EMS Test 3 PDF

Reminders
Exam II: Wednesday March 25th

Quiz: Wednesday March 18th
Material: Chapters 6 - 10
Chapter 11 - 1
Chapter 11: Applications and

Processing of Metal Alloys
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
How are commercial alloys classified and what are
their common applications?
What are some of the common fabrication techniques
for metals? How do they alter the properties?
What heat treatment procedures are used to improve the
mechanical properties of both ferrous and nonferrous
alloys?
Chapter 11 - 2
Fig_11-1
Chapter 11 -
How much steel is produced in the US?

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
5,000 metric tons

100,000 metric tons
1 million metric tons
Chapter 11 -
Chapter 11 -
americanresources.org
Chapter 11 -
World primary Titanium sponge

production volumes increased by
11% to 222 thousand tons in 2013
compared with production in 2012.
New production capacities are to be
introduced by Ukraine and Canada.
Commercial aerospace industry
supports the market with high
demand for titanium. In Singapore,
on the contrary, a TiO2 plant was
closed in 2013 due to high prices
and sluggish distribution channels.
http://mcgroup.co.uk/researches/titanium
Chapter 11 -
Wide spread use of steel due to:

iron-containing compounds are abundant
in the Earths crust
Relatively economical extraction, refining, alloying
and fabrication
Ferrous alloys are extremely
versatile
Disadvantage: corrosion
density
Sao Francisco Craton, Minas Gerais,
ChapterBrazil
11 - 8
Chapter 11 -
Chapter 11 -
Classification of Metal Alloys

Metal Alloys
Ferrous
Steels
Steels
<1.4wt%C
<1.4
wt% C
Cast Irons
Cast
Irons
3-4.5
wt%C
3-4.5 wt% C
microstructure: ferrite,
graphite/cementite
T(C)
1600
1400
1200
austenite
600
400
0
(Fe)
L+ Fe3C
1148C
4.30
727C
Eutectoid:
0.76
Fig. 9.24, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
+L
1000
800
ferrite
Adapted from Fig.

11.1, Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.
Nonferrous
Eutectic:
+ Fe3C
Fe3C
cementite
+ Fe3C
3
[Adapted from Binary Alloy Phase

Diagrams, 2nd edition, Vol. 1, T. B.
Massalski (Editor-in-Chief), 1990.
Reprinted by permission of ASM
International, Materials Park, OH.]
Co , wt% C
6.7
Chapter 11 - 11
Steels
High Alloy
Low Alloy
low carbon Med carbon
<0.25 wt% C 0.25-0.6wt% C
high carbon
0.6-1.4wt% C
heat
plain
treatable
Cr,V
Cr, Ni
Additions none
none
none
Mo,Nb
Mo
Example 1010 4310
1040
4340 1095
Hardenability 0
+
+
++
++
TS
0
+
++
+
EL
+
+
0
-
Name
plain
Uses
auto
struc.
sheet
HSLA
bridges
towers
press.
vessels
plain
crank
shafts
bolts
hammers
blades
pistons
gears
wear
applic.
wear
applic.
tool
Cr, V,
Mo, W
4190
+++
++
-drills
saws
dies
increasing strength, cost, decreasing ductility
stainless
Cr, Ni, Mo
304, 409
varies
varies
++
high T
applic.
turbines
furnaces
Very corros.
resistant
Based on data provided in Tables 11.1(b), 13.2(b), 11.3, and 11.4, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
Chapter 11 - 12
Ferrous Alloys
Iron-based alloys
Steels
Cast Irons
Nomenclature for steels (AISI/SAE)
10xx Plain Carbon Steels
11xx Plain Carbon Steels (resulfurized for machinability)
15xx Mn (1.00 - 1.65%)
40xx Mo (0.20 ~ 0.30%)
43xx Ni (1.65 - 2.00%), Cr (0.40 - 0.90%), Mo (0.20 - 0.30%)
44xx Mo (0.5%)
where xx is wt% C x 100
example: 1060 steel plain carbon steel with 0.60 wt% C
Stainless Steel >11% Cr
Chapter 11 - 13
Ferrous Alloys:
Advanced High Strength Steels (AHSS)
AISI: www.steel.org (2006)
Chapter 11 - 14
Dual Phase Steels

Typical: C: 0.05 - 0.15 Mn: 1.0 2.0
Others: Si, Cr, Ni, Mo, Nb, V
0.15C, 1.5 Mn, 1.5 Si
WQ from 775oC
V 30 %; C 0.17
810 oC
V 9 %; C 0.45
750 oC
A.De et al. Adv. Mat.

Proc. 2003
C = 0.06
Ferrite-martensite
Chapter 11 microstructures
Strengthening in DP Steels
Davies (1978)
Strength increase follows rule of mixtures for

composites: T = Vff + VMM
Chapter 11 - 16
Cast Irons
Ferrous alloys with > 2.14 wt% C
more commonly 3 - 4.5 wt% C
Low melting relatively easy to cast
Generally brittle
Cementite is a metastable compound, it can
decompose to ferrite + graphite
Fe3C 3 Fe () + C (graphite)
generally a slow process
Chapter 11 - 17
Fe-C True Equilibrium Diagram

T(C)
1600
Graphite formation
promoted by
1400
Si > 1 wt%
Austenite
1200
slow cooling
Liquid +
Graphite
+L
1153C
4.2 wt% C
1000
+ Graphite
800
0.65
740C
600
+ Graphite

[Adapted from Binary Alloy Phase
Diagrams, T. B. Massalski (Editor-inChief), 1990. Reprinted by permission of
ASM International, Materials Park, OH.]
400
(Fe)
90
100
C, wt% C
Chapter 11 - 18
Types of Cast Iron

Figs. 11.3(a) & (b),
Gray iron
Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.
[Courtesy of C. H.
graphite flakes
Brady and L. C. Smith,
National Bureau of
Standards, Washington,
gray fracture surface
DC (now the National
Institute of Standards
Technology,
weak & brittle in tension and
Gaithersburg, MD]
stronger in compression
excellent vibrational dampening
wear resistant
Ductile (or Nodular) iron
add Mg and/or Ce
graphite as nodules not flakes
matrix often pearlite or ferrite
Valves, pump bodies,
crankshafts, gears.
Chapter 11 - 19
Production of Cast Irons

Fig.11.5, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
(Adapted from W. G. Moffatt, G. W.
Pearsall, and J. Wulff, The Structure and
Properties of Materials, Vol. I, Structure, p.
195. Copyright 1964 by John Wiley &
Sons, New York. Reprinted by permission of
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.)
Chapter 11 - 20
Types of Cast Iron (cont.)
< 1 wt% Si
pearlite + cementite
very hard and brittle
Fracture surface:
white appearance
heat treat white iron at 800-900 C

graphite in rosettes within ferrite matrix
reasonably strong and ductile
Reprinted with permission of the

Iron Castings Society, Des Plaines, IL
Malleable iron
Courtesy of Amcast Industrial Corporation
White iron
Figs. 11.3(c) & (d),

Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.
Chapter 11 - 21
Types of Cast Iron (cont.)

graphite nodules and flakes
some Mg or Ce added but less than
used in nodular cast irons
relatively high thermal conductivity
good resistance to thermal shock
lower oxidation at elevated
temperatures
diesel engine blocks
Courtesy of Sinter-Cast, Ltd.
Compacted graphite iron
Fig. 11.3(e), Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
Chapter 11 - 22
Limitations of Ferrous Alloys

1) Relatively high densities
2) Relatively low electrical conductivities
3) Generally poor corrosion resistance
Chapter 11 - 23
Classification scheme for

nonferrous alloys
Fig. 11.6
Chapter 11 - 24
Nonferrous Alloys
Cu Alloys
Al Alloys
-low : 2.7 g/cm3

Brass: Zn is subst. impurity
(costume jewelry, coins)
-Cu, Mg, Si, Mn, Zn additions
Bronze : Sn, Al, Si, Ni are
-solid sol. or precip.
subst. impurities(stronger,
strengthened (struct.
corrosion resistant)
aircraft parts)
Cu-Be :
precip. hardened
Mg Alloys
NonFerrous
for strength
-very low : 1.7 g/cm3
Alloys
(bushings)
- Powder ignites easily
- Steering wheel, laptop
Ti Alloys
Refractory metals
-relatively low : 4.5 g/cm3
-high melting Ts
vs 7.9 for steel
Noble metals -Nb, Mo, W, Ta
-reactive at high Ts -Ag, Au, Pt
-oxid./corr. resistant
- space applic.
Based on discussion and data provided in Section 11.3, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
Chapter 11 - 25
Temper Designation Scheme for

Aluminum Alloys
Aluminum (Al) alloys are classified as either cast or wrought.
Cast Al alloys: e.g., 295.0, 356.0
Temper designation indicates the mechanical and/or heat treatment the alloy
has been subjected to.
Table. 11.7
Chapter 11 - 26
Metal Fabrication
How do we fabricate metals?
Example: Steelmaking
Extract metal from ore
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9l7JqonyoKA
Recycling through scrap remelting

https://www.youtube.com/watch?NR=1&v=T1CJ5NP
W8MU&feature=endscreen
Chapter 11 - 27
Metal Fabrication
How do we fabricate metals?
Blacksmith - hammer (forged)
Cast molten metal into mold
Forming Operations
Rough stock formed to final shape
Hot working
vs.
Deformation temperature
high enough for
recrystallization
Large deformations
Cold working
Deformation below
recrystallization
temperature
Strain hardening occurs
Small deformations
Chapter 11 - 28
Metal Fabrication Methods (i)

FORMING
CASTING
MISCELLANEOUS
Forging (Hammering; Stamping) Rolling (Hot or Cold Rolling)

(wrenches, crankshafts)
force
(I-beams, rails, sheet & plate)

roll
die
A o blank
A d often at
elev. T
Drawing
force
Ao
Ad
roll
Extrusion
(rods, wire, tubing)

die
Ao
(rods, tubing)
Ao
tensile
force
die
die must be well lubricated & clean
Ad
force
container
ram
billet
Adapted from
Fig. 11.9,
Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.
die holder
extrusion
Ad
die
ductile metals, e.g. Cu, Al (hot)
container
Chapter 11 - 29
Metal Fabrication Methods (ii)

FORMING
CASTING
MISCELLANEOUS
Casting- mold is filled with molten metal

metal melted in furnace, perhaps alloying
elements added, then cast in a mold
common and inexpensive
gives good production of shapes
weaker products, internal defects
good option for brittle materials
Chapter 11 - 30
Metal Fabrication Methods (iii)

FORMING
CASTING
MISCELLANEOUS
Sand Casting
(large parts, e.g.,
auto engine blocks)
What material will withstand T >1600C

and is inexpensive and easy to mold?
Answer: sand!!!
Sand
Sand
molten metal
To create mold, pack sand around form

(pattern) of desired shape
Chapter 11 - 31
Metal Fabrication Methods (v)

FORMING
CASTING
Die Casting
-- high volume
-- for alloys having low melting
temperatures
MISCELLANEOUS
Continuous Casting
-- simple shapes
(e.g., rectangular slabs,
cylinders)
molten
solidified
Investment Casting:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BX8w-GUPz1w
Chapter 11 - 32
Metal Fabrication Methods (vi)

FORMING
CASTING
Powder Metallurgy
(metals w/low ductilities)
MISCELLANEOUS
Welding
(when fabrication of one large
part is impractical)
pressure
filler metal (melted)

base metal (melted)
fused base metal
heat
area
contact
densify
unaffected
piece 1
heat-affected zone
unaffected
Fig. 11.10, Callister
piece 2
& Rethwisch 9e.
Heat-affected zone:
point contact
at low T
densification
by diffusion at
higher T
(region in which the

microstructure has been
changed).
[From Iron Castings

Handbook, C.F. Walton
and T.J. Opar (Ed.),
Iron Castings Society,
Des Plaines, IL,1981.]
Chapter 11 - 33
Thermal Processing of Metals
Heat treating following prior processing affects final properties.

Effect of prior processing can be canceled out.
Thermal processing to soften (e.g. full anneal) or strengthen
material (e.g. precipitation strengthening).
Chapter 11 - 34
Thermal Processing of Metals

Annealing: Heat to Tanneal, then cool slowly.
Stress Relief: Reduce
Spheroidize (steels):
stresses resulting from:

- plastic deformation
- nonuniform cooling
- phase transform.
Make very soft steels for

good machining. Heat just
below Teutectoid & hold for
15-25 h.
Types of
Annealing
Full Anneal (steels):

Make soft steels for
good forming. Heat
to get , then furnace-cool
to obtain coarse pearlite.
Normalize (steels): Deform

steel with large grains. Then heat
treat to allow recrystallization
and formation of smaller grains.
Based on discussion in Section 11.7, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
Chapter 11 - 35
Heat Treatment Temperature-Time Paths

a) Full Annealing
b) Quenching
c) Tempering
(Tempered
Martensite)

[Adapted from H. Boyer (Editor), Atlas of
Isothermal Transformation and Cooling
Transformation Diagrams, 1977.
Reproduced by permission of ASM
International, Materials Park, OH.]
b)
a)
c)
Chapter 11 - 36
Hardenability -- Steels
Hardenability measure of the ability to form martensite
Jominy end quench test used to measure hardenability.
specimen
(heated to
phase field)
24C water
flat ground
Rockwell C
hardness tests
Fig. 11.12, Callister &

Rethwisch 9e.
(Adapted from A.G. Guy,
Essentials of Materials Science,
McGraw-Hill Book Company,
New York, 1978.)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nEV6RqDr9CA
Chapter 11 - 37
Hardenability -- Steels
Hardenability measure of the ability to form martensite
Jominy end quench test used to measure hardenability.
specimen
(heated to
phase field)
24C water
flat ground
Rockwell C
hardness tests

Rethwisch 9e.
(Adapted from A.G. Guy,
Essentials of Materials Science,
McGraw-Hill Book Company,
New York, 1978.)
Hardness, HRC
Plot hardness versus distance from the quenched end.

Rethwisch 9e.
Distance from quenched end

Chapter 11 - 38
Reason Why Hardness Changes with

Distance
Hardness, HRC
The cooling rate decreases with distance from quenched end.

60
40
20
distance from quenched end (in)
T(C)
0%
100%
600

[Adapted from H. Boyer (Ed.), Atlas of
Isothermal Transformation and Cooling
Transformation Diagrams, 1977. Reproduced
by permission of ASM International, Materials
Park, OH.]
400
200
M(start)
AM
0 M(finish)
0.1
10
100
1000
Time (s)
Chapter 11 - 39
Hardenability vs Alloy Composition

100
(Adapted from figure furnished courtesy

Republic Steel Corporation.)
"Alloy Steels"
2 Cooling rate (C/s)

100
4340
80 %M
50
40
10
60
Hardness, HRC
Hardenability curves for

five alloys each with,
C = 0.4 wt% C
4140
8640
20
5140
0 10 20 30 40 50
Distance from quenched end (mm)
800
TE
T(C)
(4140, 4340, 5140, 8640)
600
-- contain Ni, Cr, Mo
A
B
(0.2 to 2 wt%)
400
-- these elements shift
M(start)
the "nose" to longer times
200
M(90%)
(from A to B)
0 -1
-- martensite is easier
10
10 103 105 Time (s)
to form
Chapter 11 - 40
Precipitation Strengthening
Internal wing structure on Boeing 767
Adapted from chapteropening photograph,
Chapter 11, Callister &
Rethwisch 3e. (courtesy of
G.H. Narayanan and A.G.
Miller, Boeing Commercial
Airplane Company.)
Aluminum is strengthened with precipitates formed

by alloying.
Adapted from Fig. 11.26,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
(Fig. 11.26 is courtesy of
G.H. Narayanan and A.G.
Miller, Boeing Commercial
Airplane Company.)
1.5m
Precipitates are developed by heat treating.

Chapter 11 - 42
Precipitation Hardening
Particles impede dislocation motion.
700
Ex: Al-Cu system
T(C)
Procedure:
600
+L
-- Pt A: solution heat treat
(get solid solution)
-- Pt B: quench to room temp.
(retain solid solution)
-- Pt C: reheat to nucleate
small particles within
phase.
500
400
Adapted from Fig.

11.23, Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.
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300
0 B 10
(Al)
Other alloys that precipitation

harden: Temp.
Cu-Be
Cu-Sn
Mg-Al
L
+L
+
20
30
40
CuAl2
50
wt% Cu
composition range
available for precipitation hardening
Pt A (soln heat treat)

(Adapted from J.L. Murray, International
Metals Review 30, p.5, 1985. Reprinted by
permission of ASM International.)
Pt C (precipitate )
Pt B
Time
Chapter 11 - 43
Influence of Precipitation Heat

Treatment on TS, %EL
2014 Al Alloy:
Minima on %EL curves.
30
400
%EL
tensile strength (MPa)
Maxima on TS curves.
Increasing T accelerates
process.
300
200
100
149C
20
10
204C
204C
1min
1h 1day 1mo 1yr
precipitation heat treat time
149C
1min
1h 1day 1mo 1yr
precipitation heat treat time
Fig. 11.28, Callister & Rethwisch 9e. [Adapted from Metals Handbook: Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys
and Pure Metals, Vol. 2, 9th ed., H. Baker (Managing Ed.), 1979. Reproduced by permission of ASM International,
Materials Park, OH.]
Chapter 11 - 44
Summary
Ferrous alloys: steels and cast irons
Non-ferrous alloys:
-- Cu, Al, Ti, and Mg alloys; refractory alloys; and noble metals.
Metal fabrication techniques:
-- forming, casting, miscellaneous.
Hardenability of metals
-- measure of ability of a steel to be heat treated.
-- increases with alloy content.
Precipitation hardening
--hardening, strengthening due to formation of
precipitate particles.
--Al, Mg alloys precipitation hardenable.
Chapter 11 - 45
Chapter 12: Structures & Properties of

Ceramics
How do the crystal structures of ceramic materials
differ from those for metals?
How do point defects in ceramics differ from those
defects found in metals?
How are impurities accommodated in the ceramic lattice?
In what ways are ceramic phase diagrams different from
phase diagrams for metals?
How are the mechanical properties of ceramics
measured, and how do they differ from those for metals?
Chapter 12 - 1
Atomic Bonding in Ceramics

Bonding:
-- Can be ionic and/or covalent in character.
-- % ionic character increases with difference in
electronegativity of atoms.
Degree of ionic character may be large or small:

CaF2: large
SiC: small
Chapter 12 - 2
Factors that Determine Crystal Structure

1. Relative sizes of ions Formation of stable structures:
--maximize the # of oppositely charged ion neighbors.
unstable
2. Maintenance of
Charge Neutrality :
stable
--Net charge in ceramic

should be zero.
--Reflected in chemical
formula:
CaF 2 :

+
-
stable
Ca 2+ +
cation
Fanions
F-
A m Xp
m, p values to achieve
charge neutrality
Chapter 12 - 3
Coordination Number and Ionic Radii
r cation
Coordination Number increases with r
anion
To form a stable structure, how many anions can
surround around a cation?
r cation
r anion
< 0.155
Coord.
Number
linear
2
triangular
0.155 - 0.225
0.225 - 0.414
4 tetrahedral
0.414 - 0.732
6 octahedral
0.732 - 1.0
Adapted from Table 12.2,

cubic
ZnS
(zinc blende)
NaCl
(sodium
chloride)

CsCl
(cesium
chloride)
Chapter 12 - 4
Computation of Minimum Cation-Anion

Radius Ratio
Determine minimum rcation/ranion for an octahedral site
(C.N. = 6)
a = 2ranion
Chapter 12 - 5
Example Problem: Predicting the Crystal

Structure of FeO
On the basis of ionic radii, what crystal structure
would you predict for FeO?
Cation Ionic radius (nm)
Al 3+
0.053
Fe 2+
0.077
Fe 3+
0.069
Ca 2+
0.100
Anion
O2Cl F-
Answer:
rcation 0.077
=
ranion 0.140
= 0.550
based on this ratio,
-- coord # = 6 because
0.140
0.181
0.133
0.414 < 0.550 < 0.732

-- crystal structure is NaCl
Data from Table 12.3,
Chapter 12 - 6
Rock Salt Structure

Same concepts can be applied to ionic solids in general.
Example: NaCl (rock salt) structure
rNa = 0.102 nm
rCl = 0.181 nm
rNa/rCl = 0.564
cations (Na+) prefer octahedral sites

Chapter 12 - 7
MgO and FeO

MgO and FeO also have the NaCl structure
O2-
rO = 0.140 nm
Mg2+
rMg = 0.072 nm
rMg/rO = 0.514
cations prefer octahedral sites
So each Mg2+ (or Fe2+) has 6 neighbor oxygen atoms

Chapter 12 - 8
AX Crystal Structures
AXType Crystal Structures include NaCl, CsCl, and zinc blende
Cesium Chloride structure:
Since 0.732 < 0.939 < 1.0,

cubic sites preferred
So each Cs+ has 8 neighbor Cl-
Chapter 12 - 9
ABX3 Crystal Structures

Perovskite structure
Ex: complex oxide
BaTiO3

Chapter 12 - 10
Silicate Ceramics
Most common elements on earth are Si & O
Si4+
O2-
Figs. 12.9 & 12.10, Callister &

Rethwisch 9e
crystobalite
SiO2 (silica) polymorphic forms are quartz,

crystobalite, & tridymite
The strong Si-O bonds lead to a high melting
temperature (1710C) for this material
Chapter 12 - 11
Polymorphic Forms of Carbon

Diamond
tetrahedral bonding of
carbon
hardest material known
very high thermal
conductivity
small crystals used to

grind/cut other materials
diamond thin films
hard surface coatings
used for cutting tools,
medical devices, etc.

Rethwisch 9e.
Chapter 12 - 12
Polymorphic Forms of Carbon (cont)

Graphite
layered structure parallel hexagonal arrays of
carbon atoms

& Rethwisch 9e.
weak forces between layers

planes slide easily over one another -- good
lubricant
Chapter 12 - 13
Polymorphic Forms of Carbon (cont)

Fullerenes and Nanotubes
Fullerenes spherical cluster of 60 carbon atoms, C60
Like a soccer ball
Carbon nanotubes sheet of graphite rolled into a tube
Ends capped with fullerene hemispheres
Adapted from Figs.

12.18 & 12.19, Callister
& Rethwisch 8e.
Chapter 12 - 14
Factors that Determine Crystal Structure

1. Relative sizes of ions Formation of stable structures:
--maximize the # of oppositely charged ion neighbors.
unstable
2. Maintenance of
Charge Neutrality :
--Net charge in ceramic
should be zero.
r cation determines
r anion crystal
structure

stable
stable
CaF 2 :
Ca 2+ +
cation
Fanions
F-
A m Xp
m, p values to achieve
charge neutrality
Chapter 12 - 15
Point Defects in Ceramics (i)

Vacancies
-- vacancies exist in ceramics for both cations and anions
Interstitials
-- interstitials exist for cations
-- interstitials are not normally observed for anions because anions
are large relative to the interstitial sites
Cation
Interstitial
Cation
Vacancy
(From W.G. Moffatt, G.W. Pearsall, and J.
Wulff, The Structure and Properties of
Materials, Vol. 1, Structure, p.78. Copyright
1964 by John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Reprinted by permission of John Wiley and
Sons, Inc.)
Anion
Vacancy
Chapter 12 - 16
Point Defects in Ceramics (ii)

Frenkel Defect
-- a cation vacancy-cation interstitial pair.
Shottky Defect
-- a paired set of cation and anion vacancies.
Shottky
Defect:

(From W.G. Moffatt, G.W. Pearsall, and J.
Wulff, The Structure and Properties of
Materials, Vol. 1, Structure, p.78. Copyright
Reprinted by permission of John Wiley and
Sons, Inc.)
Frenkel
Defect
Equilibrium concentration of defects
Chapter 12 - 17
Ceramic Phase Diagrams

MgO-Al2O3 diagram:
Rethwisch 9e.
[Adapted from B. Hallstedt,

Thermodynamic Assessment
of the System MgOAl2O3, J.
Am. Ceram. Soc., 75[6], 1502
(1992). Reprinted by
permission of the American
Ceramic Society.]
Chapter 12 - 18
Mechanical Properties
Ceramic materials are more brittle than metals.
Why is this so?
Consider mechanism of deformation
In crystalline, by dislocation motion
In highly ionic solids, dislocation motion is difficult
few slip systems
resistance to motion of ions of like charge (e.g., anions)
past one another
bend test to measure room-T flexural strength.

cross section
d
b
rect.
L/2
L/2
R
= midpoint
deflection
circ.
location of max tension
Chapter 12 - 19
SUMMARY
Interatomic bonding in ceramics is ionic and/or covalent.
Ceramic crystal structures are based on:
-- maintaining charge neutrality
-- cation-anion radii ratios.
Imperfections
-- Atomic point: vacancy, interstitial (cation), Frenkel, Schottky
-- Impurities: substitutional, interstitial
-- Maintenance of charge neutrality
Room-temperature mechanical behavior flexural tests
Chapter 12 - 20
Chapter 13: Applications and

Processing of Ceramics
How do we classify ceramics?
What are some applications of ceramics?

How is processing of ceramics different than for metals?
Chapter 13 - 1
Classification of Ceramics
Ceramic Materials
Glasses
Clay Refractories
products
Abrasives Cements
Advanced
ceramics
-optical
-whiteware -bricks for -sandpaper -composites -engine
-composite -structural high T
-cutting
-structural
rotors
(furnaces) -polishing
reinforce
valves
-containers/
bearings
Adapted from Fig. 13.1 and discussion in
-sensors
household
Section 13.2-8, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Chapter 13 - 2
Ceramics Application: Die Blanks

Die blanks:
-- Need wear resistant properties!
Die surface:
-- 4 mm polycrystalline diamond
particles that are sintered onto a
cemented tungsten carbide
substrate.
-- polycrystalline diamond gives uniform
hardness in all directions to reduce
wear.
die
Ao
die
Ad
tensile
force
Adapted from Fig. 11.8(d),

Courtesy Martin Deakins, GE

Superabrasives, Worthington,
OH. Used with permission.
Chapter 13 - 3
Ceramics Application:
Cutting Tools
Tools:
-- for grinding glass, tungsten,
carbide, ceramics
-- for cutting Si wafers
-- for oil drilling
Materials:
-- manufactured single crystal
or polycrystalline diamonds
in a metal or resin matrix.
-- polycrystalline diamonds
resharpen by microfracturing
along cleavage planes.
oil drill bits
blades
Single crystal
diamonds
polycrystalline
diamonds in a resin
matrix.
Photos courtesy Martin Deakins,

GE Superabrasives, Worthington,
OH. Used with permission.
Chapter 13 - 4
Refractories
Materials to be used at high temperatures (e.g., in
high temperature furnaces).
Consider the Silica (SiO2) - Alumina (Al2O3) system.
Silica refractories - silica rich - small additions of alumina
depress melting temperature (phase diagram):
2200
T(C)
2000
3Al2O3-2SiO2
Liquid
(L)
1800
mullite
alumina + L
mullite
+L
crystobalite
+L
1600
1400
0
mullite
+ crystobalite
20
alumina
+
mullite
40
60
80
100
Composition (wt% alumina)

Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 12.27
adapted from F.J. Klug and
R.H. Doremus, J. Am. Cer.
Soc. 70(10), p. 758, 1987.)
Chapter 13 - 5
Advanced Ceramics:
Materials for Automobile Engines
Advantages:
Operate at high
temperatures high
efficiencies
Low frictional losses
Operate without a cooling
system
Lower weights than
current engines
Disadvantages:
Ceramic materials are
brittle
Difficult to remove internal
voids (that weaken
structures)
Ceramic parts are difficult
to form and machine
Potential candidate materials: Si3N4, SiC, & ZrO2

Possible engine parts: engine block & piston coatings
Chapter 13 - 6
Advanced Ceramics:
Materials for Ceramic Armor
Components:
-- Outer facing plates
-- Backing sheet
Properties/Materials:
-- Facing plates -- hard and brittle
fracture high-velocity projectile
Al2O3, B4C, SiC, TiB2
-- Backing sheets -- soft and ductile
deform and absorb remaining energy
aluminum, synthetic fiber laminates
Chapter 13 - 7
Ceramic Fabrication Methods (i)

PARTICULATE
CEMENTATION
GLASS
FORMING
FORMING
Blowing of Glass Bottles:
Pressing: plates, cheap glasses
Gob
Pressing
operation
Parison
mold
-- glass formed by application of

pressure
-- mold is steel with graphite
lining
Fiber drawing:
Compressed
air
Suspended
parison
Finishing
mold
Adapted from Fig. 13.8, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 13.8 is adapted from C.J.
Phillips, Glass: The Miracle Maker, Pittman Publishing Ltd., London.)
wind up
Chapter 13 - 8
Sheet Glass Forming

Sheet forming continuous casting
sheets are formed by floating the molten glass on a pool of
molten tin

Chapter 13 - 9
Glass Structure
Basic Unit:
4Si0 4 tetrahedron
Si 4+
O2-
Quartz is crystalline
SiO2:
Glass is noncrystalline (amorphous)

Fused silica is SiO2 to which no
impurities have been added
Other common glasses contain
impurity ions such as Na+, Ca2+,
Al3+, and B3+
Na +
Si 4+
O2-
(soda glass)
Chapter 13 - 10
Glass Properties
Specific volume (1/r) vs Temperature (T):
Crystalline materials:
Specific volume
Liquid
(disordered)
Supercooled
Liquid
Glasses:
Glass
(amorphous solid)
Crystalline
(i.e., ordered)
Tg
-- crystallize at melting temp, Tm

-- have abrupt change in spec.
vol. at Tm
Tm

solid
-- do not crystallize
-- change in slope in spec. vol. curve at
glass transition temperature, Tg
-- transparent - no grain boundaries to
scatter light
Chapter 13 - 11
Production Processes
Glass windows:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dw7623hu7wM
Glass bottles:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yvqLtTUlZcA
Chapter 13 - 12
Ceramic Fabrication Methods (iia)

GLASS
FORMING
PARTICULATE
FORMING
CEMENTATION
Hydroplastic forming:
Mill (grind) and screen constituents: desired particle size
Extrude this mass (e.g., into a brick)
Ao
force
container
ram
billet
container
die holder
extrusion
die
Ad
Adapted from
Fig. 12.8(c),
Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
Dry and fire the formed piece

Chapter 13 - 14
Ceramic Fabrication Methods (iia)

GLASS
FORMING
PARTICULATE
FORMING
CEMENTATION
Slip casting:
Mill (grind) and screen constituents: desired particle size
Mix with water and other constituents to form slip
Slip casting operation
pour slip
into mold
absorb water
into mold
green
ceramic
solid component
pour slip
into mold
drain
mold
green
ceramic
Adapted from Fig.

13.12, Callister &
Rethwisch 8e. (Fig.
13.12 is from W.D.
Kingery, Introduction
to Ceramics, John
Wiley and Sons,
Inc., 1960.)
hollow component
Dry and fire the cast piece
Chapter 13 - 15
Porcelain
Porcelain Production:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9lD999ZjD7E
Typical Porcelain Composition

(50%) 1. Clay
(25%) 2. Filler e.g. quartz (finely ground)
(25%) 3. Fluxing agent (Feldspar)
-- aluminosilicates plus K+, Na+, Ca+
-- upon firing - forms low-melting-temp. glass
Chapter 13 - 16
Drying and Firing

Drying: as water is removed - interparticle spacings decrease
shrinkage .
Adapted from Fig.
13.13, Callister &
Rethwisch 8e. (Fig.
13.13 is from W.D.
Kingery, Introduction
to Ceramics, John
Wiley and Sons,
Inc., 1960.)
wet body
partially dry
completely dry
Firing:
-- heat treatment between
900-1400C
-- vitrification: liquid glass forms
from clay and flux flows
between SiO2 particles. (Flux
lowers melting temperature).
micrograph of porcelain
Drying too fast causes sample to warp or crack due to non-uniform shrinkage
Si02 particle
(quartz)
glass formed
around
the particle
70mm
Adapted from Fig. 13.14, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
(Fig. 13.14 is courtesy H.G. Brinkies, Swinburne
University of Technology, Hawthorn Campus,
Hawthorn, Victoria, Australia.)
Chapter 13 - 17
Ceramic Fabrication Methods (iib)

GLASS
FORMING
PARTICULATE
FORMING
CEMENTATION
Powder Pressing: used for both clay and non-clay compositions.

Powder (plus binder) compacted by pressure in a mold
-- Uniaxial compression - compacted in single direction
-- Isostatic (hydrostatic) compression - pressure applied by
fluid - powder in rubber envelope
-- Hot pressing - pressure + heat
Chapter 13 - 18
Sintering
Sintering occurs during firing of a piece that has
been powder pressed
-- powder particles coalesce and reduction of pore size

Aluminum oxide powder:

-- sintered at 1700C
for 6 minutes.
Adapted from Fig. 13.17, Callister

& Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 13.17 is from
W.D. Kingery, H.K. Bowen, and
D.R. Uhlmann, Introduction to
Ceramics, 2nd ed., John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 1976, p. 483.)
15 mm
Chapter 13 - 19
Tape Casting
Thin sheets of green ceramic cast as flexible tape
Used for integrated circuits and capacitors
Slip = suspended ceramic particles + organic liquid
(contains binders, plasticizers)
Rethwisch 8e.
Chapter 13 - 20
Ceramic Fabrication Methods (iii)

GLASS
FORMING
PARTICULATE
FORMING
CEMENTATION
Hardening of a paste paste formed by mixing cement

material with water
Formation of rigid structures having varied and complex
shapes
Hardening process hydration (complex chemical
reactions involving water and cement particles)
Portland cement production of:
-- mix clay and lime-bearing minerals
-- calcine (heat to 1400C)
-- grind into fine powder
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m8U76Bm8kDY
Chapter 13 - 21
Summary
Categories of ceramics:
-- glasses
-- clay products
-- refractories
-- cements
-- advanced ceramics
Ceramic Fabrication techniques:

-- glass forming (pressing, blowing, fiber drawing).
-- particulate forming (hydroplastic forming, slip casting,
powder pressing, tape casting)
-- cementation
Heat treating procedures

-- glassesannealing
-- particulate formed piecesdrying, firing (sintering)
Chapter 13 - 22
Homework IV Assignment
11.2, 11.7 (composition only), 11.19,
11.24, 11.D14
Due: Wednesday April 8th, 2015
Homework V Assignment
12.4, 12.5, 13.8, 13.21
Exam III: Wednesday April 22nd, 2015

Chapter 14 - 1
Coordination Number and Ionic

Radii
r cation
Coordination Number increases with r

anion
To form a stable structure, how many anions can
surround around a cation?
r cation
r anion
< 0.155
Coord.
Number
linear
2
triangular
0.155 - 0.225
0.225 - 0.414
4 tetrahedral
0.414 - 0.732
6 octahedral
0.732 - 1.0
Adapted from Table 12.2,

cubic
ZnS
(zinc blende)
NaCl
(sodium
chloride)

CsCl
(cesium
chloride)
Chapter 14 - 2
Chapter 14:
Polymer Structures
What are the general structural and chemical
characteristics of polymer molecules?
What are some of the common polymeric
materials, and how do they differ chemically?
How is the structure of polymers different
than that in metals and ceramics ?
Chapter 14 - 3
What is a Polymer?
Poly
many
mer
repeat unit
repeat
unit
repeat
unit
repeat
unit
H H H H H H
C C C C C C
H H H H H H
H H H H H H
C C C C C C
H Cl H Cl H Cl
Polyethylene (PE)
Poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC)
H
C
H
H H
C C
CH3 H
H H
C C
CH3 H
H
C
CH3
Polypropylene (PP)
Chapter 14 - 4
Natural Polymers
Originally natural polymers were used
Wood
Rubber
Cotton
Wool
Leather
Silk
Oldest known uses
Rubber balls used by Incas
Biblical reference to pitch
(a natural polymer)
Chapter 14 - 5
Polymer Composition
Most polymers are hydrocarbons
i.e., made up of H and C
Saturated hydrocarbons
Each carbon singly bonded to four other atoms
Example:
Ethane, C2H6
H
H
C
H
C
H
Chapter 14 - 6
Chapter 14 - 7
Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
Double & triple bonds somewhat unstable
can form new bonds
Double bond found in ethylene - C2H4
H
C C
Triple bond found in acetylene - C2H2
H C C H
Chapter 14 - 8
Chemistry and Structure of

Polyethylene
Adapted from Fig.
14.1, Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.
Note: polyethylene is a long-chain hydrocarbon

- paraffin wax for candles is short polyethylene
Chapter 14 - 9
Isomerism
Isomerism
two compounds with same chemical formula can
have quite different structures
for example: C8H18
normal-octane
H H H H H H H H
H C C C C C C C C H
= H3C CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3
H H H H H H H H
H3C ( CH2 ) CH3

6
2,4-dimethylhexane
CH3
H3C CH CH2 CH CH3
CH2
CH3
Chapter 14 - 10
Bulk or Commodity Polymers
Chapter 14 - 12
Molecular Structures for Polymers
secondary
bonding
Linear
Branched
Cross-Linked
Network
Chapter 14 - 15
Polymers Molecular Shape

Molecular Shape chain bending and twisting
are possible by rotation of carbon atoms
around their chain bonds
note: not necessary to break chain bonds
to alter molecular shape
Adapted from Fig.
14.5, Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.
Chapter 14 - 16
Chain End-to-End Distance, r

Rethwisch 9e.
Chapter 14 - 17
Polymer Crystallinity
Crystalline regions
thin platelets with chain folds at faces
Chain folded structure
& Rethwisch 9e.
10 nm
Chapter 14 - 18
Crystallinity in Polymers
& Rethwisch 9e.
Ordered atomic
arrangements involving
molecular chains
Crystal structures in terms
of unit cells
Example shown
polyethylene unit cell
Chapter 14 - 19
Polymer Crystallinity (cont.)

Polymers rarely 100% crystalline
Difficult for all regions of all chains to
become aligned
crystalline
region
Degree of crystallinity
expressed as % crystallinity.
-- Some physical properties
depend on % crystallinity.
-- Heat treating causes
crystalline regions to grow
and % crystallinity to
increase.
amorphous
region
Fig. 14.11, Callister 6e. (From H.W. Hayden,

W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of
Materials, Vol. III, Mechanical Behavior, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 1965.)
Chapter 14 - 20
Semicrystalline Polymers
Spherulite
surface
Some semicrystalline
polymers form
spherulite structures
Alternating chain-folded
crystallites and
amorphous regions
Spherulite structure for
relatively rapid growth
rates
Chapter 14 - 21
MOLECULAR WEIGHT
Molecular weight, M: Mass of a mole of chains.
Low M
high M
Not all chains in a polymer are of the same length

i.e., there is a distribution of molecular weights
Chapter 14 - 22
MOLECULAR WEIGHT DISTRIBUTION

= numerical average
Chapter 14 - 23
Degree of Polymerization, DP
DP = average number of repeat units per chain
H H H H H H H H H H H H
H C C (C C ) C C C C C C C C H
DP = 6
H H H H H H H H H H H H
Chain fraction
mol. wt of repeat unit i

Chapter 14 - 28
Copolymers
two or more monomers
polymerized together
random A and B randomly
positioned along chain
alternating A and B
alternate in polymer chain
block large blocks of A
units alternate with large
blocks of B units
graft chains of B units
grafted onto A backbone
A

Rethwisch 9e.
random
alternating
block
graft
Chapter 14 - 29
Chapter 15:
Characteristics, Applications &
Processing of Polymers
What are the tensile properties of polymers and how
are they affected by basic microstructural features?
Hardening, anisotropy, and annealing in polymers.
How does the elevated temperature mechanical
response of polymers compare to ceramics and metals?
What are the primary polymer processing methods?
Chapter 15 - 1
Mechanical Properties of Polymers

Stress-Strain Behavior
brittle polymer
plastic
elastomer
elastic moduli
less than for metals

Fracture strengths of polymers ~ 10% of those for metals

Deformation strains for polymers > 1000%
for most metals, deformation strains < 10%
Chapter 15 - 2
Mechanical Properties of Polymers

Stress-Strain Behavior
www.packaging-gateway.com
Chapter 15 - 3
Mechanisms of DeformationBrittle
Crosslinked and Network Polymers
Initial
Near
Failure
(MPa)
x brittle failure
x plastic failure
aligned, crosslinked
polymer
network polymer
e
Stress-strain curves adapted from Fig. 15.1,
Chapter 15 - 4
Mechanisms of Deformation
Semicrystalline (Plastic) Polymers
(MPa)
Stress-strain curves adapted
from Fig. 15.1, Callister &
Rethwisch 9e. Inset figures
along plastic response curve
adapted from Figs. 15.12 &
15.13, Callister & Rethwisch
9e. (From SCHULTZ, POLYMER
MATERIALS SCIENCE, 1st Edition,
1974. Reprinted by permission of
Pearson Education, Inc., Upper
Saddle River, NJ.)1974, pp 500-501.)
fibrillar
structure
x brittle failure
onset of
necking
plastic failure
near
failure
x
unload/reload
e
crystalline
block segments
separate
undeformed
structure
amorphous
regions
elongate
crystalline
regions align
Chapter 15 - 5
Predeformation by Drawing
Drawing(ex: monofilament fishline)
-- stretches the polymer prior to use
-- aligns chains in the stretching direction
Results of drawing:
-- increases the elastic modulus (E) in the
stretching direction
-- increases the tensile strength (TS) in the
stretching direction
Adapted from Fig. 15.13, Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.
-- decreases ductility (%EL)
(From Schultz, Polymer Materials Science,
1st Edition, 1974. Reprinted by permission
Annealing after drawing...
of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle
River, NJ.)1974, pp 500-501.)
-- decreases chain alignment
-- reverses effects of drawing (reduces E and
TS, enhances %EL)
Contrast to effects of cold working in metals!

Chapter 15 - 6
Mechanisms of Deformation
Elastomers
(MPa)
x brittle failure
plastic failure
elastomer
e
initial: amorphous chains are
kinked, cross-linked.
Stress-strain curves
adapted from Fig. 15.1,
Inset figures along
elastomer curve (green)
adapted from Fig. 15.15,
final: chains
are straighter,
still
cross-linked
(Fig. 15.15 adapted from Z. D.

Jastrzebski, The Nature and
Properties of Engineering
Materials, 3rd edition.
Copyright 1987 by John
Wiley & Sons, New York.
Reprinted by permission of
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.)
deformation
is reversible (elastic)!
Compare elastic behavior of elastomers with the:

-- brittle behavior (of aligned, crosslinked & network polymers), and
-- plastic behavior (of semicrystalline polymers)
(as shown on previous slides)
Chapter 15 - 7
Thermoplastics vs. Thermosets

Thermoplastics:
-- little crosslinking
-- ductile
-- soften w/heating
-- polyethylene, polypropylene
polycarbonate, polystyrene
Chapter 15 - 8
Thermoplastics vs. Thermosets

Thermosets:
-- significant crosslinking
(10 to 50% of repeat units)
-- hard and brittle
-- do NOT soften w/heating
-- vulcanized rubber, epoxies,
polyester resin, phenolic resin
Chapter 15 - 9
Influence of T and Strain Rate on Thermoplastics

Decreasing T...
-- increases E
-- increases TS
-- decreases %EL
Increasing
strain rate...
-- same effects
as decreasing T.
(MPa)
80 4C
60
20C
40
Plots for
semicrystalline
PMMA (Plexiglas)
40C
20
0
60C
0
0.1
0.2
to 1.3
0.3
Adapted from Fig. 15.3, Callister & Rethwisch 9e. (Reprinted with permission
from T. S. Carswell and H. K. Nason, Effect of Environmental Conditions on the
Mechanical Properties of Organic Plastics, in Symposium on Plastics. Copyright ASTM
International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, West Conshohocken, PA 19428.)
Chapter 15 - 10
Melting & Glass Transition Temps.

What factors affect Tm and Tg?
Both Tm and Tg increase with

increasing chain stiffness
Chain stiffness increased by
presence of
1. Bulky sidegroups
2. Chain double bonds
Representative Tg values (C):

PE (low density)
PE (high density)
PVC
PS
PC
- 110
- 90
+ 87
+100
+150
Selected values from

Table 15.2, Callister
& Rethwisch 9e.
Chapter 15 - 11
Time-Dependent Deformation
Stress relaxation test:
-- strain in tension to e
and hold.
-- observe decrease in
stress with time.
tensile test
eo
There is a large decrease in Er

for T > Tg.
5
10
Er (10 s) 3
in MPa 10
rigid solid
(small relax)
transition
region
10
10-1
strain
(t)
viscous liquid
10-3 (large relax)
(amorphous
polystyrene)
Rethwisch 9e.
(From A. V. Tobolsky,
Properties and Structures
of Polymers. Copyright
1960 by John Wiley &
Sons, New York.
Reprinted by permission
of John Wiley & Sons,
Inc.)
60 100 140 180 T(C)

Tg
time
Relaxation modulus:
Chapter 15 - 12
Polymer Formation
There are two types of polymerization
Addition (or chain) polymerization
Condensation (step) polymerization
(beyond scope)
Chapter 15 - 13
Addition (Chain) Polymerization

Initiation
R: initiator or catalyst
Propagation
Termination
Chapter 15 - 14
Polymer Additives
Improve mechanical properties, processability,
durability, etc.
Fillers
Added to improve tensile strength & abrasion
resistance, toughness & decrease cost
ex: carbon black, glass, limestone, talc, etc.
Plasticizers
small molecules that take place between polymer
chains-reduce secondary bonding
Presence of plasticizer transforms brittle polymer to a
ductile one
Commonly added to PVC - otherwise it is brittle
Chapter 15 - 15
Polymer Additives (cont.)

Stabilizers
UV protectants
Lubricants
Added to allow easier processing
polymer slides through dies easier
Colorants
Dyes and pigments
Flame Retardants
Substances containing chlorine, fluorine, and boron
Chapter 15 - 16
Processing of Plastics
Thermoplastic
can be reversibly cooled & reheated, i.e. recycled
heat until soft, shape as desired, then cool
ex: polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene.
Thermoset
forms a molecular network (chemical reaction)
degrades (doesnt melt) when heated
a prepolymer molded into desired shape, then
chemical reaction occurs
ex: urethane, epoxy
Chapter 15 - 17
Thermoset
Example:
Two component epoxy glue
Chapter 15 - 18
Processing Plastics Compression Molding

Thermoplastics and thermosets
polymer and additives placed in mold cavity
mold heated and pressure applied
fluid polymer assumes shape of mold

(From F. W. Billmeyer, Jr., Textbook of
Polymer Science, 3rd edition. Copyright
Reprinted by permission of John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.)
Chapter 15 - 19
Processing Plastics Injection Molding

Thermoplastics and some thermosets
when ram retracts, plastic pellets drop from hopper into barrel
ram forces plastic into the heating chamber (around the
spreader) where the plastic melts as it moves forward
molten plastic is forced under pressure (injected) into the mold
cavity where it assumes the shape of the mold
(From F. W. Billmeyer, Jr., Textbook of
Polymer Science, 3rd edition. Copyright
Reprinted by permission of John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.)
Barrel
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eUthHS3MTdA
Chapter 15 - 20
Processing Plastics Extrusion

thermoplastics
plastic pellets drop from hopper onto the turning screw
plastic pellets melt as the turning screw pushes them
forward by the heaters
molten polymer is forced under pressure through the
shaping die to form the final product

(Reprinted with permission from Encyclopdia
Britannica, 1997 by Encyclopdia Britannica, Inc.)
Chapter 15 - 21
Processing Plastics Blown-Film

Extrusion

(Reprinted with permission from Encyclopdia
Britannica, 1997 by Encyclopdia Britannica, Inc.)
Chapter 15 - 22
Polymer Types Fibers

Fibers - length/diameter >100
Primary use is in textiles.
Fiber characteristics:
high tensile strengths
high degrees of crystallinity
Nylon:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yFEHKRdXb9Y
Formed by spinning
extrude polymer through a spinneret (a die
containing many small orifices)
the spun fibers are drawn under tension
leads to highly aligned chains - fibrillar structure
Chapter 15 - 23
Polymer Types Miscellaneous
Coatings thin polymer films applied to surfaces i.e.,

paints, varnishes
protects from corrosion/degradation
decorative improves appearance
can provide electrical insulation
Adhesives bonds two solid materials (adherands)
Films produced by blown film extrusion
Foams gas bubbles incorporated into plastic

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xjap74m4228
Chapter 15 - 24
Advanced Polymers
Ultrahigh Molecular Weight Polyethylene (UHMWPE)
Molecular weight ca. 4 x 106 g/mol
Outstanding properties
high impact strength

resistance to wear/abrasion
low coefficient of friction
self-lubricating surface
UHMWPE
Important applications
bullet-proof vests
golf ball covers
hip implants (acetabular cup)
Adapted from chapteropening photograph,

Chapter 22, Callister 7e.
Chapter 15 - 25
Advanced Polymers
Thermoplastic Elastomers
Styrene-butadiene block copolymer
hard
component
domain
styrene
butadiene
Fig. 15.21(a), Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
soft
component
domain
Chapter 15 - 26
Summary
Limitations of polymers:
-- E, y, Tapplication are generally small.

-- Deformation is often time and temperature dependent.
Thermoplastics (PE, PS, PP, PC):
-- Smaller E, y, Tapplication
-- Easier to form and recycle
Table 15.3 Callister &
Elastomers (rubber):
Rethwisch 9e:
-- Large reversible strains!
Thermosets (epoxies, polyesters):
Good overview
-- Larger E, y, Tapplication
of applications
and trade names
of polymers.
Chapter 15 - 27
Summary
Polymer Processing
-- compression and injection molding, extrusion,
blown film extrusion
Polymer melting and glass transition temperatures

Polymer applications
-- elastomers
-- fibers
-- coatings
-- adhesives
-- films
-- foams
-- advanced polymeric materials
Chapter 15 - 28
Reminders
Homework V Assignment
12.4, 12.5, 13.8, 13.21
Exam III: Wednesday April 22nd, 2015

Chapter 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16
Chapter 16 - 1
Chapter 16: Composites

What are the classes and types of composites?
What are the advantages of using composite
materials?
How do we predict the stiffness and strength of the
various types of composites?
Chapter 16 - 2
Composite
Combination of two or more individual
materials
Design goal: obtain a more desirable
combination of properties
e.g., low density and high strength
Chapter 16 - 3
Terminology/Classification
Composite:
-- Multiphase material
Phase types:
-- Matrix - is continuous
-- Dispersed - is discontinuous and
surrounded by matrix
Adapted from Fig. 16.1(a),

Chapter 16 - 4
Terminology/Classification
Matrix phase:
woven
fibers
-- Purposes are to:

- transfer stress to dispersed phase
- protect dispersed phase from
environment
-- Types:
0.5 mm
MMC, CMC, PMC
metal
ceramic
Dispersed phase:
-- Types: particle, fiber
polymer
cross
section
view
0.5 mm
Reprinted with permission from
D. Hull and T.W. Clyne, An
Introduction to Composite Materials,
2nd ed., Cambridge University Press,
New York, 1996, Fig. 3.6, p. 47.
Chapter 16 - 5
Chapter 16 - 6
Chapter 16 -
Boeing 787 Dreamliner
http://www.boeing.com/
http://www.reinforcedplastics.com/
http://www.dailytech.com/
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f07HpUAuWgk
Chapter 16 - 8
Classification of Composites
Composites
Particle-reinforced
Largeparticle
Dispersionstrengthened
Fiber-reinforced
Continuous
(aligned)
Structural
Discontinuous
(short)
Aligned
Randomly
oriented
Laminates
Sandwich
panels

Chapter 16 - 9
Classification: Particle-Reinforced (i)

Particle-reinforced
Examples:
- Spheroidite matrix:
ferrite ()
steel
Fiber-reinforced
(ductile)
60 m
- WC/Co
cemented
carbide
matrix:
cobalt
(ductile,
tough)
:
Structural
particles:
cementite
(Fe C)
3
(brittle)
particles:
WC
(brittle,
hard)

Rethwisch 9e.
(Copyright 1971 by United
States Steel Corporation.)

Rethwisch 9e.
(Courtesy of Carboloy
Systems Department,
General Electric Company.)
600 m
- Automobile matrix:
tire rubber rubber
(compliant)
0.75 m
particles:
carbon
black
(stiff)

Rethwisch 9e.
(Courtesy of Goodyear Tire
and Rubber Company.)
Chapter 16 - 10
Classification: Particle-Reinforced (ii)

Particle-reinforced
Fiber-reinforced
Structural
Concrete gravel + sand + cement + water

- Why sand and gravel? Sand fills voids between gravel particles
Reinforced concrete Reinforce with steel rebar or remesh

- increases strength - even if cement matrix is cracked
http://www.rebartool.com/
Chapter 16 - 11
Classification: Particle-Reinforced (iii)

Particle-reinforced
Fiber-reinforced
Structural
Elastic modulus, Ec, of composites:

-- rule of mixture:
upper limit: Ec = Vm Em + Vp Ep
E(GPa)
350
Data:
Cu matrix 300
w/tungsten 250
particles
200
150
(Cu)

Rethwisch 9e.
(Reprinted with permission
from R. H. Krock, ASTM
Proceedings, Vol. 63, 1963.
Copyright ASTM International,
100 Barr Harbor Drive, West
Conschohocken, PA 19428.)
20 40 60 80
10 0 vol% tungsten
(W)
Application to other properties:

-- Electrical conductivity, e: Replace Es in equation with es.
-- Thermal conductivity, k: Replace Es in equation with ks.
Chapter 16 - 12
Classification: Fiber-Reinforced (i)

Particle-reinforced
Fiber-reinforced
Structural
Fibers very strong in tension

Provide significant strength improvement to the
composite
Ex: fiber-glass - continuous glass filaments in a
polymer matrix
Glass fibers
strength and stiffness
Polymer matrix
holds fibers in place
protects fiber surfaces
transfers load to fibers
Chapter 16 - 13
Classification: Fiber-Reinforced (ii)

Particle-reinforced
Fiber-reinforced
Structural
Fiber Types
Fibers
polycrystalline or amorphous
generally polymers or ceramics
Ex: alumina, aramid, boron, UHMWPE
Wires
metals steel, molybdenum, tungsten
Chapter 16 - 14
Longitudinal
direction
Fiber Alignment
Rethwisch 9e.
Transverse
direction
aligned
continuous
aligned
random
discontinuous
Chapter 16 - 15
Classification: Fiber-Reinforced (iii)

Particle-reinforced
Fiber-reinforced
Aligned Continuous fibers
Examples:
-- Metal: (Ni3Al)-(Mo)
by eutectic solidification.
matrix: (Mo) (ductile)
Structural
-- Ceramic: Glass w/SiC fibers

formed by glass slurry
Eglass = 76 GPa; ESiC = 400 GPa.
From F.L. Matthews and R.L.
Rawlings, Composite Materials;
Engineering and Science, Reprint
ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL,
2000. Used with permission of CRC
Press, Boca Raton, FL.
2 m
fibers: (Ni3Al) (brittle)

From W. Funk and E. Blank, Creep
deformation of Ni3Al-Mo in-situ composites",
Metall. Trans. A Vol. 19(4), pp. 987-998,
1988. Used with permission.
Chapter 16 - 16
Classification: Fiber-Reinforced (iv)

Particle-reinforced
Fiber-reinforced
Discontinuous fibers, random in 2 dimensions
Example: Carbon-Carbon
-- carbon fibers embedded
in polymer resin matrix,
(b)
Structural
C fibers:
very stiff
very strong
C matrix:
less stiff
view onto plane less strong
500 m
-- uses: disk brakes, gas

turbine exhaust flaps,
missile nose cones.
(a)
fibers lie
in plane
Other possibilities:
-- Discontinuous, random 3D
-- Discontinuous, aligned
Adapted from F.L. Matthews and R.L. Rawlings,

Composite Materials; Engineering and Science,
Reprint ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2000.
(a) Fig. 4.24(a), p. 151; (b) Fig. 4.24(b) p. 151.
(Courtesy I.J. Davies) Reproduced with
permission of CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Chapter 16 - 17
Composite Stiffness:
Longitudinal Loading
Continuous fibers - Estimate fiber-reinforced composite
modulus of elasticity for continuous fibers
Longitudinal deformation
c = mVm + fVf
volume fraction
Ecl = EmVm + Ef Vf
and
ec = em = ef
isostrain
Ecl = longitudinal modulus
c = composite
f = fiber
m = matrix
Chapter 16 - 18
Fig_16-9
Chapter 16 -
Composite Production Methods (i)

Pultrusion
Continuous fibers pulled through resin tank to impregnate fibers with

thermosetting resin
Impregnated fibers pass through steel die that preforms to the desired shape
Preformed stock passes through a curing die that is
precision machined to impart final shape
heated to initiate curing of the resin matrix
Chapter 16 - 20
Composite Production Methods (ii)

Filament Winding
Continuous reinforcing fibers are accurately positioned in a predetermined
pattern to form a hollow (usually cylindrical) shape
Fibers are fed through a resin bath to impregnate with thermosetting resin
Impregnated fibers are continuously wound (typically automatically) onto a
mandrel
After appropriate number of layers added, curing is carried out either in an
oven or at room temperature
The mandrel is removed to give the final product
[From N. L. Hancox, (Editor), Fibre Composite Hybrid
Materials, The Macmillan Company, New York, 1981.]
Chapter 16 - 21
Classification: Structural
Particle-reinforced
Fiber-reinforced
Structural
Laminates -- stacked and bonded fiber-reinforced sheets

- stacking sequence: e.g., 0/90
Sandwich panels
Adapted from
Fig. 16.16,
Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
-- honeycomb core between two facing sheets

- benefits: low density, large bending stiffness
face sheet
adhesive layer
honeycomb
(Reprinted with permission from Engineered
Materials Handbook, Vol. 1, Composites,
ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 1987.)
Chapter 16 - 22
Summary
Composites types are designated by:
-- the matrix material (CMC, MMC, PMC)
-- the reinforcement (particles, fibers, structural)
Composite property benefits:

-- MMC: enhanced E, , creep performance
-- CMC: enhanced toughness
-- PMC: enhanced E/, y, TS/
Particulate-reinforced:
-- Types: large-particle and dispersion-strengthened
-- Properties are isotropic
Fiber-reinforced:
-- Types: continuous (aligned)
discontinuous (aligned or random)
-- Properties can be isotropic or anisotropic
Structural:
-- Laminates and sandwich panels
Chapter 16 - 23

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Reminders

Exam II: Wednesday March 25th

Chapter 11: Applications and

How much steel is produced in the US?

5,000 metric tons

World primary Titanium sponge

Wide spread use of steel due to:

Classification of Metal Alloys

Fig. 9.24, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

Adapted from Fig.

[Adapted from Binary Alloy Phase

increasing strength, cost, decreasing ductility

AISI: www.steel.org (2006)

Dual Phase Steels

A.De et al. Adv. Mat.

Strength increase follows rule of mixtures for

Fe-C True Equilibrium Diagram

Fig. 11.2, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

Types of Cast Iron

Production of Cast Irons

Types of Cast Iron (cont.)

heat treat white iron at 800-900 C

Reprinted with permission of the

Courtesy of Amcast Industrial Corporation

Figs. 11.3(c) & (d),

Types of Cast Iron (cont.)

Courtesy of Sinter-Cast, Ltd.

Compacted graphite iron

Fig. 11.3(e), Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

Limitations of Ferrous Alloys

Classification scheme for

-low : 2.7 g/cm3

Temper Designation Scheme for

Recycling through scrap remelting

Metal Fabrication Methods (i)

Forging (Hammering; Stamping) Rolling (Hot or Cold Rolling)

(I-beams, rails, sheet & plate)

(rods, wire, tubing)

Metal Fabrication Methods (ii)

Casting- mold is filled with molten metal

Metal Fabrication Methods (iii)

What material will withstand T >1600C

To create mold, pack sand around form

Metal Fabrication Methods (v)

Metal Fabrication Methods (vi)

filler metal (melted)

(region in which the

[From Iron Castings

Thermal Processing of Metals

Heat treating following prior processing affects final properties.

Thermal Processing of Metals

stresses resulting from:

Make very soft steels for

Full Anneal (steels):

Normalize (steels): Deform

Heat Treatment Temperature-Time Paths

Fig. 10.25, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

Fig. 11.12, Callister &

Fig. 11.12, Callister &

Plot hardness versus distance from the quenched end.

Fig. 11.13, Callister &

Distance from quenched end