1

Research Methodology

The study of conducting research is Research

Methodology.
Research: The word research is composed of two syllables
Re and Search.
Re is the prefix meaning Again or over again or a
new and Search is the latter meaning to examine closely
and carefully or to test and try.
Together they form, a careful, systematic, patient
study

and

investigation

in

some

field

of

knowledge

undertaken to establish principles / policies.

Research can also be defined as
1. Search for knowledge
2. Systematic and scientific search for getting relevant
answers on any taken up specific topic.
3. Scientific enquiry into a subject.
4. Research is a movement from the unknown to the
known.
5. It is the voyage of discovery
Acc to Bulmer,
Research

is

primarily

committed

to

establishing

systematic, reliable and valid knowledge about the social

world.
Acc. To Clifford Woody,

Research comprises of
Defining and redefining problems.
Formulating hypothesis (basic idea)
Collecting
Organizing
Evaluating datas
Making decisions
Suggesting solutions

Reaching conclusions

Finally, carefully testing the conclusions

To determine whether they fit the formulated Hypothesis.
Research Methods:

May be understood as all those

methods or techniques that are used by a researcher for

conducting a Research depending upon the methods.
(1)

Library Research:

analysis

of

historical

records and documents.

-

Statistical compilation, references, abstracts, guides

manipulation (handle with skill)

(2)

Field Research:

questionnaires,

Observation,

personal,

Group

or

telephonic

interviews, case study.

(3)

Laboratory Research:

Group (team) study, use of audio visual tools.

Research Methodology:

is the way do systematically

solve the research problem.

In it we study the various steps that are generally
adopted by a researcher in studying his research problem
logically.
When we talk of Research Methodology, we not only
talk of research methods but also consider the logic behind
the methods we use in the context of our research study
and explain why we are using a particular method or we are
not using a particular method or technique so that research
results are capable of being evaluated either by the
researcher or others.
Steps:
1) Why a particular research study has been undertaken?
2) How the Research problem has been defined?
3) What way and why the hypothesis (basic idea) has
been formulated?
4) Why a particular technique of analyzing data is used?
(or) How the data were collected?
5) How the collected data were interpreted?
6) What deletion was made?
7) What was the conclusion?
Finally what was the solution for the Research problem?

Importance

of

Methodology:

knowing

the

subject

research

1) A student preparing himself for a career of carrying out

research as his profession
-

Will be trained better to do research

Will help him develop disciplined thinking

Will help him observe the field objectively.

Will enable thoroughly to understand the logic

behind the research problem.

Will increase the ability to evaluate the results.

Face the evaluated results with confidence.

Useful in various fields such as Govt. Business,

administration, community development & social
work.

To qualify a Research or study:

To be a Good or perfect one,
The

Research

adapted

should

process

certain

characteristics,
It must as far as possible be

1) Controlled

2) Rigorous
3) Systematic
4) Valid
5) Verifiable
6) Empirical
7) Critical
1. Controlled: The

research

problem

should

not

be

affected or influenced by external factors (i.e. variables

other than the participating facts).

2. Rigorous:

The procedures followed to find answers to

questions should be relevant, appropriate & justified. But

the degree of rigiour may vary from one problem to another
problem.
3. Systematic: The investigation should follow a certain
logical sequence (Not in a haphazard manner)
4. Valid & Verifiable:

The findings should be valid &

can be verified by you or others at any time.

5. Empirical:

The conclusions drawn should be based on

hard evidence, gathered from real life experiences or

observations.
6. Critical:

The

process

of

investigation

must

be

foolproof and free from drawbacks. The process adapted

and the procedures used must be able to withstand any
critical scrutiny.
Types of Research
Research can be classified from the view point or
perspectives as,
From the view point

Application

objective

Inquiry mode

1) Pure Research

1) Descriptive

1) Quantitative

2) Correlative

2) Qualitative

Research
2) Applied Research
Research

3) Exploratory
4) Explanatory
1) Pure Research:

(Basic or Fundamental Research)

Gathering, knowledge is termed as pure or basic

research. Just to gather knowledge in order to formulate or
generalize theories or policies.
Eg) Research on mathematics.
This types of research adds knowledge to the already
existing organized body.
Applied Research: To find an immediate solution for a
pressing practical problem.
Eg: Social, economical and political trends prevailing in
a country.
Applied Vs Fundamental Based on the objectives of
Research:
1) Descriptive Research:
Survey or fact finding enquires of different
kinds. It describes the actual prevailing
state of affairs, existing at present.
Otherwise known as ex post facts means
existing position of facts / issues.
Here the variable influencing the research
has no control or the researcher has no
control over the variables.
Eg: Frequency of shopping, customer preference
etc.

2) Correlative Research:
Goes on to discover the existing
relationship or interdependence between
two or more aspects / variables.
Otherwise known as comparative study.
Investigates association between variables.
Eg: Sum of humour and job satisfaction,
(related variable)
Research problem is workers turnover

Analytical Research:
The researcher has to use facts / information already
existing and analyze these data to make a critical
evaluation.
Eg: document study / historical evidence.
Descriptive Vs Analytical Research:
Explanatory Research:
Attempts to clarify or explain why and how, any
particular research problem arises and can be solved.
4. Exploratory Research:

Study undertake to explore

a new area or an unknown destination.

III. Based on the Inquiry Mode:
1) Quantitative Research:

Relates to aspects that can be quantified and

expressed in terms of quantity.
Otherwise known as structured Research.
In this type of Research, the objectives, design,
sample and all the other factors influencing the
research is pre determined.
The research problem and its solution will be
expressed in terms of quantity and hence statistical and
economic analysis is adapted in this type of Research.
Quantitative Research:
Otherwise known as unstructured research.
The aspects related to quality / kind or texture.
Eg: Behaviour science
Apart from the above, other types of Research are,
Conceptual Research: Research related to some abstract
idea or theory
Used by philosophers or thinkers for developing new
concepts.
Empirical research
(based on experiments or experience)
Otherwise known as experimental type of Research.
The result obtained by adapting Empirical Research is
considered to be most powerful (evidence enclosed)
Based on the time consumed to complete a particular
research,

a) one time Research:restricted to a single time period.

b) Longitudinal Research:

Conducted over several time

period.
Qualities of a Researcher
Top 10 qualities of a Researcher
1) Ananalytical mind:

Constant analysis on a

variety of factors.
2) A people person :

For respondents to get the

best out of interviews / focus groups.

3) The ability to stay calm: especially when you have
pressing deadlines. Keep well focused and think
logically there will always be an end point.
4) Intelligence :

Researcher requires critical

analysis, but most of all common sense.

5) Curiosity: Have curiosity and be passionate about
developing deeper to unearth more insight.
6) Quick thinker: Things dont always go as you plan, so
you need to be able to think fast.
7) Commitment: Research is a tough job, the hours
may be long, the deadlines short.
8) Excellent written and verbal communication
skills:

So that different audience can clearly

understand the findings.

9) Sympathetic:

Having a sympathetic ear when

listening to some respondents (cry etc) is a good skill,

to have.

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10)

Systematic:

Check, check and check again.

Spending a proper amount of time for checking always

pays.
According to Micheal Foster,
1) Truthful data / facts desire for accuracy of
observation.
2) No expressions like approximately, almost or nearly.
3) Should poccess alert mind. Nature is constantly
changing, be keen and watchful to notice such
changes, no matter how small or insignificant they
may.
4) Scientific inquiry desire for knowledge it requires
moral courage, Steadfast (constant / not changing)
endurance (to tolerate the difficulty, suffer patiently)
-

When a research scientist feel defeated or

completely lost, he needs immense courage and the
sense of conviction (found guilty)

Significance or Importance of Search

1) Doubt is better than over confidence for it leads to
inquiry, inquiry leads to invention. Process or the three
stages of research to bring out economic policies.
1) Investigation of prevailing economic structure with
the available

facts.

2) Analyse or diagnose the data.

3) Prediction for future developments.
2) Research encourages scientific and inductive thinking.

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Eg:- Role of Research in :

1) Econ omics:
Researches done on applied (production and sales
of goods in a profitable manner) economics is
increasing in modern days. Govt. & business sectors
have become more complex, they face several
operational

problems

Research is

to

solve

this

problems,

carried on.

To frame Govt. economic policies.

Govt. budget a formulation depends on the
analysis of needs & desires of the people,
available of revenues needs research.
Decision making requires proper research.
Allocation of a countries scarce resource also
needs research.
2) Business Decisions:
In business sectors there are both planning
and operational problems.
a) Problems Research:

Investigation of

the present structure and development of

the

market

relating

to

purchase,

production, promotion and sales.

b) Operational Research:

Relates

to

application of logical, mathematical and

analytical techniques to solve market
problems there by minimize cost and
profit maximization.

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c) Motivational Research:

Helps

to

determine people behavior or consumer

response.
All the above three are responsible for business
decision making.
3) Social sectors:
aspects

and

To gain knowledge on unknown

do

something

better

and

more

efficiently.
Social scientist gain their knowledge for their own sake
and for the development of the society.
1.

Formulating the Research problem:a) The formulation of a general topic into a specific

Research problem thus constitutes the first step in a

scientific inquiry.
Two steps are involved in formulating the Research
problem,
a) Understanding the problem thoroughly.
b) Rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an
analytical point of view.
1. Identify a broad field or subject area of interest to you.
2. Dissect the broad area into small area.
3. Select what is of most interest to you.
4. Raise Research questions.
5. Formulate objectives
6. Assess your objectives

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7. Double check
The best way to understand the problem is to
discuss with his own colleague or guide.
Examine all available literatures to get himself
acquainted (get used to ) with the selected
problem.
Review two types of literature
Conceptual literature :
Concerning concepts & theories
Empirical Literature : Concerning

studies

made

earlier

which are similar to the one proposed.

Outcome of the review will be the knowledge so as to
pre determine what data or materials are available for
operational purposes.
Next step the Researcher rephrases the problem into
Analytical or operational terms.
PUT THE PROBLEM INTO SPECIFIC TERMS
This step is of greatest importance in the entire
research process.
The problem to be investigated must be defined
unambiguously or clearly.
Prof W.A. Neiswanger States,
The statement of the objective of the Research
problem is of basic importance because,
(i)

It determines the data which are to be collected

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(ii)

Characteristics of the relevant data

(iii)

Choice of techniques to be used in these

explorations

(iv)

Frame a Final report

Step II
Extensive Literature Survey:
A brief summary of the problem should be written
down.
Make extensive literature survey
Sources of survey can be, journals, bio-graphics, Govt.

reports, books, conference proceedings etc.

Based on the nature of the problem.
Earlier study if any which is similar to the study in
hand should be carefully studied.
A good library will be a great help to the researcher at
this stage.
Stage III:
Developing Hypothesis : (Development of working
Hypothesis)
State in clear terms the working hypothesis (Basic Idea
of the Research problem)
It is a tentative assumption in order to test to logical or
empirical consequences.
Provide the focal point for research.

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Hypothesis should be very specific and very well

limited to the place of research in hand because it has
to be tested.
Hypothesis guides the researched by limiting the area
of Research and keep him on the right track.
It sharpens his thinking and focuses attention on
important facets of the problem.
It indicates the type of data required for the study.
Type of methods of data analysis done.
How to develop working Hypothesis?
1) Discuss with collogues / experts, about the problems,
its origin, its objectives and solutions.
2) Examination of data/ records if available.
3) Review similar studies / similar problems.
4) To secure greater insight into the practical aspects of
the problem conduct personnel investigation or field
interviews.
STEP IV:
Preparing the Research Design:
Research design is the conceptual structure within
which research is conduction. It constitutes the blue print for
the collection, measurement and analysis of data.
The function of the Research design is to provide
relevant evidence with minimal expenditure of effort, time
and money. It provides an outline of what the researcher is

16

going to do in terms of 1) Framing the hypothesis, 2) its

operational implications and 3) finally data analysis
The Research design highlights certain decision,
1) The nature of the study
2) Purpose of the study
3) Location where the study would be conducted
4) The nature of data required
5) From where the data would be collected
6) The techniques of data collection that would be
used
7) What time period the study would cover
8) The type of sample design that would be used
9) The method of data analysis that would be adapted
10)

The manner in which the report would be

prepared
Type of Research Design :

4 types

1) Sampling Research Design : Deal with selection of

relevant items
2) Observational Research Design:

Deals with the

observations (field observations) that is to be made.

3) Statistical Research design: Deals

with

the

information on the data collected & analysed.

4) Operational Research Design:
three are carried out.

How the above

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Determining sample Design:

All the items considered in any field of inquiry
constitutes a universe or population. Study of the
entire population without leaving out a single item is
known as Census Study
This type of census study is practically not possible.
So we select few items from the entire population for
our study purpose. The items so selected constitutes
what is technically called sample.
The way of selecting such a sample is known as the
Sample Design.
These samples can be either probability samples or non
probability samples.
Probability:

Each item in the population has on equal

chance of being selected for the study.

1) Simple random sampling
2) Systematic random sampling
3) Stratified random sampling
4) Cluster / area random sampling.
Non Probability sampling:

All the items do not have an

equal chance of being selected for the study.

The selection depends upon the convenience &
judgment of the Researcher.
Mixed sampling: When more than one type of sampling
technique is used for a study, it is mixed sampling.

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The sample design to be used in a Research study

must be decided by the researcher considering the nature of
the study.
6.

Collecting the Data:

Gathering appropriate data which are made use

in Research study.
Data can be collected in several ways either through
(1) Experiment (or) (2) through surveys.
In

experimental

conducts

means,

research,

when

some

researcher
quantitative

measurements are observed, based on which, he

examines the truth of the underlying hypothesis.
In case of surveys, data are collected by
1) By observations
2) Through personnel interview
3) Through telephone interviews
4) By mailing of questionnaires
5) Through schedules / enumerators
The Researcher should select one of these methods of
collecting the data taking in account the
1) Nature of investigation
2) Objective & scope of Inquiry
3) Financial Resources
4) Time frame
5) Desired degree of Accuracy.

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6) Execution of the Project: (Putting a plan)

Important step in Research study.
See that the project is executed in a systematic
manner and in time.
Eg) If the survey done in a project is via
Questionnaire the answers can be machine
coded / processed
If interview were conducted, make sure that the
interviewers is well trained to keep the survey as
much as realistic as possible.
8. Analysis of Data :
After the data are collected the researcher turns to
the task of analyzing the data the analysis of data
require closely related operations, like coding,
Editing & Tabulation.
The wide data collected should be condensed into
small manageable groups, for easy analysis.
Coding: The collected data are transformed into
symbols that may be tabulated or counted.
Editing:

Unwanted

&

irrelevant

data

will

be

removed.
Tabulation:

Technical procedure where the data

are put in the form of tables.

Research Design:
The most important step after defining the Research
problem is preparing the Research Design

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Research design is the conceptual structure within

which the research is conducted.
It

constitutes

the

BLUE

PRINT

for

collection,

measurement and analysis of data.

Research design provides an answer to the question,
what the Researcher is going to do with regards to
framing hypothesis, its operational implications and
how to analyse the data?
Research Design: - Decisions
Highlights certain decisions,
1) Nature of the study
2) Purpose of the study
3) Location where the study would be conducted
4) Nature of DATA required
5) From where the DATA can be collected
6) Time period of the study
7) Type of sample design to be used
8) Techniques of data collection
9) Methods of Data Analysis
10)

Preparation of Report.
Research Design

May be sub divided into,

1) Sampling design:
items for the study.

Deals with, the method of selecting

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2) Observational design:

Relates to the condition under

which the observations are to be made.

3) Statistical Design:

Deals with the no of items

selected or the study and how the selected data will be

analysed.
4) Operation design:

The technique by which the

sampling, observational and statistical designs can be

carried out.
Research Design Features :
1) Helps to identify the type and source of information
needed for the study.
2) Specifies the methods to be adopted in collecting &
analyzing data.
3) Specifies the time schedule of the research and the
monetary budget involved.
Concepts Relating to Research Design
1) Dependent and Independent variables :
Variables :

A magnitude that varies is known as

variable
Continuous variable :

Values that can be expressed

even in decimal poins are known as continuous variables

Eg:

age (4 years 3 months)

Height (5.2 cm)
Weight (45.3 kg)

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Non continuous Variables:

Value that can be

expressed only in integer values are called Non continuous

variables
Eg:

No. of students in a class ( 45)

No. of children in a family (3)

Statistically known as discrete variables

Dependent or Endogenous variables :
When the change in one variable depends on the
change in other variable, it is known as dependent or
Endogenous variable.
Demand

-----

Price (independent)

Independent or Exogenous variable

The variable that causes the change in the dependent
variable is known as independent or exogenous variable.
Demand (Dependent) ------- Price ,Income
Here demand is a dependent variable while price /
income is an independent variable.
Extraneous variable :
The independent variable which is not directly related
to the purpose of the study but affects the dependent
variable is know as Extraneous variables.
The influence caused by the extraneous variable on
the

dependent

value

is

technically

known

as

Experimental Error
A research study or a Research design should always
be framed in such a manner that the influence of

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Extraneous variables on the dependent variable is

completely

controlled

and

the

influence

of

the

independent variable is clearly evident.

Control:
Good Research design should minimize the effect for
Extraneous variables.
Confounded Relationship
The relationship between dependent and independent
variable is said to be confounded by an extraneous
variables.
Research Hypothesis:
When the formulated hypothesis is tested by adopting
scientific methods, it is known as Research Hypothesis.
Experimental & Non Experimental Hypothesis testing:
When the objective of the Research is to test the
hypothesis, it is Research hypothesis.
Research in which the independent variable are
(handled with skill) manipulated, it is experimental
hypothesis testing.
When the variables are not manipulated, it is non
experimental hypothesis testing.
Experimental & Control Groups:
When a group is exposed to usual conditions in an
experimental hypothesis, research it is control Groups.
When the group is exposed to special or certain new
conditions, it is experimental groups.

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8. Treatments:
The different conditions to which the experimental &
control groups are subject to is known as treatments.

9. Experiment:Fertilizers and crops)

Process of verifying the truth.
Absolute Experiment:
Determine the fact
Comparative Experiment:
Determine

the

impact

in

block

to

comparison

with

another fact.
10. Experimental units
Pre-determined

which

different

treatments are applied.

Eg : animal testing
Types of Research Design
There are three different types of Research design,
1) Exploratory Research Design:
Is a Formulative Research design
Main purpose is the discovery of ideas & insights
Should be flexible enough considering different
dimensions of the problem under study.
2) Descriptive and Diagnostic Research Design:

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Descriptive Research Design is concerned with

describing the characteristics of a particular
individual or a group.
Study concerned with narration of facts or
characters related to an individual, group or
institution are descriptive research studies.
Diagnostic Research design determines the
frequency with which a variable occurs or its
relationship with another variables.
Both the Research designs should be planned
carefully.
Research design should be Rigid (No flexibility)
3) Hypothesis testing Research Design:
Test the hypothesis of causal relationship
between two or more variables.
Adopt procedure that not only reduce bias but
enhance reliability and facilitates deriving
Inferences (results) about the Research problem.
Importance of Research Design:
Facilitates the smooth flow of the various stages of
Research.
Helps yield maximum information with minimum
effort, time and money.
Helps to plan in advance data collecting and analysis
techniques.
Prepare with utmost care to avoid errors.

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Attain reliability
Characteristics of a Good Research Design
Posses the qualities of being flexible, suitable efficient
& economical.
Should minimize bias and maximize reliability of data
collection & Analysis.
No experimental error should be allowed
Should yield maximum information
Research problem should be viewed from different
angles or dimensions.
The choice of Research design depends on,
Nature of the Research problem
Objectives of the Research problem
Skills / ability of the Researcher
Methods of gathering information
Availability of monetary support
Time schedule

HYPOTHESIS
A Research hypothesis is a predictive statement, which
is capable of being tested using scientific methods, which
involves independent and dependent valuables. (eg) the
female students perform as well as the male students.

27

This statement is a hypothesis that can be objectively

tested and verified.
It is a proposition that can be put to test in order to
examine its validity.
Characteristics of Hypothesis
1) A hypothesis should be precise and clear. If not clear,
the inferences will not be reliable.
2) It must be capable of being put to test.
3) It should state the relationship between the variables,
in case relational hypothesis.
4) It should be stated in a simple language.
5) It should be consistant and derived from all known
facts.
6) Hypothesis must be amenable to testing within a
reasonable period of time
7) Hypothesis should explain what it actually to explain.
(the

solution

for

the

Research

problem).

The

explanation should be on empirical reference.

Concepts Relating to Testing of Hypothesis
1) Null Hypothesis & Alternative
Hypothesis (Statistical Analysis)
Null Hypothesis: Denoted by H0. If both the variables (say
male or female) or (Head or Tail) are equally good, it is Null
Hypothesis.

28

Alternative Hypothesis:

Denoted by Ha or H1. If one

variable is considered superior to other or vice versa or if

there is a difference, it is alternative hypothesis.
Mean Population (u) or (p)
Total / No. of variables
Null Hypothesis
Ho : u = 100
Alternative Hypothesis
Ha

u = 100

Ha

u > 100

Ha

u < 100

Aspects to be considered while formulating Null

Hypothesis
1) The researcher always tries to reject Null hypothesis
since Alternative Hypothesis should be proved.
2) Null hypothesis when it is actually true, when rejected
involves great risk, the level of significance should be
considered.
3) Null hypothesis
approximation)

should

be

very

specific

(No

The level of significance:

Important concept of hypothesis testing.
It is a certain percentage chosen with great care,
reason and thought

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(eg) let us consider the level of significance to be 5%.

It means the Researcher takes a risk of rejecting Null
hypothesis (Ho) by 5% when Ho is actually true.
3.

Decision Rule
The researcher should make a decision, if to accept or
Reject Ho.
The decision rule should be decided on the number of
items to be tested and the basic of which to accept or
reject.

4.

Type I and Type II Errors

(i)

Researcher may reject Ho, when it is true Type I Error

(which must have been accepted).

(ii)

Researcher may accept Ho, when it is false Type II

Error (which must have been rejected)

5.

One tailed and Two tailed Tests:

(i)

One tailed test rejects the Null hypothesis when the

sample mean is either greater or lower than the
hypothesized value of the population mean.
Two tailed Test:

When the sample mean is both

greater and lower than the hypothesized value of the

population mean.
Procedure for Hypothesis Testing:
1. Testing hypothesis refers whether the formulated
hypothesis is valid or not
2. Whether to Accept or Reject Null Hypothesis.
(i)

Making a formal statement:

30

Making a formal statement of the null hypothesis

and alternative hypothesis.
(ii)

Selecting a significant level of testing

A pre-determined level of significance should be
specified.
Either 5% or 1% level can be considered for the
purpose.

(iii)

Deciding the Distribution to use:

Choice should be made generally relates to Normal
distribution or t-distribution.

(iv)

Selection

of

random

sample

&

computing

an

Appropriate value
Selection of Random sample
Computing suitable value
Drawing a sample for furnishing Empirical data.
(v)

Calculation of Probability:
The diverged results from the expected results,
when Ho is true.

(vi)

Comparing the probability:

By

making

comparison

with

the

assumed

significance level.
If the value is less than or equal to Ho, in case of
one-tailed test, Ho is rejected. Here type I error is
committed.

31

If the value is greater than the mean, Ho is

accepted. Were type-I error is committed.
compile, compare & compute the data and come
out with the inference.
Null Hypothesis:

The null hypothesis is the proposition

or proposal that implies no effect on the phenomena.

Alternative Hypothesis: is the one predictive statement
that implies some effect on the phenomena.
Concepts Relating to Testing of Hypothesis:

SAMPLE SURVEY
Sampling Design:
An art of obtaining a sample from a given population.
The technique or procedure the researcher adopts for
selecting items for the sample from the population or
universe.
Steps in sampling Design
Type of Universe:
1) The first step in sampling design, is to clearly define
the total number of items / cases to be studied, which
is technically known as UNIVERSE
Finite
Universe
Infinite
Finite Universe:

The number of items is certain.

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Eg:

No. of students in a class.

No. of workers in a factory.

Infinite Universe:

The number of items is infinite. (No

idea about the number of items)

Eg:

Chennai population, No. of stars

2) Sampling Unit:
A geographical area like a state, district or
village.
Family, religious community or a school.
Individual (Researcher can select one or two such
units).
3) Source List:

Otherwise

known

as

Sampling

Frame
Consists of names of all items of a universe.
If not available the researcher has to prepare a
Source list.
It must be reliable, comprehensive, correct and
appropriate.
It

should

be

the

representative

of

the

population / universe.
4) Size of sample:
Refers to the number of items to be chosen
from the universe.
Size of sample must be optimum. An optimum
sample may defined as the one that satisfies.

33

The requirements of representatives.

Flexibility
Efficiency
Reliability
Costs or budget should be considered.
Factors Influencing size of sample :
Parameters of Interest:
The items or parameters are selected based on the

researchers own interest.

Budgetary constraint :
Cost consideration exercises a major influence.
a) Sampling Procedure:
The type or technique used by the researcher to select
the items.
The technique should be selected so that for a given

sample size & budget, the sampling error must be very

small or negligible.
Sampling Error:

may be caused (In case of Non

probability sampling) due to

(1) Interviewer Bias
(2) Mistakes
(3) Non response problems
(4) Questionnaire design flaws

34

(5) Data processing & analysis errors

In case of probability sampling, (homogenous items )
the sampling error is negligible since the sample is more
accurate.
Characteristics of a Good sample :
Should bind a truly representative sample.
Small sampling error
Should fit into the budgetary constraints.
Result should be applicable in general.
Characteristics of sample techniques :
1) Much cheaper
2) Saves time
3) Much reliable
4) Suitable for carrying out different surveys
5) Scientific in Nature
Advantages of sampling:
1) Very accurate
2) Economical in Nature
3) Very reliable
4) Suitable for different surveys
5) Less time consumption
6) In case of large universe, sampling method is the
only practical method for collecting the data.

35

Different types of sample Design:

Classified under two general categories.
1) Probability sampling
2) Non Probability sampling.
Probability sampling:
Otherwise known as choice sampling or random
sampling.
Every item has an equal chance of being included in
the sample.
Eg: Lotteries (or) subscribers
When done property, probability sampling ensures that
the sample has a similar composition and profile as
that of the entire population.
7 different types of probability sampling,
1) Simple Random sampling
2) Stratified Random sampling
3) Cluster sampling
4) Systematic sampling
5) Area sampling
6) Multi stage sampling
7) Sampling with probability propotional to size

(1)

Sample Random Sampling

The sample is drawn so that each person or item has

an equal chance of being drawn during the selection.

36

Eg:
(2)

Lotteries (in a ball box)

Stratified Random sampling: (strata layers)

-

Stratified sampling technique is generally used

when the population is heterogeneous.

The entire population is divided into sub population

(sub

groups)

(i.e.

the

sub

population

being

homogenous).
-

Items are selected from each stratum.

This method is more reliable & accurate.

Eg:

50 students of a school having 1000

students on a total were selected & interviewed on

the interest in music.
The students were grouped based on their age, 7
years, 8 years, 9 years, 10 years & 11 years.
From each age group, 5 students were chosen and
totally 50 students were interviewed.
(3)

Cluster sampling:

The entire population is sub divided into mutually

exclusive groups or clusters
Simple Random sampling is applied and the need
clusters are selected for the study.
If all the elements found in the selected cluster is
taken for the study, then it is one stage cluster
sampling.

37

If random sampling is applied in selecting elements

found within the clusters, it is two stage cluster
sampling.
(4)
-

Systematic sampling:
Selecting every nth element for the study.
1st, 5th, 10th, 15th, 20th .

(5)

Area sampling: when the clusters are in the form of

some geographical sub divisions.

(6)
-

Multi stage sampling:

If the researcher selects elements or items at different
stages, it is multi stage sampling.

Eg: Survey of work efficiency in nationalized baulks

Stage level

District level

Towns

Villages

Items are selected at four stages / levels.

(7)
-

Sampling with probability proportional to size:

The probability of inclusion into the study is directly
proportional to the size of the clusters.

This technique is used when the no. of elements

present in each cluster varies.

Depending on requirement of the researcher the

cluster which is more appropriate can be selected for
the study.

38

II.

Non Probability sampling:

-

Each item does not have an equal chance of being

included in the sample.

3 types of non probability samplings are,

1) Convenience sampling
2) Quota sampling
3) Judgmental sampling

1)

Convenience sampling:
-

Choosing

items at the convenience

of the

Researcher.
Eg:

Street interviews (sampling of people who

are at easy access)

Drawback: Lack of accuracy
2.

Quota sampling
The researcher simply assume quotas, with certain

restrictions imposed on how they should be selected.

Eg:
Benefits:
3.

Caste basic
less expensive, very convenient

Judgment sampling : (otherwise known as purposive

sampling)
Researcher employs his own Expert judgment about
who to include in the sample frame.
Disadvantages of sampling:
1) Inadequacy of samples

39

2) Chances of bias
3) Problems of accuracy
4) Difficulty of getting the representative sample.
5) Untrained Manpower.
6) Absence of Informants
7) Chances of committing errors.
Sampling Error:

Sampling error is the deviation of the

selected sample from the true characteristics, traits,

behavior, qualities or figures of the entire population.
Data Collection
Data Collection is the systematic gathering of
information (data) for a particular purpose from various
sources. (Various sources can be questionnaires, interviews,
observations existing records and electronic devices).
Two Important sources of Information are,
(i)

Primary Data

(ii) Secondary Data

Primary Data:
Refers to the data collected for the first time (Original
data)
Example: Proceedings
Students records.

from

conferences

meetings,

Secondary Data:
Refers to the data that have already been collected
and used earlier by somebody or some agency.
Example: Online database, Historical books etc.
Example: Taking census (total population) of Government
of India Primary Data.

40

When research is done by some other scientist on the

basis of this data, it is secondary data.
Selecting A particular source of Data depends on,
(1) Purpose & Scope of the study.
(2) Availability of time.
(3) Availability of Resources.
(4) The degree of Accuracy desired.
(5) Statistical tools to be used.
(6) Sources of Information (data).

1. Purpose & Scope of Data Collection:

Should be clearly stated at the very beginning of the
study.
A statement indicating the Research problem and the
type of information needed for the study in order to
solve the Research Problem, is needed.
Its purpose is to establish a factual information for
making decisions.
Scope of the enquiry means the coverage with regard
to the type of information, the subject matter and
geographical area.

(b) Availability of Time: The investigation should be done within a reasonable

period of time.
Taking which the information collected may become
outdated.
Example: Demand of a new product launched is
studied, if the result comes out after 2 years, by the
time the producer may attain great lose.

41

So, make sure the investigation is carried out within a

reasonable period of time.

(c) Availability of Resources:

Investigation or data collection greatly depends, on
resources available like,
1. No. of skilled personnel
2. The Financial Position.
If the no.of skilled personnel to carry our the enquiry is
sufficient and the availability of funds is not a problem,
the datas can be collected from a big area covering a
good number of samples.
(d) The desired/expected Degree of Accuracy: Deciding the degree of accuracy is a must for the
investigator.
Because Absolute Accuracy is not possible in
statistical works.
Since Statistics is based on estimates, tools used for
measurements in not always perfect & there may be
unintentional bias on the part of the investigator,
enumerator or informant.
Generally the degree of accuracy depends upon the
objections of the enquiry.
Example: During purchase of Gold, even 1/10 th gram in its
weight is significant.
But it is not the same in case of purchasing rice or
wheat.

42

(e) Statistical Tools to be used:

Well defined or identifiable object or group of objects
that can be measured or counted in a statistical
investigation is called statistical Unit.
In the absence of a clear and precise Statistical Unit
Serious

errors

may

be

committed

by

collecting

irrelevant data. This will ultimately lead to fallacious

(Wrong) conclusions.
(f) Sources of Information:
The researcher has to decide about the source from
which the information can be obtained or collected.
1. First hand data.
2.

The

data

from

other

published

sources.

(Publications, Journal, Magazines etc.)

(g) Method of Data Collection:1. Primary Data.
2. Secondary Data.
Primary Data: First hand data.
Either Census or Sample technique is to be used.
Census: Total no.of items have to be investigated.
Sample: Selected representatives from the total population
have to be investigated.

43

CENSUS
Total

No.

of

SAMPLE

items,

100% Selected

Representations,

Accuracy

attained,

Time 100%

consuming,

Expensive

More attained, Less time taken, Less

Labour.

Accuracy

cannot

expensive, Less Laborious.

Should be very cautious and careful while choosing a

particular method.
Methods of Collecting Primary Data:
May be obtained by applying any of the following
methods,
1. Direct Personal Interviews.
2. Indirect Oral Interviews.
3. Information from Correspondents.
4. Mailed questionnaire methods,
5. Schedule sent through Enumerators.
1. Direct Personal Interviews:
A face to face contact is made with the informants.
Interviewer asks them questions regarding the study
and tries to get the desired information.
The information thus collected is first hand and
original.
Merits:
(i)

Response

is

encouraging

when

personally

contacted.
(ii)

Information

are

more

accurate

(if

not

found

accurate, he can be reexamined or Cross-examined,

there by try to obtain the information).

be

44

(iii)

Provides

hope

for

getting

supplementary

information, which may be of greater use latter.

(iv)

A delicate situation (Some Personnel Questions) can

usually be handled more effectively by a personnel
interview than other survey techniques.

(v)

The interviewer can adjust the language according

to the status and educational level of the person
interviewed, thereby can avoid inconvenience and
misinterpretation.

Demerits:
(i)

Expensive when the no. of informants is large.

(ii)

Greater chance of personnel bias and prejudice.

(taking a decision before finding the full facts).

(iii)

Interviewer

should

be

thoroughly

trained

&

experienced. (untrained personal will spoil the

work)
(iv)

Time consuming (Interviewers can be contacted

only at the convenience of the informants)

Conclusion:

Direct personal Interviews can be used in Intensive

Field Survey rather than Extensive Field Survey.

The

present

day

of

extreme

advancement

in

communication system, a good number of survey, can

be conducted by News papers & television channels by
replying through e.mails & SMS.
They are less expensive & extremely quick.
Defects No Phone or Television, delicate & sensitive
Questions cannot be asked, value answers.
2. Indirect Oral Interviews:

45

The

investigator

contact

third

party

called

Witnesses who is capable of supplying necessary

information.
Generally

adopted

when

the

information

to

be

obtained is complex or the informer is not willing to

reveal the answers.
Example: When a drug addicted person is interviewed, he
will not be willing to response directly, so the information
are gathered via agents (may be relatives).
The accuracy of this method depends on,
(i)

The proven integrity of the Agency/Person.

(ii)

Ability of the interviewer to act the right information

from the witness.

(iii)

Bribery or other reasons may twist the witness to

give false information there by bringing a wrong
conclusion.

Conclusion:
(i) Let more care should be taken in the selection of
Witness because it is on their views, the final conclusion is
reached.
3. Information From Correspondents:
The

investigator

correspondents

in

appoints

local

different

places

agents
to

or

collect

information under this method.

These correspondents collect the information and
transfer or transmit the information to the central
office where the data are processed.
Example: News paper Agencies.

46

Generally these Agencies are paid staff, sometimes

honorary.
Advantages:
1. Cheap
2. Can be used to get regular information at regular

intervals (daily, weekly or monthly).

Disadvantages:
(i) Lacks Accuracy.

4. Mailed Questionnaire Method:

A list of questions pertaining to the survey is known as
Questionnaire. It is prepared and sent to various
informants by post.
The questionnaire contains questions and provides
space for answers.
A request is made to the informants through a
covering letter to fill up the questionnaire and sent it
back within a specified time.
The questionnaire studied can be classified as,
1) The degree to which the questionnaire is formalized or
structure.
2) The disguise/lack of disguise of the questionnaire.
3) The communication method used.
4) When no formal questionnaire is used, interviewers
adopt other tactics like showing pictures on which
respondents comments.
When a research follows a prescribed sequence of
Questions it is structured study.

47

When no prescribed sequence of Question exists, the

study is Non-Structured.
When the questionnaire is constructed in such a way
that the Objective is clear (the questionnaire) it is
known as Non-disguised.
When the objective is not clear, the questionnaire is a
Disguised one.
On this basis, 4 types of studies can be distinguished,
(i)

Non-disguised Structured.

(ii)

Non-disguised Non-structured.

(iii)

Disguised Structured.

(iv)

Disguised Non-Structured.

Merits: Questionnaire Methods,

(1)

Easily adopted in large populations and when the

informants are wide spread over a large geographical

area.
(2)

Relatively cheap & timely.

(3) Information pertaining to personnel life or family or

confidential matters will be revealed in written rather

than personal interviews or telephones.
Demerits:
(1)

Applicable only among literate people.

(2)

Uncertainty

of

the

Respondents

lacks

co-

operation.
(3)

Lacks Accuracy because the information may not

be correct.
Guideline to make this method more Effective:
(i)

Prepaid postage stamp should be affixed.

(ii)

Sample should be large.

(iii)

Questionnaire should be interesting.

48

(iv)

Legal Compulsion should be made to provide in

formations.

5. Schedules sent through Enumerators:Sending

Schedules

through

enumerators

or

interviewers.
The enumerators contacts the informants, gets replied
to the questions contained in the schedule and fill
them in their own handwriting.
Here the questions are asked face to face and the
response is papered.
Merits:
(1)

Applicable among illiterates.

(2)

Very

little

scope

for

Non-response,

as

the

enumerators go personally.
(3)

Information are more Reliable & Accurate.

Demerits:
(1)

Expensive

Since

enumerators

are

paid

personals.
(2)

Success depends on the efficiency of the

enumerators.
(3)

Interviewer requires training and experience.

(4)

Variations in answers must be removed to avoid

variations.
Secondary Data:
Are those data which have already been collected and
analyzed by some earlier agency for its own use and later
the same data is used by a different agency.
Sources of Secondary Data:
(1)

Published Sources.

49

(2)

Unpublished Sources.

1. Published Sources:
The Government, Inter National and local agencies
publish statistical data.
Chief Among them,
(i) Inter National Publications:Inter

National

Institutions

&

bodies

like

I.M.J.

(International Monetary Fund), I.B.R.D. (International Bank of

Reconstruction and Development), I.C.A.F.E. (International
Conference on Agriculture & Food Engineering) and U.N.O.
United Nations Organization publish regular & occasional
reports on Economics & Statistical matters.
(ii)

Official

Publications

of

Central

&

State

and

State

Governments:
Several

departments

of

the

Central

Governments publish reports on different subjects.

Example:- Publications are,
(a)

Reserve Bank of India Bulletin.

(b)

Census of India.

(c)Statistical Abstract of the states.

(d)

Agricultural Statistics of India.

(e)

Indian Trade Journal.

(iii) Semi Official Publications:

(a)

Indian Statistical Institute (I.S.I)

(b)

Indian Council of Agricultural Research (I.C.A.R.)

(c)Indian

Agricultural

Statistics

Research

(I.A.S.R.I.)
Publish the findings of their research programs.

Institute

50

(iv) Publications of various commercial and financial

institutions.
(v) Reports of various committees & commissions
appointed by the Government.
(a) Raj Committees Report on Agricultural Taxation.
(b) Wanchoo Committees Report on Taxation & Black
Money.

(vi) Journals & News Papers: Powerful source of secondary data.

Current & important matter can be obtained.
From Journals & News papers like Economic Times,
Commerce Capital, Indian Finance, etc.,
Unpublished Sources:
Records maintained by Government & Private Offices.
Theses of Research Scholars from universities &
institutions.
Precautions in the use of secondary Data:
Proper scrutiny is made before they are used by
investigator.
Be Extra-Cautious while using secondary data.
Should

not

be

accepted

as

such

because

the

secondary data may process,

(Bias, Inadequate Size, Substitution, errors of definition
or arithmetical errors)
Factors to be Considered before using the secondary
Data:

51

(i) Suitability of Data:

make sure that the data available is suitable for the
purpose of enquiry.
(ii) Adequacy of Data:
Make sure that the data are sufficient or adequate for
the present analysis.
(iii) Reliability of Data:
The reliability of data is must, without which there is
no meaning in the research.
The reliability of data can be tested by finding the
agency that has collected the data, if the agency has
used proper methods for collection the data.
EDITING:
Once data have been obtained from primary or
secondary sources the next step in a statistical investigation
is to edit the data. (to Scrutinize).
Objective, editing is to detect possible errors and
irregulations.
Editing needs great care and attention.
Editing

Secondary

data

is

simple

but

the

data

collected from survey (Primary Data) need excessive

editing.
Editing Primary Data,
(i)

The data should be complete in every respect.

(ii)

The data should be accurate.

(iii)

The data should be consistant.

(iv)

The data should be homogenous

1. Editing For Completeness:

52

The

editor

should

see

that

each

schedule

or

questionnaire is complete in all respects.

Answers to every questions is furnished.
If not answered, try to meet them in person to get the
answers.
If not just mark No Answer.
2. Editing For Accuracy:
The

reliability

of

conclusions

depends

on

the

correctness of in formations.
If the information is wrong, the conclusion can never
be valid.
Editor should see that the in formations are accurate
in all respects.
Arithmetic errors can be detected easily & corrected.
If the error is due to fault information supplied, it may
be difficult to verify.
3. Editing For Consistency:
Editor should see that the answer to questions are not
contradictory in nature.
Example: Are you a student? No which class do you study?
X
The answers are contradictory and such answers
should be classified.
4. Editing For Homogeneity:
Understand the questions in the same sense.
Check uniform interpretation and make sure the
information supplied by the various informants are
homogenous & uniform.
Example: Income (Yearly, Monthly, Weekly, Daily)

53

Choice Between Primary & Secondary Data:

A proper choice between the type of data (Primary or
Secondary) needed for a particular statistical investigations
is to be made by considering the nature, objective, scope of
the study, time frame & finances and the degree of
precision aimed at, and the status of the Agency.
Now, Secondary data are generally used from fairly
reliable

published

organizations

and

data

by

research

Government,
agencies,

Private

periodicals

magazines etc.,
In fact, primary data are collected only if there do not
exist any secondary data.
In some cases both Primary & Secondary data may be
used.

QUESTIONNAIRE

Questionnaire can be defined as a group of questions

designed to collect information from a specific subject.
(or)
List of questions sent to a number of persons for
getting answers and which obtains standardized results that
can be tabulated and treated statistically.
(or)
Media of communication between the investigator and
the respondent.

54

Generally used in social research when the population

is varied, large, diverse & Scattered.
Should be designed with utmost care & caution so that
all the needed information are collected without any
difficulty.
Drafting a Good questionnaire Requires Care, Skill,
Wisdom, efficiency and experience.
Points to Remember: While Drafting A Questionnaire
(1) Size of the Questionnaire:
(a) No. of questions should be as small as possible
depending on the nature, objectives & scope of the study.
(b) Large no.of questions may irritate the informants and
may be difficult to Edit or Scrutinize by the investigator.
(c) Avoid irrelevant and unimportant questions.
(d) Average No. of questions should be 15 to 25 (at the
most).
(e) If it is more than 25, divide it into various sections.
2. The Questions should be Clear:
Should

be

meaning),

Easy,
Non

Brief,

offending,

Unambiguous(Clear
courteous

in

in

tone,

corroborative (Supportive) in nature & to the point.

3. The Questions should be arranged in a Logical
Sequence:
When arranged Logically, the answers can be easily
tabulated or coded and does not leave any chance of
omissions.

55

Example: To find if a person owns a television.

4. Questions should be simple to understand:
Vague & Double meaning words should be avoided.
Example: Price/Cost/Rate/ Capital Income/Salary.
5.

Questions

should

be

Comprehensive(Includes

Everything) and Easily Answerable:

Questions should be comprehensive (i.e.) it should
include all the needed in formations.
Easy to be answered. Avoid mathematical calculations
like Ratios, Percentages etc.,
6. Questions of Personal And Sensitive Nature Should
Not Be Asked:
Avoid personal questions which the respondent may
feel shy or irritated to answer.
Example: Do do drink ?
If such questions are unavoidable, a highest amount of
politeness should be used.
7. Types of Questionnaire:
(a) Shut Questions:
Where possible answers are suggested by the frames
& the respondents are requested to the tick one of
them.
Two types of shut Questions.
(i) Simple Alternative Questions:
(Otherwise known as Dichotomous questions) Choose
from two clear cut alternatives Yes or No/ Right or Wrong.
(ii) Multiple Choice Questions:

56

When it is difficult to define a clear cut alternative,

additional Questions between Yes & No is inserted,
Example: To find if a person smokes? Do you smoke?
(a) Yes, Regularly

(b) No, Never

(c) Occasionally

(d) Seldom (rarely) (

Easy & Convenient to answer.

Save Time.
Easy to tabulate.
8. Leading Questions should be Avoided:
Long Questions leading to several answers should be
avoided. It should be framed into short questions.
Example: Why do you use a particular type of car, say
Maruti Car, Avoid this continuous questions.
Instead ask,
Which car do you use ?
Why do you prefer it ?
9. Cross Checks:
Should be designed to provide internal checks on the
accuracy

of

the

in

formations

given

by

the

respondents.
10. Pre-Testing the Questionnaire:
Try out the Questionnaire on a small scale before using
in a large scale.

57

The drawbacks, short comings and problems faced in

the small scale informants can be improved or
modified when used in large scale.
11. A Covering Letter:
A Covering Letter should be enclosed for the purpose
regarding definitions, concepts & purpose.
Attach a self addressed envelope in case of mailed
questionnaire.
Mentions about Awards or incentives for quick reply.
Promise to send a survey copy of the report.
--------------

SAMPLING
A carefully designed sample may actually be better
than a poorly planned and executed census.
Merits:
1. It saves time:
Saves time because fewer items are collected and
processed.
2. It Reduces Cost:
Since only few items are studied, there is reduction in
cost & reduction in man power.
3. More Reliable Results can be Obtained:
Sampling is more Reliable because
(i) fewer chance of sampling error.

58

(ii) Experience, Trained & Technical people can be employed

to process & analyze the data.
4. It provides more detailed in formations:More detailed information can be obtained by sample
survey.
5. Only Sampling Method to depend upon:
When the population is large and finite, the only
method applicable is sampling.
6. Administration Convenience:
The organization and administration is easy in sample
survey.

7. More Scientific:
Results can be tested since more scientific.
Shortcomings (or) Demerits
1. Illusory (False) Conclusion:
If sampling is not carefully planned & executed, the
conclusions may be false.
2. Sample Not Representative:
If the sample taken from the population is not the right
representative, the result may be false or misleading.

3. Lack of Experts:

59

If there is a lack of experts to plan, execute and

analyze the samples, the result would be unsatisfactory.
4. Personal Bias:
There may be personal bias & prejudice in choosing
the sampling techniques.
5. Size of Sample:
If the size of the sample is not appropriate, it leads to
untrue conclusions.
Essentials of Sampling:
1. It must be the right representative:
The Sample selected should process the similar
characteristics of the original universe.

2. Homogeneity:
Selected samples should be homogenous with the
samples & the universe.
3. Adequate Samples:
A good number of items should be included for the
study.
4. Optimization:
A proper size of sample should be maintained to have
optimized results in terms of cost & efficiency.
Statistical Laws:

60

Induction:
The logical process of drawing a general conclusion
from the study of representative items is called Induction.
Sampling is based on two fundamental principles of
Statistics theory
(i) Law of Statistical Regularity
(ii) The Law of Inertia of Large Numbers.
The Law of Statistical:
Regularity: (Mathematical Theory of Probability), States,
A moderately large number of items chosen at
random from a very large group are almost sure to have the
characteristics of the large group.
Proof:
1. Average income of 1,000 people is to be found out,
2. We take a sample of 100 people & find the average.
3. Another person takes 100 people & find the average.
The Average income found by both the persons will
have least difference.
If the average income of the same 1000 people is
found out by census, the result will be more or less the
same.
2. Law of Inertia of Large Numbers:
It States, Other Using being equal, as the sample size
increases, the results tend to be more accurate & reliable.
Sampling Error:

61

The deviations or difference between the actual

population and the sample representative.
Reasons For Sampling Error:
1. Faulty Selection of Sample
2. Substitution
3.

Faulty

Demarcation

(Demographic

limit)

of

sampling Unit:
In case of Area sampling the sampling units at the
borders should be decided if to take it or reject it.
4. Faulty estimation techniques:
Wrong selection of sampling techniques.

Types of Sampling Errors:

(i) Bias Error:
Caused due to bias or prejudice on the part of the
informant.

(ii) Unbias Error:

Error

caused

due

to

the

Normal

Course

of

investigation.
Reducing Sampling Error:
Sampling Error can be reduced by increasing the size
of the sample.

62

--------

EXPERIMENTS
Experiment is the process of examining the truth of a
statistical Hypothesis related to some research problem.
Experiments are of two types,
1. Absolute Experiment.
2. Comparative Experiment.
Absolute Experiment:
When a researcher wants to determine the impact of a
fertilizer on the yield of a crop, it is a case of Absolute
Experiment.
Comparative Experiment:
When a researcher wants to determine the impact of
one fertilizer as compared to the impact of some other
fertilizer, it will be called as Comparative Experiment.
Research Design are of three types,
1. Research design in case of descriptive & diagnostic
studies.
2. Research design in case of exploratory Research studies.
3. Research design in case of Hypothesis Testing Research
Studies.
Research

Design

Research Studies:

In

case

of

Hypothesis

Testing

63

Hypothesis testing research studies are generally

known as Experimental studies.
The researcher test the casual relationship between
the variables.
Professor Fisher is considered as the pioneer of this
type of studies. (Experimental Studies)
He performed this study when he was working at a
Agricultural Research Station in London.
His found out that, by dividing plots into different
blocks and then by conducting experiments in each of
these blocks, whatever in formations is collected and
inference drawn from them can be more reliable
Professor Fisher laid three principles of Experimental
Designs,
1. The Principal of Replication
2. The Principal of Randomization.
3. The Principal of Local Control.
The Principal of Replication :
The Experiment should be repeated more than once.
The treatment is applied to many experimental units.
The information collected and the inference drawn
from these experimental units will be more reliable
and statistically accruable.
Aim: To examine the effect of two varieties of paddy.
Example: A paddy field is divided into 2 parts. Grow one
variety in one part and the other variety in the other. Then
we compare the yield of the two parts.
Draw conclusion on that basis.

64

No Principle of Replication is
Field
rrrrr
rrrrr
rr

rrrrr
rrrrr
rr

rrrrr
the two parts.r

rrrrr
r

Part I
Treatment

Part I
Compare the yield of

One variety

Another

of Paddy

Variety of Paddy.

When Principle of Replication is used:

First divide the field into several parts.
Grow one variety in half of the parts and the other
variety in the remaining parts.
Collect the information of the two varieties and draw
the conclusion by comparing both.
The Results so obtained will be more reliable and
accurate compared to the results drawn without using the
principle of Replication.
The Experiment can be repeated several times.
Field
rr

rr

rr

rr

rr

rr

rr

rr

rr

rr

Treated

Conclusion drawn.

Parts
2. The Principle of Randomization:

65

Principle of Randomization Provides us a protection

against the effects of Extraneous Variables.
The variations or effects caused by these extraneous
variables can be combined under the heading
Chance.
Example: When the researcher grows one variety of paddy
in the first half of the field and the other variety in the next
half of the field, there may be a possibility or chance that
the soil fertility of the first half of the field may be different
in comparison to the next half.
In this case, he may go on to cultivate the two
varieties of paddy in different parts of the field on the
basis of some random sampling technique.
(i.e.) He may apply Randomization principle and protect
himself from the effects of the Extraneous Factors.
By using Randomization Principle a better estimate
can be drawn.

rr

rr r

rr

rr r

rr

rr r

rr

rr r

rr

rr r

66

When treated

Conclusion
drawn is more
accurate.
(Can protect Effects of Extraneous
Variables)

3. The Principle of Local Control:

The extraneous variable which is a known source of

variability can be made to vary extensively

or

deliberately over a wide range.

Now the variability it causes can be measured and
eliminated.
In short, through the principle of Local Control, we can
eliminate the variability due to extraneous factors
from the experimental error.
The extraneous variable is brought to a control.

Kinds of Experimental Design:

Experimental Design refers to the framework of the
structure of an experiment.

67

Classified into 2 Broad Categories,

1. Informal Experimental designs.
2. Formal Experimental designs,
Informal Experimental Designs:
Designed based only on the difference between the
magnitudes or performance.
Three Types,
1. Before and after without control design.
2. After Only with Control design.
3. Before and after with control design.
Before and after without control design:
Consider a test group,
Step.1: The dependent variable is measured before
introduction of the treatment.
Step.2: The treatment is introduced.
Step.3: The dependent variable is measured after the
treatment has been introduced.
Step.4: Inference:

The effect of the Treatment : The level o the

phenomenon after the treatment.
The level of the phenomenon before the treatment.
Test Area Level of Phenomenon
of Phenomenon

Treatment

Level

68

Introduced
Before Treatment (X)

After Treatment

(Y)
Effect of the Treatment = (Y) (X)
Demerit:
With the passage of time, several extraneous variable
may be there in the treatment effect.
(2) After only with control Design:

Step.1: Two Areas are selected, the control Area & the test
area.
Step.2: The treatment is introduced in the test area alone.
Step.3: The dependent variable in both the areas are
measured, at the same time.
Step.4: Treatment Effect is calculated by subtracting the
value of the dependent variable in the control area from its
value in the test area.

69

Treatment: 1
Effect = Value of dependent variable in the
control Area Value of Dependent Variable in the test area.

Test Area
Phenomenon (Y)
Control Area
Phenomenon (Z)

Treatment Introduced
No

Level of
Level of

Treatment
(3) Before And After with Control Design:
Step.1: In this design, two areas are selected and the
dependent variables in both the areas are measured for an
identical time period before treatment.
Step.2: Treatment is introduced only in the test area.
Step 3 : The dependent valuable is measured on both the
areas (control
area & test area) for an identical time period.
Setp4 :

The effect of the treatment is determined by

subtracting the change in the dependent valuable in the

control area with the charge in the dependent valuable of
the test area.

70

Treatment :Effect = ((Y) (X)) ((Z)-(A))

Merits: Avoids Extraneous variables resulting from passage of
time and non
comparability of control and test areas.
II Formal Experimental Design:
Offer relatively more control and use specific statistical
procedures for analysis types,
1) Complete Randomized design (Generally called C.R.
Design)
2) Randomized Block Design (R.B. Design)
3) Latin Square Design (L.S. Design)
4) Factorial Designs .
(1) Completely Randomized Design : Involves two principals, the principle of replication and the
principle of Randomized of the experimental designs.
The items are randomly assigned do experimental
treatments.

71

This design is simpler and easier.

Example: It the research has 2 items of 20 parts and if he
wishes to test to under treatment B, this completely
randomized design gives every possible group of 10 items
selected from a set of 20, an equal chance of being
assigned to treatment A & treatment B.
One way analysis of variance (one way ANOVA) is used to
analyze such a design.

2. Randomizes

Block Design:-

The subjects or items are first divided into groups, known as

Blocks
See that, the items in each group or black is homogenous.
Randomly select items from each given block and assign
treatment.
Extraneous variables can be fixed and can be measured.
The main feature of this study is, each treatment appears
the same no of times in each block.
This design is analyzed two way analyses of variance (two
way ANOVA) technique.
3. Latin Square Design: Used in Agricultural Research.

72

L.S Design is used when two or more extraneous

variables is found.
Example: Effect of fertilizer on the field of wheat is do be
determined.
Here along with the effect of fertilizer, the fertility of the
soil must be considered.
If the facility of the soil is not considered along with the
fertilizer the result obtained may be dependable.
Similarly the impact of the various seeds used many also

vary the yield.

To over come this difficulty L.S design is used.
Each fertilizer (X1, X2, X3, X4, X5) will appear 5 items
but will be used only once in each row and in each
coloumn.
Example: No treatment occurs more than once.
I

II

III

IV

X1

X2

X3

X4

X5

Conclusion :
The field is divided into several blocks (I, II, III, IV & V) and
there are variety of fertilizer (X1, X2, X3, X4, X5).
But each fertilizer is used in each block only once.

73
a two way ANOVA technique.

4. Factorial Design :
Are used in experiments where the effect of the depended
variable, when affected by more than one variable is to be
determined.
Used in social & economic studies where usually large no of
factors affect a particular problem.
Factorial design are of two types:
I . Simple Factorial design
II. Complex Factorial designs.
Simple Factorial Design :
When the effect of the dependent variable is affect by only
two factors, it is simple factorial designs.
Otherwise known as TWO factors Factorial Design.
Complex Factorial Design :
This design is used when more than two factors at a time
affects the dependent variable.
Or the design considers three or more independent variable.
The greater the no of independent variable, the higher the
order of interaction, analysis possible.
Advantage :
Accuracy

74
Can determine the effects of more variable in a single

experiment.

OBSERVATION
Observation is defined as a planned method of watching
that involves constraints (steps) to improve accuracy.
Characteristics of Observation :
i. Observation are direct
ii. takes place in natural situations
iii. Less Structured.
iv. Makes only quantitative study.
Applicable in :
1. Life styles
2. Encounters / Settlement.
3. Relationships
4. Groups / Organization.

75

Acc. to Block & Camion :

1. Observed in natural surroundings
2. Understands events affecting social relations.
3. Identifies regulatives in social life.
4. Hypothesis free enquiry.
5. Avoids manipulations of independent variable.
6. Recording is not selective.
Differentiate Experimental Technique & Observation
Technique :
Experimental Technique

Observation Technique

No such controls

Few Controls.

Not Always

Observation is natural
conducted in large unit. Fewer
subjects are watched for long
period .Study is directed
towards sensitizing the
observer / events.

Conducted in smaller units

No so. Study is towards
sharpening the judgment.
No so.

Behavior observed is more

different.

76

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

Probability: IS a measure of the expectation that an certain

event will occur.
Probability value ranges from 0-1.
The Main terms pertaining to probability theory:1.Random Experiment: An experiment which can be repeated
under the same conditions and the outcome cannot be prod iced
is known as Random Experiment.
Example:-

When a coin is tossed, we cannot predict whether

head or tail is going to occur.

2.Sample Space:- A set of possible outcomes of a random
experiment is know as sample space.
Example: When a coin is tossed twice the possible outcomes are
HH, HT, TH & TT, IT is represented,
S = (HH, HT, TH, TT)
3.An Event: Any possible outcome of an experiment is know as
an event.

77

Example: When a coin is tossed twice, HH is an event.

An event can be classified as,
a. Simple Event: Which has only one sample point
Example: HH, TT.
b. Compound Event: Which has more than one sample point.
Example : TH.
d. Complimentary Event : A and A are complementary events,
if A consists of all the sample point which is not included in A
than the sum of the probability of the sample space is equal to
1.Hence P(A)-P(A) P(A)+P(A) = 1 P(A) = 1 P(A).
Example: When a dice is thrown, the probability of odd Numbers
turn up are complimentary to even number turn up.
A = 1,3,5
A1 = 2,4,6
e. Mutually Exclusive Event:

A and B two mutually exclusive

event, if A prevents the occurrence of B.

Example: When a coin is tossed once the occurrence of Head
prevents the occurrence of Tail.
If A and B are mutually exclusive events than the probability of
occurrence of A or B is the sum of their individuals probability.

78

P(AUB) = P(A) + P(B).

If A and B is joint sets, than the addition theorem of probability
can be stated as.
P(AUB) = P(A) + P(B) P(AB)
f. Independent Event: A and B are in dependant event, if the
occurrence of A does not influence the occurrence of B these two
events are called independents events.
Example: When a coin is tossed twice the occurrence of head in
the first toss dose not influence the toss in the second coin.
Product of A and B is the product of their individuals probability
P(AB) = P(A) X P(B).
Probability Distribution: IF X is total no of success discrete
Random variables which takes the value of X1,X2, X3........... Xn,
P1,P2,Pn then follows the probability distribution.
Properties of probability Distribution / 2 Main properties:
1. P(X1) is greater than or equal Zero and less than or equal /
one (Expressed in fractions).
2. The sum of all be probability distribution will be equal to
one.

79

Example: When a coin is tossed Twice the probability

distribution is, X( probability of obtaining hed) = 0,1,2 P(X1) = ,
, = .
Expectation of Probability: Let X be the discrete Random
Variable, which takes the value X1, X2, X3..........Xn
Respective probability is P1, P2, P3 ............ Pn
Expectation of Probability distribution: P1X1 + P2X2............PnXn.
Probability Distribution = (0 x 1/4) + (1 x 1/2) + (2 x ) = 1.
Binomial Distribution: A Binomial experiment is a statistical
experiment. It has the following properties,
(i)

The experiment consists of n repeated trials.

(ii)

Each trail can result in just two possible outcomes. We

call one of this outcomes as Success and the other
Failure .

(iii)

The probability of success is denoted by P, in every trail

and the probability of failure is denoted by l p or q.

(iv)

The trials are independent.

(v)

The outcome on one trail dose not affect the outcome of

other trials.

Notations:

X The number of successes that result from the

Binomial Experiment.
n - The no of trail in the binomial experiment.

80

P The probability of success on an individual trial.

C - No of coefficient .
Binomial Formula : Suppose a Binomial experiment consists of n
------- and result in X successes & if the probability of success on
an individuals trial is P, then the Binomial probability is B (x, n,
p) = nCx X Px X (1 P)
4

Coefficient of Binomial Distribution: The binomial coefficients are

the coefficients in the expansion of two terms (x + 1)n.
The coefficient of xr in (x+1)n is denoted by nCr or (n/r).
Example: The coefficient of (x+1)2 = (x+1) (x+1)
= 1x2 + x +x+1
= 1x2 + 2x +1
The Confidents are = 1+2+1
The coefficient of (x+1)3

(x+1) (x+1) (x+1)

= (x2+2x+1) (x+1)
= x3 + x2 +2x2 +2x +x+1
= x3 + 3x2 +3x +1
The Coefficient is

= 1. 3 .3 1

The Pascal triangle lists out all the Binomial Coefficient.

1

81

2 1

1 4

(x+1)2
1

(x+1)3

4 1

(x+1)4

1 5 10 10 5 1

(x+1) 5

1 6 15 20 15 6 1

(x+1)6

1 7

21 35 35 21 7 1

(x+1)7

Example: A coin is tossed Four Times what is the probability of

obtaining two or more heads? .
Step I : When a coin is tossed One time, the probability of Head
of tail is equal,
(ie) P = q =1/2.
Step II : The various possibilities of Head and tail events will be,
(p+q)4 = 1p4 + 4p3q +6p3q + 6p2q2 + 4pq3 +1q4
------------------------------------------------------------1p4 = (1/2) where P = 1/2) (q = 1/2.)
= x x x 1/2
= 1/16
4p3q = 4x(1/2)3 x = 4 x x x x
6p2q2 = 6 x(1/2 x x x1/2 = 3/8
Therefore, the probability of obtaining 2 or more heads is,
3/8 + + 1/16 = 11/16

82

2. POSSION DISTRIBUTION:
When P is very small (Success rate is extremely small) and
n is very large (total no of trail items of events is large) then
POISSON distribution is used.
P O (Successes approach zero) (np = m is finite)

The experimental result in outcomes that can be classified

as Successes or failure).
X The Actual Number of successes that occurs in a specific
region.
P (x, u) = (eu) (ux)
-----------------------x1
This is Poisson formula here we conduct a Poisson
experiment in which the average number of successes within a
given region is U. Then the Poisson probability is as above .
Where x is the Actual number of successes.
e is equal to 2.71828.
u is the mean of the distribution.

83

The average number of successes (u) that occurs in a

specified region is known.
The probability of success is proportional to the size of the
region.
The probability of successes occurring in an extremely
small region virtually zero.
Notations:
e = A constant equal to approximately 2.71828.
u = The mean (average) no of success that occurs in a specific
region.
Example: The average no of homes sold by A really company is 2
Homes per day. What is the probability that exactly 3 homes will
be sold tomorrow?.
u = 2 (Average of 2 homes sold per day)
x = 3 (3 homes will be sold tomorrow)
e = 2.71828 (Constant)
Poisson Formula:
P (x, u) = (eu) (ux)
-----------------------x
P(3, 2) = (2.72828) (2)

84

------------------------------1x2x3
= (0.13534) (8)/6

= 0.180

Normal Distribution and its properties:

Normal distribution refers do a family of continuous
probability distribution described by the normal equation.

Normal Equation:
The value of the random variable Y is - (x u) /2
1
Y=

C (Coefficient)

Where X is a normal Random variable.

u is the mean
is the standard deviation

is constant (3.14159)

e is constant (2.71828)

85

Standard Deviation:
Represented by it means how much variance
(difference) or dispersion exist from the average.
Example:

= Variance (Root of its variance let us consider a

population has eight values, 2,4,4,4,5,5,7,9.

Mean: 2+4+4+4+5+5+7+9
------------------------8
= 40/8 = 5 1) difference between the mean & the mean & the
valiance value is

taken.

Standard Deviation 25 square the value.

(2 - 5) = (-3) = 9 ( 4 5) = (-1) =1 (5 5) = 0 = 0
(4 5) = -1

= 1 ( 4 5) = (-1) =1 (7 5) = 2 = 4
(5 5) = (0) = 0

Rate of 9+1+1+1+0+0+4+16 38
---------------------------- = = 4/8
8
Example: An average light bulb manufactured by Acme
Corporation lasts 300days with a standard deviation of 50 days.
Assuming that the bull life is normally distributed what is the
probability that an Acme light bulb will last at most 365 days?

86

Answer: The value of the normal Random valuable (X) = 365

days.
The mean (u) = 300 days standard deviation = 50 days.
Normal Distribution Y = 1 x e(xu)
2
1
=
502 x 3.14159 x 2.71828 (365 300) /2 x 50

1
=
50 x 6013 x 2.71828/100 = 1/306.5 x 271 = 884//
Y = .88 or 88%
Hence there is an 88% chance that the bulb will last most
365 days.

87