Mechanics of Fluid Flow

Prof. T. I. Eldho ,
# Department
p
of Civil Engineering,
g
g,
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay.

Objectives
j
Introduce Fluid Mechanics & establish its
relevance in Civil Engg.
Develop the fundamental principles
Demonstrate how these are used in Engg.
gg
Course consists of 40 lectures presenting the
concepts, theory & applications

Course Contents
Topics covered by the course may include:
Equation
Equation of motion and continuity, integral
equations of momentum and energy and control
volume approach
Laminar flow in pipes and channels
Elements of boundary layer concepts,
boundary shear stress
stress-skin-friction
skin friction drag
Turbulent flow in pipes and channels
Environmental
Environmental fluid mechanics diffusion,
diffusion
dispersion in open channels, transport
mechanism & solutions

Course Contents Contd.

Unsteady flow in open channels, surge in
channels
h
l
Transients in closed conduits, water hammer
analysis
Assessment criteria for CE 731
The final assessment is based on end-of-semester
examination (50%), two test papers (one each
second week of September and end semester
examinations last week of October),
), course project
p j
and 4-6 assignments cum tutorials and overall class
performance. The end-of-semester examination will
cover the entire course program
program.

References
Bruce R. Munson, D.F. Young, T.H. Okiishi, Fundamentals of
Fluid Mecahnics, John Wiley, New York, 2002.
Daugherthy,
D
h th R
R.L.,
L F
Franzini,
i i JJ.B.,
B Fi
Finnemore, E
E.J.
J Fluid
Fl id
Mechanics with Engineering Applications, McGraw Hill, New
York, 1985.
Douglas J.F.
Douglas,
J F ,Gasiorek,
Gasiorek JJ.M.
M ,Swaffield,
Swaffield JJ.A.,
A Fluid Mechanics,
Mechanics
Addison-Wesley, Harlow 1999.
Granger, R.A., Fluid Mechanics, CBS College Publishing, New
York 1985
York,
1985.
Streeter, V.L. ,Wylie, E. Benjamin , Fluid Mechanics ,
McGraw-Hill, London, 1998.
Shames,, I.H.,, Mecahnics of Fluids,, McGraw Hill,, New York,,
1992.
Video Course on Fluid Mechanics: Prof. T.I. Eldho, Dept.
Civil Engg., IIT Bombay
(http://www.youtube.com/course?list=PL3F50D04B70A5B935&
category=University/Engineering)
(http://nptel.iitm.ac.in/video.php?subjectId=105101082)

I.

Fundamental Concepts of FM

Objectives
Obj ti
Discuss nature of fluids
Introduce fluid properties
Discuss flow characteristics
Discuss flow visualization techniques
Illustrate foundations of flow analysis

Importance of FM
Most important subject in all Science
streams - Physics, Chemistry, Biology,
Mathematics
All Branches of Engineering Civil,
gy, Aerospace
p
Mechanical,, Chemical,, Metallurgy,
What is a Fluid?. - A Substance capable of
flowing Gases & Liquids
Fluids most vital for all forms of life
For
F all
ll activities
i i i off life
lif Fluids
Fl id is
i required
i d
water, blood, milk, air, etc.

Fluids & Fluid Mechanics

Fluid
A substance that deforms continuously when
subjected to a shear stress gas or liquid
Fluid Mechanics
Branch of applied mechanics concerned
the statics and dynamics of fluids.

with

The analysis of fluid behavior is based on

fundamental laws of mechanics conservation of
mass, momentum, energy & laws of
thermodynamics

Fluids & Solids

Fluid deforms
Undergoes strain due
to shear stress

Shear stress

Solids behavior
Solids resists shear byy
static deformation (up
to elastic limit of
material)
t i l)

Deforms

Shear stress

Deforms at elastic limit

Fluids(Liquids&Gases) Vs Solids

We deal with contcont

inuous streams of fluid
without begin or end
Loosely spaced
molecules
Intermolecular forces
are smaller than for
solids
lid
Fluid deforms
continuously
ti
l when
h
acted on by a
shearing stress

We only consider
individual elements in
solids
Densely spaced
molecules
Large intermolecular
cohesive forces
Solid will not deform
continuously (flow)
(flow).

Fundamental Definitions
System
Predetermined identifiable mass of fluid.
Piston

Cylinder

System

System approach in FM

Control Volume
A finite region in space has definite volume

Velocity max. at centre

Control volume approach - Very useful in fluid

analysis

Fundamental Quantities in Fluid

Mechanics
Quantities

Dimensions

Units

Length

Mass

Kg

Time

Force

Temperature

0C

Secondary
y dimensions Based on
primary quantities.
Continuum concept Fluid behavior
behavior.
Coordinate system Cartesian, Cylindrical
and
d IIntrinsic.
ti i
Absolute velocity v = dr/dt, u=dx/dt,
v=dy/dt
Acceleration a = dv/dt.
Pressure = Force/Unit area.

Lagrangian Description
Describes the history of the particles exactly.
Study path of fluid particles of fixed identity.
u = dx/dt

ax = du/dt = d2x/dt2

v = dy/dt

ay = dv/dt = d2yy/dt2

w = dz/dt

az = dw/dt = d2z/dt2

Rarely used in FM. due to complexities

But used in solid mechanics

Eulerian Description
Describes what happens at a given spatial
location P(x
P(x,y,z)
y z) in the flow field at a given
instant of time.
a = dV/dt
eg.
ax = Du/Dt = u/t + u u/x + v u/y + w u/z.

Commonly used in FM Due to fluid

behavior - advantages

Shearing Forces
When a fluid is in motion shear stresses are
developed if the particles of the fluid move
relative to one another.
So the adjacent
j
p
particles have different
velocities.
Consider water flow in a pipe.
At the pipe wall the velocity of the water will
be zero.
Velocity will increase as we move towards the
center of the pipe.

Velocity
profile

Center line
velocity

Velocity profile in a pipe flow

Equal
g
Magnitude

v
Velocity profile in uniform flow

Fluid Properties
Units
Mass
Density() => Mass per unit
volume
Specific weight(=g) => weight
per unit volume.
Specific Gravity (Sg)=> Density
of fluid/ Density of water.
Specific volume(
volume(=1/)
1/)
=>reciprocal of the density.

Kg
Kg/m3
N/m3
No unit
m3/Kg

Pressure Normal force per unit area exerted

on a

plane surface. N/m2.(Pascal).

Absolute pressure Measured relate to absolute zero

pressure. (perfect vacuum).
Pressure in a system

Fluid Properties cont.

Bulk modulus of Elasticity K Used
as a measure of compressibility of
liquids Unit same as of pressure.
The bulk modulus gives the change in
volume of a solid substance as the
pressure on it is changed
changed.
Viscosity of Liquids Property of fluid
by virtue of which offers resistance to
shear.

Cohesion and rate of

transfer of molecular
momentum are the
predominant cause of
viscosity.
Newtons Law of Viscosity
For a given rate of
angular deformation of
fluid, the shear stress is
directly proportional to
Isaac Newton studied viscosity
rate of shear strain.
= du/dy

Viscosity()
Shear stress is directly proportional to rate
of shear strain (velocity gradient)
= rate of strain ; =
= coefficient of viscosity (Experiment)
Newtonian fluid
Fluids for which the shearing stress is
directly proportional to the rate of shearing
strain are designated as Newtonian fluids.
Non Newtonian fluid
Fluids for which the shearing stress is not
linearly related to the rate of shearing
strain are designated as non-Newtonian
fluids.
fluids

Newtons Law of Viscosity

Shearing
Force

Shear
strain

Fluid element
of sizex,y,z

Shear force acted on a fluid element

Shear stress, = F/A

Deformation due to shear stress is measured
by the size of the angle - known as shear
strain.
In a solid shear strain, is constant for a
fixed shear stress.
In a fluid increases as long as is applied
applied,
means the fluid flows.
If the particle at point E(in the above figure)
moves under the shear stress to p
point E and it
takes time t to get there, it has moved the
distance x.

Shear strain
= x/y
Rate of shear strain= /t = x/ty = (x/t)(1/y) =
u/y
Where x/t=u
x/t u is the velocity of the particle at
E.
Shear stress is proportional to rate of shear
strain.
= Constant X (u/y).
u/y
/ is
i the
th change
h
iin velocity
l it with
ith y.
It may be written in the differential form
du/dy.
du/dy
The constant of proportionality is known as
the dynamic
y
viscosity,.
y,
Newtons law of viscosity = (du/dy).

 = Shear stress

=> M L-1 T-2

= Coefficient of dynamic viscosity=> M L-1 T-1

= Kinematic Viscosity(/)
for water = 1.1410-3 Kg m-1 s-1
for air

= 1.7810-5 Kg m-1 s-1

for water = 1.1410-6 m2 s-1

for air

= 1
1.4610
4610-5 m2 s-1

=> L2 T-1

Variation of shearing
stress with rate of
shearing strain for
several types of fluids

Figure Types of
Fluids based on
Viscosity

Types of fluids based on viscosity

Plastic Shear stress must reach a certain
minimum
i i
value
l b
before
f
flflow commences.
= A+B(du/dy)n
If n=1 Bingham plastic (which is neither a
)
fluid nor a solid).
Eg Toothpaste and tomato-ketchup
Pseudo Plastic decreases as the rate of
shear increases.
E Milk
E.g.

Dilatant increases as the rate of shear

increases.
increases
Eg. Paint, Printers ink
Thixotropic decreases with time for which
shearing force are applied
applied.
Eg. Mud gels used in drilling
Rheologic increases with time for which
shearing forces are applied.
Visco-elastic Similar to Newtonian fluids
time variant condition but if shear stress
changes suddenly behave as elastic.

Temperature => 0C
Surface Tension()
( ) Phenomena occurs due
to the unbalanced cohesive forces
acting
g on different surfaces such as air and
water.
Surface tension()
( ) => N/m
The intensity of the molecular attraction per
unit length along any line in the surface.
= dF/dl
F = Force
l = Elemental length
length.

Capillary Rise
It is either due to Cohesion or due to Adhesion.
wetting type liquid

Non wetting
g type
yp liquid
q

Rise

Fall

h = 2cos/R
Vapor Pressure
When a liquid is in a closed container small air
space, a pressure will develop in the space as
a resultlt off vapor that
th t is
i formed
f
d by
b escaping
i
molecules.
When equilibrium is reached so that number of
molecules
l
l leaving
l
i th
the surface
f
iis equall tto
number entering Vapor is said to be saturated
& pressure exerted by vapor on liquid surface is
termed as vapor pressure.

No slip
p condition of viscous fluids
Relative velocity between the solid surface
and
a
d adjace
adjacent fluid
u d pa
particles
c es is
s zero.
eo
Fluid elements in contact with solid surface
have zero velocity.

Basic Flow Analysis Techniques

Three basic ways to approach Fluid flow
problems.
problems
1 Control
1.
C t lV
Volume
l
((or)) IIntegral
t
l analysis.
l i
2. Infinitesimal System (or) Differential
analysis.
3. Experimental
p
Study
y ((or)) Dimensional
analysis.

Foundation of Flow Analysis

In all cases flow must satisfy three basic
law of mechanics plus a thermodynamic
state relation and associated boundary
condition.
I.
Conservation of Mass (Continuity).
II. Linear momentum ((Newtons second law).
)
III. First law of Thermodynamics
((Conservation of energy).
gy)
IV. A state relation like = (P,T).
V Appropriate boundary conditions (at solid
V.
surfaces, interfaces, inlets and exists).

Flow Visualization
1. Dye, smoke or
bubble discharge.

2. Surface powder or Flakes or Liquid flows.

3. Floats or Neutral Density Neutral.
4. Optical techniques Detect density
changes.
g
5. Evaporate
p
coatings
g on boundary
y surfaces.
6. Luminescent fluids, additives or bioluminescence.
7 Particle
7.
P ti l iimage velocity.
l it

Flow Patterns
Stream lines- Line every where tangent to the
velocityy vector at a g
given instant.

Path-line
Actual path traversed by a given fluid
f
particle

Streak line
Locus off particles that passed through a
prescribed point

Timeline
Set of fluid particle that form a line at a given instant.

Classification of Fluid Flows

Rhelogical
Considerations

Dilational
Tensor

Motion
Characteristics
Spatial
p
Dimensions

Temporal
Variations
Fluid
Type

G
Gas

Comprp
essible

St d
Steady

Vi
Viscous

Rotat
ional

3D
2D

InCompr TransiLiquid
essible
ent

Nonviscous

Irrotat
ional

1D

1. Gases Vs Liquids
Based on molecular behavior
2. Continuum Vs Discrete fluids
C ti
Continuum
Individual
I di id l molecular
l
l properties
ti
are negligible.
Discrete fluids Each molecule treated
separately.
3. Perfect Vs Real fluids
Real fluids Does not slip past a solid wall.
4. Newton Vs Non Newton fluids
Newton
e o - co
constant
s a for
o fixed
ed fluid
ud
temperature and pressure. Eg. water

Non
o Newtonian
e o a varies.
a es

eg milk

5. Compressible Vs Incompressible fluids

Compressible fluids Density changes with
applied pressure.

Incompressible
ibl flfluids
id - Density
D
it nott changed
h
d
by external force acting.
6 Steady
6.
St d Vs
V Unsteady
U t d flfluid
id flflows
Steady fluid flow Properties independent
off time.
i
Unsteady fluid flow Properties dependent
of time.

7. 1, 2, 3D Flow
1D Flow Spatial variations are in one
direction.
2D Flow Spatial variations are in two
directions.
3D Flow Spatial
p
variations are in three
directions.
8. Rotational Vs Irrotational flow
Irrotational flow No rate of angular
deformation of any fluid particle.
eg. Potential flow
Rotational flow Rate of angular
deformation.

Solution of Fluid Flow Problem

Problem
2
Theoretical Investigation Experimental Investigation
Physical Analysis

Force Concept

Energy Concept

Mathematical Analysis
Force Concept

Energy Concept

Dimensional Analysis

Dr. T. I. Eldho
Professor,
Department of Civil Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay,
Mumbai, India, 400 076.
E il eldho@iitb.ac.in
Email:
ldh @iitb i
Phone: (022) 25767339; Fax: 25767302
http://www.civil.iitb.ac.in
http://www.
civil.iitb.ac.in