Applications in Convective Heat Transfer

with
Emphasis on Blade Cooling Flows
Part I, Background & Methodologies
Dr Hector Iacovides
Department of Mechanical Aerospace and
Manufacturing Engineering
UMIST
Contents
1. Heat Convection and Role of Turbulence.
2. Role of CFD in Heat Convection Analysis.
3. Blade Cooling Flows and Flow Features
Present.
4. Overview of the Numerical and Modeling
Methodologies followed at UMIST.
5. Concluding Remarks.

1. Heat Convection and Role of Turbulence

1.1 Basics
What is convective heat transfer ?
It is the transport of thermal energy by a moving
fluid.

In most engineering systems that involve heat

convection, a moving fluid comes to contact with a
solid surface that is at a different temperature
-

The main objective of heat convection analysis is

calculate the rate of heat exchange between the
fluid and the solid surface, QW.

What are the mechanisms of Heat Convection?

The transfer of thermal energy through the fluid
medium is controlled by
The mean motion of the fluid (convection).
The turbulent fluctuations within the fluid
(turbulent mixing)
within
the
Heat
Conduction
fluid(temperature gradients).


To analyse the heat convection process, the flow

dynamics must first be reproduced.
The resulting equations are too complex to allow
an analytical solution

CFD analysis, or costly experiments often the only

options
3

Convection can be sub-divided into two types:

Forced Convection
Fluid motion externally imposed







Natural Convection
Fluid motion generated by the interaction
between body forces and temperature induced
density gradients

Natural Convection

Forced Convection

In order to evaluate the convective heat transfer

from a fluid to a solid surface, the wall heattransfer coefficient h is employed where:

HEAT TRANSFER FROM A FLUID TO A SOLID

SURFACE

Laminar Flow
Within the fluid itself, convection is the
predominant mode of heat transfer.

At the wall surface the fluid velocity falls to zero.



Thus thermal energy passes from fluid to solid

through heat conduction


qw = -kf (dT/dy)Wall
The fluid motion away from the wall does,
nevertheless, enhance wall heat transfer by
increasing (dT/dy)wall.


The fluid motion increases the temperature

gradient
5

Turbulent Flow

0.9 and for most fluids Pr of order 1, or above

- qW constant
- Outside the viscous sub-layer

- Inside the viscous sub-layer



>>

Therefore across the viscous sub-layer dT/dy is

higher than outside it.
6

Thus the viscous sub-layer produces most of

the thermal resistance to the transfer of
thermal energy between a turbulent fluid and
a solid surface.

In Turbulent Heat Convection, the Wall Heat Flux

is controlled by the thickness of the viscous sublayer.

2. Role of CFD in Heat Convection Analysis

- The computation of convective heat transfer is
necessary in many engineering processes.
- In many applications, all that is needed is the
average value of the coefficient of wall heat flux.
- Increasingly there is a need for more detailed
information on the variation of the local Nusselt
member.
- It here that CFD has the potential to make an
impact in engineering analysis and development.
- In most applications of practical interest, the flow
tends to be complex, three-dimensional and
turbulent.
- Numerical methods, therefore, need to be able to


Resolve the complex three-dimensional

features of the mean motion with numerical
accuracy.
8

models that correctly

Use turbulence
account for the effects of turbulence in
complex flows.
Employ turbulence models that can also
faithfully reproduce the effects of turbulence
across the viscous sub-layer.


- Progress has been difficult, because of:



The heavy computational demands involved

The lack of detailed experimental data for
validation.

- Our group at UMIST has been engaged in both

numerical and experimental investigations of
convective heat transfer problems mainly related to the
internal cooling of gas-turbine blades.
- Most of the flow features encountered also present
in other applications
- Most of the conclusions reached also relevant to
the computation of turbulent convective heat transfer
in general
9

3. Blade Cooling Flows and Flow Features

Present.

Both the efficiency and the specific work of gasturbines depend on the engine maximum
temperature.


Conclusion: to increase the propulsive power and

efficiency of a jet engine, the designer must raise
the gas temperature.


Problem: the desired operating temperatures are

above the limit of the materials used manufacture
the turbine blades and nozzle guide vanes.


Solution: increase the safe temperature limit of

the materials and cool turbine blades and nozzle
guide vanes internally.
10

BLADE COOLING MECHANISMS

1.
2.
3.
4.

Internal passages with rib turbulators

Pin fins
Impingement cooling
Film cooling

focus of CFD work, internal passages



The flow and thermal developments are affected by:






The presence of sharp U-bends

Changes in cross-sectional area
The rotation of the blade
The presence of rib-turbulators.
11




EFFECTS OF CURVATURE

Streamline curvature

- Streamline curvature has a direct effect on

turbulence.
- The turbulent shear stress is increased along the
outer (unstable) surface and reduced along the
inner surface.
- The effective viscosity approximation is unable to
reproduce this effect

12

Curvature in 3-dimensional Passages

- Interaction between the centrifugal force and the

boundary layer regions also generates secondary
motion
- The secondary motion leads to non-symmetric
velocity distribution and perimetral variations in
Nusselt number.

13

STRONG CURVATURE

- Strong pressure-gradients at entry and exit.

- Large separation regions at bend exit.
-

Strong flow acceleration

Along the inner side at the bend entry
Along the outer side at the bend exit

Large variations in local Nusselt number.

- Transport models of near-wall (low-Reynoldsnumber) turbulence become necessary.

14

ORTHOGONAL ROTATION

- The Coriolis force

1. Increases the anisotropy of turbulence and results
higher turbulence levels along the pressure (unstable)
side.
2. Causes secondary motion, that transfers the faster
fluid to the pressure side.

15

- The Centrifugal Force

In heated flows it gives rise to rotational buoyancy
effects.
In outward flows the near-wall (heated) fluid is slowed
down, increasing the boundary layer thickness.
In inward flows, the reverse occurs.
- Generation Rate of Turbulent Stresses

16

RIB-TURBULATORS.

- Ribs Normal to the Flow

Flow separation behind
each rib.


Higher turbulence levels



Enhanced
transfer.


wall

heat

- Ribs Inclined to the Flow

Rib-induced
secondary
motion


Increased Mixing


17

Variation in wall
heat flux across
the ribbed walls

4. Overview of the Numerical and Modeling

Methodologies followed at UMIST.
4.1 Numerical Framework
- Finite-volume flows solvers
- Pressure correction method.
- Bounded 3rd Order QUICK scheme for the
discretization of convective transport of all flow
variables.
- For simple geometries 2-D, or 3-D fixed coordinate codes employed.
- For complex geometries the general-geometry
STREAM code was used.
Non-Orthogonal Grids


Cartesian Velocity
Decomposition.
18

- Flow equations include rotation terms.

- Additional stability measures included for secondmoment closures and non-linear eddy-viscosity,
models.
4.2 Turbulence Modeling
Main objective of studies, the validation of
turbulence modeling practices.


Different modeling practices have been tested.



Models employed in the main flow regions

effective-viscosity model
second-moment algebraic models
second-moment differential models
non-linear k- .


.


Models employed in the near-wall regions.

Conventional Wall-functions
Zonal (2-layer) models
Low-Reynolds-number models
19

Models Used
Model
k-

Description
High-Re k- with wall functions

MLH

Van-Driest mixing length , used only

at near-wall regions, within zonal (2layer) approach

1-eqn

Low-Re k-transport model, used only

at near-wall regions, as MLH.

Low-Re k!

Launder and Sharma version

Non-Linear
k-

Low-Re Craft et al verions

DSM

High-Re basic Second-moment closure

ASM

Algebraic truncation of DSM

Zonal (2layer) DSM

Low-Re extension of DSM with nearwall obtained from wall distance

Low-Re
DSM

Low-Re extension of DSM with the

equation solved across the sub-layer

Low-Re
ASM

Algebraic truncation of Low-Re DSM

New DSM

Realisable low-Re version Craft

20

#
"

Algebraic Stress Model

- This is a truncated form of the Differential Stress
Model, popular in the eighties.

Full Differential Stress Model.

In the ASM truncation

Therefore ASM Model

The above algebraic equations are then solved together

with the transport equations for k and .
$

21

&
%

Zonal, or 2-layer Models

- Here different types of models are used in different

parts of the flow domain.

Flow domain
The Main Flow Region

The Near-Wall Regions

Low-Re Mixing Length

High-Re k(

'

Low-Re one-equation
k-transport Model

High-Re ASM

Low-Re Mixing Length

Low-Re one-equation
Simplified Low-Re ASM

High-Re DSM

Low-Re Mixing Length

Low-Re one-equation
Simplified Low-Re DSM

22

- The simplified low-Re ASM and DSM models

involve:
The solution of low-Re equations for the
turbulent stresses
)

The prescription of the dissipation rate of

turbulence, , from the near-wall distance.
*

- The main advantage of the Zonal models is that

they allow the resolution of the near-wall flow with
fewer grid nodes than the low-Re models that
involve the solution of the
equation across the
viscous sub-layer.
*

,
+

Length-scale Correction Term.

- The above form of the Launder-Sharma equation,

without the last term, results in the over-prediction of
the Nusselt number in regions of flow separation.
*

23

- Yap showed that this is due to the over prediction

of the turbulent length scale k1.5/ , in regions of
flow separation.
.

- The proposed correction term has become known

as the Yap term.

More Recently, a differential form of this term has

been, proposed by Iacovides and Raisee, DYC, which
does not involve the wall distance Y.
DYC = max [ 0.83 F (F+1)2
Where F = [ (D - (d e /dY) ] / c
7

6
4

/k, 0. ]

D = { (d /dxj) (d /dxj) }0.5

9

(d e /dY) = c [ 1 - exp (-B Rt) ] + B c Rt exp (-B Rt)

:

With Rt
=

k2/
>

<

<

c = 2.55
@

24

and

<

B = 0.1069
A

Turbulent Heat Fluxes

- When an EVM model is used for the Reynolds

Stresses, the turbulent heat fluxes are modelled
through the effective diffusivity approximation.

- When a second-moment closure is used for the

Reynolds Stresses, the turbulent heat fluxes are
modelled through the generalised gradient
diffusion hypothesis GGDH.

25

5. Concluding Remarks
The nature of Heat Convection has been
discussed and the role of turbulence has been
highlighted.
D

The role of CFD in heat convection analysis has

been identified and the and the need for
validation emphasized.
D

The need for internal cooling of gas-turbine

blades has been explained, the main cooling
mechanisms have been presented and the complex
flow features present in internal cooling passages
have been identified.
D

An overview of the turbulence modeling

strategies tested in our validation studies has also
been presented.
D

Relevant case studies and resulting conclusions

will be presented in Part II.

26