1.

BIOFUEL
The world is threatened by two environmental challenges recently, which are energy

crisis and environmental pollution. Throughout the years, fossil fuels such as coal, oil and
natural gas have become the principle sources of energy around the world, for around 80% .
However, the rapid growing in economy sector and human population bring about the
excessive dependent on fossil fuels as the main energy source, leads to the depleting in nonrenewable energy sources. Fossil fuels are formed from the dead organisms such as tiny sea
plants and animals that buried at ocean floor for millions of years, and subsequently turned
into oil and gas under extreme heat and pressure. Hence, the excessive utilization and
longtime formation of fossil fuels causing the limitation of fossil fuels in the future. The
process and timeline of fossil fuels formation is shown in Figure 2.1.

Figure 1.1: Formation of Petroleum and Natural Gas

Based on BP Statistical Review of World Energy on June 2015, the coal reserves in
2014 will last for 110 years of world production and this is the largest reserves to
production (R/P) ratio for any fossil fuel . Based on the Figure 2.2, Europe & Eurasia have

the highest reserves compare to North America, with R/P ratio of 268 years and 248 years,
respectively . The lowest reserves is in the Asia Pacific region, which has R/P ratio of 51
years only .

Figure 1.2 Reserves to production ratios of world energy in each region from 1994 to
2014
The growing in economy and human population bring about the growing in energy
demands. Figure 2.3 has shown that the rapid growing in developing countries in Asia
Pacific region contribute to the doubling in worldwide demand for energy by 2050 in
various sectors such as agriculture, heavy industries, residential, transport and services .
The high demand for energy is also due to the global increase in human population, from
6.5 billion peoples in 2010 to about 9 billion peoples in 2050 . Thus, the development of
economy sector and increasing in human population lead to the depletion in fossil fuels.
Moreover, the combustion of fossil fuels which release greenhouse gases (CO 2) is the
main cause of global warming. In 2012, 65% of CO 2 was emitted from fossil fuels
combustion in which 42% is comes from the combustion of coal in generating electricity

and heat, while another 23% is comes from the combustion of petroleum and gasoline in
transportation sector, as shown in Figure 2.4 . The global emission of CO 2 increased in 2013
to the new record of 35.3 billion tonnes (Gt) CO2, which is 2% higher than CO2 emission in
2012 . It is estimated the greenhouse gas emission could further rise by around 2.5% in
2015 . Therefore, fossil fuels which can contribute to environmental pollution are no longer
a suitable energy for future.

Figure 1.3: Rising global energy demand in various sectors

Figure 1.4: World CO2 emissions by sector in 2012

Malaysia is also facing the crisis of energy and emission of greenhouse gases .
Nevertheless, the energy demand in Malaysia is keep on rising and assumed to reach

around 100 Mtoe (million tonne of oil equivalent) in 2030, as shoen in Figure 2.5 . If there
is no alternative source for fossil fuels, Malaysia would suffer from shortage of energy
security in the future because the fossil fuels reserve in Malaysia is predicted to last for 30
to 40 years only . Consequently, Malaysia would suffer from economy crisis as Malaysia
has to import fossil fuels such as oil and gas from other country. Furthermore, the
fluctuation in global oil price also urge Malaysia to start looking for renewable energy
source. In order to develop renewable energy industry, Malaysian government has been
continuously revising its energy policy and taking appropriate efforts to ensure the
continuous supply of energy. In Malaysia, the transportation sector has become the main
driver for increasing the liquid fuel demand .

Figure 1.5: Energy demand in Malaysia

Biofuels are drawing global attention as the renewable energy sources. The utilization
of biofuels is driven by limitation of fossil fuels, rapid depletion of the fossil fuels,
increasing volatile fuel prices and rising greenhouse gas emissions. Liquid biofuels which
made from plant material or biomass, are the most practical choice to replace petroleum
fuels. They replaced hydrogen-based fuel in economic and environment aspect. In
economic aspect, biofuel increasing energy security, boosting profitability of agricultural
and controlling wastes. While in environmental aspect, biofuel is a renewable and
sustainable energy source, reducing greenhouse gas emissions and cleanly burning. The
presence of higher oxygen content in biofuels increases its combustion efficiency, and thus

reduce hydrocarbon, carbon monoxide and particulate emissions.

2.2 PALM KERNEL CAKE (PKC)

2.3 BIOETHANOL

PROPERTIES,

MARKETABILITY

AND

ECONOMIC

ANALYSIS
Renewable energy such as bioethanol has the potential to replace gasoline-derived
transportation fuel in the future.
2.4 BIOCHEMISTRY
2.5 PROCESS INDICATION