1.

INTRODUCTION

In the construction of all modern electrical installation, one ground is usually run
through the building to keep the impedance as low as possible low Impedance in
the ground is needed to make sure that the fuse blows when something gets short
circuited to ground wire, the protective earth connection should be able to carry
a heavy current to protect the user from live -to- chassis faults by ensuring that
the fuse or circuit breaker will operate .so the requirement is that the protective
earth conductors can carry a 25A fault current for at least 1 minute.
Unfortunately all buildings have big electrical equipment such as air conditioning
units, refrigerator, washer/driers and other high current devices connected to the
building ground.
A ground system means that there are grounding rods which are in
direct contact with the ground, and the metal conductors which connect
them to grounded parts of electrical installation.

A grounding system must accomplish the following:

Providing a low-impedance path to ground for personal and equipment
protection.

Withstanding and dissipating repeated fault and surge-circuits.

Providing rugged mechanical properties for easy driving with minimum
effort and rod damage.

2. DEFINITIONS:

Earthing: Connecting to the earth or ground.

Neutral Earthing: Connecting to earth, the neutral point, i.e. the star
point of generator transformer, neutral point of grounding transformer.

Reactance Earthing: Connecting the neutral point to earth through a
reactance.

Resistance Earthing: Connecting the neutral point to earth through a
resistance.

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Solid earth (Effective Earthing):

A Power system is solidly earthed when a generator, power transformer,
or earthing transformer neutral is connected directly to the station ground
or to the earth, because of the reactance of the earthed generator
transformer in series with the neutral circuit, solid earthing cannot be
considered a zero- impedance circuit.

Ungrounded system: The system whose neutral points are not earthed,
the system is also called isolated neutral system.

Distribution system: A system operating at a nominal voltage not
exceeding 33kV.

Earth connection A connection to the general mass of earth by means of
an earthing electrode or earthing electrodes electrically connected at a
given location.

Earth resistance: In relation to an earth connection, this means the
resistance to the general mass of earth measured in ohms.

Earthing conductor: A conductor connecting any portion of the earthing
system to works required to be earthed, or to any other portion of the
earthing system.

Earthing electrode: A metal rod, tube, pipe, plate or other conductor
buried in or driven into the ground and used for making a connection to
the general mass of earth.

Earthing values: Values measured with an earth resistance tester.

Earthing system: All conductors, piping, electrodes, clamps and other
connections whereby conductors or other works are earthed.

Exposed conductive parts: Includes electrical equipment that can be
touched by the standard test finger and is not live, but can become live if
basic insulation fails.

Step voltage: The voltage drop caused by a current flowing through the
body between both feet, in contact with the ground one meter apart.

Touch voltage: The voltage drop caused by a current flowing through the
body between both hands and both feet. In this instance, the hands are in
contact with an earthed conductive part within 2.4 meters of the ground.
The feet are within a radius of 1.0m at ground level.

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3. ELECTRODE RESISTANCE TO EARTH:

Resistance to earth is the resistance between the metal of the electrode and
the general mass of earth.

To improve the connection to earth and to reduce the resistance to earth,
two or more ground rods are suggested, the distance between the two rods
must be the depth of the first rod plus the depth of the second rod.

Connection to earth having acceptably low values of impedance is needed
to discharge resulting from nearly strokes, and drain of static voltage
accumulations.

3.1. The factors influencing the earth resistance of an

electrode of combination of electrodes:

The composition of the soil in the immediate neighborhood.

The temperature of the soil.

The moisture content of the soil.

The size, shape number and spacing of electrodes.

The depth of electrodes.
The first three influence the resistivity of the soil near the electrode, while the
remaining two factors depend on the type of electrode system used.

3.1.1 Factors affecting on resistance:

Effect of rod size on resistance:
a) Effect of depth
The depth of electrode is an important factor affects on
the resistance. The soil resistivity usually decreases as
the depth increases. Doubling the rod length reduces
resistance by an additional 40 percent.
b) Effect of diameter
Increasing me diameter of the rode, however, does not
materially reduce its resistance. Doubling the diameter for instance reduces
the resistance by less than 10 percent.
c) Effect of soil resistance:
The resistivity of the earth is a prime factor establishing the resistance of a
grounding electrode. The resistivity of soil varies with the depth from the
surface, with moisture and chemical content, and with soil temperature.

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3.1.2 Factors affecting soil resistivity:

1. Type of soil
To study earthing, we have to know the different types of soil because there
is a relation between the composition of soil and the resistivity.

Soil

Receptivity (ohm.cm)

Surface, soil, loam

100- 5000

Clay

200-10000

Sand and gravel

5000-100000

Surface limestone

10000-1000000

Limestone

500-400000

Shales

5000-10000

Sandstone

2000-200000

Granite, basalts

100000

Decomposed gneisses

5000-50000

Slates

1000-10000

2. Moisture content
Usually, the percentage of humidity or moisture content is in the range of
10-15% and soil treatment should be made to reach this value.

Moisture content % by weight

0
2.5
5
10
15
20
30

Resistivity ohm. cm.

Top soil
Sandy loan
4
1.000 * 10
1.000 * 104
250.000
150.000
165.000
43.000
35.000
18.500
19.000
10.500
12.000
6.300
6.400
4.200

3. Salt Concentration
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As concentration of the salt increases, the soil resistivity decreases and

earth resistance decreases.

Added salt %

Resistivity, ohm.cm

10700

0.1

1800

460

190

10

130

20

100

4. Temperature
The resistivity of the soil is also influenced by temperature
Temperature
C
20
10
0
0
5
-15

F
68
50
32 (water)
32 (ice)
23
14

Resistivity ohm. cm.

7.200
9.900
13.8000
30.000
79.000
330.000

3.2 Driven rods as earthing electrodes:

From practical point of view, the most suitable form of earthing electrodes
is the driven rod. Practically no excavation is required and with a suitable
design of extensible rods, electrodes of 30-40 ft. can be installed. The
practical advantages of driven rods over other forms of electrode may be
summarized as follows:

Lower cost.

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Driven rods can be driven to considerable depth down till moisture level
resulting in big reductions in resistance.

Seasonal variations are very much less with deep rods than with buried
electrode.

On a given area and to a given depth a small number of rods will
approach closely to the resistance of an infinite number of rods on the
same area, this would be the minimum resistance which could be obtained
without extending the area.

The connection between the earth rod and the earthed path can be quite
simple and easily inspected.

4. EFFECT OF CURRENT ON HUMAN BEINGS:

In case of faults in unearthed equipment if a human being touched this
equipment the faulty current will be discharged through his body. this will
lead to a great influence depending on the amount of current passing in the
chest area and the time of passing of this current. The effect of current starting
from 10mA and if this current reached 200mA, then the body will be
completely permanent.

5. MEASUREMENT OF THE ELECTRODE EARTH RESISTANCE:

Fall of potential method
The most reliable method of
measuring the resistance to earth of
a driven electrode is the fall of
potential method. Figure below
shows an arrangement of three
electrodes.
Let E be the electrode whose
resistance to earth is required to be
measured and let P and C be the
auxiliary rods driven into the earth.
A known value of current I is circulated between C and E, and the
voltage drop V between E and P is measured.
The resistance of the electrode E to the earth is V/I.
The optimum location for the
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 potential electrode P is 0.62 of the distance from E to C when

The distance D is at least 30 times the depth of the electrode E.

6. EARTHING SCHEMES
EARTHING SCHEMES

T-T
SCHEME

T-N
SCHEME

I-T
SCHEME

T-N-C
SCHEME
T-N-S
SCHEME
T-N-C-S
SCHEME

6.1 TT scheme (earthed neutral):

Its principle :
The neutral point of the transformer is connected directly to earth.
Exposed conductive parts of equipment
are connected by protective conductors
to the earth electrode of the installation
which is generally independent with
respect to the earth electrode of the
transformer

Its operation:
The current of an insulation fault is limited by earth connection
impedance.
Protection is provided by the residual current devices ( RCD ) .
Where: RA: resistance of the earth connection of the application frames.
RB: resistance of the neutral earth Connection, Rd: fault resistance.

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Id: fault current flowing in the earth connection resistance RA of the

application frame.

6.2 TN SCHEME:
6.2.1 TNC SCHEME (4 wires) :

Its principle:
The transformer neutral is earthed; the electrical load frames are connected
to neutral.
The same conductor acts as a neutral
and a protective conductor.
This scheme is not permitted for
conductors of les s than 10mm2 & for
portable equipment.
Where:
neutral.
SCPD:
device.

PEN: potential earth and

short circuit protection

6.2.2 TNS scheme ( 5 wires ) :

Its principle:
The transformer neutral is earthed; the
electrical load frames are connected to
neutral.
The neutral and the protective
conductor are separate, on underground
cable systems where lead- sheathed
cables exist; the protective conductor is
generally the lead sheath.
This scheme (5 wires) is permitted for
circuits of cross sectional area of less
than 10mm2 for copper and 16mm2 for
aluminum on mobile equipment.
Where: PE: protective earth.

6.2.3 Tncs scheme :

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When the neutral and the protective conductor are separated downstream
of part of the installation in the
TN-C system.
Note that:
The TN-S cannot be placed
upstream of the TN-C.

TN scheme operation:
An insulation fault on a phase
becomes a short-circuit and the
faulty part is disconnected by a
Short-Circuit Protection
Device (SCPD).

6.3 IT scheme ( unearthed neutral ) :

Its principle :
The transformer neutral is not earthed, but is theoretically unearthed. In
actual fact, it is naturally earthed by the stray capacities of the network
cables by a high impedance of around 1,500 (impedance earthed neutral).
The electrical load frames are earthed.

Its operation:
If an insulation fault occurs, a low current develops as a result of the
networks stray capacities (see fig. a). The contact voltage developed in
the frame earth connection (no more than a few volts) is not dangerous.

if a second fault occurs on another phase before the first fault has been
eliminated (see fig.b and c ), the frames of the loads in question are
brought to the potential developed by the fault current in the protective
conductor (PE) connecting them. The SCPDs (for the frames
interconnected by the PE) or the RCDs (for the frames with separate earth
connections) provide the necessary protection.
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7. CHOICE CRITERIA:

1st criterion:
No earthing scheme is universal.
To choose the earthing scheme, analyze every case separately.
The best solution often involves several different earthing schemes for
different parts of the installation.

2nd criterion :
It must satisfy the following fundamental criteria:

Protection against electric shock.

Protection against fire of electric origin.

Power supply continuity.

Protection against over voltage.

Protection against electromagnetic disturbances.

3rd criterion :
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Comparison of earthing schemes:

THE TT SCHEME: It is recommended for installations that have only
limited surveillance or installations subject to extensions or modifications,
that's because it is the simplest scheme to implement private or public
distribution.
THE IT SCHEME : It is recommended if the power supply continuity is
imperative (it offers the best guarantee concerning the availability of
power), {surgery rooms, intensive care rooms& ups system}.
So it requires:

Organization of withstand to over voltage & leakage current.

To promptly eliminate any first fault.

To supervise extensions to the installation.
THE TNS SCHEME: IT recommended for installations that have a high
level of surveillance or installations not subject to extensions or
modifications.
This scheme is generally implemented without medium-sensitivity residual
current devices; the insulation fault currents are high & result in:

Transient disturbance.

High risk of damage.

Even fire.
If medium-sensitivity residual current devices are installed, the protection
against fire is improved & greater flexibility both in design and use.
THE TNC AND TNCS SCHEMES:
They are not recommended for use, given the risk of fire & electromagnetic
disturbances due to:

Voltage drop along the PEN conductors.

High insulation fault current.

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4th criterion :
In terms of over voltage & electromagnetic disturbances (IT, TTANDTNS)
schemes are equally satisfactory.

5th criterion :
For an economic comparison all costs must be taken into account:
Including:

Design.

Maintenance.

Modification or extension.

Product losses.

8. SUMMARY:

9. THE TYPES OF EARTHING ELECTRODES:

1-hemisphere earthing electrode.

2-rod earthing electrode.

9.1 For hemisphere earthing electrode:

R = 2

9.2 For rod earthing electrode:

R=

8L
((ln ) 1)
2L
d

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Where:
R: Resistance of the electrode in ohms
: Soil resistivity in ohm meter
L: Length of the rod in meters
d: Diameter of the rod in meters

Earthing system calculations in our hotel:

As our hotel locates on the red sea especially in Sharm el sheikh and
according to the previous factors that affecting the soil resistivity and as the
salt concentration is very high in our soil
So from the above tables we find that = 100 ohm.cm.
As we will use rod earthing electrode, so we will calculate the resistance of
this rod according to the following relation:

R=

8L
((ln ) 1)
2L
d

Where

= 100 ohm.cm = 1 ohm.m

L=3m
d= 19mm = 0.019 m
After we substitute with the above values in the relation we can get (R)

R=0.325 ohm
As we find the value of resistance of one rod is very small which is very
good value so, we will use one rod with the above dimensions to earthing
our building and no need for more rods

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