Musculoskeletal Ageing

The Human Musculoskeletal
System and Aging

PH 131 Physiology
Group 3
Objectives
1. To discuss the physiological state of the musculoskeletal
system at different life stages.
2. To discuss processes involved in the maintenance of the
musculoskeletal system.
3. To identify measures in properly dealing with the aging
musculoskeletal system.
Main functions for homeostasis

Movement. Support. Heat production.
STAGES OF LIFE
DEVELOPMENT
Bone and muscle development

Bone and muscles are derived from the mesoderm
Skeletal muscles form by the fusion of
mononucleated myoblasts to form multinucleated
myotubes.
Bone development occurs by two processes:
intramembranous ossification and endochondral
ossification
UNSW Embryology. Musculoskeletal System Development. Retrieved 17 September 2015 from https://embryology.med.unsw.edu.
au/embryology/index.php/Musculoskeletal_System_Development#Somite_Development
Differentiation of the somite
Myotome differentiates into the epimere and the hypomere

which give rise to the epaxial and hypaxial muscles respectively.
UNSW Embryology. Musculoskeletal System Development. Retrieved 17 September 2015 from https://embryology.med.unsw.edu.
au/embryology/index.php/Musculoskeletal_System_Development#Somite_Development
Differentiation of the somite

Cardiac muscle develops from mesodermal cells that migrate to
and envelop the developing heart while it is still in the form of
endocardial heart tubes
Smooth muscle develops from mesodermal cells that migrate to
and envelop the developing gastrointestinal tract and viscera.
Muscle satellite cells are also formed during embryonic
development, which persist in a quiescent state in the adult
muscles
Tortora, G.J. & Derrickson B. (2009). Principles of anatomy and physiology (12th ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc
Waves of muscle formation

Commitment to myogenic lineage MYOGENIC REGULATORY FACTORS (MRFs)
Primary myogenesis - occurs in the embryo
Secondary myogenesis - occurs in the fetus and
gives rise to bulk of the fetal muscle
Postnatal muscle growth - involves satellite
cells
Schoenwolf, G.C., Bleyl, S.B., Brauer, P.R. & Francis-West, P.H. (2009). Larsen's human embryology,4th edition. New York; Edinburgh: Churchill
Livingstone
Myogenesis. Retrieved from http://neuromuscular.wustl.edu/mother/myogenesis.html
Osteogenesis (Bone formation)

3 Skeleton Lineage
The somites generate the axial skeleton
The lateral plate mesoderm generates the limb skeleton
The cranial neural crest gives rise to the branchial arch and
craniofacial bones and cartilage
Modes of Ossification
- Intramembranous Ossification
- Endochondral Ossification
Osteogenesis: The Development of Bones - Developmental Biology - NCBI Bookshelf. Retrieved 20 September 2015 from http://www.ncbi.
nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10056/
Intramembranous Ossification
In the skull, neural crest-derived mesenchymal cells proliferate and
condense into compact nodules.
Some of these cells develop into capillaries; others change their shape to
become osteoblasts, committed bone precursor cells. The osteoblasts
secrete a collagen-proteoglycan matrix that is able to bind calcium salts.
Occasionally, osteoblasts become trapped in the calcified matrix and
become osteocytes.
As calcification proceeds, bony spicules radiate out from the region where
ossification began.
Osteogenesis: The Development of Bones - Developmental Biology - NCBI Bookshelf. Retrieved 20 September 2015 from http://www.ncbi.nlm.
nih.gov/books/NBK10056/

-
The entire region of calcified spicules

becomes surrounded by compact
mesenchymal cells that form the
periosteum. The cells on the inner
surface of the periosteum also
become osteoblasts and deposit
osteoid matrix parallel to that of the
existing spicules. In this manner,
many layers of bone are formed.
Endochondral Ossification
Involves the formation of cartilage tissue from aggregated mesenchymal
cells, and the subsequent replacement of cartilage tissue by bone.
Can be divided into five stages:
-
the mesenchymal cells are commited to become cartilage cells.

the committed mesenchyme cells condense into compact nodules and
differentiate into chondrocytes
the chondrocytes proliferate rapidly to form the model for the bone.
the chondrocytes stop dividing and increase their volume dramatically,
becoming hypertrophic chondrocytes.
the invasion of the cartilage model by blood vessels.
Growth during infancy

healthy & normal growth is very important
Musculoskeletal system = physical foundation of babys
growth & development
306 bones & cartilage elements at birth
Cranium = undergoes molding (fontanelles/soft spots
close)
cartilage bone = ossification
Pikechiropractic. (2014). Growing up healthy: musculoskeletal milestones in babys first year. Retrieved September 20, 2015, from http://www.
pikefamilychiropractic.com/growing-healthy-musculoskeletal-milestones-babys-first-year/
Fontanelle/Soft Spot
Growth during infancy
Birth to 6 months: 1/2 -1 inch/month; 5-7 oz/week

Around 5 months: double of weight at birth
6 to 12 months: 1cm/month; 5-7 oz/week
1 year old: triple of weight at birth
Musculoskeletal Milestones
1. Lifting & supporting the
head (head control)
2. Rolling over
3. Keeping upright
position
4. Crawling
5. Walking
Growth during puberty

- Peak bone mass is achieved
- End of puberty = end of bone growth (#awtsubeh)
- Many factors affect bone growth (ex: increase in sex
hormones, endocrinological disorders)
- Early vs. Late developers
http://skeletaldevelopment.weebly.com/adolescence.html
Buckler, J. M. H. (1984). Skeletal age changes in puberty. Department of Pediatrics and Child Health. Retrieved on September 20, 2015, from
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1628448/
MAINTENANCE & REPAIR
Muscle Maintenance & Repair

Muscles are able to acquire energy in 2 ways: aerobic
respiration and anaerobic respiration.
Aerobic Respiration - an oxygen-requiring process that the muscles use

whenever tasked to produce low to moderate amount of force.
Anaerobic Respiration - in producing a high amount of force, muscles
use lactic acid fermentation (form of anaerobic r.) to produce energy
Taylor, T. (n.d.). Muscular System. Retrieved September 20, 2015, from http://www.innerbody.com/image/musfov.
html
Myoglobin - red pigment found in muscles; contains iron and oxygen

allows the muscles to perform aerobic respiration in the absence of
oxygen.
Creatine Phosphate - donates its phosphate group to ADP to turn into
ATP to provide extra energy for the muscle.
Glycogen - energy-storing; found in muscle fibers; made up of linked
glucoses -> muscles break glucoses off of glycogen to provide an internal
fuel supply.
html
Muscle Fatigue - muscle quickly tires and loses ability to contract; occurs
when muscles run out of energy from aerobic/anaerobic respiration.
Fatigued muscle = (Low levels of oxygen, glucose, and ATP) + (High levels of
ADP and lactic acid (waste products))
Oxygen Debt (Recovery Oxygen Uptake) - extra oxygen the body must
intake in order to restore the muscle cells to their resting state.
html
Bone Maintenance & Repair

The maintenance of bones can be summarized into
two processes: bone modeling and remodeling.
BONE MODELING: Addition of new bone
BONE REMODELING: Replacement of old bone with
new bone
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK45504/

MODELING
acquisition of new bone for the

right bone morphology and mass
bone can be formed without
prior resorption
required for changes in
mechanical loading
adolescence
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK45504/
REMODELING
change of the old bone to new

bone
bone resorption and desposition
required for repair from
stress/fracture and to prevent
accumulation of new bone
calcium homeostasis and
optimization
most of human life
[Source here]
AGING
"The ageing process is of course a biological reality

which has its own dynamic, largely beyond human
control... active contribution is no longer
possible."
- Gorman, 2000
WHO, n.d., Defining Old. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/healthinfo/survey/ageingdefnolder/en/on Sept 19, 2015
Factors that hasten the aging process

1.
2.
3.
4.
Lifestyle
Stress
Excessive exposure to harsh environments
Humoral Factors
Lifestyle
Refers to the chosen way of life of a person

Sedentary Lifestyle- characterized by lack of
physical activity which will, in turn, cause
loss of bone and muscle mass, and increase
amount of body fat.
Bad habits/ Vices- refers to activities such as
smoking, alcohol drinking, drugs, etc. which
may damage the body.
Unhealthy Diet- choosing unhealthy meals
which prevents the body from receiving vital
nutrients
McLaughin, K.J. (2013). 6 Things That Make You Age Faster .And How to Avoid Them. Retrieved from http://www.doctorshealthpress.com/anti-aging/6things-that-make-you-age-faster-and-how-to-avoid-them on Sept. 19, 2015
Gerardo. (2013). The Seven Most Common Factors in Premature Aging. Retrieved from http://www.afpafitness.com/research-articles/commonpremature-aging-factors on Sept. 17, 2015
Stress
Reaction of the body to an external

stimulus
Causes the body to adapt by promoting
wear and tear of the organs.
May cause various metabolical and
physiological problems.
Promotes development of wrinkles,
eyebags, etc.
May cause worsening of posture
McLaughin, K.J. (2013). 6 Things That Make You Age Faster .And How to Avoid Them. Retrieved from http://www.doctorshealthpress.com/antiaging/6-things-that-make-you-age-faster-and-how-to-avoid-them on Sept. 19, 2015
Gerardo. (2013). The Seven Most Common Factors in Premature Aging. Retrieved from http://www.afpafitness.com/research-articles/commonpremature-aging-factors on Sept. 17, 2015
Excessive exposure to harsh environments

Sunlight- Has Ultraviolet Rays which has various
adverse health effects
Heat- May cause dehydration and in extreme instances,
burns.
Cold- Prolonged exposure may cause drying and
thinning of the skin. May also cause dehydration
Gerardo. (2013). The Seven Most Common Factors in Premature Aging. Retrieved from http://www.afpafitness.com/researcharticles/common-premature-aging-factors on Sept. 17, 2015
Humoral Factors
Refers to factors transported by the blood such as hormones

Hormones which may affect musculoskeletal aging:
1. Parathyroid Hormone- Affects calcium and phosphate levels. Decrease
may cause osteoporosis
2. Estrogen- minimize loss of calcium from bone. Decrease in production
after menopause
3. Testosterone- Involved in development of muscle bulk and strength.
Increases growth hormone production
4. Growth Hormone- Promotes increase in muscle mass, and skeletal
growth. Naturally decreases with age.
Hurd, R. (2014). Aging Changes in Hormone Production. Retrieved from https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/004000.htm on Sept. 20,
2015
Hormones of the Reproductive System. (2013) Retrieved from http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/S/SexHormones.html on
Sept 20, 2015
Pietrangelo, A. (2014). The effects of testosterone on the body. Retrieved from http://www.healthline.com/health/low-testosterone/effects-on-body
on Sept. 20, 2015
DETERIORATION OF THE
SKELETAL SYSTEM
Vitamin and Mineral deficiency

Calcium is one of the main minerals
found in bone and is crucial in
maintaining bone density
About 30% of ingested calcium is
actually absorbed.
Lack of Calcium can lead to lower
bone density which increases risk of
fractures and damage.
A. D. A. M. (2014). Calcium and bones. Retrieved from: https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002062.htm on Sept 19, 2015
Office of the Surgeon General (2004). 6. Determinants of Bone Health. Bone Health and Osteoporosis: A Report of the Surgeon General. Rockville
(MD). Retrieved from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK45503/#_NBK45503_pubdet_ on Sept 19, 2015.
Vitamin and Mineral deficiency

Vitamin D aids in the body's
absorption of calcium.
Lack of Vitamin D uptake can lead
to decreased levels of calcium
in the body which, in turn,
contributes to decreased bone
density.
Sedentary Lifestyle
Physical activity can directly affect bone

density and strength
Low impact physical activities (e.g. yoga
and pilates) help maintain good posture
and can prevent fractures by promoting
balance
High impact activities such as strength
training can cause a increased build up of
bone due to the application of mechanical
stress.
Seeley R., VanPutte, C., Regan J., & Russo, A. (2014). Seeleys anatomy & physiology (10th ed.). New York, NY: The Mcgraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
DETERIORATION OF THE
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Sarcopenia
a common consequence of
normal aging that describes
a gradual loss of muscle
mass and strength that
may begin at age 30
at the age of 80, muscle
strength decreases by 50%
Bemben, M. Physiology of aging. [PDF document]. retrieved from: https://www.acsm.org
Sarcopenia
reduction in fiber number
or fiber size or combination
of the two
reduced physical activity
is a key factor
Multifactorial
Bemben, M. Physiology of aging. [PDF document]. retrieved from: https://www.acsm.org
For healthy young adults, under equilibrium conditions,

the degradation and synthesis of skeletal muscle is a
balanced and dynamic process
Small imbalances between degradation and synthesis
accumulated over several years result to the significant
loss in muscle mass.
Marcell, T. (2003). Review article: sarcopenia: causes, consequences, and Preventions. Retrieved from: http://biomedgerontology.oxfordjournals.
org/content/58/10/M911.full
Muscle cell changes
As muscles age, smoothening of

sarcolemma in muscle end plate
decreases surface area and diminishes
stimulation of muscle cells.
Cells contract slower and become
decreasingly able to recover from a
contraction and prepare for the next
one
Slowing of calcium release and retrieval
of the sarcoplasmic reticulum with
increasing age is also an attribute
DiGiovanna, A. G. (1994). Human aging: Biological perspectives. McGraw-Hill.
Muscle cell changes

decrease in the number of sarcomeres within myofibrils
causes the muscle cells they are a part of to shorten which
then causes them to have a reduced distance for moving
the person will experience a feeling of stiffness and
decreased freedom of movement
reduced sarcomeres will also lessens strength of the
muscles
DiGiovanna, A. G. (1994). Human aging: Biological perspectives. McGraw-Hill.
Denervation and MU remodeling

loss of motor axons due to normal aging process (loss of alphamotor neurons being greatest among type II muscle fibers)
Either becomes reinnervated by sprouts of other axons within the
vicinity (commonly from type I fibers) or denervates and ultimately
disappears
may explain why Type II (fast-twitch) fibers decline with increasing
age whereas Type I (slow-twitch) fibers are seemingly resistant to
age-related atrophy until the ages of 70-80
Carlson, B. (2004). Denervation and aging of skeletal muscle, Basic Appl Myol 14(3), 135-139.
Denervation and MU remodeling

size of remaining motor units
increase with reinnervation
causes a decrease in
controlling the strength of
each contraction
may be a reason why fine
movements deteriorate with
age
Carlson, B. (2004). Denervation and aging of skeletal muscle, Basic Appl Myol 14(3), 135-139.
Protein Synthesis
Declines in protein synthesis involved in reduced protein mass
Not all muscle proteins display change in synthesis rates
separation of muscle proteins showed that Myosin Heavy
Chain (MHC) synthesis rates are less for the middle aged and
old aged
MHC being a key contractile protein, its reduction would lead to
a decline in locomotor function and muscle weakness.
Williams, G., Higgins, M., & Lewek, M. (2002). Aging skeletal muscle: physiologic changes and the effects of training. Physical Therapy, 82(1), 6268. doi: 10.1093/gerona/58.10.M911
Protein Synthesis
It is not the ability to metabolize proteins that deteriorates over
time
we lose the ability to synthesize our own proteins, and that
process would involve hormones.
Williams, G., Higgins, M., & Lewek, M. (2002). Aging skeletal muscle: physiologic changes and the effects of training. Physical Therapy, 82(1), 6268. doi: 10.1093/gerona/58.10.M911
Hormones
reduced levels of circulating anabolic hormones such as somatotropin

and testosterone (decline from middle age onwards)
Increased insulin resistance with age may contribute to muscle
deterioration through the inhibition of the nitric oxide cascade
responsible for the absorption of amino acids in protein synthesis.
cortisol increases with age and is a potent stimulus to protein
catabolism.
Knight, J. (2008) Exploring the anatomy and physiology of ageing: Part 10 - muscles and bone, Nursing Times; 104: 48, 21-22.
Replacement of active muscle
Active muscle fibers are

progressively replaced by
collagen-rich, non-contractile
fibrous tissue
Increased deposition of fats
with decreased lean muscle
tissue
decreased force production
capability
Other Factors
age changes in capillary structure and decrease in capillary density

in muscles
increasing accumulation of lipofuscin
proper functioning of muscular system is also dependent in other
systems that change with age such as the nervous, circulatory
and respiratory systems
Tendon Stiffening
Tendons-Cord like tissue that attaches muscles to bones
Caused mainly by the decrease of water content due to
proteoglycan deficiency caused by aging.
Limits movements
Makes tendons less able to tolerate stress
Is also caused by decrease of elastin which will result in a
decrease in flexibility
Malfulli, N., Renstrom, P., Leadbetter, W. (2005). Tendon Injuries: Basic Science and Clinical Medicine. Springer-Verlag London Limited. Retrieved
from https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=71ibIKaiwFkC&pg=PA27&lpg=PA27&dq#v=onepage&q&f=false on Sept. 20, 2015
Effects of AginG. (2009). OrthoInfo.com. Retrieved from http://orthoinfo.aaos.org/topic.cfm?topic=A00191 on Sept. 20, 2015
ADDRESSING THE AGING

MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM
Regular Physical Activity

Musculoskeletal aging can
be delayed or prevented by
living a physically active
lifestyle.
Elderly people who are
sedentary can benefit from
exercise.
Seeley R., VanPutte, C., Regan J., & Russo, A. (2014). Seeleys anatomy & physiology (10th ed.). New York, NY: The Mcgraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Aerobic activities and strength
training programs improve
muscular performance.
Moderate activity and weightbearing exercises help build
bone mass and enhance
neuromuscular function.
Marieb, E.N. & Hoehn K. (2013). Human anatomy & physiology (9th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Pearson Education Inc.
Tortora, G.J. & Derrickson B. (2009). Principles of anatomy and physiology (12th ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Resistance exercises can
help build bone strength
and muscle mass.
Risk of injury associated
with
the increase of
strenuous physical activity
must be assessed.
DiGiovanna, A.G. (1999). Muscle System. In Human aging: biological perspectives (8). Retrieved from http://www2.ku.
edu/~lba/courses/articles/chapter%208d.pdf
Marieb, E.N. & Hoehn K. (2013). Human anatomy & physiology (9th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Pearson Education Inc.

Effects of Maintaining a High Level
of Physical Activity Throughout Life
Slower decline in:
energy molecules (ATP, creatine

phosphate, glycogen)
oxidative enzymes
blood supply
speed of movement, stamina,
endurance, Vo2max

Slower decline in:
muscle cell thickness

number of muscle cells
muscle thickness
muscle mass
muscle strength

Slower decline in bone minerals

Decreased risk of fractures and
osteoporosis

Effects of Starting or Increasing Exercise
Increases oxidative enzymes, stored glycogen

capillary numbers, blood flow, uptake of
oxygen from blood
cell thickness, muscle strength, muscle mass
speed of movement, stamina, endurance,
Vo2max

Effects of Starting or Increasing Exercise
Increases ease of movement, range of

movement, joint flexibility
Slows bone demineralization
Decreases risk of falling and sustaining fractures
Healthy diet
Brink, W. (2007). Preventing Sarcopenia. Life Extension. Retrieved fromhttp://www.lifeextension.com/magazine/2007/1/report_muscle/page01

Healthy diet
Nutritional Strategies (Life Extension Magazine)
Creatine
Vitamin D
Whey protein
Brink, W. (2007). Preventing Sarcopenia. Life Extension. Retrieved from http://www.lifeextension.com/magazine/2007/1/report_muscle/page01
Medications
Antiresorptive Drugs - slow down further bone loss
Bisphosphonates
Selective estrogen receptor modulators
Estrogen replacement therapy

Hormone replacement therapy
Bone-building Drugs
Other Tips
blood testing to track hormone levels

reduce intake of alcohol and carbonated beverages
do not smoke
avoid stress
Photo sources
LifeMap Sciences, Inc. (2012). Embryonic Development of the Skeletal Muscle. Retrieved from http:
//discovery.lifemapsc.com/in-vivo-development/skeletal-muscle
Borland, S. (2013). Bad Habits like smoking and drinking cost a million lost years. Retrieved from
http://www.dailymail.co.uk/health/article-2403577
Stress Management. (n.d). Stress Management. Retrieved from http://www.southernct.edu/studentlife/health/healthservices/stressmanagement.html
Citrage. (n.d.). What are the causes of sarcopenia. Retrieved from http://www.citrage.
com/professional-space/sarcopenia/sarcopenia-causes?lang=en

Musculoskeletal Ageing

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Musculoskeletal Ageing

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

The Human Musculoskeletal

System and Aging

Main functions for homeostasis

Bone and muscle development

Differentiation of the somite

Myotome differentiates into the epimere and the hypomere

Differentiation of the somite

Waves of muscle formation

Osteogenesis (Bone formation)

Osteogenesis (Bone formation)

Osteogenesis (Bone formation)

The entire region of calcified spicules

Osteogenesis (Bone formation)

the mesenchymal cells are commited to become cartilage cells.

Osteogenesis (Bone formation)

Growth during infancy

Growth during infancy

Birth to 6 months: 1/2 -1 inch/month; 5-7 oz/week

Growth during puberty

MAINTENANCE & REPAIR

Muscle Maintenance & Repair

Aerobic Respiration - an oxygen-requiring process that the muscles use

Muscle Maintenance & Repair

Myoglobin - red pigment found in muscles; contains iron and oxygen

Muscle Maintenance & Repair

Muscle Maintenance & Repair

Bone Maintenance & Repair

Bone Maintenance & Repair

acquisition of new bone for the

change of the old bone to new

Bone Maintenance & Repair

"The ageing process is of course a biological reality

Factors that hasten the aging process

Refers to the chosen way of life of a person

Reaction of the body to an external

Excessive exposure to harsh environments

Refers to factors transported by the blood such as hormones

Vitamin and Mineral deficiency

Vitamin and Mineral deficiency

Physical activity can directly affect bone

Bemben, M. Physiology of aging. [PDF document]. retrieved from: https://www.acsm.org

Bemben, M. Physiology of aging. [PDF document]. retrieved from: https://www.acsm.org

For healthy young adults, under equilibrium conditions,

Muscle cell changes

As muscles age, smoothening of

DiGiovanna, A. G. (1994). Human aging: Biological perspectives. McGraw-Hill.

Muscle cell changes

DiGiovanna, A. G. (1994). Human aging: Biological perspectives. McGraw-Hill.

Denervation and MU remodeling

Denervation and MU remodeling

reduced levels of circulating anabolic hormones such as somatotropin

Replacement of active muscle

Active muscle fibers are

age changes in capillary structure and decrease in capillary density

ADDRESSING THE AGING

Regular Physical Activity

Regular Physical Activity

Regular Physical Activity

Regular Physical Activity

energy molecules (ATP, creatine

Regular Physical Activity

muscle cell thickness

Regular Physical Activity

Slower decline in bone minerals