2

(Submitted to TECTONOPHYSICS on 30 Sep. 2008,

being processed to be accepted)

Co-seismic thrusting rupture and slip distribution

produced by the 2008 M7.9 Wenchuan earthquake,

China

Aiming Lin1*, Zhikun Ren1, Dong Jia2, Xiaojun Wu2

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Graduate School of Science and Technology, Shizuoka University,

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Shizuoka 422-8529, Japan

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Department of Earth Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China

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* Corresponding author:

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Institute of Geosciences, Faculty of Science

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Shizuoka University

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Shizuoka 422-8529, Japan

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Tel & Fax: 81-54-238-4792

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E-mail: slin@ipc.shizuoka.ac.jp

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Abstract
Field investigations reveal that the Mw 7.9 Wenchuan (China) earthquake of 12 May

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2008 produced a 285-km-long surface rupture zone, with dominantly thrusting slip

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accompanied by a right-lateral component along the central-northern segments of the

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zone, and left-lateral component along the southern segment, along the Longmen Shan

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Thrust Belt, eastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau. The co-seismic ruptures mainly

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occurred along the pre-existing Yingxiu-Beichuan, Guanxian-Anxian, and Qingchuan

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faults, which are the main faults of the Longmen Shan Thrust Belt. The displacements

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measured in the field are approximately 0.56.5 m in the vertical (typically 13 m),

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accompanied by an average left-lateral component of < 2 m along the 60-km-long

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southernmost segment of the rupture zone and an average right-lateral component of < 1

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m along the 100-km-long centralnorthern segments. The maximum thrust slip amount

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is estimated to be ~10 m, accompanied by 9 m of shortening across the rupture zone;

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this finding is consistent with estimates based on seismic data. The rupture length and

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maximum displacement and shortening amount are the largest among all

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intracontinental thrust-type earthquakes reported to date. Our findings demonstrate that

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i) the Wenchuan earthquake occurred upon pre-existing active faults of the Longmen

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Shan Thrust Belt, thereby controlling the spatial distribution of co-seismic surface

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rupture and displacement, and the rupture processes of the earthquake; ii) the long

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rupture length and large thrusting slip resulted from compressive stress associated with

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eastward extrusion of the Tibet Plateau as it accommodates the ongoing penetration of

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the Indian Plate into the Eurasian Plate; and iii) present-day shortening strain upon the

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eastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau is mostly released by seismic slip along thrust

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faults within the Longmen Shan Thrust Belt.

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Keywords: 2008 Mw 7.9 Wenchuan earthquake, Longmen Shan Thrust Belt, thrusting

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slip, Tibetan Plateau, Sichuan Basin

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1. Introduction

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The magnitude (Mw) 7.9 Wenchuan earthquake occurred on 12 May 2008 in the

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Longmen Shan region of China, the transition zone between the Tibetan Plateau and the

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Sichuan Basin, resulting in extensive damage throughout central and western China (Fig.

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1). Official estimates of casualties released by the Chinese Government as of 1

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September 2008 include 69,197 confirmed deaths, 374,176 injured, and 18,209 missing.

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To understand the seismic faulting mechanism and surface deformation features

56

associated with the earthquake, including rupture length, geometric characteristics, and

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slip distribution of co-seismic surface rupture, our survey group traveled to the

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epicentral area 2 days after the earthquake and undertook 10 days of fieldwork, during

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which time we collected primary data related to rupture structures and the spatial

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distribution of offset. Based on this preliminary fieldwork, we carried out additional

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detailed fieldwork along the co-seismic surface rupture over the following 5 months.

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Here we report the main results of our field investigations and discuss the co-seismic

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rupturing mechanism and the implications of our findings for the tectonics of the eastern
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marginal zone of the Tibetan Plateau.

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2. Tectonic setting

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The Longmen Shan region is characterized by high elevations of up to 7556 m

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above sea level (Mt. Gongga) and topographic relief of more than 5 km over distances

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of less than 50 km (Fig. 1), representing one of the steepest mountain fronts along any

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margin of the Tibetan Plateau. The eastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau is bound by

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the Longmen Shan Thrust Belt, which strikes northeastsouthwest for a distance of

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~500 km (Jia et al., 2006). The basement of the Longmen Shan Thrust Belt is dominated

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by strongly folded and deformed pre-Mesozoic rocks.

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The Longmen Shan Thrust Belt is dominated by four major thrust faults: the

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WenchuanMaowen, YingxiuBeichuan, GuanxianAnxian, and Qingchuan faults (Fig.

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1; Deng et al., 1994; Li et al., 2006). Trenching surveys and field investigations reveal

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that these faults have been active throughout the Late Quaternary, with slip rates of up

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to 1.01.5 mm/yr (Li et al., 2006; Densmore et al., 2007). Seismicity is generally

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restricted to small events in the area around the Longmen Shan Thrust Belt (Editorial

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Board, State Seismological Bureau, 1989; Li et al., 2006). The historic record of

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earthquakes in this region over the past 1400 yr reveals only three earthquakes of M > 6

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(M 6.5 in 1657, M 6.2 in 1970, and M 6.2 in 1972) and documents a remarkable lack of

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large earthquakes of M > 6.5 along the Longmen Shan Thrust Belt (Editorial Board,

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State Seismological Bureau, 1989; Editorial Board, Annals of Sichuan Province, 1998).

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However, recent trenching surveys and field investigations carried out after the 2008

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Wenchuan earthquake reveal that a great Tang-Song Dynasty (~AD 8001000)

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earthquake that ruptured a >200-km-long thrust fault within the Longmen Shan Thrust

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Belt, China, duplicated on the co-seismic surface ruptures produced by the 2008

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Wenchuan earthquake, and constrain a millennial recurrence interval for magnitude ~8

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earthquakes (Lin et al., 2009). These studies demonstrate that the major pre-existing

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thrusts of the Longmen Shan Thrust Belt are currently active as source faults of large

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earthquakes in the late Holocene.

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3. Deformation characteristics of co-seismic surface ruptures

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Field investigations reveal that a 285-km-long surface rupture zone developed

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during the 2008 Mw 7.9 Wenchuan earthquake (herein termed the Wenchuan rupture
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zone) follows the GuanxianAnxian Fault, the YingxiuBeichuan Fault, and to a lesser

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extent along the Qingchuan Fault (Fig. 1). Within the Longmen Shan Thrust Belt, these

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faults define a left-stepping en echelon pattern with ~10 km clearance (Fig. 1). The

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co-seismic surface ruptures are generally concentrated within a zone of up to 50 m in

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width (generally < 20 m), largely following the strike of pre-existing fault traces within

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the Longmen Shan Thrust Belt.

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Based on geometric and spatial distribution features, the Wenchuan rupture zone can

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be divided into three main rupture segments: northern, central, and southern. The

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northern segment, restricted to the fault trace of the Qingchuan Fault (herein termed the

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Qingchuan segment), extends for ~50 km, terminating at the town of Shazhou

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(~105.50E, ~32.65N) in the northeast, near the border between Sichuan and Gansu

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provinces (Fig. 1). The central segment (herein termed the Beichuan segment) is ~105

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km in length, and occurs along the northeastern segment of the YingxiuBeichuan Fault.

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The southern segment, ~130 km in length, branches into two parallel sub-rupture zones:

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one along the southwestern segment of the YingxiuBeichuan Fault between the towns

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of Yingxiu and Beichuan (herein termed the Yingxiu rupture zone), terminating to the

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south of Yingxiu town; and another along the GuanxianAnxian Fault (herein termed

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the Guanxian rupture zone), which forms the topographic boundary between the

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Longmen Shan Range and the Sichuan Basin, terminating to the south of Dujiangyan

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City (formerly known as Guanxian) near the epicentral area of the Wenchuan

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earthquake (Fig. 1).

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The total length of the Wenchuan co-seismic surface rupture zone, initiating south

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of Yingxiu town (~103.47E, ~31.03N) and terminating near Shazhou town to the

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northeast (~105.50E, ~32.65N), is estimated to be ~285 km, representing the longest

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rupture reported worldwide for intracontinental thrust-type earthquakes, comparable

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with the longest reported strike-slip rupture zone of 400450 km produced by the 2001

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Mw 7.8 Kunlun earthquake upon the northern Tibetan Plateau (Lin et al., 2002, 2003;

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Lin and Nishikawa, 2007). The co-seismic surface rupture length coincides with the

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seismic rupture area constrained by aftershock data (Fig. 1).

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The Wenchuan rupture zone is mainly defined by distinct thrust faults, fault scarps,

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and fold structures, including mole track structures as that produced by the 2001 Mw 7.8

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Kunlun earthquake occurred in the northern Tibetan Plateau (Lin et al., 2004), and

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numerous extensional fractures. The thrust faults are generally expressed at the surface
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by fault planes, fault scarps, and fold structures developed widely along the co-seismic

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surface rupture zone (Figs. 2-4). The fault planes on which the main slip occurred were

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observed at several locations: they strike N1050E and dip to the northwest at an

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average of ~30 (Fig. 2ad). At some locations where basement rocks were exposed, the

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dip of the fault plane reaches 85 (Fig. 2eh).

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A thrusting sense-of-slip is indicated by slickenside striations developed on

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co-seismic fault planes (Fig. 2fh) and the geometry of fault scarps, upon which little or

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no horizontal slip is recorded (Fig. 2d). Co-seismic fault scarps generally occur on

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pre-existing active fault scarps upon which vertical offsets have accumulated (Fig. 3).

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This accumulated vertical offset indicates that large thrusting events have occurred

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repeatedly upon individual faults; however, co-seismic surface ruptures along the

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Qingchuan segment occurred along the surface trace of the Qingchuan Fault, and the

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relation between these two features is unclear because the co-seismic surface rupture

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sprays into numerous extensional cracks and push-up structures (e.g., small-scale mole

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tracks) distributed over a wide area with little or no offset (Fig. 4a).

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The co-seismic fault scarps are generally characterized by complex surface

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morphology and thrusting and folding structures (Fig. 5). Fault planes observed in

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outcrops of basement rocks generally dip at high angles (> 50) and show a linear

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surface morphology in geometry (Figs. 5a and 2fh). In contrast, fault scarps observed

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upon alluvial terrace risers and fans, where unconsolidated deposits overlie basement

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rocks, show a complex morphology, with folding structure (Fig. 5be).

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Such typical structures were observed at Site 11, where a 2.8-m-high co-seismic

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fault scarp is duplicated on a 2.6-m-high pre-existing fault scarp developed within the

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sand-gravel and soil alluvial deposits (Fig. 6). The pre-existing fault scarp is identified

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by the presence of a man-made stone wall that partially collapsed during the 2008

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earthquake (Fig. 6). The ground surface of the corn field, in addition to alluvial deposits

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and soil layers, is folded and offset, which protruded and overlapped the corn field in

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the footwall of the thrust fault plane for a distance of 5.7 m (Fig. 6). This finding

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indicates that the amounts of both thrusting slip and shortening produced by the

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Wenchuan earthquake exceeded 5.7 m (Fig. 6; see Discussion for details).

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This type of thrust fault scarp (Fig. 6) is termed a protruded scarp (Fig. 5e)

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(Gorden and Lewis, 1980). The observed structural features demonstrate that the

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near-surface unconsolidated deposits and surface soils were entrained in the thrust,
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overriding the ground surface of the corn field in the footwall. Similar structures have

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also been observed along the Senya Thrust, which formed during the1896 M7.5 Rikuu

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earthquake, northeast Japan (Research Group for the Senya Fault, 1986), and the Spitak

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Thrust, which formed during the 1988 Ms 6.9 Armenian earthquake (Philip et al., 1992).

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Mole track structures are widely observed along the surface rupture zone, generally

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developed within alluvial deposits and cemented ground such as roads, forming a linked

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array of contractional structures along the rupture zone (Fig. 4ac) similar to those

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produced by the 2001 Mw 7.8 Kunlun earthquake (Lin et al., 2004; Lin and Nishikawa,

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2007). The mole tracks are typically 0.31 m in height, 15 m in width, and 110 m in

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length, and generally trend sub-parallel to the overall trend of the rupture zone. The

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mole track structures that formed within the co-seismic surface rupture zone are

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considered to represent a contractional structure associated with thrusting and folding.

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Extensional cracks, sand boils, and landslides are widely distributed along the

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surface rupture zone (Fig. 4de). Numerous sand boils produced by seismic-related

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liquefaction were observed in streams and low terrace risers, with series of vents

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generally being aligned parallel to the surface rupture zone (Fig. 4ef).

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4. Co-seismic displacement

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Co-seismic displacements were measured at 74 locations along the surface rupture

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zone based on offset linear surface-markers such as roads, stream channels, and terrace

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risers oriented perpendicular-subperpendicular to the surface rupture zone (Fig. 7). The

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amount of vertical offset at each site was measured and calculated from profiles

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measured across faults, fault scarps, and fold structures using a tape measure and an

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Advantage Laser Rangefinder (Lasser Atlanta Optics Inc., 2000) with an error of 15

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cm.

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The measured displacements reveal the dominance of vertical displacements along

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the entire surface rupture zone (Fig. 8). The vertical displacements range from several

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centimeters to 6.5 m, generally in the range 13 m.

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observed at some locations along the surface rupture zone (Fig. 8). The maximum offset

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was measured at a location near Site 3, along the Yinxiu rupture zone, where the terrace

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riser is offset 6.5 m in the vertical (Fig. 2e). Right-lateral slip was mainly observed at 12

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locations along the 50-km-long southwestern-most segment of the surface rupture zone

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(Figs. 7ab and 8). In contrast, left-lateral slip was observed at 10 locations along the
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Strike-slip offset was also

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100-km-long centralnortheastern segment (Figs. 7cd and 8). The maximum

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left-lateral slip of 4.2 m was observed at Site 4 where the co-seismic surface rupture

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strikes northwest almost perpendicular to the general trend of the rupture zone, recorded

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by the displacement of a small path through a field (Fig. 7d). The landowner at this site

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(Ms. Huang) reported that both the 4.2-m-right-lateral slip and 2.2-m-high fault scarp

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formed during the earthquake. The maximum amount of right-lateral offset was found at

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Site 9 near the town of Beichuan. Although a strike-slip component was locally

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observed along the co-seismic surface rupture zone, it was only identified at 22 of the

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91 measurement locations, with an average strike-slip displacement of ~12 m (Fig. 8).

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This finding reveals that displacement was dominated by vertical offset, accompanied

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by a minor strike-slip component, representing a dominantly thrusting mechanism for

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the earthquake.

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5. Discussion and conclusions

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5.1. Co-seismic thrusting slip and shortening amount

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The amount of co-seismic slip is a key factor in assessing the seismic moment,

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rupture mechanism, and degree of seismic hazard. The slip amount recorded by

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co-seismic surface ruptures along strike-slip faults can generally be measured in the

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field, as with the strike-slip Kunlun Fault in the northern Tibetan Plateau, along which

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the 2001 Mw 7.9 earthquake produced a 400450-km-long surface rupture zone (Lin et

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al., 2002, 2003); however, it is generally difficult to measure the amount of co-seismic

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thrusting slip along thrust faults in the field due to the complex geomorphic expression

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of the co-seismic surface rupture, particularly in rupture areas with thick deposits of

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unconsolidated material and where the fault plane is not exposed at the surface.

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The Wenchuan rupture zone shows the complex morphology typical of thrust faults,

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and this made it difficult to directly measure the amount of thrusting slip in the field. At

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certain sites where the fault plane is exposed, it is possible to estimate the amount of

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thrust slip. For example, at one location, the ground surface of a corn field was observed

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in both the hanging wall and footwall of the thrust fault, and a soil-sandgravel layers

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are folded in the hanging wall (Fig. 6). These features suggest that the ground surface of

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the corn field in the hanging wall was offset by the fault and slid forward along the fault

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plane before collapsing onto the ground surface in the footwall of the fault (Fig. 9).

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Considering the dip of the fault plane observed in the trench exposure at this site (30;
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Fig. 6), the amount of thrust displacement (D) upon the fault plane is calculated as

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follows:

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D = H/sin = 2.8 m/sin 30 = 5.6 m,

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where H is the vertical offset (height of the co-seismic fault scarp) and is the dip of

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the fault plane (Fig. 9). This coincides with the width of buried ground surface of 5.7 m

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observed in the exposure (Fig. 6). The vertical offsets measured in the field along the

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Wenchuan rupture zone generally range from 1 to 3 m (Fig. 8); therefore, thrusting slip

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is estimated to be 26 m, with an average of 4 m accompanying an average shortening

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amount of 3 m (assuming an average fault-plane dip of 30).

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These thrust slip amounts and the distribution of displacement along the Wenchuan

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rupture zone are comparable with estimates based on seismic inversion analyses (e.g.,

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Chen et al., 2008; Ji, 2008). The maximum amount of thrusting slip (up to 10.3 m, with

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a shortening amount of ~9.0 m) is obtained at Site 11, where the vertical offset of 5.15

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m was observed on a lower terrace riser of unconsolidated alluvial deposits (Fig. 7a),

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assuming an average dip of 30 for the main fault plane as observed at Sites 67 (Fig.

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2ab) and 11 (Fig. 6). This maximum amount of thrusting slip is also comparable with

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previous estimates (based on seismic data) of ~9 m (Ji, 2008), ~12 m (California

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Institute of Technology, 2008), and 12.5 m (Chen et al., 2008). The large vertical offsets

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of > 4 m are distributed throughout two surface-rupture areas around Sites 35 and Site

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11 in the southern and northern segments (Fig. 8), respectively, approximately

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corresponding to the locations for which the maximum slips were estimated based on

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seismic inversion analyses undertaken by California Institute of Technology (2008) and

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Chen et al. (2008). The large left-lateral slip components of 2.0-4.2 m observed at the

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locations around Site 4 are probably caused by the northwest-southeast trend of the

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co-seismic surface rupture which is perpendicular to the northeast-southwest-trending

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rupture zone. The northwest-southeast-trending co-seismic fault conjugates with the

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northeast-southwest-trending fault, oblique to the east-west compressive tectonic stress

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which caused the left-lateral slipping.

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co-seismic surface rupture would be effected by the rupture geometry and topography

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where the rupture occurred.

The horizontal slip components observed on the

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Based on field observations and seismic inversion results, we conclude that the

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maximum thrusting slip amount associated with the Wenchuan earthquake was 10.3 m,

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accompanied by 9.0 m of shortening. These values probably reflect the thrust slip of a
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deep-level seismogenic fault zone.

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5.2. Tectonic implications of co-seismic thrusting and shortening

The geometric characteristics of co-seismic surface ruptures not only reflects the

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surface morphology, but also the structure at depth and the pre-existing tectonic

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environment (Yeats et al., 1997; Lin et al., 2001, 2003). The geometric features and slip

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distribution of co-seismic surface ruptures associated with the Wenchuan event, in

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combination with the orientation of the fault plane and plunge of striations developed

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upon the main fault plane, indicate that co-seismic surface displacement is dominated

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by thrust slip, with a lesser lateral-slip component. This finding is consistent with the

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focal mechanisms determined by China Earthquake Networks Center (2008), Harvard

273

University (2008), and USGS (2008).

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Our fieldwork results demonstrate that the co-seismic surface rupture of the

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Wenchuan earthquake occurred along pre-existing active faults of the Longmen Shan

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Thrust Belt along a distance of ~285 km. The aftershocks of magnitude > 4 that

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occurred during the first month after the Wenchuan earthquake are concentrated along a

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~300 km section of the co-seismic surface rupture zone (Fig. 1). InSar data also reveal

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that surface deformation is restricted to a 285-km-long zone (Geographical Survey

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Institute, 2008), coincident with the co-seismic surface rupture zone identified in this

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study. These geological and seismic data indicate that the distribution of the co-seismic

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surface rupture was mainly constrained by the orientation of pre-existing thrust faults of

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the Longmen Shan Thrust Belt, as reported in previous studies (Jia et al., 2006; Li et al.,

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2006).

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The 2008 Wenchuan earthquake occurred in response to compressive tectonic stress

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oriented perpendicular to the Longmen Shan Thrust Belt, resulting from relative motion

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between the Tibetan Plateau and the Sichuan Basin. Geological data from in and around

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the Longmen Shan region suggest a low shortening rate during the late Quaternary

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(Burchfiel et al., 1995, 2008; Kirby et al., 2000), and GPS data indicate an average

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active shortening rate of < 3 mm/yr within the Longmen Shan region along the

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Longmen Shan Thrust Belt, without a significant strike-slip component (Chen et al.,

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2000; Zhang et al., 2004; Shen et al., 2005; Meade, 2007).

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The historic record of earthquakes in this region over the past 2000 yr reveals only
three identifiable earthquakes of M > 6 (M 6.5 in 1657, M 6.2 in 1970, and M 6.2 in
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1972) and documents a remarkable lack of large earthquakes of M > 6.5 along the

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Longmen Shan Thrust Belt (Editorial Board, State Seismological Bureau, 1989;

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Editorial Board, Annals of Sichuan Province, 1998). If all large historical earthquakes

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have been perfectly recorded in the study area, the recurrence interval of

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large-magnitude earthquakes within the thrust belt, therefore, would be greater than

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1,400-2,000 years. Recent trenching surveys and field investigations carried out after

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the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake reveal that a large-magnitude (M 8.0) earthquake

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occurred in the Tang-Song Dynasty (~AD 8001000) with an average vertical offset of

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2-3 m (Lin et al., 2009). This new finding indicates that the recurrence interval of

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large-magnitude earthquakes in the late Holocene is ~1,000-1,200 yr. Considering the

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maximum and average shortening amounts of 9 m and 3 m produced by the 2008

306

Wenchuan earthquake, as estimated in this study, and a long-term shortening rate of < 3

307

mm/yr revealed by GPS data within the Longmen Shan region, a recurrence interval of

308

~10003000 years is estimated for the release of shortening strain energy stored within

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the Longmen Shan Thrust Belt, comparable with the estimate proposed by Lin et al.

310

(2009). For understanding the recurrence interval of large earthquake, additional

311

paleoseismic studies are required. Our results confirm that present-day shortening

312

strain upon the eastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau, resulting from eastward extrusion

313

of the Tibetan Plateau as it accommodates the ongoing penetration of the Indian Plate

314

into the Eurasian Plate, is released by seismic slip along thrust faults within the

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Longmen Shan Thrust Belt.

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317

Acknowledgements

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We thank JAXA (Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency) for kindly providing the

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ALOS imagery data, Asia Air Survey Co. Ltd. for providing the Red Relief image map,

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and PASCO Co. Ltd. for providing the Terra SAR-X image map. This work was

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supported by the Tokyo Marine Kagami Memorial Foundation, Shizuoka University, a

322

Science Project (No. 18340158) of the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science

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and Technology of Japan, and a Science Project (No. 40672132) of the National Natural

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Science Foundation of China.

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Figure 1. Location maps of the study area, showing topographic features and

421

distribution of the co-seismic surface rupture. (a) Landsat image of the Tibetan Plateau

422

and north India, showing the location of study area. Yellow arrows indicate the

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eastward movement direction of the Tibetan Plateau. Red arrow indicates the movement

424

direction of Indian plate. (b) SRTM (Shuttle Radar Topography Mission; 90 m

425

resolution) color shaded-relief map showing the tectonic landforms of the Longmen

426

Shan region [fault data from Jia et al. (2006), Li et al. (2006), and Densmore et al.

427

(2006)] and aftershock distribution (black circles) following the 2008 Wenchuan

428

earthquake (seismic data from China Earthquake Networks Center, 2008). White solid

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circles indicate the locations of main cities and towns. (c) Distribution map of

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co-seismic surface ruptures, showing the locations of sites referred to in this study. Red

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stars indicate the epicenter of the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake, as determined by China

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Earthquake Networks Center (CENC, 2008), Harvard University (Harvard, 2008), and

433

the United States Geological Survey (USGS, 2008).

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Figure 2. Representative photographs of co-seismic surface ruptures. (ab) Terrace

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risers offset vertically by 2 m [(a: Site 7), (b: Site 6); see Figure 1 for location details] at

438

sites where the fault dips to the northwest at ~30. (c) Thrust-related vertical offset of

439

the river channel shown in (b) (Site 6). (d) The road shown in (b) was offset vertically

440

by 2.0 m. Note the lack of horizontal displacement at this site. (e) The terrace riser was

441

offset vertically by 6.5 m, which is the largest offset observed in this study (a location

442

near Site 3). (f) The fault scarp observed in the basement rock (mudstone), where the

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terrace was offset vertically by 4.8 m (Site 3). (gh) Slickenside striations (yellow

444

arrows) developed on the main thrusting fault plane at Site 3, which strikes N18E and

445

dips to the northwest at ~85. The striations indicate a thrusting-dominated slip sense.

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The pen shown for scale is 15 cm long. H: vertical offset.

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448
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Figure 3. Representative photographs of co-seismic surface ruptures developed along

450

pre-existing fault scarps. (a) Terrace risers and the river channel were vertically offset

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by 23 m (Site 5) at a site where the pre-existing fault scarp was higher than 5 m. (b)

452

Co-seismic surface ruptures developed along a pre-existing fault scarp at Site 1,

453

northeast of Yingxiu town. (c) Co-seismic surface rupture developed along a

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pre-existing fault scarp at Site 9. The lower terrace and river channel were vertically

455

offset by 23 m, with a right-lateral slip component of 2.3 m.

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Figure 4. Representative photographs of mole track structure (ac), extensional cracks

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(d), and sand boils caused by liquefaction (ef). (c) Mole track structure developed on a

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folded section of road at the northeastern termination of the Wenchuan rupture zone

461

(near Site 6). (b) Mole track structure developed along a road at Site 9. Prior to the

462

earthquake, the road surface to the left in the photograph was the same height as that to

463

the right, which now records a vertical offset of ~2.5 m. (c) Mole track structure

464

developed within cemented ground at the end of the Beichuan segment (Site 12 (d)

465

Typical extensional cracks (Site 13). (e) Extensional cracks and sand boils observed at

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Site 10. (f) Sand boil caused by liquefaction (Site 11).

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469

Figure 5. Schematic diagrams of the scarp features of thrust faults observed along the

470

Wenchuan rupture zone. (a) Simple thrust scarp developed in basement rocks; (b)

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collapsed fault scarp developed in thin unconsolidated deposits overlain upon basement

472

rocks; (c) flexural-fold fault scarp developed in thick unconsolidated deposits; (d) mole

473

track structure developed on the flexural-fold scarp; (e) protruded fault scarp developed

474

within thick viscid soilclay layers that overlie thick unconsolidated sandgravel layers.

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476
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Figure 6. Representative morphology of the co-seismic fault scarp duplicated on a

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pre-existing fault scarp of the YingxiuBeichuan Fault (Site 9). The pre-existing fault

479

scarp is identified by the presence of a man-made stone wall of 2.6 m in height. Note

480

that the ground surface of the corn field is buried across a horizontal distance of ~5.7 m.

481

See text for details.

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Figure 7. Representative photographs of vertical offsets accompanied by right-lateral

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(ab) and left-lateral slip components (cd). (a) The lowest terrace in the photograph is

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vertically offset by 5.15 m, with ~1.0 m of right-lateral offset (R1.0 m) recorded by the

487

displaced path (Site 11). This site records the largest vertical and horizontal offsets

488

observed during our fieldwork. (b) The road was vertically offset by ~1.1 m,

489

accompanied by a right-lateral slip component of 0.5 m (Site 8). (c) The road was

490

vertically offset by ~1.1 m, accompanied by a left-lateral slip component of 1.0 m (Site

491

4). (d) The fault scarp at this site records a vertical offset of 2.2 m, with a left-lateral slip

492

component of 4.2 m (Site 4).

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Figure 8. Slip distribution of the co-seismic displacements measured along the

496

Wenchuan rupture zone. (a) Each slip amount was measured at an individual co-seismic

497

surface rupture. (b) Co-seismic ruptures along the pre-existing GuanxianAnxian Fault

498

(blue), YingxiuBeichuan Fault (black), and Qingchuan Fault (pink). Colors in (a)

499

correspond to those in (b).

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501
502

Figure 9. Schematic diagram showing the formation of a protruded fault scarp, based on

503

a real example (Site 9) observed in the present study. The surface soil layer (a) was cut

504

and offset by thrusting (b). The fault scarp protruded and then collapsed during the

505

earthquake. (c) The dear surface soil layer was protruded for a horizontal distance of

506

~5.7 m as observed in the field (Fig. 6). The thrusting slip amount was calculated to be

507

5.6 m. See text for details.

508

21