as rhyming and shared book reading. It is important that the key
role families play in supporting their childs learning at home and in early care
and education programs be understood, facilitated and nurtured across the array
of services and programs available to young children and their families.
2.3 Issue of gender discrimination
As gender specific issues have been one of the important aspects of my
research, a review of the literature reveals that since the 1990s increasingly
researchers have started taking more interest in gender specific research
concerning females. Commonly boys are considered to be responsible for
parental well-being, therefore, investment in them is seen as a rational decision
and cultural practices that reinforce the giving away of girls at marriage are
likely to serve as a disincentive for educating daughters.
The preference for sons causes parents to have many children in the bid to have
at least a son to perpetuate family name and also to inherit family property
(Edewor, 2006). Although the traditional role of female children and women
still persists in several spheres, changes are beginning to occur in parents
perception on the value of daughters and the status of women. These changing
perceptions are altering the attitudinal disposition of parents towards girl
children in general and girls education in particular. Education has been one
major area in which girls have been systematically more disadvantaged than
boys, simply because of gender discrimination which often begins at the
earliest stages of life (United Nations, 1994). Traditional beliefs and practices
6

are often at the root of this gender gap. Girls are kept at home to supplement
family welfare by working and caring for siblings and household (Muller,
2000).
Aside from these, in many developing countries, daughters are withdrawn from
schools at puberty, for fear of unwanted pregnancy, and are married off early to
husbands they do not necessarily want (Muller, 2000). This gender
discrimination in education is not limited to the less developed countries of
Africa. In some parts of Asia, as in China, continued and fast economic growth
is not accompanied by dramatic change in traditional value, and many peasants
still hold son preference value. For example, utilizing census data and drawing
on ethnographic fieldwork in Beijing and its suburbs, Wang (2005) examined
childrens educational opportunities and observed that continued son preference
value, based on traditional views and perceived financial returns to families,
leads to a lower educational attainment among daughters. This was particularly
so in the rural areas of China. Yet, as the Progress of Nations (UNICEF, 1994)
asserts, There is widespread agreement that the education of girls is one of the
most important investments that any developing country can make in its own
future. In the long term, almost every other aspect of progress, from nutrition to
family planning, from child health to womens rights, is profoundly affected by
whether or not a nation educates its girls.
For Bhutto et al. (2011) (citing Navy et al. 2001) parents have greater
confidence in boys to take decisions on important life matters as compared to
girls. Many parents feel that young people have the right to make decisions.
However, they are not same about their capability to do so. Academic
achievement is additionally influenced by childrens perceptions of their
parents educational expectations of them. Children are usually aware whether
adults have high or low expectations, which influences academic achievement.
For Hadden and London (1996) a number of reasons account for the preference
for the education of boys relative to girls. First sons typically are responsible
for supporting parents in their old age. This, therefore, makes the education of

sons more attractive to parents. As such the costs of education, both direct costs
(e.g. school fees, books, uniform, etc) and opportunity costs (e.g. loss of
household help and in some cases wages) are more readily absorbed for sons
than daughters.
A similar study has been conducted by Rose and Al-Samarrai (2001) in
Ethiopia and in India respectively. The researchers suggested that in these
countries boys are considered to be responsible for parental well-being, so
investment in them is seen as a rational decision and cultural practices that
reinforce the giving away of girls at marriage are likely to serve as a
disincentive for educating daughters.
Evidence suggests that credit constraints negatively affect female children in
Pakistan, and as sons are future breadwinners, they receive preferential
treatment resulting in gender disparity for girls (Aslam 2006). The findings
reveal that whilst most parents highlighted the significance and importance of
education for their children, it became apparent many fathers held restricted
views about the education of daughters. Moreover, it was evidently clear from
the data that the majority of the parents treated their sons and daughters
differently, by giving preference to sons in education and everyday aspects of
life. This consequently on a broader local and national level seemed to have
implications for gender disparities in education for girls, documented
extensively in the context of Pakistan (e.g. Aslam and Kingdon 2008; Shami
and Hussain 2005; Winkvist and Akhtar 2000).
In this connection, educational literature reports two broad explanations for
gender gaps that persist in Pakistan: one body of knowledge details the
demand-side explanations and the other pertains to the supply-side of the issue
(Aslam 2006). Of particular importance to this study is the fact that strong
cultural norms of purdah and restrictions on female mobility, empowerment
and decision-making undermine [girls] access to schooling when of schoolgoing-age (Aslam 2006:13-14), especially in the rural parts of the Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa and Pakistan. Many parents therefore hold restrictive views on

educating their daughters due to cultural and economic reasons, and treated
their sons differently and favourably in academic and everyday matters.
Aslam (2007) and Khalid and Mukhtar (2002) conclude that, in Pakistan, poor
families prefer to educate sons rather than their daughters due to financial
constraints. In another study Aslam (2007a) further elaborates this notion. He
argues that parents preferences also affect school selection for their children
(boys and girls). According to him, generally, parents select comparatively
better schools, in context of fees, for their sons. Daughters are ignored or
enrolled in the schools having lower fees and fewer facilities
Wang (2005) examined childrens educational opportunities and observed that
continued son preference value, based on traditional views and perceived
financial returns to families, leads to a lower educational attainment among
daughters. This was particularly so in the rural areas of China. Yet, as the
Progress of Nations (UNICEF, 1994) asserts: There is widespread agreement
that the education of girls is one of the most important investments that any
developing country can make in its own future. In the long term, almost every
other aspect of progress, from nutrition to family planning, from child health to
womens rights, is profoundly affected by whether or not a nation educates its
girls.
According to Francis (1970), education is a consciously controlled process
whereby changes are produced in a persons behaviour and through a person
within the group. Education is considered as one of the important factors in
speeding up the process of social change in any society. Pakistan is one of the
countries with poor literacy rate in the world, which is 61.3% for males and
36.8% for females (Government of Pakistan, 1999-2000). In Pakistan, a large
number of people want to educate their sons and daughters, but only one third
of the total prefer their daughters to be in jobs (Azhar, 1978). An employed
woman is not only disapproved but also strongly discouraged in Pakistani
society. The socially prevalent attitude is that a father or a husband feels
undignified to live on earning of her daughters and wife respectively. Such

attitude had been responsible for discouraging many qualified women for
joining various vocations. The main objectives of this study were to (i) study
the attitudes of males towards females education and employment, (ii) study
the socio-economic factors and their effects on females education and
employment, and (iii) study the perception of males towards the problems of
employed females.
Hadden and London (1996) have observed that both boys and girls must have
equal access to primary and secondary education if education is to have the
desired depressive effect on fertility. They also made a similar observation with
respect to health and mortality. Primary and secondary education of boys or
girls had mortality reducing and, by implication, health enhancing effects.
Girls education had the strongest impact on infant and child mortality. This is
not surprising as females usually have most direct responsibility over infants
and children. Infant and child mortality had the greatest reductions in countries
where both boys and girls have similar enrolment rate in primary and
secondary school but these reductions were either lost or diminished in those
countries in which girls enrolment lagged behind those of boys.
The prosperity and growth of a nation depends on the status and development
of its women. Women play modified role in the family as a mother, sister, wife,
who socializes, educates, loves, feeds and supports individuals in the family.
Mother plays an important and prominent role in the family. The present study
shows that in our Indian society mothers still want to have a male child in the
family so that they support and protect them in the old age. Kejing (1991) and
Sinha (1993) have also reported that the preference of the son is still prevalent
and deep rooted. Though mothers hold some traditional beliefs, yet they value
education, equally for their children of both sexes. In the present study mothers
are not biased towards education and vocation of their daughters.
Khan and Noor (1984) found that there has been considerable change in the
attitudes, values and actual performance of rural women in the field of
education. Chaturvedis (1984) reported that women feel the girl must learn

10

household work and females are not suited for police and administrative jobs.
Whereas in the present study it has been observed that the attitude of females
towards work are changing and their participation in different occupations are
modernize, as also reported by Singh (1985). The Muslim mothers of
traditional orthodox background have changed in their attitude and preference,
but their daughters have shown more favourable attitude towards these
changes. Mothers have always been the closest friend and confidante of an
Indian girl. When the outside world is restricted, exploration of self happens
with the help of mother.
A number of reasons account for the preference for the education of boys
relative to girls. First, sons typically are responsible for supporting parents in
their old age. This, therefore, makes the education of sons more attractive to
parents. As such the costs of education, both direct costs (e.g. school fees,
books, uniforms, etc.) and opportunity costs (e.g. loss of household help and in
some cases, wages) are more readily absorbed for sons than daughters (Hadden
and London, 1996). Second, the thought that girls, upon marriage, join their
husbands family and take with them the benefits of education, makes parents
to have little incentives to bear the costs of educating their daughters. These
constraints to female education operate almost exclusively at the household
level (Hadden and London, 1996).
In their study of the demographic, basic needs and economic benefits of
educating girls in the third world, Hadden and London (1996) have observed
that both boys and girls must have equal access to primary and secondary
education if education is to have the desired depressive effect on fertility. They
also made a similar observation with respect to health and mortality. Primary
and secondary education of boys or girls had mortality reducing and, by
implication, health enhancing effects. Girls education had the strongest impact
on infant and child mortality. This is not surprising as females usually have
most direct responsibility over infants and children. Infant and child mortality
had the greatest reductions in countries where both boys and girls have similar

11

enrolment rate in primary and secondary school but these reductions were
either lost or diminished in those countries in which girls enrolment lagged
behind those of boys.
Hadden and London (1996) concluded that in the third world, education in
general, and girls education in particular, has wide ranging beneficial effects
on the demographic, social and economic development patterns of nations.
Despite these benefits of girls education, preference had always been given to
boys education in most traditional societies. However, parents are beginning to
be aware of the benefits of daughters and are thus changing their perceptions
on the value of daughters and girls education.
Mothers have always been the closest friend and confidante of an Indian girl.
When the outside world is restricted, exploration of self happens with the help
of mother. A daughter mother bond was and is most enduring one. Studying the
belief of mothers, Sharma (1999) found that mothers want their daughters to be
educated and professionally sound, because they feel that they themselves
could not get such an opportunity. The most coveted profession for daughter
was teaching, as mothers believe that only education and employment can
enable a girl to be free from the shackles of the drudgery at home. Even the
would be mothers-in-law wish their daughters-in-law to be employed, as they
believe, it would be beneficial in avoiding jhakjhak (squabbles) (Sharma,
1999).
Aslam (2007 & 2007a), Hussain, Zakaria, Hassan, Mukhtar and Ali (2003),
Khalid and Mukhtar (2002), Lall (2009) and Qureshi (2007) in their recent
studies, have explored the issue of girls education in Pakistan. The studies
provide statistical data regarding female literacy rates, girls enrolments in
different level of education, educational infrastructures located for girls, gender
disparity indexes and the reasons of gender disparity in different areas of the
country. Lall (2009) investigates the shift of educational dynamics in different
ethnic groups in Pakistan. As a part of her study, she interviewed the parents of
enrolled girls and acquired data regarding their preferences for boys or girls

12

education from different areas of the country. There is a need to get

understanding of perceptions and attitudes of the parents of both enrolled and
out of school girls regarding their daughters education which was the major
thirst of the study.

13

CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY AND METHODS
3.1 Introduction
In this chapter, I discuss the research methodology and methods that I adopted
to explore the main research questions: What perceptions do mothers hold
about their daughters? Do mothers treat their sons and daughters differently?
How does culture influence mothers perceptions about their daughters
education? With the research questions in mind, I adopt qualitative case study
methodology as the research enquiry. A discussion of the plan and conduct of
the field work then follows in which I consider in detail the various data
gathering tools and procedures used for the research, which then leads into the
discussion of the procedure and process of data analysis. Towards the end of
the chapter, I explore the issues of validity and reliability in the light of my
research.
3.2 Qualitative case study methodology
This study employs a qualitative case study approach for exploring mothers
perceptions regarding daughters education and for examining how does culture
and socio-economic factors influence mothers perceptions about their
daughters education. The case study approach provided the best way for the
research design of the study. A case study is a research approach in which one
or a few instances of a phenomenon are studied in depth. Case study research
involves the study of an issue explored through one or more cases within a
bounded system. A case study is an in-depth description and analysis of a
bounded system. I now move on to the next section that discusses the research
methods that I adopted for the study.
3.3 Research methods
The purpose of my research was to explore mothers perceptions about
daughters education through a qualitative case study approach. Such strategies
were required that could help me to explore effectively the in-depth meanings
of the participants attitudes and practices about their daughters and their
14

education. The methods that I used included semi-structured interview. The

research study was conducted in twenty houses of village Regi. These houses
were situated in various parts of the village. Since the study employed a
qualitative methodology and used qualitative methods, I therefore aimed to
select participants from varying backgrounds to produce a thick description of
the context under investigation.
3.4 Informed Consent
Oral as well as written consent was obtained from the research participants that
included mothers and other family members.
3.5 Selection of research sites
I selected those accessible sites where entry was possible for me. For this
purpose, I selected those houses of the village where I could enter easily and
which I thought were suitable for my research that produced thick description
helpful for providing detail information. The environment of these sites was
different from one another which I thought that there I will find different views
from them. Some families strictly followed their traditional norms and values
regarding daughters education while some other families were flexible in their
views regarding this issue. Then I selected one mother from each house who
was supporting the whole family. I asked them for their opinion about their
daughters education and explored their views and experiences about various
in-house issues pertaining to their daughters.
3.6 Access to research sites
There was no problem for me to access the houses and for interviewing
mothers because they were all well known to me and belonged to the same
village. When I entered as a researcher, the mothers greeted me happily and
received me warmly. After developing rapport with them, I would inform them
about the purpose of my research i.e. for exploring their perceptions about their
daughters education and gender discrimination issues pertaining to their
children. However, access to and conducting the fieldwork was not a smooth
sailing. I also faced some problems in two houses from the mothers-in-law and
15

sisters-in-law. In these families the mothers could not express their views
clearly in the presence of their in-laws because they were interrupting them
during their answers. They were not in favour of girls education and called
their daughters-in-laws for household chores then to waste time on giving
answers to my questions.
3.7 Data gathering tools and procedures
The next step is the use of suitable tools and procedures for conducting
interviews. For this purpose I adopted semi-structured interview schedule.
3.7.1 Semi-structured interview

In qualitative research, interview is used as a tool for collecting data and

regarded as the most commonly used method. The interview is also considered
the most common and powerful means of obtaining in-depth information from
the interviewees. There are many types of the interview, the most common
types are: structured, semi-structured and unstructured interview. My aims for
the present research were to explore the mothers inner views about daughters
education and to examine the influence of different socio-economic factors on
mothers perceptions about daughter education. The semi-structured interview
for this study was appropriate because the responses and experiences of the
mothers could not be found out through questionnaire which is not flexible.
The responses and experiences of different mothers may be different and we
cant restrict them only on a fixed structured questionnaire. The research
interview is an interpersonal situation, a conversation between two partners
about a theme of mutual interest. It is a specific form of human interaction in
which knowledge evolves through a dialogue. Therefore, following these, I
encouraged the respondents to speak openly to help them construct what they
had been experiencing regarding the topic under discussion. By creating a
friendly atmosphere of trust and confidence, most of the respondents freely
expressed their views.

16

3.8 Interview sampling

The interviews were conducted with purposively selected respondents in
twenty houses of the village Regi. For this purpose these houses were visited.
Initially rapport was developed with mothers in about 2-3 meetings and after
that I would conduct the interviews. A total of twenty mothers of various socioeconomic backgrounds were interviewed.
3.9 Recording of interview
Recording of the interview was done manually. The interviews were conducted
in Pashto language for the ease of mothers; their responses noted down in Urdu
language and then translated into English.
3.10 Data analysis and interpretation
The next step after collecting the data was the analysis and interpretation of the
data. Qualitative data analysis is a nonmathematical analytical procedure that
involves examining the meaning of peoples words and actions. The data
analysis was the more difficult and intellectually challenging stage of the
research and hence difficult to start the story. This process was more difficult
for me, as I had to translate the interviews from Urdu into English. During the
translation of the data, extreme care was required as far as possible. I was
continuously engaged in the process of interpreting and shaping the data. For
the analysis of the data, first of all, I wrote the responses of all the mothers for
each question separately. I then analysed those responses one by one to draw
main and subsidiary themes; the thematic approach adopted was for the
interpretation of the data. The procedure that I used for data analysis and
interpretation consisted of the following stages.
1.

Preparation of data

2.

Coding the data

3.

Grouping the codes into categories and themes

4.

Comparison of categories and themes

5.

Generating concepts and patterns

17

3.11Validity and Reliability

In qualitative research, it is essential that the researcher must have some ways
of demonstrating that their findings are true, otherwise there are no good
grounds for anyone to believe them. Qualitative researcher can use various
strategies through which they can establish the trustworthiness of their findings
and research. These include internal validity and reliability.
3.11.1 Internal validity

According to Merriam (2009:213), internal validity deals with the question of

how research findings match reality. This means that the researcher needs to
demonstrate the extent to which their data are accurate and appropriate.
Therefore, to maintain internal validity, throughout the research study I kept
check of the following kinds.
1. My effort in this research has been that the sample frame is free from
any known bias.
2. I create such environment and asked questions in such a way that the
participants freely and thoroughly express their views
3. I have tried to display the findings of the study in a way that they remain
true to the original data and the analytic construction would be expected
from the data.
3.11.2 Reliability or dependability

Reliability refers to the extent to which research findings can be replicated

(Merriam 2009:220). The issue of replication of the research findings in social
sciences and especially in the qualitative research is problematic. Therefore,
reliability is an impossible criterion to achieve in practice as different
researchers will always produce different versions of the social world (Bloor
and Wood 2006:148). To establish the reliability of the findings of my research,
throughout this chapter I have endeavoured to follow the auditing process.
Moreover, I have also kept and collected a complete record of the fieldwork
and the overall research process for establishing the reliability of my research.

18

Chapter summary
This chapter provided a discussion about the research methodology and
methods, which I adopted during for my research study. For this purpose, a
qualitative case study methodology was adopted that involved the use of
various methods to produce data of various types. The methods used in the
study were semi-structured interviews for data collection. The collected data
were analysed and interpreted. The issues of validity and reliability arising out
of the interpretation of the findings have been discussed.

19

CHAPTER 4
MOTHERS PERCEPTIONS AND EXPERIENCES REGARDING
DAUGHTERS EDUCATION
4.1 Introduction
In this chapter, I discuss mothers perceptions and experiences about their
daughters education. The Chapter throws light on and discusses mothers
feelings about their daughters, their treatment and relations with daughters,
their family relations as well as the attitude of other family members such as
the father and grandparents towards girls. Finally, the Chapter explores
mothers views regarding gender discrimination towards daughters education
and related aspects of their lives.
4.2 Age of marriage
Asking about at which age the mothers got married seemed closely linked with
their views and experiences about how mothers thought about their daughters
and their education. The data analysis revealed that the majority of mothers got
married at an early age; the age at which they should have been at school. The
average age at which they got married was from 14 to 17 years. Early marriage
may have had a strong bearing on their personal outlook and their experiences
towards their daughters education.
4.3 Family size
Large family size seemed one of the important determinants that had an effect
on daughters education. In this regard, a majority of the respondents were of
the opinion that large families created financial problems and this greatly
hindered the educational needs of their daughters. The large family size badly
affected the income and resources of households. In case of the participants of
my research, most families had an average number of children from 4 to 10
which indicated the effect of the finances required for education often proved
to be too much for many families. In many families, the large family size was
said to be the result of traditional attitudes; an examples of which is the view
that having many children was seen as a source of free labour and security
20

during parents old age. In such families, the use of artificial contraceptives
(family planning) is forbidden resulting in families having large numbers of
children. In this connection, one mother said:
The desire of giving birth to many sons increases the number of
daughters and the family size become so large so we cannot give
proper attention to the daughters education.

Another mother expressed her feelings in these words:

As I have given birth to three daughters, I strongly desire and wish
to give birth to a male child. The family members were also teasing
me that you have given birth to daughters, you are unlucky and you
will never give birth to a son. So in this way I have given birth to 6
daughters and my life become more difficult and this had created
many financial problems for me. Now I am unable to give proper
education to all my daughters. Therefore only four daughters got
education up to 5th class and now they are at home and helping me
in home chores.

It seems clear from the above that large family size is one of the hindrances to
educate daughters properly. In many families poverty is a great cause of
deprivation of daughters education but it also noted that in extremely poor
families not only daughters but sons also suffer greatly in the field of
education. In such families sons begin to work from the childhood to support
their families, mostly they work in workshops or become labourers. This study
reveals that in some families due to large number of children only sons were
preferred in education rather than daughters. They could not bear the
educational expenses of all the children. The mothers wished to give proper
education to all their children but they could not do so because their weak
economic conditions never allowed them to do so.
4.4 Treatment of daughters: Gender discrimination
It became apparent from the data analysis that the distinction between
daughters and sons was common in the society. The majority of mothers were
of this view and their experiences were the same. They all agreed on the
superiority of the male child. The mothers gave preference to their sons. They
considered that boys will become the breadwinner of their future family. Many
mothers felt that boys should for this reason be provided with every type of
21

advantage to help them full fill this role. This included educating them as far as
possible. For the girls, it was expected that they will have husbands who will
provide for them, and an education is therefore not essential for them.
However, despite the dominant trend that the majority of mothers treated their
daughters differently, some mothers treated both their daughters and sons
equally. In an interview a mother-participant said:
In my view there should be no difference between sons and
daughters and both boys and girls can be treated equally and can get
higher education.

Another participant shared this view:

Could any body make any distinction between his her two eyes
(sons and daughters)? She further said that there is no educational
discrimination between sons and daughters in the perception of
mothers.

Some others shared the following perspective:

In the past, it was boys that were mainly sent to school this was
because it was thought that the girl would merely be educated for
her husband. But now-a-days, it is even better to train a girl than to
train a boy.

These mothers showed no difference between sons and daughters. It is a

common belief that the mothers would never have different feelings for their
children. The majority of mothers would never discriminate between their
children. However, during the field work and from the data analysis it became
evident that that societal pressure, husbands behaviour and home environment
made the mothers to favour boys over girls. Moreover, most mothers wished to
treat their children equally but they were compelled by the society.
4.5 Mothers feelings at the birth of first daughter
Asking mothers about the first daughter's birth, it became clear that for the
majority of them, their experiences resonated with one another. Most of the
mothers were unhappy due to their personal desire and community perceptions
in the Pathan society gave more importance to boys rather than to girls. In the
Pathan families a sons birth is known as a sign of good luck. The data analysis
22

also shows that in most cases, mothers felt pressured and sometimes they were
threatened of second marriage. So the mothers expressed their views about the
pressure which was put on them from the society. In this regard, one participant
shared this experience:
before the baby birth my mother in-law and husband pressurize me
for the birth of son because they considered the son is a great power
in our family due to hostility. They believe the sons as a great
strength against the enmity.

It became apparent from the data that in most cases mothers specially deplored
their mother-in-laws attitude towards their daughters. While on the other hand,
some mothers expressed different feelings and showed different opinions at the
birth of first daughter. They were happy but could not express their feelings due
to their family members.
4.6 Feelings of family members at the birth of the first daughter
Asking about the feelings of the family members at the birth of the first
daughter seemed to be the same. In majority of families, the family members
such as fathers and grandparents were unhappy because they wished that the
first child must be a male child. They were of the opinion that:
Boy is the bread winner therefore he must be given the best
opportunities right from the beginning, including best education.
This will enable him to perform his duties properly in the future.

Some grandmothers believed that:

Girls are of no use educationally. They believed that they are
meant for the home and giving birth.

As has been evident from the above excerpts, in the majority of families the
family members gave preference to boys over girls and treated them differently.
Chapter summary
This chapter discussed mothers feelings and opinions about their daughters
education. The chapter provided thorough information and discussion about the
effect of large family size on daughters education and the issue of gender
discrimination that prevail specially in the Pashtun society. It further explored
23

the feelings of mothers and other family members such as fathers and grand
-parents at the birth of first daughter. The chapter highlighted the behaviour and
treatment of mothers with their daughters and also showed the attitude of other
family members towards girls education.

24

CHAPTER 5
THE EFFECT OF DIFFERENT SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS ON
DAUGHTER EDUCATION
Introduction:
In this chapter, I discuss the effect of various socio-economic factors like
poverty, illiteracy, early marriage, religious factors, and strict pardah system on
girls education. This chapter will show that all these factors greatly influence
mothers perceptions about daughters education. The chapter also reveals that
among all these factors the most important is poverty that causes adverse effect
on girls schooling especially in the families with scarce financial resources.
5.1 Mothers perceptions about daughters education
From the data analysis it was evident that in the mothers opinion the main
responsibility of the daughters was to take care of the house and to play their
role as wives and mothers in future. Here it was clearly obvious that the
majority of mothers had a traditional outlook. Most of the mothers did not give
importance to daughter's education. It became clear that because of their
conservative perceptions the daughter seemed deprived of their basic right.
According to most of the mothers a formal education was not necessary in
order for the girls to prepare for these expected roles as those could be learned
from their mothers and others in the community. As a result many parents do
not enrol their daughters in school or withdraw them before completion of their
studies. This denies these girls an opportunity for formal education.
On the other hand some mothers were strictly in favour of daughter education.
According to them, education was essential for the girls to strive in the society.
They believed that education makes girls wise, confident and provides
economic security. They believed that education enables the girl to face all the
challenges of life.
One participant said:

25

Educated girl does not remain dependent and is not fearful.

Education makes girl well mannered.

It is also encouraging to note that some of the mothers believed that children
became more obedient through education. In other words, education is believed
to play a positive role in their behaviours toward parents. It indicates that
mothers will like schooling for their daughters because they are likely to value
'obedience' by their daughters.
Another participant said:
That education makes girl 'wise'. Educated girl can find life partner
themselves and can be helpful to parents (by doing that).

These perceptions of mothers about education of daughters are positive and are
likely to contribute towards raising school enrolment in the area.
5.2 Importance of education or early marriage for daughters
In this case, two types of mother's views became clear. One camp of the
mothers was strongly in favour of the daughters education as compared to the
others. They considered the daughter's education more useful for their moral
training and character building. However, on the mothers in the other camp
preferred the daughters early marriages than education. In the study majority
of the mothers reported to favour marrying off girls while still fairly young.
This practice of early marriage therefore leads to the end of a girl's formal
education.
During interviews one mother said:
I wish to give education to metric level to all my daughters but my
husband strongly denies educating daughters and giving preference
to their early marriage at the age of 13 to 15 years. My daughters
are now worried about education and they asked me why we not got
education like other girls in the same street. Why you deprived us of
this basic right. Then I convinced them that this is the fault of your
father who was not willing to give you education. She further said
that I was completely helpless in this matter in spite of my wish and
desire to educate all my daughters.

Here one thing was noted that the mothers who preferred education for girls
than early marriage mostly belonged to good socio-economic status as
26

compared to the mothers who preferred and considered early marriage for girls.
This seemed so because the mothers belonged to low socio-economic status
and seemed not able to provide education to their daughters and therefore such
mothers wished to marry their daughter as soon as possible and to put the
responsibility of their daughters upon the shoulders of their husbands.
5.3 Expenditure on daughters education
By asking about expenditure on daughters education, two different views
emerged from the mothers data. Those mothers who had better economic
background had positive perception about daughter's education. These mothers
said that they willingly pay for their daughters educational expenses and they
send their daughters to private schools and pay all their educational expenses
like their sons. In this regard one of the respondents expressed her views in
these words:
Both the daughters and sons are blessed of God for me and there is
no distinction between them. I provide the same educational
facilities to both of them. I never differentiate between them. I
always fulfill their each and every desire willingly and I try my best
to provide them all the necessities of life especially quality of
education.

However, the mothers that belonged to poor families were of the opinion that
they were unable to provide good quality education to their daughter and
preferred their early marriages.
5.4 Standard of education for daughters and sons
The data analysis reveals that a majority of mothers have the same views about
providing education to their daughters and sons. However most of the mothers
prefer higher education for sons rather than for daughters due to specific
reasons related to social and cultural conditions. These reasons varied in their
intensity regarding sons and daughters. This was also evident that a majority of
the mothers preferred higher and good quality of education for their sons due to
employment needs and which indicates that the employment needs of the sons
are the major factor of the differential education between the genders.

27

During the interview with mothers, one mother said:

Mothers want their daughters to study high level of education like
their sons whereas fathers want them to be married as soon as they
become adult.

Another woman said:

Girls want to be study but parents can not afford, while boys don't
like to study but parents pressure them (to study).

Nearly all the respondents wished only secondary education for their daughters
and master level of education for their sons.
On the other hand another woman participant and said:
Education is today's basic need, a person whether male or female,
is nothing (has no social status or value) without it.

One other important theme that emerged from the interviews and which I also
gathered and experienced during the fieldwork was that, because girls are
considered less capable in Pathan society, they often receive less
encouragement and are rarely challenged at home or school to strive to succeed
in their academic work. Because less was expected of them, they also in turn
expected less of themselves and were less confident of their academic abilities.
Boys on the other hand were said to be ''pushed'' to succeed because more was
expected of them.
It is commonly believed that sons are more able to provide support to the
parents in their old age. Parents also believe that sons maintain and extend the
family property and the owners of the family name. Such and similar
statements indicate that a majority of the respondents agreed to give less
priority to their daughter's education as she was go away to another house after
marriage. On the other hand, boys are considered to be responsible for parental
well-being, and therefore they will provide better quality of education as
compared to daughters. A majority of the mothers also expressed the belief that
boys would take care of them in their old age, thus providing them with a sense
of security about their future while girls once married would be expected to

28

take care of those in the families they married into. Thus in order to ensure that
their sons will be able to carry out this responsibility, parents feel that they
should provide their sons with education so that they can in turn get
employment.
5.5 Engagement in household chores
One of the themes that emerged from the data pertained to engagement of
daughters in household chores than encouraging them to get involved in their
education at home. Most of the mothers agreed that: it is common that in the
Pathan society ones daughter needs to remain limited to the four walls of
house. The responses show that the majority of the mothers had always asked
their daughters to help in household chores. However, some mothers were of
the view that they sometime ask their daughter to help in home chores, and
give preference to them doing school work. However, for the majority of the
respondents, the only job of girls was performing household chores like food
preparation, cooking, cleaning, washing cloth and caring for younger siblings.
One participant expressed their views in such words:
When I
give time to my daughter for doing their home work
rather than engage them in house hold activities my mother in-law
strictly prohibited me and advice me to engage them in home
activities like, cooking washing cloth and cleaning etc. In her opinion
the basic job of girl is to do home tasks not education. She further
added that one day she will become marry and she will take the
responsibility of another home.

It was also noted that these chores were often performed by girls, either early in
the morning before school or in the evening after school. So this must have
affected girl's education in a number of ways.
a.

The number of hours spent performing household chores and other tasks
means that girls have little time and energy left to devote to the
academic work.

b.

Girls are often late for school in the morning as a result of having to
complete their household activities.

29

5.6 Feeling proud to educate daughter

The data analysis shows mixed responses/personal views of mothers. Those
mothers who were educated and had good financial background had positive
approach or outlook toward daughters education. They felt proud of their
educated daughters. In their views, an educated daughter can play an important
and beneficial role in the society. They can lead a useful life. In this regard, one
participant said:
Girls easily remember parents than boys do. Girls are more
rewarding these days. In the past, it was boys they considered
beneficial when the parent are sick, they visit and spend quality
time with them. The male would only stay for a day, provide the
drugs and off he goes.

Another participant expressed her views in these words:

After the boys marry and have children, they forget you.

Another participant had this to say:

The adult female children care more for their parent than do their
male counterparts. When the male children have become married
tend to care more their wives, children and in-laws.

One of the mothers with a positive perception gave her opinion in the following
way:
The educated daughter is a precious gift for parents. She supports
her parents in all occasions
while sons after marrying became
completely changed. They only take care to their wives and cant
take interest to fulfill the responsibilities of their parents and
siblings.

Contrasting the above, the opinion of uneducated and poor mothers was totally
different. One poor mother expressed her views in a negative sense. She said
I never felt proud of educated daughter. Education is only for boys
as they support their families while the daughter whether educated
or not in both cases she is not useful for us and only beneficial for
their husband and future family.

30

They felt that education is not too much important or necessary for the female
children. They were not proud of the educated daughter. They considered it
totally un-necessary for the daughters.
5.7 Daughters as a source of financial support
From the data analysis it seems clear that many of the mothers did not seem to
depend upon the financial support of the educated daughter. They thought that
no matter how far the girls are educated; eventually they had to be married off
and would support their future family. The mothers had no financial
expectations from their daughters Such a financial expectation was from their
sons, because in the Pakhtun society it is a common concept that all the
financial responsibilities fell upon the shoulders of the son, Therefore the
mothers wanted to give only qualitative education to their sons, while few
mothers kept high expectations from their educated daughters. Such mothers
wished to give their daughters high education up to the level that they became a
doctor or teacher. They had financial expectations from their daughter. These
were those mothers who had enrolled their children (both daughters and sons)
in the standard educational institutions.
A participant said:
I have a son who already has children. I also have a daughter who
finished from secondary school. She is now married. She sends
money to me but the boy doesnt send anything. He only
concentrates on his wife and children. Is it not better to train girls?

From the data I noted different opinions of mothers towards daughters as a

source of financial support. Most of the mothers did not expect their daughters
to support them financially. The data shows that societys influence
underpinned this concept, because in the Pakhtun culture it is looked down
upon to depend and live on over the daughters financial support. They only
expect such kind of support from their sons rather than their daughters. But it is
also clear from the study that in some families the mothers depended on the
daughters financial support. In such families I found totally changed views of
mothers. These mothers were disappointed with their sons attitude. They
31

claimed that their sons got changed to a greater extent after their marriage. The
sons only supported their wives and their parents-in-laws. Such mothers trusted
over their educated daughter and thought that in their old age only their
educated daughter could support them financially.
5.8 Female education wastage of money time
The data analysis revealed that many mothers also had the attitude that
educating girls is wastage of time and money; they will eventually be married
off and their education would therefore only benefit their husbands and the
families they marry into. Money spent on the girls education would thus be
considered lost to the girls family.
On the other hand, the educated mothers did not agree with this perception.
These mothers considered the education of girls as more important. They
considered girls education more beneficial for future life. The education could
make them useful citizens who can support both families (husband family and
mothers or her own family) financially in difficult economic situations.
One participant said:
In the past it was boys that were mainly ant to school. It was felt
that if the girls were sent to school, they would become pregnant
and their schooling would be terminated and the money spent on
their education would become wasted. That was why girls were not
sent to school in the past.

Another participant said:

Another reason why it was thought that the education of girls was a
waste is that it was felt that her education would end up in the
kitchen. While the boys went to schools the girls were made to stay
at home to look after their younger siblings. But now, we have
realized the importance of sending girls to school between if you get
to offices and you see educated pen in their hand you will admire
them one would regret not having sent her daughter to school.

Here the data analysis revealed different views of mothers regarding this issue.
The educated mothers strongly favoured daughters education. They believed
that daughters education is not a waste of money and time but as an
investment in

their future. Further, I noted that the uneducated mothers had

32

two different views. Some mothers favoured daughters education while the
others had conservative opinions. They considered it totally the waste of money
and time. In their opinion it was only the sons right to spend money on their
education for their future success and family support.
5.9 Corrupting influence on girls education
One of the themes concerning societal negative influence on girls emerged
from the mothers data. Some mothers reported that they felt reluctant to send
their daughter to school because of the belief that education and school could
have a corrupting influence on them. The main reason for this was that the
schools are situated long distances away so parents would worry about their
daughters safety while travelling to and from school. The data analysis also
revealed that some mothers showed conservative opinions in this regard
.According to them:
When the girls come out of wall
boundaries
they become
completely free and they easily forgot their traditions and involve in
unfair activities so education corrupt their mind and not useful for
them and their families.

However, some mothers show totally different views in opposite to the above
mentioned views. According to them:
Educated girls are become more conscious in their life. They take
each and every step of life with great care Education is like a candle
for them which lightened the darkness of life and pushed them
towards successful and happy future.

While on the other hand some mothers did not think like that. They had the
opinion that education brings moral reformation in the society rather than
moral degradation. In their opinion an educated girl becomes aware of all types
of positive and negative aspect of life and can be able to differentiate between
good and bad, right and wrong.
5.10 Strict pardah system
A question was asked whether strict pardah system was one of the causes of
deprivation of girls from getting education. In response to this question, the

33

mothers had differing views. A majority of the mothers gave importance to

pardah they were those that had religious background. They strongly favoured
pardah due to their Pakhtun cultural tradition because in Pakhtun society
greatly emphasizes female pardah. For these mothers, most of the family
members especially the father and elder brother considered it a sin to send their
daughter and sisters to school. Such mothers further added that the home is the
only safe place for the female.
The most important education for the daughter is to teach them
the holy Quran in home easily therefore it is not necessary to send
them school for getting school education.

On the other hand some mothers had totally different views, they would say
Pardah is not a hindrance; Islam never forbids girls from seeking
education.

They strongly opposed the views of those mothers who considered female
education as un-Islamic.
5.11 Poverty as an issue/barrier
It is a well known fact that in every society, poverty is always a big hurdle in
the way of female education and causes adverse effect on girl schooling and
their future success. This data analysis shows that in the village Regi, the
families where girls education was not valued, the issue of poverty was the
main obstacle that prevented girls from education, because in such areas
parents who had scarce resources chose and preferred to educate boys rather
than girls .One mother who belonged to extremely poor family expressed her
views in these words:
My husband is a labourer and a T.B. patient. I have eight children,
among them five are daughters. I hardly meet their basic necessities
such as food, clothes and health needs. In such poor and miserable
conditions how can I provide education to all my children?

According to these mothers educating girls was only considered wastage of

money. It was also noted that even in those families where mothers were aware
of the importance of education of girls; enrolment levels were still low due to

34

their inability to meet the costs of education. It was pointed out by mothers that
the high cost of education coupled with the poor had made it difficult for them
to provide an education for all the children, regardless of sex.
5.12 Illiteracy
It seems evident from the data analysis and my personal experience of the
fieldwork that one of the causes of backwardness of female education in village
Regi is illiteracy and unawareness of parents do not seems to know the value of
female education. Many mothers did not like the schooling of girls and
preferred Madrasa education. Parents feel unhappy and socially uncomfortable
when their young girls go to school and are seen by strangers in the street.
However, those mothers who were aware of the importance of female
education, considered education necessary for their daughters. These mothers
were of the opinion that education is the basic right of daughters like their sons.
In this regard, one participant said.
It was ignorance people have now realized that a daughter is more
rewarding than a son the moment a boy gets married he would only
concentrate on his wife in-law but a girls would always remember
her parent.

Another participant shared this view

It was ignorance that made people not to send their girls to school
in the past between even after the girl are married, she could still
be of benefit to you.

However, the above views were held by very few mothers as compared to those
mothers who gave no preference to daughter education as compared to
Madrass education.
5.13 Female education un-Islamic?
From the data analysis it was evident that mothers had different views towards
religious education. Most of the mothers were religious minded, therefore they
clearly stated that female education is un-Islamic. In the rural areas, like village
Regi, in many cases, religious preachers and Masjid Imams oppose female
education. They may have misconstrued notions of getting worldly knowledge
35

and therefore may misguide parents that seeking education is against religion
doctrine. Many mothers shared these views about education. Islam strictly
forbids female education. Due to this majority of the mothers clearly denied the
daughter education and considered it against Islam. In their opinion
The only duty of the daughter is to rear children, and perform
house hold chores.

However, some mothers shared different views:

Islam never restricts female education. Islam gives importance to
education; religion is not a hindrance in the way of daughter
education and Islamic society gives a very respectable position to
women.

The holy prophet has said:

Verily the paradise lies the feet of ever mother

During interviews one mother who had religious education came up with
several arguments from Islamic religious traditions to support women
employment. She said:
That women is great who attains knowledge to work

There were different views of different mothers. One participant said no I will
not permit my daughter for job; men are enough for work.
Another participant said:
Will permit for job employment is the real purpose of education

According to these mothers female education is not un-Islamic. Islam gives

equal rights to both male and female to acquire education and employment of
girls is also not forbidden in Islam.
Chapter Summary
This chapter has thrown light on those socio-economic factors such as poverty,
illiteracy, strict pardah system, gender discrimination, early marriage tradition
etc. which play a significant role in the Pathan society and greatly affect
parental perceptions regarding daughters education. This chapter has deal with
36

important aspects which the mothers termed the basic cause of depriving girls
of their education in the Pathan society. The chapter has revealed that poverty
and religious factors are the main obstacles in the way of female education and
due to these factors the parents seemed helpless to educate their daughters.

37

CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSIONS
Introduction
This final chapter of the thesis draws on the findings of the previous two
chapters and provides key conclusions to the thesis. In presenting a summary of
findings and conclusions, the research questions act as a guide. The chapter
then considers implications of the study, before discussing limitations of the
research study. It then proceeds to discuss recommendations from the study.
Towards the end of the chapter, I provide suggestions for further research and
my reflections on the research experience.
6.1 Summary of findings and conclusions
The main findings of the study are that most mothers did not have a clear
vision about daughters education. However, a change seemed to have occurred
in their perceptions in that they became aware and understood the value of girl
education. The findings also confirm other research that girls are discriminated
against boys due to limited economic resources, non availability of educational
facilities at the village level, and conservatism and rigid customs and traditions
disadvantage girl child. The higher education for female remains a dream in
most of the cases. The government has no useful hand in the promotion of
female education. Most of the female teachers are not willing to come to
schools for teaching which are far away from homes. As a result such schools
lack the female staff for teaching. The schools present in the area are not well
equipped with sufficient facilities. The other thing is that, majority of the
population belong working class, due to which they are unable to afford the
educational expenses of their children. The present study shows that majority
of the respondents tended to traditional ideology regarding their daughters
education. They always preferred their sons in education. As a result daughters
do not get the opportunity to acquire the same marketable skills and
knowledge.

38

In the final analysis it was concluded that the task of improvement of female
education is gigantic and it requires our continued efforts with determination to
solve the problems related to it. In order to improve female education as a first
and basic step, it is essential to change or improve the attitude of the parents
especially and also the community peoples perceptions towards the social and
educational status of female by emphasizing Islamic teachings.
6.2 Implications of the findings
I believe that this research study not only contributes towards the existing
knowledge of exploring the mothers views about daughters education but it
need to implement further on a wider scale. The findings of the research could
be used to convince the whole rural community and changing their
conservative ideas. I have identified a number of barriers in the way of female
education in this area, so the findings may be helpful to overcome these
problems. These findings need to be incorporated in government policy for
starting such projects to promote the value of female education in rural areas.
This is my first effort and I wish that the government should take keen interest
in developing and extending this effort on larger scale to aware the rural
communities by such kinds of means such as electronic media and print media
to motivate the people towards the female education.
6.3 Limitations of the study
Although I have completed my research study successfully but this study may
not be completely free from limitations. These limitations are the following
1. The first problem which I face during this study was the entrance in the
houses, in an area where most people are unaware about the value of female
education. It was very difficult for me to convince and motivate them
towards female education.
2. The second limitation was that in some families the mothers could not
express their views freely due to the pressure of their family members
because they completely dominated them and had a strong hold on them.

39

3. As a female researcher I faced more difficulties for going inside the houses
of unrelated people. They were not my relatives and as a female and
belonging to a respectable family, I faced some problems in getting the
permission of my family to going in the houses. However, I convinced my
family members and informed them about my goal and I clearly told them
the benefits of my research study. Then I got the permission of my family
members and my commitment to my goal led to the achievement of this
difficult task, in spite of all these hardships.
4. I also faced problems in the translation of responses from Pashtu to English
because this was a difficult job for developing themes from the collected
data.
5. The analysis and interpretation of the data in qualitative research is not easy.
The comparison of the respondent views and finally finding out the
conclusions from the study was really a challenging task for me because
this process required much time and continuous effort on the part of the
researcher.
6.4 Recommendations
On the basis of the study findings and personal observations of the researcher
the following suggestions are extended in order to improve the female
education in the area.
6.4.1 Parents Perceptions

It is essential to bring a positive change in the perceptions of mothers towards

daughters education. Hence in this regard, it is suggested to change the attitude
of those mothers who are not in favour of female education because positive
attitudes will boost female literacy rate. For this purpose social mobilization
programs should be launched to change parental views regarding the value of
education of girls.

40

6.4.2. Financial Support to Parents for Female Education

Poverty existed in the area and a lot of parents were not be able to bear the
expenses of education of their female education. In this regard, financial
support be provided in the form of scholarships, fee concessions, free books
and uniforms.
6.4.3. Sufficient Educational Institutions for Girls

In the target area existing institutions were not enough and existing institutions
were having long distance from students residency. It is suggested that more
educational institutions for female should be provided in the target area so that
the ratio of female in education should be enhanced.
6.4.4. Mass Awareness campaign about importance of female education

The study area is still under strong influence of traditional values. There is a
concept that women should be confined to the four walls of the house
otherwise they will violate the cultural values. This factor is also responsible
for low literacy ratio among the females. Mass awareness campaigns about the
importance of education for female should be started. It would be of great help
if religious leaders play an important role in this campaign because they
possess a strong hold in the area.
6.4.5. Pardah arrangement

Pardah remained one of the obstacles in the way of female education and it was
considered a cultural issue. In this regard, it is suggested that separate
educational institutions for women of the area may be facilitated to obtain
education in pardah so that they are not deprived from education.
6.4.6. Emphasis on small family:

In the target area majority of the parents had more children due to more number
of children the parents cannot afford the expenses of the education of al l
children. In this regard, it is suggested that the parents should be made aware of
family planning programmes and spirit of upbringing minimum children, so

41

that all the children whether they are male or female are not deprived from
education.
6.4.7. Early marriage as an obstacle:

The study reveals that early marriages were a big hurdle in female education
and some of the parents were not taking interest in female education because
after daughters would go to their husbands home and therefore of no economic
benefit to her parents. Parents need to be made aware of the benefits of female
education by telling them the benefits their educated daughters could provide to
their own children and their families. They must be educated to pass on this
knowledge to their children, who are one of the first beneficiaries of an
educated mother. It is recommended that mothers should be motivated and
made aware of the importance of female education.
6.4.8. Role of Mass Media

Mass media can play a vital role in education. It is suggested that better
educational programmes about female education on T.V and Radio be
broadcast so that parents may become aware of the benefits of female
education. Also the print media such as newspaper should play its due role by
publishing various supplements and articles highlighting the benefits of female
education. Hence such programmes may play a positive role in moulding the
attitude of parents towards female education.
6.5 Suggestions for further research:
My research had demonstrated that there is a huge potential for further research
on a number of issues and aspects discussed throughout the thesis. At a more
general and broader level, further research could be undertaken into some
important areas such as cultural practices concerning daughters education.
I suggest that this research study can provide parents with awareness about the
importance of girls education in the specific area but also on a larger scale
parents could be informed and educated about their role in the education of
their daughters. This research study is only a base for their awareness about

42

girls education especially for the parents and other family members, but this is
not sufficient and it is just a small effort to explore the mothers perceptions
about daughters education. I hope that if such types of researches are
conducted on a large scale in future from government side. This will bring
about effective changes not only in mothers views but also will change the
attitude of the whole rural communities towards female education and make
them aware about the importance of girls education and realize them the
necessity of this basic requirement.
Further research can be undertaken to motivate the religious minded people
especially religious leaders who have a role in the mosques, who can share,
inform and educated parents about to express their female rights. They can
play a very significant role in changing the perceptions of the whole society
because they have a strong hold and influence in the society and they can
impress people very easily by the reference of the verses of the Holy Quran
about the female basic rights.
Further research can also be needed to modernize their thinking about cultural
norms and traditions especially the concept of early marriage for girls and not
to confine their daughters the four walls of home. It is required to be changed
positively and it will bore far reaching effects.
For changing the perceptions of rural people different projects should be started
which is run by the NGOs. They should work on these projects and extend
these types of research work in rural areas. By using such research studies they
can also play a significant role in changing the perception and practices of
parents and society towards female education.
6.6 Reflections
After the completion of my research study, I look back on the entire research
process and from this effort, I feel that I have gained much experience and have
developed more confidence as a person and as a researcher. I began this study
with some assumptions and questions to set off on a research study that was
very difficult and challenging in such a backward area.
43

I began my research with literally nothing. However, I am confident that I have

completed a thesis that has an important role in the area. With my great effort I
have to present the mothers views clearly. The aim of the thesis was to
understand the problems and hinders that greatly effected the mothers views
regarding daughters education. This thesis reflects all the cultural aspects as
well as the conservative ideas of the people about this issue. This thesis has the
potential to develop positive outlook and change parental perceptions. Finally
the whole research shows that I as a researcher achieved the desire goal for
which I set out. I started this struggle that was to bring a change in the
perceptions of the rural community and motivate them for educating their
daughters like their sons in spite of all the hurdles and understand the value of
female education and parents admitted this fact up to a greater extent.

44

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APPENDIX A: INTERVIEW SCHEDULE

MOTHERS PERCEPTIONS ABOUT DAUGHTERS EDUCATION
NAME:
Age:
Qualification:
SECTION (A) DEMOGRAPHY
1. At what age did you get married?
2. How many children do you have? i.e. how many daughters and sons?
3. Do you treat your sons and daughters equally?
SECTION (B) ABOUT YOU AND YOUR DAUGHTERS
4. What were your own feelings when your first daughter was born?
5. What were the feelings of your family members at the birth of the first
daughter?
SECTION (C) ABOUT DAUGHTERS AND THEIR EDUCATION6. Are you
in favour of your daughters education?
7. What do you consider more important for your daughters: education or early
marriage?
8. Do you willingly pay for their educational expenses?
9. Do you want the same standard of education for your daughters like your
sons?
10. When your daughter come back home from school, do you engage them in
household chores?
11. Do you feel proud to educate your daughter?
12. Do you expect from your educated daughter that she will support you
financially?
13. Is female education considered wastage of both money and time?
SECTION (D) DAUGHTERS EDUCATION AND SOCIETY
14. In your view is education corrupts a girls nature as is the general
perception in pakhtun society and culture?

49

15. Are majority of the female students deprived of education due to strict
pardah system?
16. Is poverty a main problem in educating daughters?
17. Is illiteracy of the parents a main hurdle too?
18. Is female education considered un-Islamic?

50