Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Belleville
Blayais
Brennilis
Bugey
Cattenom
Chinon
Chooz
Civaux
Cruas
Dampierre
Fessenheim
Flamanville
Golfech
Gravelines
Marcoule/Phnix
Nogent
Paluel
Penly
Saint-Alban
Saint- Laurent
Superphnix
Tricastin
Electricity production in France has been dominated by nuclear power since the early
1980s with a large portion of that power exported today.
thermofossil
hydroelectric
nuclear
Other renewables
Nuclear energy, in the form of fission, is the primary source of energy in France. In 2004, fission
energy made up the largest share of France's energy consumption at 39%. [1][2][better source needed][not in
citation given]
Looking purely at electricity, though, 407 TWh (75%) out of the country's total production
of 541 TWh of electricity was from fission-electric power stations, the highest percentage in the
world.[3]
lectricit de France (EDF) the country's main electricity generation and distribution
company manages the country's 59 power reactors.[4] EDF is substantially owned by the
French Government, with around 85% shares in government hands.[5] EdF has said its
uncompleted third-generation nuclear reactor European Pressurized Reactor (EPR) project,
the Flamanville Nuclear Power Plant, will be delayed until 2016, due to "both structural and
economic reasons," which will bring the project's total cost to 8.5 billion. [6]
As of 2012, France's electricity price to household customers is the seventh-cheapest amongst
the 27 members of the European Union, and also the seventh-cheapest to industrial consumers,
with a rate of 0.14 per kWh to households and 0.07 per kWh to industrial consumers. [7] France
was the biggest energy exporter in the EU in 2012, exporting 45TWh of electricity to its
neighbours.[8] During very cold or hot periods demand routinely exceeds supply due to the lack of
more flexible generating plants, and France needs to import electricity.[9][10]
France's nuclear power industry has been called "a success story" that has put the nation "ahead
of the world" in terms of providing cheap energy with low CO 2 emissions.[11] However,
following Franois Hollande's victory in the 2012 Presidential Election, there may be a
partial nuclear phaseout in France, with his Socialist party in favour of closing the oldest 24
reactors by 2025.[12]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
o
3 Technical overview
o
3.5 Cooling
4 Operational considerations
6 Seismicity
7 Nuclear safety
8 Public opinion
9 Anti-nuclear movement
10 Environmental impact
11 Fusion research
12 See also
13 References
14 External links
15 Further reading
History[edit]
France has a long relationship with nuclear power, starting with Henri Becquerel's discovery of
natural radioactivity in the 1890s and continued by famous nuclear scientists
like Pierre and Marie Curie.
Before World War II, France had been mainly involved in nuclear research through the work of
the Joliot-Curies. In 1945 the Provisional Government of the French Republic (GPRF) created
the Commissariat l'nergie Atomique (CEA) governmental agency, andNobel
prize winner Frdric Joliot-Curie, member of the French Communist Party (PCF) since 1942,
was appointed high-commissioner. He was relieved of his duties in 1950 for political reasons,
and would be one of the 11 signatories to the Russell-Einstein Manifesto in 1955. The CEA was
created by Charles de Gaulle on 18 October 1945. Its mandate is to
conduct fundamental and applied research into many areas, including the design of nuclear
reactors, the manufacturing of integrated circuits, the use ofradionuclides for medical
treatments, seismology and tsunami propagation, and the safety of computerized systems.[citation
needed]
Nuclear research was discontinued for a time after the war because of the instability of
the Fourth Republic and the lack of finances available.[13] However, in the 1950s a civil nuclear
research program was started, a by-product of which would be plutonium. In 1956 a secret
Committee for the Military Applications of Atomic Energy was formed and a development
program for delivery vehicles started. In 1957, soon after the Suez Crisis and the diplomatic
tension with both the USSR and the United States, French president Ren Coty decided the
creation of the C.S.E.M. in what was then French Sahara, a new nuclear tests facility replacing
the C.I.E.E.S.[14] See France and nuclear weapons.
The first nuclear power plant by EDF in France was opened in 1962.[15]
Other nuclear facilities in France were online by 1956, for instance Marcoule. [16][17]
Messmer Plan[edit]
As a direct result of the 1973 oil crisis, on 6 March 1974 Prime Minister Pierre
Messmer unexpectedly announced what became known as the 'Messmer Plan', a huge nuclear
power program aimed at generating all of France's electricity from nuclear power.[15] At the time of
the oil crisis most of France's electricity came from foreign oil. Nuclear power allowed France to
compensate for its lack of indigenous energy resources by applying its strengths in heavy
engineering.[18][19] The situation was summarized in a slogan: "In France, we do not have oil, but
we have ideas."[20]
The announcement of the Messmer Plan, which was enacted without public or parliamentary
debate,[21][22] also led to the foundation of the Groupement des scientifiques pour l'information sur
l'nergie nuclaire (Association of Scientists for Information on Nuclear Energy), formed after
around 4,000 scientists signed a petition of concern over the government's action, known as
the Appeal of the 400 after the 400 scientists who initially signed it.[21]
The plan envisaged the construction of around 80 nuclear plants by 1985 and a total of 170
plants by 2000.[21] Work on the first three plants, at Tricastin, Gravelines, and Dampierre started
the same year[15] and France installed 56 reactors over the next 15 years.[23]
Recent developments[edit]
Following the 2011 Fukushima I nuclear accidents, the head of France's nuclear safety agency
has said that France needs to upgrade the protection of vital functions in all its nuclear reactors
to avoid a disaster in the event of a natural calamity, adding there was no need to close any
plants. "There is a need to add a layer to protect safety mechanisms in reactors that are vital for
the protection of the reactor such as cooling functions and electric powering," Jacques
Repussard, head of the IRSN, said.[24] Opinion polls show support for atomic energy has dropped
since Fukushima. Forty-percent of the French "are 'hesitant' about nuclear energy while a third
are in favor and 17 percent are against, according to a survey by pollster Ifop published
November 13".[24]
In February 2012 President Sarkozy decided to extend the life of existing nuclear reactors
beyond 40 years, following the Court of Audit decision that this is the best option as new nuclear
capacity or other forms of energy would be more costly and available too late. Within ten years
22 out of the 58 reactors will have been operating for over 40 years. [25] The court expects EDF's
projected investment programme in existing plant, including post Fukushima safety
improvements, will add between 9.5% and 14.5% to generation costs, taking costs to between
37.9 and 54.2 per MWh. However generation costs from the new Flamanville EPR reactor
would be, depending on construction outcome, at least in the 70 to 90 per MWh range.
[26]
Academics at Paris Dauphine University forecast that domestic electricity prices will rise by
about 30% by 2020.[27]
Following Franois Hollande's victory in the 2012 presidential election, is thought that there may
be a partial nuclear phaseout in France. This follows a national debate in the run-up to the
election, with President Nicolas Sarkozy backing nuclear power and Franois Hollande proposing
a cut in nuclear power's electricity contribution by more than a third by 2025. [28] It seems certain
that Hollande will at least order the closure of the Fessenheim Nuclear Power Plant, probably by
2017,[29] where there has been an ongoing closure campaign due to concerns about seismic
activity and flooding.
Active efforts by the French government to market the advanced European Pressurized
Reactor have been hampered by cost overruns, delays, and competition from other nations such
as South Korea which offer simpler, cheaper reactors.[30][31]
In 2015 France's National Assembly voted, that by 2025 only 50% of energy will be produced by
nuclear plants.[32]
Technical overview[edit]
The first 8 power reactors in the nation were gas cooled reactor types (UNGG reactor), whose
development was pioneered by CEA. Coinciding with a uranium enrichment program, EdF
developed pressurized water reactor (PWR) technology which eventually became the dominant
type. The gas-cooled reactors located at Brennilis, Bugey, Chinon, and Marcoule have all been
shut down.
All operating plants today are PWRs with the exception of the Phnix, which was part of an
initiative to develop sodium-cooled fast breeder reactor technology. The Superphnix, a larger,
more ambitious version, has been shut down.
The PWR plants were all developed by Framatome (which is now Areva) from the
initial Westinghouse design[citation needed]. All of the PWR plants are one of three variations of the
design, having output powers of 900 MWe, 1300 MWe, and 1450 MWe. The repeated use of
these standard variants of a design has afforded France the greatest degree of nuclear plant
standardization in the world.
The Saint-Laurent site, showing two CP2, 900MWe class reactors and the cooling tower
on the right
There are a total of 34 of these reactors in operation; most were constructed in the 1970s and
the early 1980s. In 2002 they had a uniform review and all were granted a 10-year life extension.
With the CP0 and CP1 designs, two reactors share the same machine and command room. With
the CP2 design, each reactor has its own machine and command room. Despite this difference,
CP1 and CP2 types use the same technologies (the two types are frequently referred as CPY).
Compared to CP0 they have an additional cooling circuit between the emergency system that
allows to spraying water into the containment in case of an accident and the circuit which
contains river's water, a more flexible control system and some minor difference in the layout of
the building.[39]
This three loop design (three steam generators and three primary circulation pumps) was also
exported to a number of other countries, including:
Peoples' Republic of China, where it has been developed into the 1000 MWe CPR1000 design:
The Civaux site houses two 1450 MWe class reactors, the most recent design operating
today
There are only 4 of these reactors, housed at two separate sites: Civaux and Chooz.
Construction of these reactors started between 1984 and 1991, but full commercial operation did
not begin until between 2000 and 2002 because of thermal fatigue flaws in the heat removal
system requiring the redesign and replacement of parts in each N4 power station. [41] In 2003 the
stations were all uprated to 1500 MWe. It is unlikely that more of this class will be built because it
is expected to be succeeded by the larger 1650 MWe EPR design.
Cooling[edit]
The majority of nuclear plants in France are located away from the coasts and obtain their
cooling water from rivers. These plants employ cooling towers to reduce their impact on the
environment. The temperature of emitted water carrying the waste heat is strictly limited by the
French government, and this has proved to be problematic during recent heat waves. [43]
These 5 get their cooling water directly from the ocean and can thus dump their waste heat
directly back into the sea, which is slightly more economical.
Fuel cycle[edit]
Final disposal of the high level nuclear waste is planned to be done at the Meuse/Haute Marne
Underground Research Laboratory deep geological repository.
Operational considerations[edit]
France's nuclear reactors comprise 90 per cent of EDFs capacity and so they are used in loadfollowing mode and some reactors close at weekends because there is no market for the
electricity.[4][10] This means that the capacity factor is low by world standards, usually in the high
seventies as a percentage. This is not an ideal economic situation for nuclear plants, but is
required due to the load-following nature of some reactors.[4]
During periods of high demand EDF has been routinely "forced into the relatively expensive spot
and short-term power markets because it lacks adequate peak load generating capacity".
[10]
France heavily relies on electric heating, with about one third of existing and three-quarters of
new houses using electric space heating due to the low off-peak tariffs offered. [44] Due to this
residential heating demand, about 2.3 GW of extra power is needed for every degree Celsius of
temperature drop.[44] This means that during cold snaps, French electricity demand increases
dramatically, forcing the country to import at full capacity from its neighbours during peak
demand. In February 2012, Germany "came to the rescue of France during last week's cold snap
by massively exporting electricity to its neighbour, silencing critics who slammed Berlin last year
for abruptly shutting down 8 nuclear reactors after the Fukushima disaster". (Germany uses a
variety of heating methods including gas and fuel oil heaters).[9]
However nations, such as France, that do not solely rely on fossil fuels and biomass for heating,
tend to have superior air quality, and therefore lower pollution related deaths, which are a leading
cause of early mortality. For example, outdoor fossil fuel and biomass pollution, from particulate
matter alone, kill approximately 1 million people every year according to the World Health
Organization.[45] The level of atmospheric particulate matter, small enough to enter and cause
damage to the lungs is 13 micrograms per cubic metre in France,[46] cleaner than the air in
Germany, where the particulate air pollution is higher at 16 micrograms per cubic metre. [47]
All but five of EDFs plants are inland and require fresh water for cooling. Eleven of these 15
inland plants have cooling towers, using evaporative cooling, while the others use lake or river
water directly. So in very hot summers, generation output may be restricted. [4]
In 2008, nuclear power accounted for 16% of final energy consumption in France. As is common
in all industrialized nations, Fossil fuels still dominate World energy consumption, particularly in
the transportation and heating sectors.[4] Nuclear constitutes a higher level of total energy
consumption in France than in any other country. In 2001, nuclear power accounted for 37% of
the total energy consumption in France.[48] In 2011 France consumed ~ 11 Quadrillion BTUs of
energy according to the Energy Information Administration.[49] ~ 11 Quadrillion BTUs is equivalent
to 3224 TWh.[50]
Another criticism of the French energy policy is that France may have over-invested in nuclear
power plants, requiring electricity export when French electricity demand is low or "dumping" in
the French market, encouraging the use of electricity for space heating and water heating. This
can be regarded as an economically wasteful practice.[4] However as the adoption of Electric
Cars, such as the French Renault Fluence Z.E., over combustion engined vehicles increases,
reducing France's Fossil fuel dependence, France's comparatively cheap peak and off peak
electricity prices, could act as a strong customer incentive that may spur the speed of the
adoption of electric vehicles;[51] essentially turning the current perceived glut of cheap Nuclear
power generated electricity into an asset as demand for electric vehicle recharging
stations becomes more and more commonplace.[52][53]
Due to France's relatively low emission producing electricity grid, the total life cycle carbon
dioxide emissions from an electric car, charged by the French electricity grid are 12 g per
kilometre travelled.[54] This compares favourably to the direct emissions of one of the most
successful hybrid cars, the Toyota Prius, which produces carbon dioxide emissions at the higher
rate of 105 g per kilometre travelled.[54]
Date
Location
Description
Cost
(in
million
s
2006
US$)
SaintLaurent,
France
25 July
1979
Saclay,
France
13 March
1980
Loir-etCher,
France
22
14 April
1984
Bugey,
France
22 May
1986
Normandy,
France
12 April
1987
Tricastin,
France
17
October
1969
50
10
Date
Location
Description
Cost
(in
million
s
2006
US$)
Blayais,
France
55
21 January Manche,
2002
France
102
16 May
2005
Lorraine,
France
12
13 July
2008
Tricastin,
France
12 August
2009
Gravelines,
France
12
Marcoule,
27
December
1999
11
Date
Location
September
France
2011
Description
Cost
(in
million
s
2006
US$)
In July 2008, 18,000 litres (4,755 gallons) of uranium solution containing natural uranium were
accidentally released from Tricastin Nuclear Power Centre. Due to cleaning and repair work the
containment system for a uranium solution holding tank was not functional when the tank filled.
The inflow exceeded the tank's capacity and 30 cubic metres of uranium solution leaked, with 18
cubic metres spilled on the ground. Testing found elevated uranium levels in the nearby Gaffire
and Lauzon rivers. The liquid that escaped to the ground contained about 75 kg of natural
uranium, which is toxic as a heavy metal, but only slightly radioactive. Estimates for the releases
were initially higher, up to 360 kg of natural uranium, but revised downward later.[59] French
authorities banned the use of water from the Gaffire and Lauzon for drinking and watering of
crops for 2 weeks. Swimming, water sports and fishing were also banned. This incident has been
classified as Level 1 (anomaly) on the International Nuclear Event Scale.[60] Shortly after the first
incident, approximately 100 employees were exposed to minor doses of radiation (1/40 of the
annual limit) due to a piping failure.[61]
Seismicity[edit]
12
The location of the Fessenheim Nuclear Power Plant in the Rhine Rift Valley near
the fault that caused the1356 Basel earthquake is causing concern.
Following the 2011 Fukushima I nuclear accidents there has been an increased focus on the
risks associated with seismic activity in France, with particular attention focused on
the Fessenheim Nuclear Power Plant.
General seismic risk in France is categorised on a five-point scale, with zone 1 being very low
risk, through to zone 5 in areas with a 'very strong' risk.[62] In Metropolitan France the areas of
highest risk are rated at 4, 'strong', and are located in the Pyrenees, Alps, the south of the HautRhin dpartement, the Territoire de Belfort and a few communes in Doubs.[62] A new zoning map
comes into force on 1 May 2011, which significantly increases the rating for many areas. [62] The
major nuclear research facilities at Cadarache are located in a zone 4 area near the fault that
caused the 1909 Lambesc earthquake, while the Marcoule research centre and the nuclear
power plants at Tricastin, Cruas, Saint-Alban, Bugey and Fessenheim (near the fault that caused
the 1356 Basel earthquake) are all within zone 3.[63] A further 6 plants lie within zone 2.[63]
The current process for evaluating the seismic hazard for a nuclear plant is set out in Rgle
Fondamentale de Sret (Fundamental Safety Rule) RFS 2001-01, published by the Institute for
Radioprotection and Nuclear Safety, which uses more detailed seismotectonic zones.[64] RFS
2001-01 replaced RFS I.2.c, published in 1981, however it has been criticised for continuing to
require a deterministic assessment (rather than a probabilistic approach) that relies primarily on
the strongest 'historically known' earthquake near a site.[65] This leads to a number of problems
including the short period (in geological timescales) for which there are records, the difficulty of
assessing the characteristics of earthquakes that occurred prior to the use of seismometers, the
difficulty of identifying the existence of all earthquakes that pre-date the historic record, and
ultimately the reliance on one single earthquake scenario.[65] Other criticisms include the use
of intensity in the evaluation method, rather than spectral acceleration, which is commonly used
elsewhere.[65]
Nuclear safety[edit]
Monique Sen is a nuclear physicist and one of the co-founders of the Groupement des
scientifiques pour l'information sur l'nergie nuclaire (GSIEN) (Association of Scientists for
Information on Nuclear Energy) and its first president.[21] As of March 2011 she was Honorary
Research Director at the National Centre for Scientific Research and president of GSIEN.
[66]
Although she is not an opponent of nuclear power per se, Sen is a high-profile critic of the
French nuclear power programme due to concerns about its safety, the handling of nuclear waste
and its imposition without public debate.[67]
In 2012, France's Nuclear Safety Authority (the ASN) released a report announcing a sweeping
safety upgrade to all the country's reactors. The ASN's report states plainly that a loss of coolant
or electricity could, in the worst cases, see meltdowns at nuclear reactors in hours. It also lists
many shortcomings found during 'stress tests', in which some safety aspects of plants were
found not to meet existing standards.[68] It will now require all power plants to build a set of safety
systems of last resort, contained in bunkers that will be hardened to withstand more extreme
earthquakes, floods and other threats than plants themselves are designed to cope with. It will
also adopt a proposal by EDF to create an elite force that is specifically trained to tackle nuclear
accidents and could be deployed to any site within hours. Both moves are a response to
the Fukushima nuclear disaster.[69]
Public opinion[edit]
13
Anti-nuclear movement[edit]
14
In the 1970s, an anti-nuclear movement in France, consisting of citizens' groups and political
action committees, emerged. Between 1975 and 1977, some 175,000 people protested
against nuclear power in ten demonstrations.[74]
In January 2004, up to 15,000 anti-nuclear protesters marched in Paris against a new generation
of nuclear reactors, the European Pressurised Reactor (EPR).[75] On 17 March 2007,
simultaneous protests, organised by Sortir du nuclaire, were staged in 5 French towns to
protest construction of EPR plants.[76][77]
After Japan's 2011 Fukushima nuclear disaster, thousands staged anti-nuclear protests around
France, demanding reactors be closed. Protesters' demands were focused on getting France to
shut its oldest nuclear power station at Fessenheim. Many people also protested at the Cattenom
nuclear plant, France's second most powerful.[78]
In November 2011, thousands of anti-nuclear protesters delayed a train carrying radioactive
waste from France to Germany. Many clashes and obstructions made the journey the slowest
one since the annual shipments of radioactive waste began in 1995. [79] Also in November 2011, a
French court fined nuclear power giant lectricit de France 1.5m and jailed two senior
employees for spying on Greenpeace, including hacking into Greenpeace's computer systems.
Greenpeace was awarded 500,000 in damages.[80]
On the first anniversary of the Fukushima nuclear disaster, organisers of French anti-nuclear
demonstrations claim 60,000 supporters formed a human chain 230 kilometres long, stretching
from Lyon to Avignon.[81] Austrian ChancellorWerner Faymann expects anti-nuclear petition drives
to start in at least six European Union countries in 2012 with the goal of having the EU abandon
nuclear power.[82]
In March 2014, police arrested 57 Greenpeace protesters used a truck to break through security
barriers and enter the Fessenheim nuclear in eastern France. The activists hung antinuclear
banners, but Frances nuclear safety authority said that the plants security had not been
compromised. President Hollande has promised to close Fessenheim by 2016, but Greenpeace
wants immediate closure.[83]
Environmental impact[edit]
In 2007 Areva NC claimed that, due to their reliance on nuclear power, France's carbon
emissions per kWh are less than 1/10 that of Germany and the UK, and 1/13 that of Denmark,
which has no nuclear plants. Its emissions of nitrogen oxide and sulfur dioxidehave been
reduced by 70% over 20 years, even though the total power output has tripled in that time. [84]
French environmentalist Bruno Comby started the group Environmentalists For Nuclear
Energy in 1996, and said in 2005, "If well-managed, nuclear energy is very clean, does not
create polluting gases in the atmosphere, produces very little waste and does not contribute to
the greenhouse effect".[85]
Fusion research[edit]
15
of France. A collaboration between the European Union (EU), India, Japan, China, Russia, South
Korea and the United States, the project aims to make a transition from experimental studies
of plasma physics to electricity-producing fusion power plants. In 2005,Greenpeace
International issued a press statement criticizing government funding of the ITER, believing the
money should have been diverted to renewable energy sources and claiming that fusion energy
would result in nuclear waste and nuclear weapons proliferation issues. [86] A French association
including about 700 anti-nuclear groups, Sortir du nuclaire (Get Out of Nuclear Energy), claimed
that ITER was a hazard because scientists did not yet know how to manipulate the high-energy
deuterium and tritium hydrogen isotopes used in the fusion process.[87] According to most antinuclear groups, nuclear fusion power "remains a distant dream".[88] The World Nuclear
Association says that fusion "presents so far insurmountable scientific and engineering
challenges".[89] Construction of the ITER facility began in 2007, but the project has run into many
delays and budget overruns. The facility is now not expected to begin operations until the year
2027 11 years after initially anticipated.[90]
See also[edit]
Nuclear technology portal
Energy portal
France portal
Politics of France
16