Professional Documents
Culture Documents
'r**i*>.;
-.
QA
371.M98
Introductory course
In differential
equa
The
tine
original of
tliis
book
is in
restrictions in
text.
http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924004628388
INTRODUCTORY COURSE
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
INTRODUCTORY COURSE
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
FOR STUDENTS IN CLASSICAL AND
ENGINEERING COLLEGES
BY
DANIEL
A.
MURRAY,
B.A., Ph.D.
SECOND EDITION
NEW YORK
LONGMANS, GREEN, AND
LONDON AND BOMBAY
1902
CO.
COPTEIGHT, 189T,
By LONGMANS, GEEEN,
AND
CO.
Eevised.
July, 1900.
September, 1902.
T^pogr^pbj bv J
8.
Oushing
&
Co.,
Norwood, Mass., U.
S.
A.
PEEFACE.
The aim
of the
of this
work
is
devices employed
in
solving
differential
supplementary to
the
may
some
equations.
of the fundamental
be described as a chapter
elementary
on the integral
works
calculus.
The needs
whom
the author
tool,
and have
little
who wish
to
time to devote to
For
made
as
full detail in
and two
cal
and physi-
The
is
intended
more time
to gratify
and some of
whom may
is
that of
who have
PREFACE.
vi
Some
notes
referred
to,
the
demonstrations
of the
-which
are
If these discussions
were given in
theorems
of
full in
to discourage
a beginner.
Accordingly,
some degree
working of examples.
notes,
may have
beginners
a larger
and
For
in view.
which have
this object
this
the text.
These
articles
refer to
tions,
lie
series, which
beyond the scope of an introductory"
work.
In
many
cases in
manner necessary
in a
work
of
this
kind,
references
brief
are
especially
to
of Boole,
PREFACE.
Of the examples not a few are
vii
original,
number
universities.
There
is
by reason of
examples per
are
se,
common to
all
elementary text-books on
differential equations.
my
indebtedness.
memoirs
tial
De Morgan, Moigno,
Hoiiel,
I have in addition to
"
Key
to the
Use has
also been
made
trea-
many
of the historical
Suggestions
Cajori's
Sp)lierical
Harmonics,
Thomson and
PBEFACE.
yiii
of the Transformer^
ciples
ments
will be
To the
friends
And
tude.
first
in this
my
grati-
of Cornell University,
criticisms,
me.
me
Professor
To Miss H.
COKNELL UnIVEKSITY.
at
McMahon
many
S.
am
of the examples.
D. A.
MURRAY.
April, 1897.
I
to my
fellow-teachers of mathematics for the kind reception which
from mistakes.
COBNBLL University,
June, 1898.
^ ^ MURRAY.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER L
Definitions.
Art.
S.^The derivation of a
differential equation
6.
first
......
first
9
11
CHAPTER
II.
=0
.14
15
9.'
10.
first
degree in % and y
Integrating factors
15. The number of integrating factors
....
14.
16
17
is infinite
19
21
21
22
found by inspection
17.
18
Rules
I.
and
II.
23
24
CONTENTS.
Page
26
Akt.
19.^
20.
21.
Rule
26
28
29
^inear equations
^Equations reducible to the linear form
J^xamples on Chapter II
CHAPTER
III.
23.
24.
28.
Equations of the
29.
Summary
first
degree in x and
y.
32
33
34
25.
31
.34
35
Clairaut's equation
36
38
Examples on Chapter
III
38
CHAPTER
IV.
SiNGCLAK Solutions.
30.
40
31.
41
33.
The discriminant
The envelope
The singular solution
34.
Clairaut's equation
85.
criminant relations
Equation of the tac-locus
44
36.
45
38.
39.
Summary
48
Examples on Chapter IV
49
32.
37.
40
42
44
may
appear in the
CHAPTER
p and
c dis-
45
47
V.
Geometrical problems
51
42.
Geometrical data
51
CONTENTS.
XI
Page
53
Art.
44.
Examples
Problems relating
45.
55
46.
56
47.
Examples
57
48.
60
43.
55
to trajtectories
CHAPTER
58
VI.
The complementary
The
function, the
.
.63
ber zero
Case of the auxiliary equation having equal roots
52. Case of the auxiliary equation having imaginary roots
53. The symbol Z)
54. Theorem concerning D
...
51.
66
68
56.
The
57.
69
a;
70
72
59.
Methods
Short methods
60.
cases
Integral corresponding to a term of form e'" in the second
61.
62.
63.
64.
58.
65
-67
55.
ber a function of
64
74
member
k
in the second
75
member
76
second member
e" V
in the
second
'"
member
member
Examples on Chapter VI
73
form
xF
in the second
79
80
CONTENTS.
xii
CHAPTER
VII.
66.
67.
68.
69.
Methods
70.
Integral corresponding to a
65.
Paoe
82
84
function
:
85
86
term of form
a;
.87
in the second
member
71.
89
90
CHAPTER
91
VIII.
Integration in Series.
73.
Exact
74.
75.
The
76.
^=/(x)
96
77.
96
78.
97
79.
80.
orders differ
92
first integrals
92
.
by two
94
98
99
81.
100
82.
101
83.
105
107
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
xiii
IX.
The complete
85.
solution in terms of a
86.
E elation between
87.
known
integral
the integrals
IIX
89.
90.
91.
Removal
92.
93.
88.
Page
109
Ill
.112
.114
variable
114
CHAPTER
115
'.
117
118
120
X.
95.
96.
121
122
124
CHAPTER
XI.
....
100.
101.
102.
103.
Method
the
first
128
130
133
first
134
Condition of
integrability
of finding the solution of the single integrable equation
136
137
CONTENTS.
XIV
Page
Art.
104.
105.
The
106.
is
integrable
'
locus of
is
140
CHAPTER
is
non-integrable
142
143
XII.
Definitions
146
108.
146
109.
148
The
the complete
and
particular integrals
111.
112.
113.
149
116.
117.
The
linear equation
150
involving
150
153
.154
....
.
154
I55
variables
j5g
118.
158
119.
Special
159
forms.
120.
Standard
II.
Standard III.
122. Standard IV.
equations of the form fi{x,p) =fi{y,
q)
123. General method of solution
121.
125.
161
162
164
166
Second and
Igg
yjn
CONTENTS.
XV
Page
Art.
126.
127.
The general
Iir+Ss+Tt = V.
.171
173
first
128.
129.
Solution
130.
181.
132.
The
133.
Transformation of equations
182
134.
Laplace's equation,
V2F=0
182
135.
Special cases
1.36.
Poisson's equation,
coeflBcients:
the
complementary function
.
when
174
nary roots
175
176
coefficients
179
180
particular integral
185
V''F=
Examples on Chapter XII
186
Trp
187
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.
A.
B.
C.
T).
E.
P.
G.
equation
Relations between the integrals and the coefficients of a linear
H.
Criterion of integrability of
189
....
of integration
197
199
I.
Modern
J.
Short
K.
The symbol
L.
Integration in series
Pdx
Qdy
+ Bdz =
Answers
195
.197
equation
list of
190
194
works on
.200
....
Invariants
differential equations
to the
202
205
208
209
.........
examples
Index of names
Index of subjects
211
233
235
CONTENTS.
XVI
SHORT COURSE.
(The
I.
Roman
7-16, 20, 21
II.
66, 71
III.
IV. 30-34
VIII. 72-81
articles.)
103, 106; XII. 107-116, llS-122, 124, 125, 127, 128, 131, 133.
DIFFEEENTIAL EQUATIONS.
CHAPTER
I.
DEFINITIONS. FORMATION OF
A DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATION.
1.
degree.
differentials or difFerentia l
Ordinary
Order and
tha.t
involvfts
p.np.ffipip.nts. _
variable.
an equation
have reference
vb ^pli
pjl
^^q
Thus,
dy =cosxdx,
(1)
(2)
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
[Ch.
I.
dx
The order
nf a
The
aSp
ay
difpp.rentia.l
dz
eqiiatinn
is
nrdp.r
t.hp.
nf
t.TiB
it.
when
andjEaciions.
and
first
degree, (2)
is
(4) is
and
first
(6) is of
degree,
the second
order and second degree, (6) is of the first order and" second
In the integral calculus a very simple class of differential equations of which (1) is an example have been treated.
degree.
Equatio ns having one dependent va,ria.l)1fi ?/ and one irtd ep ej^dent vSlkti x will first be considered. The typical form
of -such equations is
2.
have
ffilUiJl-it-jiU
other
i\,
qii estions
remembCT that he
s o lved
iB ttte lilian a
--
tifis.
."
Ba,ry algebraic, trigonome^trJc^^aiidexp oliential
functions
and
p. 190.
for
CONSTANTS OF INTEGRATION.
2.]
Thus y
= sin
x^
is
a;
a solution of
+ y^ = r^
and y
(1)
= mx + r Vl + m^
two of these
-t.
hut
\-n
solutions, v is
tVit. ar.1i-|tions
of dif-
QT^r|
y \f^
ottentimes not so simply expressed. T his will be seen bv,
glancing^at the solutions of the examples on Chapter II.
A soluti on o f
(1) Art. 1 is
y
c
= sin
By
and
is
(1)
c,
differgiiJi.
= smx is
obtained.
s olution of
= sin x, and
d^'^^^
another solution
is
is
one of them, as
Similarlv y
i ons of (2).
is
seen by giving
The
The
('Z\ a.re
two
first
given solu-
relation
= A cos x + Bsinx
tions of
(^)
A/
y
is
another solution
= smx + c,-
d'y
A
is
a;
all
arbitrary constants A, B,
c,
(3)
A and B.
two
* See page
12.
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
mj
3* The
p.lvi
A and
-B.
IjiJiLe-JffScess
three equations.
diffeiientiation of-(3)
1.
Tn
oppppir
ICh.
rriYeTl,
hy
TiFimply ,
Ruccejjsive
Thus,-v
= A sin + -B cos x, y
a;
= ^ cos
^
dx
a;
S sin x, ^
^
^= ^sma;
jBcosa;^
dar
-4 + =
whence,
2/
<3<^
d!a;2
Now
c ontains,
b ^girlpR "
T>i ffpvBnt.ia.t.i(7r| p,
fla;
d3?^
""^l
i^,
Cj,
c)
The equation
arViH.rg.PY
(1)
pnTigt.a|^|.g
^^^^- ...,r.^
da;
dy'\dxj
'
'^dydx"
aa!""^
T<r\jfprr\ thoi nrfcinal
dy dx\
fign ation
tained by differentiation,
J.
Edwards,
3.]
tViii"
irill
5
Vin
in dependenti
o'*'
the
ftyrior-
in
The
vy]^ich.
equati on
obtained
is
more than n
arbitrar^y constants
+ 1,
on eliminating them
there wo uld appear, not an equation of the nth order, but one
ol Ihe Vn + i)th order.f
Its
Ex.
solution
1.
tor, if it
From
x^
had, say w
+ y^ + 2 ax + 2hy + e = Q,
a, b,
or
c.
5, 6,
following.
contains exactly
of
an equation
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
The
elimination of 6 from
tlie
last
[Ch.
I.
tlie differential
equation required,
Ex.
2.
Form
y^-2 ay +
by eliminating
Ex.
3.
Ex.
4.
Eliminate
4.
a-,
a)^
x"
a.
m and
o from
y'^
{y
- /S)^ =
= m (a'' - x^).
ffhe solution which
contains a
number
the equation,
r^.
is
inte-
particular values
the latter
It
is
may be noted
*'.
elimination of all the constants gives but one differential equanamely (2), for the order of elimination does not affect the
tion,
The elimination of
equation formed.
of the (n
l)th
equation of the
from
(?i
Therefore
?ith order,
all
elimination of
l)th order
but
all
Cj
gives an equation
but
and similarly
l)th
gives another
Cj
for
Cg,
-,
c.
So
(1) is
l)th order.
equations of the
from
n equations of the {n
(1),
of the (m
order
first,
second, , (n
derived
(1).
The general
solution
may
not include
all
"
(4-)^Art.
1 has for
The
l atte r
is
solutions, a?
+ rf=ii^
and
is
not derivar
4-]
SOLUTIONS.
ble from
it
to m.
It is called a, xin Singular solutions are discussed in Chapter IV.
T he n arbitrary constants in the general solution must be
ind!ependent an d not equivalent t o less th an w coiistan
TFe
gular solution.
S okition
and
a,
= ce^'K^ appears
and by giving
all possible values, all the particular solutions,
that can be obtained by giving c and a all possible values, will
also be obtained.*
The general
.be
eral solution of 4,
dx-
+ "y=Q
is
= c sin
(a:
+ a)
is
a;.
also a solution, as
and
may be keen by
it is
since
ter
On comparing
it is
evident
genera.1
snb-
sobitinn.
and ja.
The
lat-
this
tJHat tliel-elations
fEB-SfSfiorm and
c,
a,
of the second,
Ac cos ,
that
and
are~
= c sin ,
is,
Tj
= VA" + B^,
and a
tan-i -
made by
all
of the,
constants will have determinate values, according to the number of conditions imposed.
* See Note
'
DIFFERENTIAL EQUAT
8
5.
\^''\
[Ch.
I.
first
Take
(1)
anequationof the
t hat
when
first
degree in -^.
It will be
is
(Xj, y,),
remembered
any point
is
poin t that
^
A
mov es,
b^ore^_it_w0^jescribean^
t he_
P'^HL^gZasCi^^^^i^^^^^^'jl
ejjjiatioa.
Through every point on the plane, there will pass
a particular
CMve,
for
ev^rypoinToFwiich,
x, y,
is
willjat
thus a p ar-
the equation
of
There being
arbitrary
oiue
la.tter is
made up
of a single infinity
'
"
"~
GEOMETRICAL MEANING.
5, 6.]
Ex.
1.
^
= _^
dx
y
The equation
moving
so as to satisfy
tliis
to the origin
it
equation,
that
is,
it
moves perdescribes a
xdx + ydy
it is
The
circle
= 0,
is
a;2
3/2
c.
+ 2/2 =
(3, 4), is
25,
+ ydx =
=
c,
xy
xdy
2.
has for
its
solution,
=
^
dz
Ex.3.
having for
its
solution,
?,
= mx +
c,
6.
number, of slope m.
is
-*^
of
the second
rlpgrgft
niFFEBENTIAL EQUATIONS.
10
twojikections,;_aDd hence;
locus
tire
.of.
twg
[Ch.
I.
curyes-of-tlie-sjcsteift-wbich
is
Tlie^general solution,
= 0,
<^(a!, y, c)
which
is
it
may
be said:
differential equation,
dx
4>{x,y,c)
for its general solution, has for its locus a single infinity of
(/> ;
n of these
-1.
has n
dx
must appear
in
The general
order,
has for
and
that
is,
a set of curves
^-0
Ex.1.
number.
oo^ in
its solution,
= mx +
c,
being arbitrary.
A line through
any point
(0, c),
drawn
in
On
any direction m,
is
the locus
say
ci,
values that
doubly
infinite
system
EXAMPLES.
6.]
of straight lines
11
The condition
This can be
cPv
-^ =
requires,
moving point
line
Ex.
2.
a^^ in
r,
equation
{X
where a and
nating a and
- ay +
{y
by.
r-',
6,
6,
there appears
{+(8)"}'= '
On
elimi-
(JX2'
Thus, the locus of the latter equation of the second order consists of the
doubly infinite system of circles of radius r.
Ex.
in
It will
and
lines
more general
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
1.
2.
Form
Vl
x^
the differential
equa-
I.
y/l
equation of which y
difi^erential
character.
y^
= a{x y).
ce*'"~
"^
is
the com-
plete integral.
Eind the
3.
where
4.
ae^
be-^
Form
ce',
plete integral.
6.
Eliminate
from y
ex
+c
c^.
+ cy = x^
is
the
com
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
12
6.
Eliminate c from
7.
Form
ay'^
(x
[Ch.
I.
c)*.
+ 2 cae" +
e^
c^
is
its
ae*
be~'.
10.
of
Form
all
a,
6) for
parabolas each
parallel to the x
axis.
11.
origin
12.
Form
Form
circles
all
y.
all
whose axes
conies
coincide
Note.
Ex.
1.
[The following
Show
that x^
is
Differentiation gives x
y^
= ax
-\-
bx^.
r^ is
= 0,
+ y -^
ux
Ex.
2.
Show
y^
\-
j-v/l
+^
y^
r'^.
that y
x^
x^
1.
cix
dx
to
3.]
whence' -^
du
Substitution of this value of -^ in 4 gives y
which reduces
page
6,
is
1.
Differentiation gives
<3.x~
Ex.
3.
Show
that x^
Ex.
4.
Show
that y
"
Ex.
5.
Show
that
dy
-=^
+ iy =
in (4) gives y
is
= mx + rvT+m^.
a solution of
[^] + x-^ -y =
=
of^--^
+^
x^
X dx
a solution of + - =
v = +B
dr^
r dr
ax''
hx
is
a solution
dx;'
0.
is
Ex.
6.
Show
that y
= ae'" +
be-'^
is
a solution of
y| -
k''y
= 0.
0.
0.
FIBST ORDER
7.]
AND
FIRST DEGREE.
CHAPTER
13
II.
7.
I. it
x, y,
process than differentiation-, so here, as in other inverse processes, the process of solving a differential equation is much
more complicated and laborious than the direct operation of
An
equation
is
said to be solved,
when
its
it
is
given.
even
known
functions.
^ ^'^^^^^
In
fact,
functions of x and
y,
even
^"^^^"^
and
^"^
are
It will be
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
14
[Ch.
II.
2.
first
3.
4.
y.
linear form.
8.
0. When
an
equation
fix)dx+f,(y)dy =
its solution,
0,
is
c.
see at a glance
how
monly expressed,
Ex.
(!)
1.
to put
(1
x)d!/
-^
1-i-y
* Tiie student
it
it is
com-
who
- (1 +
^=
1-x
y)dx
0,
'
proceeding to find
tlie methods of solving difno more knowledge of the subject than that
imparted In the preceding pages, is reminded that he does this, assuming
(1) that every differential equation with one independent variable has a
solution, and (2) that this solution contains a number of arbitrary conis
number
indicating
its
order.
HOMOGENEOUS EQUATIONS.
8,9.]
15
whence, on integrating,
(3)
log(l
(4)
(l
?/)+log(l-a;)=c,
and hence
2,)(l-a;)=e<=
ci.
much
labour as the solving of the equations. The solution (4) could have
been obtained without separating the variables, if one had noticed that
Here, as in
(1 x)dy (14- y)dx is the diiierential of (1 x)(l + y).
the calculus and other subjects, the experience that comes from practice,
Equais the best teacher for showing how to work in the easiest way.
tion (1) can also be put in the form
dy
dx
{xdy +
y dx) =
0,
y-x-xy = C2.
Solution (4) reduces to this form on putting
d for ci 1.
Ex.3, solve
dx
where
/i, /a,
in
x and
y-
= 0.
<
fs,(x,y)'
degree in x and
y.
On
putting
y=vx,
this equation
becomes
ax
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
16
of the
/a, is
common
[Ch.
II.
to both
member.
of its right-hand
_dx
dv
F{v)
v~x'
between y and
Ex.
1.
Solve
(^x''
^,
which
satisfies
y'^)dx-2xydy
2v
Integrating,
On
for V,
that
= 0.
dx
X
v,
+ vdx)=0,
which, on sepa-
1-v^
log a;(l
- v^) =
log
c.
+ (xy +
x^ydx - (a;'
Ex.
2.
Solve
Ex.
3.
Solve
Ex.
4.
Solve (iy
j/2
dx
-|-
2/2 = ex.
x^)dy
y^)dy
= 0.
=
0.
+ 3x)^+y-2x = 0.
dx
first
degree in
x and
y.
m\
For X put
constants
x'
then dx
-\-
If h
'
c''
6fc -f- c
= 0,
k are
10,
n.]
and
then
a*h
(1)
which
is
homogeneous
+ b'k + c' = 0,
^ = 7' + ^f
becomes
17
in x'
(2)
9.
2/0=0.
/(=',
This method
is
fails
fix
h),
(y
when a:
infinite or indeterminate.
k)= 0.
= a'
b',
Suppose
a _b__l^
a'
then
(1)
dy
dx
On
can be written
putting v for ax
ax
+ by + c
by) +
m(ax +
+ by,
c'
dv
= a + b V +
mv +
dx
,
(3y-Tx + 1)dx+(,7y-Zx+3)dy = 0.
+ 3)^ = 2y-x-i.
said to
out any further operation of elimination or reduction, is
is
equation
differential
exdct
an
be exact; or, in other words,
has
There
zero.
to
differential
equating an exact
formed by
now to be found the condition which the coefficients of an equar
and also the
tion must satisfy, in order that it may be exact,
condition is
that
when
employed
be
method of solution to
fClH.-II
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
18
satisfied.
The question
of
how
when
to proceed
is
is
first
the | condition
order be exkj;
What
Mdx + Ndy =
(1)
Ndy be
be an exact differential equation, that is, that Mdx
Mdx
In
order
that
Ndy
be
an
?
exact
differential
an exact
differential, it
function m of
That
is,
But
du
= Mdx + Ndy.
du
= ^dx+^dy.
ax
dy
Mdx + Ndy
be the
differ-
elimination of m imposes on
(2)'
^
dy
dx
M, N, a
single condition,
^=m
dy
(3)
dx
This condition
du
is
dx dy
If there is a function u,
- d'u
such that
whose
differ-
-J
du
= Mdx
-f-
Ndy,
that
is,
= CMdx + F{y).
(4)
12, 13.]
dyj
dy
But by
y,
dy
(2),
dy
i^M^N-CMdx.
dy
The
second
member
first
:
(5)
dy-J
of (5)
is
independent of x
which, by condition
(5)
19
(3), is zero.
a;
so, also, is
gives
the
,
dx
dy
Integration of both sides of
where a
a,
Substitution
is
in (4) gives
(1),
when
condition (3)
is
satis-
fied, is
CMdx +
Similarly,
is also
C Ndy
+J^\^-yS ^'^^ [
'^^^
c.
(6)
="
a solution.
Since
CMdx, the
have all the terms of Ndy that contain x; and therefore (6)
can be expressed by the following rule
To find the solution of an exact differential equation,
Mdx + Ndy = 0, integrate Mdx as if y were constant, integrate
the terms in Ndy that do not give terms already obtained, and
equate the sum of these integrals to a constant.
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
20
Ex.
Solve
1.
Here,
(^x'^-ixy -2y'^)dx
= _4a;_4j/ = SL
hence
S.
-2x,^)dy
II.
= 0.
an exact equation.
it is
dx
dy
2 x^ 2 xy^
o
Therefore the solution is
JMdx
+ (y' -ixy
[Ch.
is
only term in
y'^dy is the
Ndy
free
from
x.
^-2x^y-2xy^ + '^=ci,
o
or
x^
The
By
6 x^y
6 xy^ +
and
Mdx + Ndy
= c.
j/S
sometimes be
simplified.
f{v.)dn,
x'^dx
The
first
differentials,
2x'^)dy
and the
test
= 0.
has to be applied
to the last
,Ex.2.
xdx +
=^
ydy-,^-^:^
y'
x^
+
xdx
+ ydy +
^=
0,
'+
each term of which
is
an exact
differential.
Integrating,
5-^ + tan-i^X =
2
Ex.
3.
Solve
((12
Ex.
4.
Solve
(2
Ex.
5.
Solve
(2 x'^y
c.
yydy
= 0.
+ (2 cy + 6x + e)dy = 0.
+ ix^ - I2xy''' + 3y^ - X& + e'^)dy
+ (12a;2y+ 2a;!/2 + \3? - 4y + 2ye^ -
ax-\-hy+ g)dx
e)da;
0.
INTEGRATING FACTORS.
14, 15.]
The
21
differential equation
ydx xdy =
is
when
multiplied by
it
becomes
ydx
which
is exact,
and has
xdy _(^
X_
y~
When
xy
multiplied by
dx
X
which
is
exact,
dy
^=
y
its
0,
solution
x-\ogy = c,
which
is
Any
factor a, such as ,
y'
an
eqj-iation into
xy
or
an exact
an
integr^H/Kmctor.
15. The number of integrating factors is infinite.
ber of integrating factors for an equation Mdx
infinite.
For suppose
/a
/x
and thus
?<
=c
is
is
The num-
Ndy
= 0,
is
a solution.
+ Ndy) =f(u)du
?t,
say/(M),
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
22
member
therefore the
is
and hence
first is also,
[Ch.
II.
ju./(m) is
Mdx + Ndy =
and as /(m)
is
tegrating factors
by
inspection.
Sometimes
inte-
Solve
1.
ydx
xdy.
ydx
is
xdy +
log
an exact
Obviously"
is
xdx
= 0.
differential;
and a factor
it
is
needed
ydx
-xdy
^2
for
The
loga^^
_
+-^ ;-".
,
Ex.
2.
Solve (1
-I-
+ \ogx + 1 =0.
CX
xy)ydx
{I
0.
ydx
that
d{xy}
is,
- xy)xdy =
-\
J'
For
this,
the factor
becomes
Integrating,
-^
X
immediately suggests
itself,
t^C^?/)
dx
dy
^'y'^
-'-
=
+ logy
xy
'
ci.
and transforming,
It will be well to try to iind an integrating factor by
inspection, before
having recourse to the rules given in Arts. 17, 18, 19.
16, 17.]
Ex.
3.
a(xdy
Ex.
4.
(x*e
Ex.
5.
23
Rules
I.
and
II.
Rule
tion
is
When Mx + Ny
I.
is
homogeneous,
MX
Rule
is
an integrating
factor of
+ Ny
Mdx + Ndy = 0.
When Mx Ny is not equal
II.
to zero,
and the
Mx Ny
Proof
is
an integrating
= 0,
factor.
an
identity.
(a)
Tliis
may
Mdx + Ndy =
Division of (a)
by
be written,
(Mx + Ny)d-
Mx + Ny
log xy
+ (Mx - Ny)d-los^\-
gives
Mdx + Ndy"
Mx - Ny
x
,
jT
= id-logxy
^d-log+ l^Tf
"
^
^ Mx + Ny
Mx + Ny
^y
,
_,
,,.
''
Now
if
Mdx + Ndy
is
a homogeneous expression,
-^
"
'
Mdx + Ndy
-,
Mx + Ny
is
homo-
and
x
^fx\
-^^=id.losxy + if[-)d.los-,
or,
smce
= e'os;-,
'
factors, see
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
24
[Ch.
II.
Mdx + Ndy
^=ia.losxy + iF[log^)d.log'^,
which
On
an exact
Is
differential.
dividing (a) by
Mx
Ny,
becomes,
it
and
if
Mdx +
iVS^
a;!/
'
-,
d log
&
.
^^
is
Mdx + Ndy
fi{xy)xy
+ fi{xy)xy
,,
is
an exact
"When
Fi{\ogxy)d
logxy
Ji
log-,
differential.
Mx+ Ny = 0, = - ^.
Substitution for
N in
Mdx + Ndy =
and integration
When
Mx- Ny = 0,
Substitution for
1^.
= ey.
Ex.
1.
Solve {niy
Ex.
2.
Solve Ex.
Ex.
3.
Solve y(xy
3,
2 xy^)dx
Art. 9,
- ( -
by
this
Zx^y)dy
in the differential
c.
= 0.
method.
+ 2 x^)dx + x{xy -
xhp')dy
- 0.
EuLB
gj/(i)&
ig
III.
When
an integrating
factor.
is
/(),
18, 19.]
For, multiplication of
say,
Midx + Njdy =
Mdx + Ndy =
and
^ dNi
dy
Ex.
1.
(a;2
2.
(x2
differentiation will
dM,
Ex.
25
dx
+ y^ + 2x)dx + 2 ydy = 0.
+ y^)dx -2xydy = 0.
"
dN dM
EuLE
When
F(j)),
rule.
IV.
gSKy)ds is
an integrating
3.
Solve (3 a;V
Ex.
4.
Solve (y*
Rule V.
factor.
Ex.
19.*
is
j/*
a;'"""'""?/''""'"^,
where
x'^}dy
= 0.
= 0.
4 x)dy
k has
any value,
is
an
integrating factor of
x^y^ {my dx
for
on using the
+ nxdy) = 0,
becomes
-d(a;''"2/"")=0.
K
Moreover,
in the
form
where
k has
any vahie
af^y^i (wii?/
an exact
t.
differential is
dx
will
make
+ n^x dy)
a!''i"i-i-i2/''i"i-'-Pi,
where
kj
II.,
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
26
[Ch.
II.
if
Km 1 = KiWii 1 i,
= KiUi 1
KW 1
and
/?
Values of and
Ex.
Solve
1.
k^
(!/8
/8i.
2 yx^)dx
+ (2 xy'^ -
x^)dy
= 0.
For the
its
term
first
dx
re
/8
integrating factor.
;3
k-1=2k'-1-2,
2k-1-2 = k'-1.
and k', k = 2 = k', and therefore
and
On
solving for
re
factor.
xy
is
0.
the
common
^-^=
- x^) = o.
or a;V(2/2
Ex.2. Solve
(2 x^y
Ex.
3.
iy^
20.
Linear equations.
Solve
c,
is
linear
when
only in the
the
first
where
order
The form
degree.
is,
solution of
of
its
derivatives appear
is
The
that
of x or constants.
^ + p =
o,
^ = ~Pdx,
y
LINEAR EQUATIONS.
"20.]
is
On
= ce'!'"'^,
or
c.
form gives
+ Pydx) = Q
ei^^(dy
yei'"'^
27
eJ^'^ is
Multiplication of (1)
equation,
ei^'^{dy
+ Pydx) = eS''^Qdx,
or
The
CeS^'^Qdx
= e-!''^ j
c,
CeS'''^Qdx
+cI
(2)
of
Ex.
1.
This
is
Solve
ay = x+
x^
dx
linear since
it
it is
of the
P = -,
first
degree in y and
_x +
Putting
it
in
e'
Using that
^-
becomes
dy
dx
Here
1.
is
x'
Lcly-^dx=^dx.
x'
whence
X''+^
= -^
I a
1-
cx".
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
28
The values
of
[Ch.
IF.
as expressed in (2).
?^+y =
Ex.
2.
Solve
Ex.
3.
Solve oos2
a;
e-'.
^ + = tan
dz
Ex.
+ 1)^ - nw =
Solve (x
4.
a:.
"
e(x
da
Ex.
+ l)^ +
Solve {x^
5.
2xij
l)+i.
x"^.
%+Py=Qy'',
where
P and Q are
multiplying by
functions of
( w
+ 1),
(1)
x.
this equation
becomes
y"""^', it
reduces to
^ + {l-n)Pv = (l-n)q,
which
Ex.
is
linear in
1.
Solve $^
dx
Division
On
by
j/"
+ i w = x'^y^.
"
x"
gives
y-^
^
+X =
dx
Its solution is
* This
1705),
v.
is
who
y-^
x^
-;;
dx
cx^
= 5xK
studied
it
in 1695.
EXAMPLES.
21.]
Note
29
where
Pand Q
which
is linear.
on the substitution
are funotiofis of x,
of v for/(y)
becomes
ax
Ex.
2.
Solve (1
= {tB,n~^ y -
y^)dx
x)dy.
dx
dy
tan-' y
1
1
+ 2/2-1 + ^2'
which
x
Ex.
3.
Solve '^
dx
Ex.
4.
Solve
5.
2/
l-f ce-'^^'^y.
-y = 3xV+ x"
"
=
^+_^
dx
a:j/^.
x^
Ex.
tan-i
Solve3a;(l -x2)j/2^
+ (2x2
-1)2/3
0x3.
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
Equations can sometimes he reduced
l.(a;+2/)2^=a2.
3. 'a; I'
'^
+ xy^ =
J,2.
ty
4.
5.{3? -yx'^)'^+y'^
\\xtx+y=v.-\
-y = xVx^ +
to
II.
sec2xtan2/dx+sec2j/tana;(^2/=0.
8.
(2x-2/
t^y
l)(^x
+ (2
2/
-X-
_ X + VI -
_|
lix
'
l)(?2/
y''
= 0.
x2
^-
*i+x=^-
11.
(X2
2/2
a2)X dx
+ (X2 -
2/2
62)y ^j,
^ 0.
<i.
BIFFEBENTIAL EQUATIONS.
30
-(i--^)|+(2x-i)2/=.3
15.
{x^
%^^iy=wh?-
13.
x^ydx
16.
xdx
17.
- (a;3 + f)dy = 0.
ydy = m{xdy ydx).
XX..
r cos
e,
r sin
(l
19.
y + 2/cosa: = !/sin2a;.
20.
(x+
25.
= 0.
1)^+1=
2e-.
ax
24.
(x2y3
j/(x2
X2/)(J2/
^2
y^
+ 1)^ - 2 xydy = 0.
by the transformation
9.
c'')<2x+e'fl --j(it/
18.
+ a2)^ +
'^
22.
ydx
23.
(1
+ Cax^y -2x)dy =
+ 6^2 -
3a:2?/)^
"X
0.
= Sxj^a-a;^.
o2)
29.
y dy
30.
2xydx+(,y^-x^)dy =
31.
(xy^
32.
,-x| = .(n-x2|).
x(x2
dx.
= xhf>-xy.
31.
j/2
= 0.
by'^dx
a cos x dx.
dy
V.
S'^=^-
-dy
27.
28.
(x
35.
+ ,)| + (x-,) = 0.
+ 2x + 4)dx-(4x+62^ +
33.
(3j/
34.
(x'y
x^y^
II.
"
'^-
[Ch.
xy
l}y
(2x'^y''+y)dx-(xy-3x)dy=0.
e'^)dx
5)rf!/
+ (x^yS _
37.
x'^y^
+
^
ax
X
!?
=
~
0.
~ x"-y dy = 0.
0.
xy
= .
X"
+ l)x^ =
0.
22.]
CHAPTER
31
III.
The type
p"
where
(a)
dy
~
will be denoted by p.
+ P.p"-'- + P^p"-^ +
P^, Pj,
Two
In what follows,
+ Pn-lP + i^n = 0,
P, are functions of
x and
is
(1)
y.
where the
first
member
of (1) can be
resolved into
In the
first
factored.
{p-R,){p-R,)-ip-R:) =
Equation
(1) is satisfied
member
by
(2)
(i.
make any
Therefore, to
The n
/i {x, y, Ci)
= 0, /2 (x,
y,c,)
= 0,--, / (x,
y, c)
= 0,
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
32
= 0,
/i (, y, c)
f^{x, y, c)
0, -,/ (x, y, c)
Ex.
p^
1.
(a^)
y, c)/2 (x,
2xp^
y,c).--f
2 xy^p =
y^p''
0,
= 0.
= 0.
(3)
can be written
0.
p
of
III.
namely,
(x, y, c)
p(p + 2x)(^p-y^) =
Its
[Ch.
= 0,
+ 2x =
0,
p~y^ = 0,
respectively.
= e,
+ x^ =
The combined
(2/
When
c)(j/
the equation in
is
cy
+ l=0,
is
+ a;2 - e)(xy +
and xy
c,
solution
cy
1)
form
= 0.
sometimes the solution
= 0.
dx
Integrating,
c = f a%i
+ c)^ = 4 ax^,
25(y + c)^-iax^ = 0.
p\x^2y)\ Zp\x + j^) + (j/ +
j, -I-
Rationalizing,
or
>
Ex.
3.
Solve
25(y
2 a;)p
= 0.
5.
Solve
42/2p2
Ex.
6.
Solve
i>2
23.
+ 2jjxy(3 +
12 = 0.
a;
1)
Ssc^
= 0.
_ 7^ +
article,
when
its
first
may have
in the
form
= 0,
23,24.]
(a) It
(b) It
The
may
may
be solvable for
y.
be solvable for
x.
case where
it
is
p has been
solvable for
33
y.
considered in
may
It either
(c)
(d) It
It
(e)
may
may
not contain
be of the
y,
p)
=0
may
or it
When
y.
not contain
y.
y.
degree in x and
first
f{x,
x,
be homogeneous in x and
y.
= F(x,p).
dp\
which
may
"/-
The
elimination of
(a;,
P, c)
from
this it
= 0.
the latter and the original
p between
x, y,
and
c,
which
is
the
solution required.
When
the elimination of
p between
these equations
and y
in terms of
is
j3
not
as a
Ex.
1.
Solve X
yp
a^.
Here
Differentiating
and clearing
= X-
ap^
of fractions,
in tlie linear
form
<Ix
ap
dp
p(l-p^)
1-p^'
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
34
Solving,
Substituting in
tlie
= -rJLz=(c +
Vl p'^
= x+
2.
Solve y
Ex.
3.
Solve
4y =
Ex.
4.
Solve
a;p2
ap
=Q
a sin-'p).
(fi
Vl p2
osin-^p).
a tan-ip.
+ p^
2yp + ax =
x^
0.
III.
y=
Ex.
[Ch.
When
condition
(6) holds,
= F(y, p).
p and
may
possibly be
obtained, say,
f(y, P, c)
= 0.
=y+
= + a log p.
p^y + 2px = y.
Ex.
1.
Solve X
Ex.
8.
Solve X
Ex.
3.
Solve
26.
When
p''.
if
/(2/,P)=0,
and
which
or x
is
integrable.
y.
EQUATIONS HOMOGENEOUS IN
25-27.]
AND
y.
35
which
is
When
= F{v\
the equation
is
of the
/(-,
and
which
If
is
it is
which
is
form
P)
= 0,
will give
p, it
immediately integrable.
solvable for
x, it will
give
By
(c),
there
is
a chance of
terms of p.
Ex.
1.
Solve y
= 'ip-V
Ex.
?>f:
Solve
x"^
Ex.4. Solve
j/2
homogeneous
in x
and
y, it
3.
y.
When
\dx xj
is
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
86
[Ch.
III.
dtv
may
= xf{p),
yf\th.
respect to
x,
P=f(p)+xf'{p)%i
^ =
dx
whence
f'(p)dp
/ ^
P -f{p)
/
>
1.
Solve
Ex.
2.
Solve y
2/2 _|_
xyp
When
the condition
solvable for
x,
x^p^
0.
= yp^ + 2px.
and
first
(e)
degree in x and y.
equation, being
for y as well,
Clairaut's equation.
first
y=px+f{p),
which
is
known
as Clairaut's equation*
whence
P=P + l^+f'ip)\%
+ /' (p) = 0,
= 0.
^
da;
a;
He
applied
it
in 1734.
now
bears his
28.]
Prom
y
is
follows that
it
i?
c,
37
y.
and hence
= cx+f{c)
the solution.
The equation
Any
a;
is
If /,(p)
Art. 24
=p,
(e)
= ^fi{p) + Mp)-
dx_
f,'{p)
and from
proceeding as in
to x there is obtained
+ Wi'i.p)+f^'{p)\%
f,'(p)
p-Mp)
dp
is linear in
By
in Clairaut's form.
it is
P=f.{p)
which
+/' (p)
may be deduced.
The student should be
p-Mp)'
this a relation
between x and
to recognize it readily.
Some equations
are
illustration.
Ex.1. Solve
ij
= (l +p)x+p^.
P
Differentiating,
= 1 + i) + ( +
^ + x=-2p,
.-.
which
is linear.
2p) ^
Solving,
and hence
= 1-p^^^(\^-p) ce-J"
On
Solve i?{y
2.
putting x^
u,
px) = yp^.
and y- = v, the
~
which
is
Clairaut's form,
.
and hence
equation becomes
dv
/dvy
du
\du/
cu
V^
cx^
c^,
c^.
'
is
an
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
38
3.
Solve y
Ex.
4.
Solve
Ex.
5.
Solve xy(y
Solving
foi'
;
III.
first
= xp + sin -^p.
e*'(p - 1) + e^ip" = 0.
Ex.
degree inp
[Ch.
px) = x +py.
may be
X ov y
this is illustrated in
-^
ax
+ 2 xw =
Ex.
6.
Ex.
6.
The
which
The
is
Solve
of the
solution
a;-^
form discussed
v
is
j/
=x+
Vp,
in Art. 24.
=x+
'^
'^ "
.
29. Summary.
What has been said in this chapter concerning the equation /(x, y, p) = 0, of degree higher than the
first in p, may be thus summed up
and y in terms of
eliminant or the values of x and y will be the solution.
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
v2.
3.
J5.
6.
y=^(x-6)+.
xy^p^ +
2)
p=_9p +
= 2P2/3 +
i8
^s.
= o.
9-
11.
(a;2
2,2)
(1
+ p)2 _
2 (X
ayp''+{2x-b)p-y =
i^p-yy=p'-^lp +
+ 2/)(l + p) (x +
the
III.
T y-px=^/l+ p^,p(x^ +
10.
yp)
+ (x
-|-
2,p)2
0.
y^).
-i-
= 0.
EXAMPLES.
29.]
'
13.
14.
15.
2,Hi-p^)=6{px-y)(,py
jfl
20.
21.
./22.
23.
cot X
2py
19.
eS'Cp
^
h^p^
y^.
IT.
18.
?/
<^'-^y\
^~^l
+ -^y== =
2px
=f{xp^).
a;yp2
2/2
mp''
+ x)=
39
1)^
aiy +
+ p^e^ =
mx).
^5.
0.
^
26.
2,
xj/S)^
_(i +p2)-J
y=px +
- ay = 0.
6.
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
40
CHAPTER
[Ch. IV.
IV.
SINGULAR SOLUTIONS.
In this explanation
References to algebra and geometry.
made
of
will
be
a few definitions
use
solutions,*
of singular
30.
The discriminant
is
of an equation in-
value of x in ax'
+ 6a;
-f-
Ty _|_
-\/h^
=^--
is
6-
4ac =
*
The discriminant
4-
etc
;
and
so
is &^
is
4ac;
that
&^
4 ac
the equation
footnote, p. 36)
were the
first to
by
his
Memoirs of
the Paris
significance
was
first
in 1774, in
(see
equations.
which he
at present accepted
an
the
For exam-
an
is
^ CL
be equal to zero.
coeffi-
whose vanishing
article in the
also
is
II.,
1872.
THE ENVELOPE.
30-32.]
When
the equation
written immediately
is
but when
41
it is
another equation by
F=Q,
F with respect
diif erentiating
form
to the vari-
able,
^{x,y,
may be looked on
as an equation in
functions of x and
y,
c)
its coefficients
c,
The simplest
y.
then being
rational function of x
<^ (x, y, c)
discriminant of
Thus the
<^,
and
and
is
point of which
Similarly, the
equation corresponding to
<fi
(x, y, c)
= 0,
is
= 0, the differential
obtained by elimi-
fi^,y,P)
= o, 1=0.
=0 has
y,
p)
may
equal values of p.
degree in
must be a
be a
if
there
is
discriminant, there
c discriminant.
all
c's
c's
thus differing
by
infinitesimal
Curves corre-
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
42
[Ch. IV.
The
intersection.
works on the
It is
is,
the envelope
relation.
is
between
= 0,
^-
and
that
shown
discriminant
limit the
c
It is also
shown in the
any
touched by some curve of
the system; that is, that the euvelope and some one of the
curves have the same value of p at the point.
point on the envelope, the latter
Suppose that
f(^,y,p)
is
is
=o
(1)
(2)
It has
of
curves which
is
This
is
is
called
it is
It is distin-
not contained
33.]
it is
is,
43
The
singular solution
may
equation directly, without any knowledge of the general soluFor, at the points of ultimate intersection of consecutive
tion.
thus the locus of the points where the p's have equal roots
will include the envelope
that
is,
the
discriminant relation
that the
p and
discriminant relations
that
The part
is
of
the
singular solution.
E..1. ,
which
is
= ,* +
'<^^'.
y
This,
on
rationalization,
- a;2)
_|_
satisfies
czij
a2
_ j2 =
.^v^
0,
This relation
ti'.
becomes
c2 (flt
= cx-\- aVi +
5,2
= a^.
is
the singular
solution.
= cx + aVl +
+ xp y = 0.
Ex.
2.
oi
p'^
Ex.
3.
of
dyVx = dxVy.
Ex.
4.
5.
Ex.
xV 3 xyp + 2y^ + x^ = 0.
('-iy=s<-'>('-s)"
of
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
44
34.
[Ch. IV.
Clairaut's equation.
form in Art.
28, there
x+f'{p)
which
is
= 0,
(3)
= 0,
that appeared
with it. The foregoing shows what part equation (3) plays in
On differentiating y=px-j-f(p)
solving Clairaut's equation.
y=cx+f{c)
represented by the general solution.
may
criminant relations.
appear in the
and
c dis-
dis-
known
^ (x,
y, c)
{x,
2/,
c)
is
and
that, therefore,
f{x,
y, p')
if
there be one,
may
they
34-37.]
At a point
45
satisfying the
Such a point
point in question.
of contact of
on a locus called
tive curves is
curves.
appearing in the
two non-consecusystem of
tac-locus,
while thus
c's.
Ex. Examine
y\l+p^)=r'K
Solving for p,
Vr2
p=
w2
2/2+(x-t-c)2=
The general
and
radius equal to r
The
and that
of the
on the x
their centres
discriminant relation
Thus the
y
r^.
discriminant
y'-
is
is
i/^(!/'^
is
axis.
r'-
)'^)
=
=
made up
0,
0.
of the loci y
= r
and
of
counted twice.
The equations
r,
= 0,
The equation
differential equation.
of
The student
their envelope,
advised to
is
and the
make a
figure,
articles.
a locus, the
x, y,
ential equation.
p, of
The
discriminant relation,
whose points
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
46
The general
solution
<^ (x, y, c)
may
Fig.
[Ch. IV.
represent a set of
Changing the c
These
its character.
1.
lie on a
In the limit two consecutive curves of the system will have their nodes in coincidence upon the nodal locus. The node is thus one of the
curve which
is
and,
must appear in the c discriminant relation. But in Pig. 1, where A, B, , are the
curves and L is the nodal locus, at any point the p for the
nodal locus L is different from the p's of the particular curve
that passes through the point and hence the x, y, p, belongtherefore, the equation of this locus
ing to
L at the
Fia. 2.
CUSPIDAL LOCUS.
38.]
coincide with a
47
would
Ex. Kp2
(a;
a)^
has for
its
L,
general solution
+ c = 2 x' - 2 ax^
+ c)2 = x(x-3a)2.
Thep discriminant relation is x(x a)^ = 0,
x(x 3 a)^ = 0.
and that of the c discriminant,
y
that
is,
The
|(j/
relation
singular solution
equation
hence
it is
the
lope locus.
And
tac-lociis.
it
3a=
represents the
0,
which
in
is
locus.
nodal
38.
loci.
The general
solution
<^ {x, y, c)
It is
evident
that
in
Fig.
3.
the
Moreover, the p's "at the cusps of consecutive curves will evideutly be equal and therefore the cuspidal locus will appear
;
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
48
1.
The
be the envelope.
differential equation
p^
has for
its
+ 2xp-y =
(1)
general solution
(2
x^
3 X!/
relation
is
a;8
The p discriminant
and
discriminant relation.
Ex.
[Ch. IV.
+y=
c)2
- 4(a;2 + yy = 0.
(2)
0,
(3)
+ y) = 0.
(a;2
Equation (1)
solution
Ex.
has for
a;^
j^
is
2.
The equation
its
general solution
and the
is
c)';
.^
.^
^^
^^
2/
It is also the
no singular
8 ap"
c discriminant relation
The equation y
= 2'7y
ay^ = (x
= 0,
is y* = 0.
is
"'
is
Figure
When
Summary.
39.
in the
and
Johnson, Differ-
an
article
EXAMPLES.
39.]
The p discrimmant
cuspidal and tao
loci,
49
once, once,
and the
c dis-
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
IV.
xp'^ 2yp +
2.
x3p2
8.
6.
Examine Exs.
x^yp
-I-
ax
a'
= 0.
= 0.
2, 4, 20, 26,
= 9x,
Chap.
11.
y^
i.
Solve
p^{a;^
III., for
m^.
singular solutions.
Solve 4p2
8.
9.
3.
= xpp^.
7.
10.
solution.
4x(x- l)(x-2)p-^-(3x2-6x-|-2)2 = 0.
and examine for singular solution (8p' 27)x =
a2)
12^^^,
- 2pxy + y^-b^ = 0.
(px-y)(ix-py)=2p.
and p disorder"
first
This article
(Pj-oc. Lond. Math. Soc, Vol. XIX. [1888], pp. 561-589).
supplemenis Cayley's, mentioned above.
Professor Chrystal has shown that the p discriminant locus is in general a cuspidal locus for the family of integral curves.
1896, p. 191.)
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
50
CHAPTER
[Cb.
V.
AND
PHYSICS.
problems will be chosen for the most part from geometry and
mechanics; and it is presupposed that the student possesses
as much knowledge of these subjects as can be acquired from
elementary text-books on the differential calculus and me-
chanics.
As
now
to be considered
relations existing
APPLICATIONS.
40-42.]
There
will be only
51
The
is
restricted, because
treated.
with curves in
and normal,
;
discuss curvature
him
given for reference. It will be of service in forming the differential equations which express the conditions stated in the
problems, or, in other words, give the properties belonging to
the curves whose equations are required.
Suppose that the equation of a curve, rectangular co-ordinates
being chosen,
and that
{x,
is
y) is
^^^^^^ ^^
j.^^^ ^^
any point on
^ 0,
this curve.
(x, y), i.e.
Then -^
is
the
a;-axis
(a;,
y),
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
.'52
[Ch. V..
Y y = ^ (^ ^) and
the equation of the normal is Yy =
(X x) the inter%
cept of the tangent on the axis of x is x y the intercept
of the tangent on the axis of
is y x -^, the length of the
X, Y, being the current co-ordinates,
is
flrg
2/
tangent, that
and the
is,
a;-axis,
is
2/^l+/'^Y;
^dy\^
2/\l+(-)
is
\dxj
;
'
tlie
length
"'^'" of
""""""
'"" subtangent
"" the
is
-^
dx
is
the
2/^,;
^
(2/'
dx
of the arc
of the area
Again,
^1 +f^ydy,
is
(r,
6)
the differential
y dx or x dy.
is
let
/(r, 6l)=0,
and
+(^dx;
or -^1
orr
= F(e),
Then the tangent
of the
angle between the radius vector and the part of the tangent
to the curve at (r, 6) drawn back towards the initial line, is
r
if ^ is
\li
dr
vector and the tangent at
normal
yjl
is
dr
d6
is
(r,
6),
and
initial line,
r'
dB
tj>
<j>
= + 6;
\f;
the length of
'^^
;
+ r'f'^ydr,
or
yjf^y+r''d6;
if
is
of
Diffe7-e7itial
GEOMETRICAL EXAMPLES.
43.]
that
~ M^ +
"2 =
is,
''^
p'
f
(
53
'''^'isre u
where
m=
^
'
:7Z
\dOj'
)
43. Examples.
Ex.
1.
Let
(x, y)
(2, 3).
be any
pomt upon
the curve.
The subtangent
is
There-
dy
fore, the condition that
must be
satisfied at
any point
of the required
is
expressed by
the equation
yf=nx.
dy
ex.
origin.
must be
3"
is
2y"
When n =
(2, 3), c
1, tlie
required curve
= 3''x.
is
any one
which
(2, 3) is
2y
= 3x.
When n 2, the curves having the given property are the parabolas
whose vertices are at the origin, and whose axes coincide with the x-axis
;
When
ra
9x.
is
any one
of the
What
y.
when w
| ?
When
|?
64
Let
(x, y)
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
[Ch. V.
The equation
of the tangent at
(x, y) is
r-. = |(X-x);
the length of the perpendicular from (x, 0), the foot of the ordinate,
-y
is
dy\^
rn
- =a;
integration gives *
whence
cosh-'-
this,
"
(2)
z=dx;
= - + c;
= cosh
(3)
It is also
from
is
=
^
dx
vfhen x
= 0. Now
\dy
-
- + c
/ = -a snih /x
\a
1
aax
therefore c
\
;
and hence
-
= cosh -,
Ex.
3.
in
is
n times the
subnormal.
Ex. 4. Determine the curve in which tiie length of the arc measured
from a fixed point A to any point P is proportional to the square root of
the abscissa of P.
Ex.
5.
in
is
proportional to
is
proportional to
Ex.
6.
in
44,
TRAJECTORIES.
45.]
55
An important group
trajectories.
is
that
which
deals
with trajectories.
problems
of geometrical
family
of
curves
is
line
that
cuts all the
of
a
a
A trajectory
family
according
to
given
law
for
the
a
example,
of
members
the line which cuts all the curves of the family at points equidistant from the a;-axis, the distance being measured along the
Problems relating to
44.
When
the angle
is
the
is
orthogonal trajectories
when
it is
classes
Suppose that
f{x,y,a)^0
Is
arbitrary parameter
and that a
is
from
(1) gives
(1)
the equation of
The
elimination of a
= 0,
(2)
Now through any point (x, y) there pass a curve of the given
system and one of the trajectories, cutting each other at an
angle . If m is the slope of the tangent to the trajectory at
this point, then
m=
-^ tan a
ax
1
By
ential
definition
is
/OS
\^)
-j
a
+ T^tan
dx
hence the
is
obtained by
civ
for -^ in (2)
differ-
this gives
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
56
dy
-^
ax
<!>
tan a
= 0,
^,y,
1
is
(4)
T^ tan a
ax
[Ch. V.
system of trajectories
and
If a is a right angle,
dx
dy
trajectories is obtained
system of orthogonal
by substituting
dy
^
gives
for -^ in (2)
this
this
dx
(5)
Suppose that
(1)
is
The tangent
c.
the radius vector and the tangent to a curve of the given sysdB
tern at any point (r, 6) is r
If
is the tangent of the angle
m=
since the tangents of the curve
Idr
rde
and
Hence the
its
TBAJECTOEIES.
46,47.]
required trajectory
what comes
or,
57
obtained by substituting
is
same
to the
thing,
?-
for
'''
gives
<^('->^.
for
in (2)
this
^^
(3)
-'"f)=0
47. Examples.
Ex.
1.
whose tangent
is
all
"
given point.
it
of the curve
and
The given system of
which pass through the origin and have
their centres
on the x-axis
equation
its
j/2
x-2
is
ax
0,
(1)
a heing the variable parameter. The elimination of a gives the differential equation of the system of circles
namely,
;
dy
y^
The
z^
(2)
2xy
dx
differential equation of the
system of trajectories
is
obtained by
dy
dx
n dx
and
this gives
on reduction
(nx^
The
ny^
integration of this
= 0.
2/^
= 2 c{my +
nx),
this represents
(4)
another system of
circles.
The
(3)
x^
c
2 nxy)dy
trajectory is orthogonal
if
x2
j/2
c^y,
'
[Ch. V.
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
58
2.
trajectories of the
r" sin
n6
circles pass
system of curves
a".
+ r cot ne =
and gives
0,
dB
the differential equation of the system.
The
r^
substituting
for
dr
system of trajectories
is
obtained by
this gives
d9
-r- +rcotnB =
0;
dr
separating the variables, integrating, and simplifying,
r" cos
nB
this
is
c,
orthogonal curves.
Ex.
Ex.
2
x^
3.
equation
is
4.
2
y^
series of parabolas
series of hypocycloids
+ y^ =
af
Ex.
5.
series of confocal
6.
Ex.
7.
+ cos e
lines
trajectories of a
2a
=
1
Ex.
whose
i ax.
+ sin 5 9.
y = ex, c being
series of curves.
nitions
48.]
69
the calculus.
If s denotes the length of the path described
moving
by a particle
t,
V,
ds
=
dt
and
particular
then will
and
1.
body
falls
from
rest
any instant
which
it
has fallen.
= ?-
Kt)2,
or,
putting
dt
is
for
k,
dt
vphence
g^
Integrating,
But
^'^^^
= dt.
vrvr
tanh-i =nt
c; whence,
= tanh(K +
c).
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
60
Ex.
2.
acceleration
at the time
is
in time
by a
[Ch. V.
particle wliose
is
measured.
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
1.
V.
is
pro-
3.
pro-
is
Find the equation of the curve for which a differential of the arc is
made by its tangent with the a:-axis,
multiplied by the cosine of this angle; and determine the constant of integration so that the curve touches the K-axis at the point from which the
4.
arc
is
5.
lar
measured.
Find the equation of the curve where the length of the perpendicu-
tangent
is
of the
is
x cos a
y sin a
= p, p being
system of parabolas y =
7.
trajectories of the
8.
Find the'orthogonal
trajectories of the
system of
ax^.
circles touching
trajectories of
-2
r"
10.
11.
+ -^\~'^'
'^^^^^ ^
'^
'
arbitrary.
trajectories of
hyperbolas xy
k".
a" cos nfff therefrom find the orthogonal trajectories of the series
of lemniscata r'
12.
a' cos 2
$.
parameter.
trajectories of
Ir-]
cos 8
a,
a being the
EXAMPLES.
48.]
13.
= a^,
14.
sum
16.
17.
18.
the tangent
of
a curve
is
let fall
its
ordi-
the perpendicular
/-axis
curve at P.
19.
Find the equation of the curve in which the perpendicular from the
upon
offl
constant.
is
origin
61
its
is
if
any point
P be
ordinate upon
its
taken,
radius
Find the curve in which the angle between the radius vector and
What is the curve when
is n times the vectorial angle.
When n = i?
?
the tangent
20.
in
point
22.
Find the curve the length of whose arc measured from a given
a mean proportional between the ordinate and twice the abscissa.
is
the pole
of the curve in
at
any point
is
point.
23.
If -s
= -=^^
ST
p^
0^(1 e^)\ r
I
the radius vector of any point of the curve,
the pole upon the tangent at that point.
is
>
andp
a(l
24.
25.
cos 9).
self-orthogonal.
26.
Show
is
self-orthogonal.
27. Find the curve such that the rectangle under the perpendiculars
from two fixed points on the normals be constant.
28. Find the curve in which the product of the perpendiculars drawn
from two fixed points to any tangent is constant.
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
62
[Ch. V.
f
The product
29.
of
Determine the curve in which the area enclosed between the tan-
30.
is
equal to
a^.
Find a curve such that the area included between a tangent, the
a;-axis, aud two perpendiculars upon the tangent from two fixed points on
the a;-axis is constant and equal to ifi.
31.
The parabola
32.
= 4 ax
y'^.
upon a
rolls
Determine the
straight line.
33.
ax^.
E = Ei + L^,
dt
E=
when
(6)
(c)
when
E=
constant
a,
when
(d)
jE?
is
a simple
is
maximum
the
The equation
35.
an
electric circuit
having a resistance
is
iJ,
di
E = Bi +
_i_ _!
dE
BG~ M
dt'
constant
((?)
g'
(a)
when
when
i,
for
which reduces on
(d)
(a)
when
when E =f(t)
E =f(t)
E= Em sin
E = E sin at.
find
and having
form
dt
36.
fre-
circuit of
q, is
^-^dt+0'
(6) when E = 0;
(c)
when
E=
a,
constant
at.
= 0.
LINEAR EQUATIONS.
49.]
CHAPTER
63
VI.
are not multiplied together, their coelScients all being constants or functions of x.
The
d^'-^^'d^' + ^'d^'+
where
and the
+^'-^-'^'
,
is
P, are constants or
d'^v
functions of
x.
-^, has a
this coefficient,
complete solution of
on
If y
yi be an integral of (2), then, as will be seen
substitution in (2), y == c^yi, Cj being an arbitrary constant, is
also an integral similarly if 2/
.%, y
yzy---,y
Vn, be intec^2,-;y= c^^ where Cj, , c are arbigrals of (2), then y
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION S.
64
[Ch. VI.
Moreover, substitution
will
show that
2/
+ C22/2+--- +c^
Ci2/i
(3)
y=Y+u,
T= + +
where
is
C22/2
Ci?/i
member of (1)
gives X.
As the
first
+ c,^,
Yioi y in the
u for y, by hypothesis,
gives zero,
and that
of
it is
(4)
n arbitrary constants,
The part Y is
(1).
The
pai'ticalar integral.'f
sum
is
?t
called the
is
the
where the
>
coefficients
and second
treated, t
On
equal to zero
* See Note
t
2/1,
1/2,
the
first
P)e"";
member
of this
and
this will be
+ Pim"-'H
f-P
= 0.
(2)
Vn-
y,
e""'
if
m"
grals
for
+ Pim"^^ +
the substitution of
is
to
be distinguished from
4.
coefficients,
LINEAR EQUATIONS.
50,51.]
65
solution of (1)
is
y
Ex.
1.
= cie""* +
^y
mhi
cie""
= 0,
+
show
c.e"'^^
(3)
Cae-""
is
cie^"
026"^''.
that
=A
cosh
Ex.3. Solve
2^ + 5^-12x =
Ex.4. Solve
51.
f-
+ 3 m 54 =
m = 6, 9.
m^
is'
(2)
solving for m,
2.
-\
+ 3^-54!/ = 0.
|^
dx
dx'
Solve
Here equation
Ex.
Cse"'^'
mx + B sinh ma;.*
0.
two roots
becomes
2/
But, since
Cj
+ C2
(cj
is
+ C2)
e"'"'
m, and
+ Cae"*" +
When
[-ce'""''.
1)
and hence is
In order to obtain the complete
solution in this case, suppose that
solution will have (n
arbitrary constants
wis
= mj
-f-
=
be written y =
y
which can
* See
+ C2e<'"'+*'%
(ci + c^^).
de'"!"'
e"^-"
DIFFERENTIAL FQUATIONS.
66
On
expanding
e'"
by the exponential
g-"!!
(^A
+ Bx + -'1
series, this
A= +
C2,
approach
0,
O1
Now let h
h terms proceeding in
A and B will
zero,
be
and solution
and,
have r equal
y = e"i'
The form
by
(C]
Cjas
corresponding solution
\-
is
cX~^)*
auxiliary equation
is
Ex.1. Solve
f|-3f| + 42, = 0.
Ex.2. Solve
=
1^-^-9^-11^-4,
"
dx*
dx^
dx^
dx
52.
m,,
= e-^''(c, + c^ + c,x^;
if it
ce""^
it
*i^i
C2
finite.
similar reasoning
(3) Art.
+ Cse"^ H
and
Ci
h),
B = cji.
{A + Bx)
6'"'=^
As h approaches
that
and
becomes
ascending powers of
where
VL
[Ch.
55.
0.
root's.
When
of Art. 50.
~
e'^",
xe^",
ai^e"'!'',
7.
The
an algebraic equation.
THE SYMBOL
52,53.]
For,
Cie'+'^'"'
67
D.
e"''
/3a;)
/3a;
/8a;).
solution
is
which reduces
2.
('
It
2/
and
tlie
ci
Ex.3. Solve
cos
mx +
show
25
0,
e-^{ci cos
Cg
dx
(D-
By
The symbolic
first
3x
cosh
roa;
-i-
C4
(;2Sin
3 a:).
sinh ma;.
0.
+ PiZf-' +
f{I))y
+ p^) = 0,
= 0.
.
member
(1)
2/
(2)
same function of
is
of in
equation (1)
may
and,
, m,
be written
(D-m,){D-m2)-{D-m)y = 0.
Hence the
|8a;j.
"
da;2
or, briefly,
that the
sin
that
vix
Ci sin
da;8
The symbol D.
ential operator
is
=
^-4^ + 8^_8^+4j/
dx
dx*
53.
m+
m^ + 8
is
solution
j^- m*y = 0,
e'-'^-'^^',
/3a;
auxiliary equation
m=4
Ex.
//
e<''+'^'''
^+8^+25j^ = 0.
Ex.1. Solve
The
to
= (cj + c^)
+ (cj + CiX)
= e*5 (^ + AiX) cos + (5 + Bjo;)
(3)
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
68
(Z>
This symbol
54.
is,
if
Theorem concerning D.
that
[Ch. VI.
One
when
when
is
given
its
opera-
g-( + ^)| + ^. =
when expressed
o,
+ /3)D + al3ly = 0;
(D a) (D ^)y = 0.
\D'-{a
this on factoring
Eeplacing
Z)
becomes
by
ax
dx
Operating on y with
J\dx
^J"
B, this
becomes
dx
first.
{D
factors
/3)(D
EEPEATED ROOTS.
54, 55.]
relating to
69
to be required.*
55. Another
way
The form
when
the auxiliary
of the solution
when
On
putting V for
{D
m^y,
(Z)-m,)'y
the solution of which
is
and
= 0,
= Cje"".
Eeplacing v by
its
value
(D-mi)^,
(D
which
is
Art. 20
mi)y = Cie""',
solution
is
e"''=
(Cj
first
order considered in
+ CjX).
(D-m^fy = 0,
(Z)-mi)(I>-mjy2/
= 0.
(D
for
(D
v,
mify = Cje"'".
m^y
and proceeding
(Z>-mi)2/
as before,
= e""'(ciX + C2),
* See Forsyth, Differential Equations, Arts. 31-35, for fuller information concerning the properties of D.
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
70
[Ch. VI.
is
y __ gmw (cj;2
^ g^
_|.
Cg)j
where
is
= e""''(Ci +
Cjcc
c^a;'"').
member a
function of
x.
In this
article will
be considered the
equation
the
first
Art. 50,
member
two
parts,
(1) con-
complementary function being the complete soluformed by putting the first member of (1)
zero.
The problem now is to devise a method for
integral, the
equal to
(1)
f{n)y
and the particular integral
is
X,
which, as yet,
it
may
is
becomes
=X
be said
be taken
It
X.
It is necessary to define
^--
written y
which,
y(-D)
operator f(D).
(2)
is
/(-D), gives
is
that function of x
X.
The
the inverse
operator
of
the
m any order,
may
56, 57.]
of the equation
V".
jg
and
this
Now
apply
(Z>
a)(D
/3)
-X.
is
this gives
'
71
and since
allowable by Art. 54
11
D a, acting upon
^
tion give
X by the
definition of
-X,
this
X, must by
^
D-a D-
becomes
.
defini-
j3
D^
X, which
is
{D-IS){D-a)
Also,
a-l3\D-a
which
is
fractions.
The
B - /Sj
by resolving the
obtained
result
D'-(a + P)D + a^
of
operating
upon
is
_J_J(i)_^)X-(Z)-)Xj;
or
and
X.
finally,
X.
this
with
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
72
[Ch. VI.
X,
namely,
(a)
may be
The operator
integral will be
1 may
11
J^
be factored
>
D mi D m^
On
It is thus
(2) Art. 56,
first
-X.
D m
1^
mi
D m_,
D -m^
them from
Ce--"'n'Xdx;*
and remaining
factors in
is finally
e""'
e^ix
(&)
The operator
""^
fractions
...
may
e~"' X(da;)".
be decomposed into
its partial
'
D thx D-m^
D -m^
by
upon X, the
Now,
is
the par-
is
made
58,
SHORT METHODS.
59J
Solve
^-5^
+
dx
62/
its
value
73
is
Xdx.
"f'
Ex.
'
= eK
fZx^
is
(2>-3)(Z)-2)?/
or
lience the
e^;
Cie^
+ c^e^
integral is
"
Z-3
D-2
genei'al solution is
Ex.
2.
Solve
-^^-y =
Ex.
3.
Solve
p, + 2^ +
Ex.4. Solve
59.
\D-3 D-2J
+
y
bx.
= 2e^.
_^--
=X
^-f|-8^+12,
dx
dx^
dx^
to
which
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
74
(a)
(6)
\ (c)
(d)
(e)
[Ch.
VL
x'",
60.
The
member.
member
shown
integral
corresponding to
to be equal to
e"'
is
in
e"";
the
second
this will be
e^.
/(Z))e-=/(a)e-.
and
is
this, since
-/(D)e'
= -i-/(a)e'";
and /()
in.verse operators
e""=/(a)
whence
e""
The method
fails if
is
-i- e""^;
= ^
a root of /(Z))
e"' = 00
In this
case, the
Since a
is
procedure
a root of
is
iD-a)<j> {D)
= 0,
for then
e"".
as follows.
f{D)=
0,
/(D)
e"'.
{D
;
- a)
is
a factor of /(/))
then
(D-a)<l> (a)
,/,
(a)
TERM OF FORM
?60, 61.]
If a
is
Suppose that
1
g,^
The method
Ex.
then
e-
^.
a;V'
when a
is
\p
is
times.
0, r
yl +
Solve
1.
of procedure
a root of /(D) =
D a enters twice as
=
/(i>)
{D af {D) then
= 0,
75
a;".
=3+
J/
e-'
e2.
=3+
(Z)3+l)2/
of /(Z))
particular integral
and 2
substitution of
are
5e2=.
1,
is
ce-"
The
e-^
But 1
f e^.
is
e2( ci
^^ + d sin 5^"]
cos
is
^^
-D
for
D, on account
a root of
D'^
1,
Z)3
on substituting
equal to
Z>2
tlie
D+1
for D in
and
of the first
Z)
.e-.
second factor
e-
D+i
tlie last
'
expression
is
is
ce-"
e\ci
cos"2
ca sin2")
integi'als of
Ex.
3.
Solve
^-y=(e' + 1)^.
Ex.
4.
Solve
^dx''
61.
^+
dx
2/
Exs.
+ 5.& + ^1, 3,
Art. 58,
= 3 eh
member,
by the short
When
a;
in the second
x"
is
to
be
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
76
evaluated,
[Ch. VI.
a;"*
would be
zero.
Ex.
1.
The
roots of
function
The
Solve (I3
is Ci
D2
+ 2 D)y = x\
1 and
Cje"*.
particular integral
= ^(l-|iJ +
fZ)2+...)a;^.
= ^(:=-3 +
l)
z being merely
The complete
xdx.
solution
The operator on
= ^(2^=-9 + 21),
is
= ei + de^ +
cae""^
+ -^ (%v?-^x\ 21).
and this gives the result already obtained. One might think that it would
be necessary to add another term, IP, in this form of Che operator but
the result for this term would be a numerical constant; and this is already
;
Ex.
2.
Solve Ex.
2,
Art. 58,
by
this
= a;4 + 2x +
method.
1.
in the second
member.
= a^ sin ax,
62.]
77
= a^ cos ax,
D* sin oa; = + a* sin ax = (a^^ sin ax,
>" sill
ax
Therefore,
if
(ft
(Z>-)
<f}
From
(D^) sin
ace
= ( a^ sin ax.
</)
it
Similarly,
it
more
that
sin ax.
cos ax
cos ax
generally, that
-
sin (ax
- cos
and
and,
sin ax
(aa;
(D^
is,
The conlplemantary
integral
^
D^
+ a) =
+ a) =
+ D^- D-\)y =
function
= ^~^
_
cos (ax +
is Cie''
+ D^- D-1
(2>2
cos2a;
cos
cos 2 x.
e-'(C2
2x =
= ^^~^^
a).
D + 1 n^-1
cos 2 x
cos2a:
25
1)2
= _lsin2a;-52il^;
25
hence the complete solution
y
The number,
the work.
cxe-
4,
25
is
+'e-' (c^
ca ck)
- 1:
25
sin 2
- 5^25
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
78
Ex.
Solve
2.
-3-|
a''y
cos ax.
integral
is
6
2,2
cos(a
principle above
becomes
a^
ax
the particular
fails.
Ccos
^
c^ sin
a^
ax
cos ax
-a^ +
- (a +
ti cos
is
=
a-2
[Ch. VI.
ax
on the application
operand by Taylor's
of the
sin ax- hx
cos ax
h^x^
of the
series,
).
The
first
2a + h
(x sin ax
1-2.
:!^ cos
-\
ax
this reduces to
= 0\ cos ax +
The complete
integral
Ex.3. Solve
is
ci sin
ax
-)
2a
da?
Ex.
4.
Solve
^+
"
dx^
= sin 3 - cos'' ^* x.
a;
second member,
and, in general, as
is
+ afV;
f{D)e'^V= e'^f(D + a) V.
jye'"'V=
therefore,
Now
put
f(D + a)V=
e^{D
V, ; then
F=
J(,I' -r
will be
any function of
x,
'^
since
F in
F is
a)
Vy.
Also, Fi
<^)
any function of
(1) gives
fiD +
(1)
x.
Sub-
TERM OF FORM
0a, 64.]
79
xV.
where
and transposing,
Vi, as
solution
2/
By
2/
Ci
is
= a;e^^
any function of
/v'^ ^
x.
is
cos a;
C2 sin
a;
+
-
D^
-xe^.
1
-xe'^
5_
e^
(i)
and
2)2
a;
2.
Solve
+
^+3^
dx
dx^
Ex.
3.
Solve
-j\+2y =
--^
e^
5
+ 4 jD +
= ci cos +
Ex.
C2 sin
2j^
x^e^
a;
(5
-x
Z)2
(5
a;
4).
4).
25
e2sina;.
e"
cos
x.
second member,
of the
form
a;
DxV = xDV+ V,
D^xV=xDW+2DV,
D''xV=
or, as it
may
Therefore,
be written,
xD"V+ niy-W\
= xD^V+ (jf^^A V.
f{D)xV=xf{D:)V + fiD)V.
(1)
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
80
The formula
[Ch. VI.
In formula
V is
(1)
V= Vi-
put f{D)
any function
of x, Vi
V in
is
any function of
'^
f{D)
The
The
x.
Since
Fj.
substitu-
-AD)'
f{D)
f{D)
'
(1) gives
V=
Then
'
f{D)
'\ /(D)
'
by
Constants of integra-
Ex.
1.
The ^
particular
integral
^
Ex.
of
xe^ =
D'+l
Z)2
_x^_
5
D^+l
by
this
2 Z>
method.
D^ +
-
e^
4e^
Z)2
Art. 63,
1,
= |3(5.-4).
Ex.
2.
Solve
-~
dx^
-I-
4M
a;
Ex.
sin x.
3.
Solve
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
1.
g+4, =
2.
(i35
0.
13 1)8
-I-
-rrA
dx:^
VI.
V
26 2)2
-I-
82 Z
104)?/
= 0.
"
x" cos
x-
EXAMPLES.
64.]
4.
^+
4!/
da?
sin3a;
e^
xV
13.
15
'
{Tfi
'
d^^-^d^^-^dx^^^-''- ^
-^^
a:^)y
e""
+ ^3 + ^. =
e"''.
^^(
y = x^e^.
f^-2^+
dx^
dx
''
6.
t/'
+ &-)-^
a^M
K*.
d^*~^dx3 + dX^-''-
1^-
^.-y = e^'^sx.
4/)
(Z)'-2Z)3 -3i3-^
24.
-^,-y = xsinx+(l +
+ 4)j/=a;V.
x'^)e'^.
dot!'
30
Show
27.
29.
(Py
^
25.
(i)2
26.
(D3_3x)2
that
^+
I
HI
w
%. Din
e^sinx
_L
=
+
/i2k
ND + M
(2)
/*
-^
- a)2 + (32
^^
1 cm
a^
fi^sin-^
.^j^gj.g
\^
doti^
^-
22.
81
'
jyaud
ikf
are constants,
is
equal
^
-^
operated on by ND + M;
\/>- a- 1/3/
^^^iaiEje-c^cos^x Xdx _ff^^je-a==sin^x Xdx.
2i/3
that
is,
to
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
82
CHAPTER
[Ch.
VH.
VII.
part, however,
it
^"d+p^''
F^ + - +p-^^+p^ = X,
X
where
(1)
is a function of x.
p^, p^, , p, are constants, and
This equation can be transformed into an equation with
constant coefficients by changing the independent variable x
to z, the relation between x and z being
= log X,
that
is,
dy __dy dz _1 dy
dx
dzdx~ X dz'
da?
x^ydz""
dz/
d^_
1/d'y
da?-
0!=^^"'*^+"'
d"y
dx"
1^
fd^y
d^2/
_ n-n 1 d^'hj
x = e^
65.]
On
,.
tions
putting
D for
and clearing of
83
dz
become
(2)
:D(D-l)(D-2)y,
da?
x-^^=D{D-V){D-2)
{D-n + l)y;
and, in general, the operators only and not the operand being
indicated,
of = D(D-1)'
(i)-r + l).
daf
e'
(3)
it
into the
form
Ji)(Z>-l)...(Z>-w+l) + i>i-D(i>-l)"-(i>-w + 2)+...+i9|2/
= Z,
(4)
is changed.
where Z is the function of z into which
Equation (4), having constant coef&cients, can be solved by
the methods of the last chapter. If its solution hey f{z),
then the solution of (1) is y^f(\ogx).
Therefore equation (1) can be solved by putting x equal to
e", thus changing the independent variable from x to z, which
reduces the given equation to one with constant coefficients
and then solving the newly formed equation by the methods
1.
Solve
On changing
x^-.
x^ + = 21oga;.
2/
equation becomes
e',
this
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
84
On
integral is
x, is
= x{ci +
K^i^ +
Solve
2.
2/
C2log5i;)+
The
21ogx
+ 4.
3x2.
66.
function.
found to be
which, in terms of
Ex.
by the methods
[Ch. VII.
(A)
To
find the
complementary
solution of
can be found directly, without explicitly making the transformation shown in Art. 65.
The first member of (1) becomes, when a;" is substituted
for y,
fm(m l)(m 2)
Therefore,
(m
n + T) + pim{m 1) (m n + 2)
+ -+Pn=0,
the substitution of
and then
m.2,
,m,
flj
a;"*
of the solution of
mi,
n + 1) + pi'm(m 1) (m w + 2)
+ +p]x''.
if
m(m 1)
vanish
(m
is
(1).
for y
makes
the. first
member
(2)
of (1)
(l)is
the
c's
function of
of D.
there
member
of (2)
is
the same
an integral y
= e"^' of
(4)
Art. 65
= x"^ of
and hence,
is
(1),
as has
66,67.]
'
85
already been seen, an integral of (1) can be obtained by substituting log X for 2 in the integral of (4) Art. 65.
Therefore, if
(2) has a root wii repeated r times, the corresponding integral
of equation (4) Art. 65 being
e"*>'(ci
+ C2Z + c^z^-\
h c^-^),
is
= x'^lci+C2\ogx-{
\-
c,Q.ogxy-^\.
corresponding integral of
Ex.1.
i^,
the
by
this
66 being
(4) Art.
is
= a^JciCOs(j81oga5)+ C2sin(|81oga;)|.
SoUex^^,+ 3x^^+x^+y =
0.
dx
dx^
dz^
{m"
the roots of this equation are
+
1,
l)x'
-=
Is
= -1 + K^l C2 cos^^logx^ +
C3 sin
^^loga;H
67.
gral.
3.
Solve
integral of
will be found.
Art. 65,
9x2|^+ 3a;^ + = 0.
K*^
+ 6x3^1+
dx*
dx^
da?
dx
2/
(B) To find the particular inteand the two following, the particular
In this
1, 2,
article
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
86
dx
this equation
.
a;'
=
d'
dx^
therefore
(1),
when
[Ch. VII.
may
that
is,
be written
d f d
X
dx\ dx
^\
1
(f X d
,-,'
dx
6 is substituted for x
+1
form
of 6 as the
first
my = x.
(3)
The method deduced in Art. 66 for finding the complementary function of (3) may on making use of the symbol 6 be
are 6i, O^,
thus indicated If the n roots of f(6) =
, d, the
complementary function of (3) is
CyX^'
the
c's
The
+ c^^^ +
+ C!B*,
case of
-~X.
the form
method
^ X
for evaluating
must now
be devised.
68. The symbolic functions f{B) and
its
As
-.
to the direct
tive.
Thus
but as
required.
D had
of
dz
this
new symbol
is
68,69.]
and
(6
87
this shows,
that
coefficients,
indifferent.
is
The
If ----
method followed
tion
can be decomposed
into factors which are
^
that
f{0)\
commutative
it
fie)
;
and
also that
it
fractions.
69.
Methods
integral.
(3) Art.
It is thus
67 can be
and
The
mX
operator
may
will then
become
tti
a2
..
_ 1
a
^.
_^
a.
tions,
The
operator
and consequently
tti
may
X be thus expressed,
Ui
a,
frac-
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
88
the
sum
[Ch. VII.
particular integral.
made up
(6) are
upon X, the
of operations of
a
operation should be impressed upon the memory.
6
a X
Now,
is
x^-ay = X.
dx
The
by Art.
20, is found
to be x^ ( x''^-^Xdx; therefore
=X=x'^JCx-'^-^Xdx.
6
a!'^-i-i
j
...
I
a;""-""
'~^X(da;)"
method
and the
give
(6) will
+Nxf^
x-''-^Xdx
as its value.
When
a term
(e
- a)"*
is
(&),
cession
and
Ex.1. Solve
arM
be applied to X,
a;-M
m times
in suc-
6(9
1)
a;--'X(da;)"
a;2^_2a;^-4 =
d-j?
is
'
Here /(9)
a;*.
dx
- 2 9 - 4, which
reduces to (9
- 4)(e +
1).
TERM OF FORM
70.]
On
x".
cix*+~, and
is
the particular
1
is
(e-4)(+l)
cc'.
X*
e+1
b\e-4:
\x*\x-* ^+Hx
I a;-M
x'
the term
is
therefore,
is,
j,
which on integration
x^
25'
5
integral
this reduces to
^+^dx,
X* log a:
The complete
c,x*
-+-^;
^ is
Ex.2. Solve
= x*.
x2^+5x^+4u
dx^
dx
Ex.3. Solve
x2^+2x^-20!/=(x
+
n
^
dx^
dx
l)2.
^
a;"
in the second
member.
methods
shorter than the general one can be deduced for finding the
which correspond
member. For instance,
particular integrals
in the second
Proof:
integer
6,
r,
x Jx" = mx,
x-y-
x"
x-=-
x"
= m'x"'. Now/(9)
and therefore
Applying
to terms of special
form
is
positive
/(S)x =/(m)x>.
to both
members
of this equation,
multiplier,
fW
fim)
and transposing,
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
90
If
a root of
is
/(fl)
= 0,
then f(m)
then becomes
equal to
x",
- m <p{e)
[Ch. VII.
=
and hence the method fails.
m)0(d); the particular integral
;
which reduces
to
<p{m)
-m
":
this is
^"'"g^.
0(m)
If
is
integral
responding
*^
Ex.1. Solve
is
F{m)
{e
my
Here/()is
6^
1
is
ff'
a;,
+ 60 +
complete solution
is
F{0) {6
and the
cor-
F^m)
a;5.
66
is
5;
CiX"^
c^x'^
x^,
m)',
a;2^+ 7x^+5!/ =
f{ff)
and the
6,
particular
x^
becomes
The
60
thus
y
zz ciK-s
ax-^
~
bO
1,
2, 3, Art.
69 by this
dz"
dz"-''
b'
is
known
transformed
dz"-^
6-i
* This
is
(1)
dz
as Legendre's equation.
b""
&"
See footnote,
p. 106,
'
EXAMPLES.
71.]
changed from x
to
z,
by the
+ bx.
is
91
?/
= F{z),
is
= F(a + bx).
If
e'
for a
+ bx,
t,
+ 2x)^+Sy = 0.
+ 2xy^,-6(6
'
dx
dx^
+ (2a;-l)^-2)/ = 0.
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
dx?
xdx'''
x'^dx
VII.
x^
'^''i-^'^x^'y^^i
dx^
4.
(x
dx^
dx
+ a)^g-4(x + a)|+62, = x.
10.
12.
(x-^Z>2
7.
8.
9.
16(.
.3
3xZ
l)|/=
- xy
x''/)2 -(2m- \)xD + (to2 + re^)?/ =
(1
13.
Ji^^ logx.
--
''S-''-i^-" '"-"r""
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
92
CHAPTER
[Ch. VIII.
VIII.
exact will be
first
discussed,
Some
of certain par-
but in obtaining
73.
Exact
differential
equations
defined.
differential
equation,
\d!lf'
'
dx'
y)
'
/(* |.)=/^^+'
Exact
differential equations of
the
first
equation,
^5/
the
coefficients
The
condition
of a differential
_,^
(^)
72-74.]
must
Pi,---, P,
it
The
first
tiation
term of
from P^
by
what
coeflB.cients Pqj
P', P",---,P'">.
(1) is
ce""^?/
The
be exact.
are functions of x; in
93
which
is
The
from
first
term of
(P, Pa')
(2) is
-,
which
On
the integral of
(1).
from
remains
(2) there
The
first
term of
from
(P,-A' + P")|^,
which
By
P.-1
- Pn-.' + - + (- l)-'Po'-
from
{P-l
Both terms
which
is, if
i + ^n^
(3)
evidently derivable
is
(4)
P-P-i'+-+(-l)"n<"> =
0.
(5)
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
94
[Ch. VIII,
has an integral
(1)
(6),
that
is,
is
(1)
(6)
Ci.
exact if
its
the second
member
be
the second
satisfied,
member
first integrals.
is
If
and condition
(6)
c.
is
until an
not exact
is
-ii,
Equation
or of y is obtained.
(6) is called
a.
first
It is easily proven
by means of Arts.
3, 4,
and Note
C, p. 194,
first integrals.*
Ex.1. Solve
This
is
neither a
In
coefficients.
dition that
it
it,
be exact
a;''
is satisfied
by these values.
Integration gives
this
equation
is
exact
is
also satisfied
grating again,
a;J + (2;2-5)?/
cia:
C2.
7, 8.
inte-
EXAMPLES
75.]
95
This is not exact, but it is a linear equation of tlie first order, and
hence solvable by the method of Art. 20. The solution is
XS
Ex.
2.
z2
x3
Solve
a^+^l^ +
3 a;3+>|^
+ (3 - 6 x)x''+'y
=(x*
(m
that
+ 2) (m +
7)a;'+3
_ 3 (m +
first
2)x'+2
x^
which
exact.
is
first
integral
x^^+5xil-x}y='^ + 2\ogx+l,
y linear
equation of the
first
order.
Ex.3. Solvea:^+2a;^+22/
dx^
Ex.
4.
Solve
.
Ex.5. Solve
dx
+ 2e'^^
+
^,
dx^
dx
= 0.
2e'y
"
+
VS^
^ dx^ + 2*^
dx
= x\
32/
a;.
"dx'
dxdx^
Ex.
7.
Solve
2,^
= 0.
5)x'".
member, shows
equation
m must be equal to 2.
is,
On
+ 2x-
that
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
96
[Ch. VIII
This
^ =
is
an exact
differential equation.
+ Ci;
f(x) dx
Integration gives
^2 = fffi^Xdxf +
c,x
c,
ff- ffi'^)id^y +
obtained.
Ex.
1.
!'""'
+ 2" '++ -! + a
Solve -y^
Integrating,
= xe'.
-=-|
= xe'
e'
dv
-2.
dx
= a;e
2 e*
cix
ca,
y = se*
3 e*
cx^
CaX
+ Ci,
Cj.
This equation could also have been solved by the method of Chap.
"VI.
-^ x".
Ex.
2.
Solve
Ex.
3.
Solve
x2^+l=0.
dx*
Ex.
4.
Solve
dx"
-|
a;2
sin s.
^/(v)-
form
which in general
is
is
way
76-78.J
From
= 2j/(y) cly +
{^
ir^tegrating,
this,
=x+
'ffiy)dy
Ex.
d^'y
1.
Solve T^+a''-y
Multiplying by
2^,
a'c'^
c,.
Ci
0-
= - a^j/^ ^
-^
for C\
^ ^, = -2 a^2/^;
integrating,
on putting
c,.
= dx,
-^
whence
97
y.
ci
a''{c^ -'ip')
dv
separating the variables,
Vd'
and integrating,
y%
sin
hence,
!/
V
-
'
a dx,
= ax +
c sin
(ax
Cj,
ci)
ia,
that
the solution
is
Is,
2/
This equation
Ex.2. Solve
Ex.3. Solve
Ex.
78.
4.
is
^ ^^ ^.^ ^^ ^ ^^ ^^^ ^^
= cisin (ax + Ca).
an important one
in physical applications.
^ = ^^+^ =
dx^
Vo!/
dx^
y^
0.
Solve -T^,-a^y
dx^
= 0.
is
The
typical
DlFFEIiMNTIAL EQUATIONS.
98
If
and
and those of
first
A.rt.
be substituted for
[Ch. VIII.
class.
^ = ^,.., f^ = f^;
then
l)th
an equation of the (n
may
theii
p and this
Suppose that the solution is
F(3:)
dx
c.
be -^, put
d^v
^=p,
E..1. solve
Putting
find p,
..g-4.g.6| =
p=
whence
Ex.
2.
Solve
Ex.
4.
Solve 2
a:
-t4
find y
by
Art. 76.
4.
becomes
integrating,
79.
and therefrom
t4
CiX^
ax^
+ dx^ + |,
6a;*
a;
c.
(sr--
is
The
typical
79, 80.]
in Art. 26;
If p be substituted for
and
(1) will
~,
dx
first
99
X.
then
an equation of the (n
l)th
p=
then the solution of (1)
f{y)
is
m
Ex.
1.
Solve
--->-^s-(ir-Ex.3, solve
Ex
Solve
and by that
,g-(|y= ,nog,.
^ + 2- +
dx^
dx
ii'^-]
\dx/
by the method
of this article,
of Art. 78.
tions is
fd'^y
^VdF"'
dr^
^\
d^" 7
(1)^
BIFFEBENTIAL EQUATIONS.
100
If q be substituted for
from which
solution
q,
that
is,
then -r^
j^ ,
-^-s^,
may be
found.
and
[Ch. VIII.
(1)
becomes
is
dx-
<^ (X),
shown
in Art. 76.
Ex.
1.
Solve
^ + a2^ =
Ex.
2.
Solve
-j^^
~ m' -t\=
e'"
Chap. VI.
+ a2^ = 0.
whose orders
differ
tions is
The
by unity.
dr;^
\_Q
d^~~^v
If q be substituted for
an equation of the
iirst
-:=
-.
dx"-"
then
d^v
do
dx"
dx'
tion is
.J.
INTEGRATION IN SERIES.
81, 82.]
then,
from
101
this relation,
y can be deduced.
Ex.
On
1.
Solve
a''f^^ =
putting q for
^,
this
x.
becomes
dx
integrating,
aq
integrating again,
Ex.
3.
Ex.4.
ay
'
= a^ = Vx" +
[iVa^
ax
c^
c^
c^
log
(a;
+ Vx^ + c^) +
C2].
-"S=['+(2r]*
Solve
a;^ + f^=0.
= 2.
Solve^.f|
dx^ dx^
tion belongs to a
= A^ + ^iJB"" + A^
-\
h A.oT'
-\
(2)
* See Note B.
83, 84.
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
102
x,
[Ch. VIII.
relation between
and the
the
coefEcients.
determined:*
- a;2) f^ +
1.
The
substitution of x for y in
Solve (x
m(TO
^+2
J,
= 0.
member
tlie first
3)x'-i-(m
(1)
-2)(m+
gives
l)x'.
(2)
is
Ex.
is
by
unity.
s. )
^ox"
The
^ix^+i
3)x"'-'+ [Ai(m
+ r)(m + r+
[Arim
When
^r-ix^H-'-'
Aomdm +
first
A^'^+''
member
may be
+.
(3)
of (1) gives
3)
.-.
,^,
<
denoted
follows that
m = 0,
OT
=-
3,
A-
"^
''
m + + 3^
zero,
Ar-i.
it
(6)
The
For
series
is
Aoil-ix + ^x^).
For
TO
= -3, 4/=?l^^,_i.
r
Then
Ai=-6 Ao,
^3
.46
=
=
Ai --= 10 Ao,
- 10 ^0, ^4 = 5 -40,
-^0, Ae=Aj=-- = 0.
.4ox-3(l-5x
Note
series
+ 10x2-10x8
+ 5x*-x5).
1, 2.
is
INTEGRATION IN SERIES.
82.]
Ao
103
is
of (1) is
= A{1 ~ ix + -^x^) +
Bx-^{1
- bx +
lOx'^
lOx^
5x>
- x^).
(6)
This
is
is
successive exponents
Aax'"
is
1.
+ Aix"-^ +
[^'-'(m
On
-r
+ l)(m
h Ar-ix'''-+''
member
first
r+
A,x'"-'-
of (1) gives
+ 3) -Aim(m - 3)'}x''-'
Ar(m r 2){m r + l)]a;'-'-+
[Aom.(m.
4)
-\
m = 2, TO=-1,
On deducing
follows that
it
= " ~ + A'--',
mr2
^
''
.4,
will be
it
....
in the
is
first
of these series
is
(1) is
not zero
vfill
Ex.
Integrate (1)
2.
j/
dx
dx'^
member
s= 2,
gives
m(m -
(2)
whence
The
complementary function.
and
to
l)x'+2
+ (to +
l)*
or 1.
r=xei
The
2 AyX'^-*'
substitution of
for y gives
r=0
'2[(to
The
-2
?)
(m -
J-
l)^,x"'-2r+2
coefficient of x'^-^'+^
+ (m _ 2 r +
must vanish
l)^l,.x"-2'-]
therefore
(m-2-)(m-2r-l)^+ (m-
2J--I-
3)^,-1
0,
= 0.
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
104
hence
which
(3)
is
A.
[Ch. VIII.
^L:=2r^3^^_^_
=^
^^'"
^ = 27^)^-''
= "'
Ai=
hence
it
- J-a;-2-lx-i
hence
6t-
-l-lx-6 -Lllilai-s
6!
Ar=
l,
- Yr^'
is
31
rorro
-Ao,
o
= g^^z =
^3
the corresponding series
.4i
....
^;-^ A-x;
2r(2r
2
1)
2(2-1)
Ai=
91
7!
^~^
4(3-1)
Ao
= .4o,
Ax^
= 0,
'
is finite,
being
31
5!
is
x)
Aitx'^ for
then
that
'"(2r +
hence
Ai=~^Ao,
5.6
^2
3)(2)-
^^
5.7-6.8
^0,
4)
^3
'"''
llAll
Ao,
5.7.9.6.8.10
83.]
and
is
+5.7.6.8*
12V'+5.6'^
that
Show by
3.
solution of y-|
Ex.4. (2.^
+
+
2/
8!
6!
Ex.
2x-^(l+x-^ + ^-^x-* +
is,
the
method
is
j'
\
)
^ cos + B sin
a;
a;.
l)g + x|+2, = 0.
(I_cc2)g_2a;g + n( +
Ex.6.
105
ETC.
= 0.
l)2,
geometric series.
when two
become
sponding series then being identical and when two of the roots differ by
a multiple of s, one series then being included in the other and when a
;
coefficient
A,
is infinite.
The equations
referred to above,
Legendre''s equation
is
was the
and Theory
of
Harmonics.
He
is
noted
Numbers.
He
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
106
d_
clx
where n
is
{i^~^')%} + n{n +
l)y
[Ch. VIII.
= 0,
See Ex.
Art. 82.
5,
(Forsyth, Diff. Eq., Arts. 89-99; Johnson, Diff. Eq., Arts. 222-226;
Byerly, Fourier's Series and Spherical Harmonics, Arts. 9, 10, 13 (c),
18 (c), and Chap. V., pp. 144-194
Byerly, Harmonic Functions
(Merriman and Woodward, Higher Mathematics, Chap. V.), Arts. 4,
Id,
li>-17.)
* BesseVs equation
is
which n
is
usually an integer.
Johnson,
Arts.
etc.,
215-221
pp.
219-233
Byerly,
Applications
Physics;
to
Functions.)
\
Biccati's equation is
-^
dx
to
which form
latter equation
is
is
bu^
cx^,
ai/
when n = 2a,
6;/'
or
The
ck".
when
^-^
2
is
a positive integer.
11
a'^x'"u
0.
d-ji^
Memoir
Johnson,
204-214;
for
some
special cases.
was published
is
best
in 1724.
known
He
his
in con-
integrated
EXAMPLES.
83.]
107
+ +
- x)
7-(tt
j3
''"
l)x dy
a/3
dx
a;(l
da;2
is
x{\
-xy~
o^
1
usually denoted by
a(a+lM^ + l)^,
1-2. 7-7
-7
^''(a, j3,
one of
7, x), for
..
particular integrals
its
and
Johnson,
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
1.
Show
is
VIII.
first integral.
[y'-^^'%)%-^^y^^Af:)-4x-y=(Py
dy
a?-
2.
dx2
x{(fi
!c2)
dx
x^
a^a"^
x")
4.
Find a
(iy-'S-{(g)^-(gy}'
first
integral of
is
series, after
series
can be represented by
it.
1, p.
220.)
DIFFEBENTIAL EQUATIONS.
108
n-x^)^-x^ = 2
9.
dx:'
dx,
^=1
12.
ax^
'
,(l-log,)g + (l + log,)(|)^0.
13.
f^ = sin2..
14.
16.
-f4
2sin x-^
da;
da;2
Mcosa
=
"
sin2a;.
lS.g = |.
n.sin.xg = 2.
20.
f^ + ^^=e^.
15.
+ cosx^
da;'
=
x^-x'^-^
dx?
dx^
dx
11
'
[Ch. VIIl.
integrals of
first
-=-|
19.,3g..
=/().
-^ + y =
First integrals of
(r^l
\dxj
y^
are
= A, -^C08x + ysinx =
dx
B,
^ = ycot(x +
^smx
+ ycosx=C,
dx
a).
a,
are
B = Acosa, C= A sin o.
The
elimination of
%=
In general,
if
independent
js sin
first
+ C cos ^
^^ si (a;
first integrals
all
of the
a).
84, 85.]
CHAPTER
109
IX.
shown
methods of
may
second order.
A
85. The complete solution in terms of a known integral.
theorem of great importance relating to the linear differential
equation of the second order, is the following
If an integral included in the complementary function of
such an equation be known, the complete solution can be
known integral.
known integral in the complementary
Suppose that
?/
2/1
is
function of
g+p|+, = X;
then the complete solution of
of
(1)
2/1.
Let
(1)
= yiv
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
110
be another solution of
(1)
dar
since,
On
now be
v will
yi
On
determined.
become
will
it
[Ch. IX.
ax Jdx
y^
by hypothesis,
dx
d^+\^ + y,l^)P-J,'
and this equation, being linear and of the
solved for p.
is
On
(^)
first order,
can be
found to be
dx
y^
yi'
whence, integrating,
v
= c, +
f^
c,
dx
yi
r^
ju,
dx
r^J
fy,eS''^X{dxy.
yx
(1) is
f^J
+ J
2/1
fyiel'-^XCda;)'.
(4)
y,
yi-,
and, since
con-
it
/g-jPdx
5'''''
T-
is
2/1
j- dx,
.1p
ieJ''*'X(da;)
,
SOLUTION FOUND
86,87.]
BY
INSPECTION.
a y = y^, y = y^ be two
Ill
independent integrals of
2/1^-2/2^=06-^^"^
^'
^^
then
dx
dx
(See Forsyth's Diff. Eq., Art. 65; Johnson's Diff. Eq., Art. 147.)
may
It
(3) Art.
is
known
integrals.
by
To
inspection.
inspection.
Ex.1. Solvea;^
Here, the
sum
+ (l-a;)^-3/ =
e^
is
obviously a solution of
this,
on substituting p for
becomes
_-
.| + (l+.)p =
a linear equation of the
first
order.
d,x
l,
Its solution is
XX
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
112
hence
= log +
a;
cj I x-'^e-'dx 4- c^
e" log
[Ch. IX.
is
x-^e-'dx
Cig' \
c^e".
Ex.
2.
Solve
^^ - x^^ +
dx
dx'
[Here, y
xis
xy
= x.
obviously a solution
when
member
the second
is zero.
Ex.3. Solve
Ex.
4.
Solve
(3-a;)g-(9-4a:)g+(6-3a;)2/ =
x^-^ +
x^ y = 0, given
that x
+-
is
0.
one
integral.
is
f{D)y
Sup-
= X.
Sometimes f(D) can be resolved into a product of two facand Fi{B), such that, when Fi{D) operates upon y,
and then F2,{D) operates upon the result of this operation, the
same result is obtained as when F{D) operates upon y. This
tors Fi{D)
may
be expressed symbolically,
= F,{D)\F,{D)y\;
f{D)y = F,{D)F,{D)y,
f{D)y
or simply,
it
member
left.
SOLUTION FOUND
88.]
BY
FACTORING.
113
commutative
an integral of the given equation, then (Z) l)y is the corresponding factor
it y = x he a.n integral, (xD l)y is the
corresponding factor. The following example will make the
;
method of procedure
clear.
Ex.
is
Art. 87,
1,
when
[_xD^
on using symbolic
factors,
+ (l~x)D-l]y =
it
-x)D-
becomes (xD
1)
e-.
(2)
{D l)(xD +
l)y on expan-
1}!/].
(D -
Let
(2)
(1)
e'';
becomes
(xD + l)(D--\)y
and
is
e'
l)y
= v,
(3)
whence, v
cx-i
e'x-'^.
(D
whence, on integrating, y
l)y
cie'^
cx-^
ce'
e^x-'
e-^x-^dx
+ e' log a,
Ex.
2.
Solve Ex.
3,
Art. 87,
by
this
method.
J-
42/
= 0.
= 0.
+ 6a;-6x2)^-4!/
dx
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
114
[Ch. IX.
lows,
If these integrals be
tween them
be-
variation of parameters."*
by
As most
'!
method
of
it
in the case of
the
is
is
it
rather long,
it
On
putting
=H-f^j
-^1
^=p, y^=
by means
^^^
j^i
first
mtegral
On
substituting for
its
equivalent expression
ctx
another
first
integral
is
-~,
and
integrating,
ay
obtained,
a2p2=(2/-|-C2)2-a2.
The
elimination of
p between
!/
90.
C2
these
first integrals
= a cosh
variable.
* This method
is
due to Lagrange.
If any
>
89-91.]
y^
115
being some
do?'
its
This equation
dependent variable.
may
dx
daf
where
Pi
be written
yi
= P + -^,
2/i
(4)
dx
^-^@+^S+e4
-^
Any value
(5)
proper choice of
this is
Again,
P the
in Art. 85.
it
but then
yi
can
must be
2/1
91.
from
if
Removal
e*J'(^i--P''^-
is
(6)
In particular,
On
it
follows
zero
e-iJ"^*^.
'^^
P2
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
116
[Ch. IX.
order
is
g+e..=x,
where
Qi=Q-i^-ip2,
^nd
dx
(1)
X^
= Xe^l''^.
Transforming
(1)
(1) Art.
and reducing.
It may be remarked in passing that this removal of the
term next to the second derivative is merely an example of the
l)th
y,
where
= e--IPldx
"J
2/1
by making the
substitution.
Ex.1.
Solve^ + i-^+fJ
^.juj;
Here
P = a;"i, Q =
4 XJ
L_6^j,^0.
\^^j
gjjj
6 x^
and hence
yi
e-J/'
= e"'^'.
92.]
If
117
is
-0,
the solution of which
is
Ex.
2.
Solve 4
Ex.
3.
Solve
= eix' + ^-
x^^ + 4 a;^^ +
(a;8
+ 6 * +
4)?/
= 0.
= 0.
^-2tanx^+52/
ax
dz^
a;)^ + (K2
+ 2x +
2)2/
= 0.
integrable form
variable.
g+p|+Qy=X
Suppose that
(1)
any linear equation of the second order, and that the independent variable is to be changed from x to 2, there being
some given relation, z =f(x), connecting x and z.
is
d^y/dzV dy cPz
,
d^y
dydz
dy
+"
= :fi(:r]
= :f:r-> and :A
dz daf
dz' \dxj
da?
dx dz dx
(
Since
-f-
(1)
g + P,|+Q^ =
becomes
d'z
,
where
X>,
(2)
pdz
Q.= jy,
P,=^^,
-7^^''^'fdzY
\dx)
^r.,
X,=j-,
'-fdzY
Wa^y
(3)
DIFFEBENTIAL EQUATIONS.
118
[Ch. IX.
but can be
by means
of the relar
and
tion connecting z
Any
x.
be so chosen that
it
equations
(3).
In
^+ P^=
ax
that
0,
is, if
= C e-i'-'^'dx.
ax'
Ex.1. Solve^'
z,
such that
Q, that
X dx
f
is, if
+ ?^ + ^2, =
dx'^
Find
VQ dx.
0.
^V = ^
= --
solving, z
X*
has for
this
its
= C1COS-+
2.
Solve
-4 +
cot X
dx^
Ex.3. Solve X
Ex.
4.
^dx^
Solve x6
$^
dx
-f^
dx
?/
dx
a^y
is
C2 sill-'
ooseo- x
+ 4 x3(/ =
'^ + 3 x^^ +
fte^
93.
give
= A cos 2 + B sin z.
a
Ex.
now
solution
Hence the
by virtue
X*
\dxj
and
a^,
= 0.
x5.
= AX-'
This article
thus far in the book that are employed in the solution of equay
93.]
119
An equation
(a) linear
(6)
may
be
[Chap. VI.]
[Chap. VII.]
(d)
(e)
(c)
variable,
variable,
(/) in the
form
[Art. 77]
=/(.y),
known
(g)
(h)
(i)
found by inspection,
[Arts. 85, 87]
factorable into symbolic operators,
[Art. 88]
an equation of which two first integrals can be easily
(j)
is
or
is
easily
;
found,
If the equation
such a form by
(a) so
[Art. 89]
is
series.
it
[Art. 82].
may be put
in
piFFEBENTIAL EQUATIONS.
120
[Ch. IX.
[Art. 92]
of
the
variable
will
coefficient
have
the
an asor that (3)
signed value, aM, in particular, be a constant
[Art. 92].
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
1
^ + ?^-2,
5.
(a;
8.
a;
3) -=-|
(2
9.
10.
= S^IS-(--S)'=-
- (4 - 9) -^ +
a;
da;''
-^ + (a:
^dx ^
1)
(l-a;2)g + a:|-2, =
3(a;
)w
/
- 2)^ =
= 0,
>
" dx^
given
that w
o
^^)-^ x-
a^y
=0,
of
which y
14.
dx^
e' is
a solution.
of
dx
(1
a;(l-a;^)l.
12.
being a solution.
0, e"
ra;sina;+cosa;)^-xcosa;3^+2/cosa;=0,
^
'
dx
dx^
difi^
IX.
X dx
ce"""''* is
an
integral.
94,
GEOMETRICAL APPLICATIONS.
95.]
CHAPTER
121
X.
applications
The
practical problems
now
to be givep
set
but
the
first
may
be required.
to
The
is
da?
If the normal be always drawn towards the B-axis, both it
and the radius of curvature at any point on the curve are
drawn
in the
same
direction
d''v
when y and 4
at the
point are
dur
drawn
in opposite directions
in sign.
ward, above the a^axis, and two similar ones below this axis.
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
122
[Ch. X.
Ex. Find the equation of the curve for any point of which the second
derivative of the ordinate
is
power
The
first
condition
cPy
Integrating the
is
Ifi
and
<Pg/
k^
equation,
dx
but,
?/-axis at right
first
and a con-
of the abscissa
stant length a
a?-
y/^1.
ci;
(,2
ci
this
gives
Integrating,
dv
k^
dx
a2 Vk-*
a2
Vx^
a'^
c;
a,
and hence
a,
therefore
and
conju-
Had
k^x^
a*y^
a'^k*,
added
48
to the
s, V, X,
= the
cPs
ellipse,
y, r, 0,
t,
acceleration of the
be
Art.
signification as before.
moving
particle, at
any point
in its
path,
-y = the
Cvt
parallel to the
a;-axis.
96.]
cPv
-j^
=
df
123
[dt
The
force acting
upon a
An
and a
re-
if
be taken as origin.
Find the distance passed over by a moving point wlien its
is directly proportional to its distance from a fixed point,
the acceleration being directed towards the point from which distance
Ex.
1.
acceleration
is
measured.
^ = -k^s.
Here
Using the method of Art.
78,
dt
dt
dfi
whence
Hence
integrating,
hence
kdt
sin-' -=lct
of integration.
b;
= asva.{kt+V).
Chap. VI.
i2)
--,
by the method
written
ds
this statement.
in
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
124
hence
that
is,
[Ch. X.
= ci sin Ai + ca cos kt
= a sin (kt + 6),
as above.
when
small.
is
Is
^ + 29 =
Since
= cx cos -v/^J +
Let
C2
= 0,
= 0a and
and hence
=
I
which
is
when
J
t
= 0;
;
oscillation.
0,
C2 sin -v/^<.
applying these
the
conditions,
Ci
= 00,
=
cos \
yi^-t; that is, t =-V- cos-i
=:0ts fins
fln
It 9
0.
0o
= 0o,
= ir-v/i;
is
Jience
ir
-v
' fi
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
Determine the curve in which the curvature
1.
X.
is
to k.
is
equal to the
is
equal to the
and
6.
same
is
direction.
of the normal.
EXAMPLES.
96.]
7.
125
abscissa.
8.
tlie
acceleration
is
is
measured.
9.
particle
whose acceleration
is
constant and equal to a, vo being the initial velocity, and so the initial
distance of the particle from the point whence distance is measured.
10.
is
particle
when
11.
is
the acceleration
from a fixed
falling
from
point.
assum-
rest,
velocity.
12. The acceleration of a moving particle being proportional to the
cube of the velocity and negative, find the distance passed over in time t,
the initial velocity being vq, and the distance being measured from the
The
0.
relation
A
where
+MIe =
is
magnetic
due to the
9 of
a bar
0,
earth.
of a complete
vibration.
14.
and a
In the case of a stretched elastic string, which has one end fixed
particle of mass
attached to the other end, the equation of
motion
where
is
is
particle
and
moves
v,
in a straight line
velocity acquired
the centre
from
is
rest at
by
falling
and
e its
elongation due to
power
from an
so at
infinite distance to
Show
that the
a distance a from
a distance a to a distance
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
126
[Ch. X.
'
The
induction,
and capacity,
Ldt
dp
The
LG~ L^
Ldt
dt^
19.
above
i.
terms of the
circuit in
is
LC
U^''
q.
^ + ^^+-^=0
when iJ20=
Ldt LC
Solve
is
^'^'
4 i.
d2
20.
Solve
"^*
di
I
1-
dt
= 0,
when
in such' a
way
that
is
the
maximum
0.
differentiation, reduces to
When
the galvanometer
is
= 0.)
--\
dt"
21.
Deter-
current, and
juO
of
motion may
be written
dP
dt
'
being the deflection of the needle from the position from which angles
are measured, when in its position of equilibrium, the factor k depending
a.
of the
180.)
* 22. Find the equation of the elastic curve for a cantilever beam of
at the free end, the
uniform cross-section and length I, with a load
differential equation
being
73.
EXAMPLES.
96.]
being along
=
S
dx
is
beam.
its
when x
127
at the free
a;-axis
l,
and w
when
a;
= 0.
suffi-
beam described
in
when
equation being
^^d^^
t 24.
Find the
is
is
uniformly distributed
T-
the load
beam
when a
tion being
p. 153.
128
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
CHAPTER
[Ch. XI.
XI.
sidered.
will
linear.
employed
variable.
The complete
solution consists of as
many
indepen-
97,98.]
129
1.
make
will
^ ^
"
dt
clt
^ + 5x +
(2)
32/
= 0.
^+5^+3^
=
^ dt
dt
(3)
^ ^
0.
a{2
by
2,
is
effected
the third by
1,
5,
this
the second
Solving (4),
and substituting
= A cos t
-\-
Bsint;
^=_M^cos+A^l^sin.
5
By
using the symbol D, which was employed in Chap. VI., the elimina-
more
easily.
On
substituting
for
the given
equations become
(i)
Eliminating x as
if
which
is
If y
i)y
= 0,
whence
as above.
have been
(Z)2
is
l)x
= A' co&t+
B' sin
would
diffebBjsttial equations.
130
substitution of
tliis
[Ch. XI.
value in
(5)
dx
= 0,
^-Sx-2y
at
which
is
(1)
minus
(2), gives
SB'
A'
sin
^'
cos t.
Substitution
from
for
it
- h^L+Ji and
'
X.
dependent variables.
Ex.
2.
Solve
dx
7a;+
2/
dt
^-2a;-52/ =
dt
Ex.3. Solve
-\-2x~Sy =
dt
dy
+ 2y =
3x
e^
dt
Ex.4. Solve4^
dt
+ 9^+44x +
49j/
dt
3^ + T^+3ix + 3Sy" =
dt
Ex.6. Solve
e'
dt
^-3x-4j/ =
dt''
11+ x+
equations of the
first
which
is
first order.
first
Simultaneous
degree in the
99.]
131
is
'-
ci-i
<?
-'^
5-,.
dx _dy _ dz
'p~'q~E'
(2)
for,
on taking
z as the
and
dz
dz
(1) for
dz
dx
whence
Q,B,
which
is
dy
=
Q,Bi
AQ2-AQ1'
B1P2
- B,P,
dz
- P,Q,'
P,Q,
(2) will
absent from
is
is
P and
dx _ dy
P~~Q
gives a relation between x
complete solution.
and
y,
which
This equation
is
may
enable us to eliminate
by a well-known principle of
Since,
tions
-K
Q
-^,
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
132
+ mdy +ndz
IP+mQ + nM
ldx
[Ch. XI.
+ m'dy + n'dz
I'dx
VP + m'Q + n'R'
'
''
x,
,,
^^
that
y, z,
satisfy (2).
It
I',
may be
m',
possible
n', etc.,
to obtain equations
In particular,
of (2).
I,
m,
n,
lP+mQ + nE = 0,
(4)
+ ndz = 0.
(5)
and consequently
ldx-\-mdy
If Idx
is
+ mdy + ndz
I'dx
-\-
m'dy
n',
+ n'dz is at
+ n'B = 0,
and
differential, dv,
=h
is
Ex.
the last
two
fractions reduces to
^ = ^,
z
which has
Using
= X- = -
1.
^^. ^^.^-
X, y, z,
as multipliers like
I,
dx
x^
y^
az.
m,
n, above,
dz
lOO.]
The complete
Ex.2. Solve
By
dx
mz
The
s^
^-^=-,
nx
I,
ldx
m,
ly
Iz
n,
its
solution
bz.
two independent
solutions.
dz
dy
=
ny
mx
+ mdy + ndz
Idx
whence
y''
therefore
last
133
=
Ix + my + nz =
jndy
ndz
Ci.
xdx + ydy
whence
x^
+
j/2
zdz
z^
= 0,
= k^.
These two integrals form the complete integral of the set of equations.
Ex.
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
134
[Ch. XI.
p|^+Qjf + ij|f = 0.
dy
9a;
Hence,
(1)
dz
=a
tem
if
dx
dx-\
dz
dy-\
By
dz
is
formed by means of -^
dx dy dz
,
is
thus
0,
dz
dz
= (in^ =
di*
which
,
dy
5a;
=a
99
is
is
^ (u,
which
is
v)
(l>
for example,
(a, b)
or
c,
<^ {u,
v)
= 0,
trary function.
= a,
arbi-
= b,
The
in the
form u =f(v).
may
and the
of
first
115.
GEOMETRICAL MEANING.
101.]
Equations
135
(1) or (2)
d%
and ~
d\i
definite values of
(x, y, z),
that
is,
these differential
Therefore,
if
moment
the
its line
and
hence to P, Q, R, by (2) Art. 99) satisfy the differential equations, then this point must pass through each position in a
it
If
start
1,
Art. 99,
is
= az,
a;^
2/'
+ 2^ = bz;
is
BIFFEBENTIAL EQUATIONS.
136
[Ch. XI.
all
2,
the
planes represented by
+ my + n =
Ix
c
having an
infinite
number
?
k having an
infinite
102. Single
has an integral
there
of values.
that
equations
are
integrable.
Con-
The equation
Qdy
u
+ Edz =
(1)
= a,
(2)
is
equal
member
to the first
factor.
is
+y^ + z' = k%
differential
Pdx
when
number
dition of integrability.
c,
du =
dx + dy + --dz,
ax
ay
dz
P, Q, B, must be proportional to
^ ^
dx dy dz
,
that
is,'
du
102, 103.]
137
8\
dxdy
dy
6y
dx
ax
dydz
dy
^ 8y
dzdx
dz
dz
d^u
dx
5a;
fdP
3Q
oa;
fla;
dy
dy
- i?K>^_0^
=
Q
dy
dz
dP = p^f^_ii,dfi
fdR
:ifl_:ii_]
dx
dz
On
multiplying the
first of
is
obtained,
<f-i^)-(f-f)-Kf-f)-'
the relation that
when
it
must
has an integral
Conversely,
an integral;*
when
exist
between the
(3)
coefficients of (1)
(2).
and hence
(3) is
and
is
easily
remembered, for P, Q, B,
x, y, z,
appear in
it
in a
equation.
For proof
of this, see
=
Note H.
(1)
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
138
is
[Ch. XI.
satisfied;
solution.
that contain
Pdx + Qdy =
Put the arbitrary constant
in the integral of (2) equal to
is
0.
(2)
must appear
an arbitrary function of z. This
of integration that
(2) is
y.
On
(1), it will
differen-
and
z,
and
be possible to determine
x, y,
is
the substituti
in
x, y, z, like
The
i
those in
of zu for
x,
and of
zv
y*
fori
+ Bdz +
Tdti
Pdx + Qdy
= 0,
may have an
integral,
condition (3) Art. 102 must hold for the coefficients of all the
terms taken by threes. All the conditions thus formed are,
1.
Solve {y
z)dx
is
0.
satisfied.
I.,
pp. 4-12.
EXAMPLES.
103.]
Suppose that 2
(2/
and
this
= 0,
a constant, then dz
is
139
and the equation becomes
+ z)dx+{z+ x)dy =
on integration yields
(2/
2)(gH-X)
= ^=0(2).
(2/
+ (2 +
z)dz
x)dy
+ (x +
+ 2zdz -^dz = 0.
y)dz
dz
2zdz-d(t>
whence
<p(z)
Therefore,
or,
{y
reducing, xy
+ yz +
zx
= 2^ +
+ zXz +
=
c^ is
= 0;
x)
c^.
= z^ +
c^
xdy
where the integral
+ ydx + ydz +
+ zdx + xdz = 0,
seen at a glance to be
is
xy
It is
zdy
yz
zx
c^.
is
+ 3ax^dx + '2bydy+cdz=0.
the integral
is
seen to be
Va;2
w'^
Ex.
3.
Solve (y
Ex.
4.
Solve zydx
Ex.
5.
Solve (2x'^
Ex.
6.
Solve
+ 2^ +
z)dx
tan-i -
dy
ax'
hy^
oz
h.
= 0.
dz
= zxdy + y^dz.
+ 2xy + 2 xz^ +
(f + yz)dx + {xz +
l)dx
z^)dy
dy
+ (y^
+ 2zdz = 0.
- xy)dz - 0.
immediately
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
140
which
of
equation
is integrable.
Pdx + Qdy
satisfies
[Ch. XI.
+ Rdz =
(1)
F{x,
y, z)
solution
its
=a
is
(2)
Also for
number
of values
each point
of
dz
(x, y, z)
and -^ which
moving
is
dz
in such a
way
that
its
cosines of its path always satisfy (1) can pass through any
point in an infinity of directions.
But, when passing through
all
1,
lie
in such
3y
= 2z
is
QEOMETBICAL MEANING.
104, 105.]
3(a^
A point
moving so
141
+ 2') = 142.
2/'
but
all
lie
equation
xy
+ Rdz =
Pdx + Qdy
+ yz + zx= 11.
p = -J -
B
is
orthogonal to the
The equation
^
Pdx
Qdy
Bdz
(1)
means, geometrically, that a straight line whose direction cosines are proportional to dx, dy, dz, is perpendicular to a line
whose direction cosines are proportional to P, Q, R* There-^
fore,
by
a point that
(1)
must go
is
moving subject
whose
On
dx _ dy
_ dz
,,
T-'Q-B
^^^
mean, geometrically, that a straight line whose direction cosines are proportional to dx, dy, dz, is parallel to a line
whose
must go
traced out
(1) are
are
Q, R.
whose direction
to the condition
moving subject
DIFFEBENTIAL EQUATIONS.
142
is
is
The
[Ch. XI.
orthogonal to
all
the lines
(2).
When
Pdx + Qdy
there
f(x,
is
y, z)
If,
is
non-integrable.
+ Bdz = 0,
c,
x,
(1)
y, z,
as, for
example,
(1).
^{x,y,z)
= a,
(2)
differential relation
dx
(3)
dz
satisfy (1)
course, (2)
is
F(x, y,z)
Suppose that
=h
(4)
is
equations (1) and (3). In Art. 101 it was shown that the
locus of the complete solution of (1) and (3) consists of the
curves of intersection of (2) and (4) hence, geometrically, this
;
(2).
xdx
+ ydy+ey\l~'^-fdz = Q
^ ^
be assumed.
^%^ + ?! =
a"^
V^
d^
is
not
satisfied.
Suppose
EXAMPLES.
106.]
whence
may be
143
(3)
xdx
ydij-\-zdz
(4)
x^
y''
z^
Q;
= c^.
Thus
(2)
The geometric interpretation is, that the lines upon tlie ellipsoid represented by (2) which satisfy (1), have been determined; and have been
found to be the intersections of the family of spheres whose equation is
(4) with that ellipsoid.
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
1.
^ + 2^-2x + 2y = Se'
2^-^dx^
dx
3.
dt
dt
2.
dx
dt
4^-|-9^-|-2x +
dt
3l2/
^+2x + 5y =
7.
8.
9.
e'.
dt
dt
tdx=(t-2x)dt
tdy={ix
6.
dx
dt
S^+T^y + x + 24:y = 3.
5.
= 2a;
^+ix + Sy =
4.
e'
dt
dt
4?/
2^ + 4^-Sz = 0.
3^ + ^^V-+2x + y = 4:e^.
dt
XI.
+ 2x- t)dt.
- z-dz^ + 2xydxdy = 0.
-{-ty
+ yHy^
y^ y''z)dx
x\lx^
z)dx
-f-
{xy''-
u)dz
10.
z{y
11.
(2x
12.
zdz
13.
+ ix +
^f
dt^
y''
2xz)dx
y(y
z)du
te^
= cos^t.
^+y~2x
^
dt^
a)^}^ dy.
14.
^ + m^ =
{)
dt'
^-m^x = 0.
dt"
= 0.
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
144
'
dt
dt
~ = mx-ly.
Show
^-
= ax+'hy +
c,
dt
^=a'x +
b'y
c',
dl
(a
mia') (x
mij/)
+c+
rUiC'
^ieC<'+">i')<,
(a
mza') (x
miy)
m^c'
A2e'-'+'^'"i'
b')m
are
where mi,
X=ax + by + cz + d
^=lz-nx
17.
[Ch. XI.
toj,
a'm^
(a
-6=0;
+ by,
^=ax
dt^
'^ = a'x +
b-y.
at'
by a
16, p. 269.)
air
when
velocity
20.
is
the retardation
v^ in
is c
to the horizon.
projectile in a resisting
medium such
4>
particle acted
as
initial
to the horizon.
upon by a central
force,
iJiii
where
ii,
I'a,
+ ii^+ilff =
dt
dt
dt
dt
i,
denote the currents, Mi, R2, the resistances, Li, Li, the
primary and secondary currents re-
spectively, ei
mutual induction.
and
the
EXAMPLES.
106.]
Show
that,
the primary
(iii2
-M-^)^ + (L1B2 +
L2B1)
dfi
dt
The Principles of
of a transformer
cit
dt
(Bedell,
with capacities
Ci
and
ca
iii
being
dt
ci
at
'
oJ
i2dt
Ca
for
at''
22.
145
dt
dt
dt^
\ C2
ci
/ dt^
"it).
\C2
(Lii2
M-^)
ci j at
C1C2
^ + iB,U +
B,L,)
C2
^+
dt^
dt*
(Ll
+ ^+
\ C2
ci
^i-R^VIi
/ dt^
Ci / df
(Bedell,
C1C2
The Principles of
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
146
CHAPTER
[Ca. XII,
XII.
107. Definitions.
or
more
differential
partial derivatives,
and must,
there-
The
equations of the
first
dis-
order will be
p and
denoted by
of
will be
differential equation
Partial
constants.
differential
by the
elimi-
equations can be
(a) by the elimination of arbitrary confrom a relation between x, y, z, and (6) by the elimination
coefficients
q respectively.
{x, y, z, a, 6)
To
(sea p. 173),
physics.
DURIVATION.
107,108.]
147
By means
dy
dz
6a;
dz
F(x,yhP,q)=0,
(2)
In
the
(1)
number
the
number
of independent variables,
and an equation
of the
first
order arises.
ples, z is to
Ex.
1.
If the
rorm a
(x
- hy +{y- ky + z^ =
o\
y,
+ zp = 0,
y -k + zq = 0.
h, y k from the
x
and
'
last
two equations
the
given equation,
a2(p2
g2 4. 1) :=
Ex.
2.
Form
Ex.
3.
Ex.
4.
c2.
az
Ex.
Ex.
6.
Form
+ hy + ab.
= a{x + 2/) + 6z = ax \- a'^y^ + b.
z =(x + a)(y + b).
5_
yi
g2
+ lL + , =
l.
a, b, c
from
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
148
109. Derivation
of
[Ch. XII,
To
x, y, z,
is
relation
<i,{u,v)=(i,
(1)
where
is arbitrary.
The relation may also be expressed in
the form u =f(v), where / is arbitrary. It is now to be shown,
that, on the elimination of the arbitrary function <^ from
(1),
a partial differential equation will be formed and, moreover,
<f>
degree in
p and
is, it
will be of the
first
q.
f:(l;+-l)+s*(l+-lf)-'''
and
this
Pp+Q.q = E,
p^dudv_dudv
where
dy dz
Q_
flw
dz By
_ 9m
dz dx
j^
Thus, from
(1),
contain
<j}
and
dv
dx dz'
_dudv^_Su
dx dy
tial differential
(2)
dv
dy dx
which involves an arbitrary function <^, a parequation (2) has been obtained, which does not
is
linear in
p and
q.
109,110.]
x, y, z
1.
= e"l'0(a; y}.
p = e"i(t>'{x y).
q = ne'^y<t>{x y)e''y<p'(x
q =inz p,
and, therefore,
that
is,
Ex.
2.
Form
trary function
-f
2"=
y);
nz.
from z
FQifi
y^).
+ my +
Ex.
3.
Ex.
4.
Ex.
5.
=f(x +
from
Ix
ay)+<j>{x
y'^
nz
2/( -
<l>{x'^ -\-
-)-
log j/
y^
+ z"^).
from
ay).
In Art. 108
it
F(x,y,z,p,q)
(1)
= 0.
(2)
y, 2, a, b)
Suppose, now, that (2) has been derived from (1), by one of
the methods hereafter shown then the solution (2), which has
;
as
is
many
A particular integral
values to a and b in
* See Edwards,
of (1)
Differential
Calculus,
Arts. 299-301.
is
(2).
Arts.
509-514
Williamson,
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
150
[Ch. XII.
represented by
is
The system
(2).
number
infinite
of values.
by
faces represented
its
doubly
is
infinite,
because
<^ (x, y, z, a,
6)
is
touched at each of
Eliminate a and
way
*
:
^ (,
y, z, a, h)
= 0,
da
db
and the
This relation
the envelope.
differs
'
is
(Compare Arts.
that
is, it is
it is
it
not contained in
to the constants.
32, 33.)
the equation of
y, z is
is
Suppose that in
becomes
<t>{x,y,z,a,f(a))
= 0,
(1)
(2).
The equation
in
of the envelope
W.
S.
111, 112.]
by
161
envelope of
and
it is
found by eliminating
a between
^ (,
y, z, a,
f{a))
= 0,
^=0.
and
da
These two equations together represent a curve, namely, the
curve of intersection of two consecutive surfaces of the system
is,
integral
may
Other relations
may
Arts. 33-38.)
is
must be
in
Memoirs of
the Berlin
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
152
Ex. In Ex.
1,
[Ch. XII.
2=(p2
9^
+ l)=c2
(1)
The
- ny + (2/ -ky +
= c^.
z^
(2)
values in (2)
obtained by giving
is
ft
and h
particular
thug,
(a;
a particular integral.
is
The
of these spheres
\t is
The
by
ft
and
k.
differentiation gives
= 0,
y-k = Q;
in
ft
(2),
ft
there
This
satisfies
= c.
is
by
It
all
is
made a
(2).
function of the
Then
h.
t/
=x
in the xy plane
and
re-
of the system of
The envelope
der,
it
is
ft)2
of this family
+ {yis
ft)2 -f ^2
c2.
(3)
which
is
by
= x.
The
whence
differentiation gives
ft-l-j/
ft..
ft = J(x -f
ft
= 0,
y).
113.]
153
which
is
2/^
2xs/
2 22
=2
0*2,
a general integral.
If the relation
z=
4 ah,
parabola y^
= iax
in the xy plane.
there
is
derived,
it
=Q
by the elimination
was
(1)
Pp+Qq = R.
Suppose that
is
(1)
(2)
(2)
Since
<^
then
is
(j>(u,
an arbitrary
Ex.
2,
xq =
z = F{a? +
yp
is
2/2),
where
tion
arbitrary func-
etc.,
which are
all
solutions of
*The student
will find
it
W.
DIFFEBENTIAL EQUATIONS.
154
[Ch. XII.
is
linear in
Pp+Qq = B,
JP,
Q,
being functions, of
to
of
is
(1)
x, y, z.
u=a
Suppose that
is
The type
p and q
fin
with respect
LAGRANGE'S SOLUTION.
114-n6.]
To
rule
may
155
be given
Pp+Qq=B,
find two independent integrals of
dx_dy _dz_
(3)
'p~'q~b'
let
them be m
= a and v = b;
then
<^(m, v)
where
<^ is
= 0,
an arbitrary function,
is
differential equation.
Instead of
= 0,
v)
<j)(u,
the
tion;*
equations
auxiliary equations
(3)
are
Lagrange's
called
116. Verification
Lagrange's solution
Form
y
Lagrange's
of
may
The
solution.
shown
also be
truth
of
corresponding to m
dx + dy + dz =
ax
ay
=a
and
this gives
0,
az
T-dx + -dy-\
ax
ay
dz
= 0,
dz
* Joseph Louis Lagrange (1736-1813) was one of the greatest mathematicians that the world has ever seen.
equations,
him.
He
memoir
He
wrote much on
was
differential
first
given by
in the Berlin
Academy
of Sciences in 1772
he treated singular
bles.
40.
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
156
dx
whence q^ dv
du dv
dy dz
dz dy
[Ch. XII.
dz
dy
_
~ du dv die dv _
~ du dv du dv
dz dx
dx dy
dx dz
dy dx
{u, V)
<f>
dudv_du dv\
dy dz
/'
,
du
\dz dx
dz dy)
dx dz J
dx dy
dy dx
and
Pp-\-
Ex.
1.
Solve xzp
Qq =
B,,
respectively.
= xy.
yzq
"
y
Dividing by xyz,
+ ? = -;
X
= xdy =
ydx
zdz.
first
two terms,
X
I
Also y(lx
xdy
= 2zdz
p+
Ex.
2.
Solve
Ex.
3.
Solve (mz
Ex.
4.
Solve x^p
Ex.
5.
Solve
is z^
z^
xy =
xy = c.
<l>
l-\
oi
f I z^
xy,
= 0.
-.
ny)p + (_nx
whence
y^q
lz)q
ly
mx.
= z^.
+ xzq =
y"^.
variables.
bles
z, ojj, Xi, , x,
117.]
<^
157
can be eliminated
from
<^(Mi, Mj,
M)=0
...,
(1)
The
result
form
P.^ + P.^+-+PP- = B.
(2)
C2, , c,
Ci,
Mj
Cj,
c,
TrT,
will be obtained
TrR
^^^
down
Mj
then
where
Ci,
M2
C2,
^(mj, u^, , m)
<j>
and
(3),
find
let
= c
= 0,
is
given equation.
Suppose that m
= c is
an integral of
(2)
then
du
P,|^
ox^
+ i2^ = 0.
+ A|^+-+P|^
ox^
OZ
0x2
.
(4)
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
158
Ex.1. Solve
(t
dx
The
dx
dt
+z
dt
whence,
3(^t
+t+x
+ dy+dz _ dt dx
+ X + y + z) ~ X- t
dx
log ({
this,
+ + s)^ = log 5J
1/
t)(t
z)^
similarly,
(.y
t)(t
-}-
(z
solution
where
t)u,
{y
ci
z)'s
ca,
z)^
cs.
(z
)}
t)u,
= (i + x +
it
Solve
is
<j>{(x
2.
+x+
t)(t
a;
(x
Hence the
dz
+x+
hence,-
and
dy
+z+
Ex.
02
dy
x-\-y
from
[Ch. XII.
j/
= 0,
+ 2)1.
x^
+ y^+z^ = xyz.
dz
dx
dy
equation.
dx _dy._dz
/-in
^^
'p~'q~b
are at right angles to the system of surfaces
whose equation
satisfies
Pdx
Suppose that
+ Rdz = 0.
u = a, v = b
Qdy
a^.
The
(1).
surface represented
intersected
in an infinite
infinite
say
(2)
118,119.]
159
sents a locus
infinite in
Pp+Qq=B
(3)
is
integral
by
represented by
* 119.
(3) are
(2).
There are a few standard forms to which many equations are reducible, and which can be integrated by methods
that are sometimes shorter than the general method which will
be shown in Art. 123.
These forms will now be discussed.
Standard I.
To this standard belong equations that involve
p and q only they have the form
forms.
F{p,q)=0.
A solution
of this
is
evidently
z
if
b, if
The general
c,
that
The complete
=f(a).
z
<l>
= ax + by +
equation for
(1)
ax
+ yf(a) +
integral is obtained
is,
integral then is
c.
by putting
(2)
c
</>
(a),
where
and
= ax + yf(a) + ^ (a),
= a;-|-2//'(a)-h^'()-
When
such surfaces
exist.
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
160
[Ch. XII.
.<
The
singular integral
is
c be-
by-
= ax + yf{a) +
= x + yf{a),
= 1;
1.
The
solution is z
Solve
(1)
p^^
ax
-\-
q'^
hy
= mK
+ c, if
To
ax
ax
developable surface
6^
a^
Vm^
Vm'^
integral.
rrfl.
a:^y
c.
=f(a);
a^ y
"
V ?)i^
of these
is
no singular
+ /(a)
a,
= x-
is
is
then
\-
c,
+ /();
y
a^
two equations.
In particular,
if
(3)
The complete
= m\x^
-t-
in
c or /(a) be
is
2/2).
which
is
and the
gen-
system of planes.
Ex.
3.
This
xV
Solve (1)
may be
written
= dZ
z
whence
y'^q'^
z"^.
f^V-^ [yMV =
\zQxl
dz
-l-
X = log
x,
l.
Put
\zdyl
T= log y, Z = \ogz;
^X = dX, ^=
d)',
STANDARD
120.]
'^
(If)"-
From
161
II.
(!!)=
I.
aX+ Vl - ^ Y + log c
Z=
hence, z = cx^"^^
integral is z =
4.
Solve 5
Ex.
5.
Solve
which
"-,
is
Ex.3. Solve3p2_2g2 =
Ex.
is
4pg'.
= 6".
pq =
Tc.
equations
z=px + qy+f{p,q).
That the solution
is
ax
contains
+ hy + f{a,
This
(1)
is
h)
the complete
(2)
integral, since
It represents a doubly
= <^(a),
differentiate this
= ax + y4>{a) +f\a,
with respect to
4>{a)\;
a,
= + 2/<^'(a) +/'(),
a;
ax + by+f{a,
b,
b)
da
db
where
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
162
Ex.. 1.
The
Solve z
[Ch. XII.
=px + qy + pq.
complete integral
is
ax
by
ab.
and
this gives
=X+
=y
-i-
by means
elimination of a and b
The general
integral
is
6,
a;
= xy.
the a eliminant of
= ax + yf{a) + af{a),
= X + J//' (a) + /'(a) +/(a),
2.
Solve B
=px +
121. Standard
iy/pq.
To
III.
do not contain x ov y
qy
F{z,p,q)=Q.
Put
assume
for
aj
+ ay,
where a
is
(1)
z=f{x + ay)=f{X)
for a trial solution
dz
then
dX _
dz
dz
dX __
dX'dy~
^~dX'dx~dX'
dz
dX'
F(z,-^,a^) = 0,
V
which
The
is
dX'
dXj
(2)'
^
'
first order.
whence,
<^ (z,
integrating,
= dX
a)
/(, a)
= X + 6,
STANDARD
121.]
and hence,
is
163
III.
+ ay + b=f(z, a)
dX
x+ ay;
between
Ex.
and X.
Solve
1.
(1)
^2(^2
X)
g,2 _,.
to
= cK
dz
,
variables, (1)
becomes
Va2 +
- Va^ +
Integrating,
(2)
This
is
Vc^
dX.
z^
its
and
value x
arbitrary constants a
X+ 6
+ ay,
(a2 + i)(c2-z2)^(x + ay +
squaring,
zdz
it
6)2.
6.
a and
b,
there
results
z2
which
satisfies (1),
and
is
c2,
= ak h,
becomes
(3)
(a^
l)(G''-zi)
= {x-h + a(y~k)f.
(3)
2 a(c2
- 22) =
2(2/
- k){x -
a(y
k)},
ix-h + a(y-k)}{a{x-h:)-iy-k)] = 0.
(4)
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
164
On
means
of the first
[Ch. XII.
component equation
_ c2
component equation,
of the second
- hy + (,y- ky +
e^
c\
tlie last
there
(5)
two
equatioiis,
which
the envelope of the cylinders represented by (3). Equation (5) may also
be regarded as a complete integral, if h and k be taken as arbitrary con-
(See Ex.
stants.
Art. 108
1,
Ex.2. Solve
This
may
and Art.
q^y^
112.)
= z{zpx).
be written
(whence
F=
log?/
and
X= log*),
X,
9(p% +
Ex.
3.
Solve
Ex.
4.
Solve p(_l
Ex.
5.
III.
^a-j
_ 4,
To
a).
p) =f^{y,
q).
(1)
a, thus,
fiix,
p)
= a,
/^{y, q)
= a;
STANDARD
122.]
= F^(x,
and
Fi(ps,
'''
-^iiyt '*)^2/
a)dx
where
6 is
This
is
constants
1.
= F,{y,
a).
x,
y.
in,
^ quantity independent of
or are equivalent to
+jF2(y, a)dy
+ b,
an arbitrary constant.
thus obtaining
+ a quantity independent of
CFi(x, a) dx
it
existing, are to
Ex.
a),
q,
2=1
p and
165
IV.
Solve q
if
be found as before.
p +
= 0.
p and
x,
q-y=p-x.
q~y=p x = a;
Write
hence p
=z+
a and q
=y+
2z=(x +
There
+ (?/ +
a)2
6.
is
and
Ex.
2.
Integral is
is
given by the
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
166
tions of
the
[Ch. XII.
It will be
of solution.*
remembered
differential equar
first
first
Take the
F(x,y,z,p,q)
Since z depends upon x and
dz
Now
y, it
= 0.
(1)
follows that
=pdx + q dy.
(2)
y, z, p, q,
such as
fix,y,z,p,q)=0,
(3)
x,
values of
y,
z,
p and
from
it
for the
p and q in (1).
method of finding the needed relation (3) must now be
Assume (3) for the unknown relation between x, y, z,
devised.
as the values of
p, q, which, in connection
with
(1), will
determine values
of
known
is
published.
123.]
dF
dF
dF
p
dF
dp
-\
dq
-\
dp dx
dq dx
dz
dp dx
dq dx
dF
dF
,^3p
dy
dz
dy
dz
dx
dz
dx
The elimination
of
=^
''>
'
aj'a^_
dq dy
dp dy
dp dy
-J-
167
'
dq dy
between the
first
tions gives
dFdf
dFdf\
dx dp
dp dx)
f^V_^^\,^f^^_^
dp dq
9p dzj dx\dq dp
^\dz dp
f^^_^V\,^{^V_^\_Q
dFdf_dFdf\
^\dz dq
dq dy)
dy dq
On adding
the
first
dy\dp dq
dq dz )
members
of these
dq dp)
last
hence, adding
dF\df
dx
^ dz)dp
9p_
dxdy
dy
fdF[
dp)dx
of equation (3)
^ dp
first order,
must
its
dq)dz
^qj^y
iary function
f_ dl^_ dF\df
dFl\df
\dy'^^ dzjdq
V
is
dh
dx
and re-arranging,
d_F
This
dq
satisfy.
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
168
dp
dq
[Ch. XII.
124.]
169
gives
vfliere
dz
=pdx+
dz
2^/a{z
There
is
qdy
this
6)
no singular solution
on integration gives
ay
b.
is
obtained in the
usual way.
(2),
say from
dq
q-i
"52+1'
dx
namely,
Ex.
2.
Solve z
Ex.
3.
Solve (p2
Ex.
4.
Solve the linear equation and the standard forms by the general
m 3thod.
Partial Differential Equations op the Second
AND Higher Orders.
la this and the
few of the simplest forms of partial dif-
W.
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
170
dx dy
dx''
There
dy^
Br
where R, S,
T,
V are
r, s,
t,
that
is,
equar
+ Ss+Tt=
functions of
r,
x, y, z,
The complete
q.
two arbitrary funC'
p,
[Ch. XII.
method of solution
and in Art. 126 will be given
X and
1.
Solve
-^ = ^+a.
dxdy
Writing
^ = ?+a,
it
(ly
p = x\ogy + ay +
(pi(x),
tlie last
=j
{x log y
= '^\ogy +
ay
axy
+
+
<t>i{x)]dx,
<t>(x) +>/'(/),
Ex.
2.
Solve
-^:f-^/(x)=
'
dxdy
Rewrite
it,
x.
F(y).
dx-'^
^+
^"
^/(a;)
* See Art.
F{y)
109, Ex. 5.
y.
Iir
125, 126.]
This equation
is
+ SS + Tt=
and x
linear in p,
is
171
r.
hence
integration gives
p = e-vA^)|
and integration of
a
Ex.
3.
ar
Ex.
4.
xr
this
+ 0(a;)l
je-i'/wr
= xy.
= (n
\ey/(='^F(y)dy
l)p.
Br + Ss + Tt=
p and q,
V.
On
writ-
= rdx + s dy,
dq = sdx+ dy,
dp
the elimination of r
and
equation,
Br + Ss+Tt=
gives
V,
(1)
(Rdpdy+Tdqdx-Vdxdy) s{Rdy^~Sdxdy+Tdaf)=0.
Rdy''-Sdxdy+Tdx' = 0\
Rdpdy + Tdq dx Vdx dy = Oj
From
dz= pdx +
and
may be
(2)
q dy,
X, y,
z,
form
Ilr+Ss+
The method
Tt
= 0,
in 1784,
who
Monge
(1746-1818),
cases.
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
172
[Ch. XII.
The statement
method
of the
Form
the equation
first
Sdxdy +
Mdy^
and resolve
supposing the
it,
Tda?
first
= 0,
member
(3)
not a complete
dy
From
the
combined
grals Ml
where
= a,
dy
= b;
(4)
(5)
then
an arbitrary function,
is
an intermediary
(4),
= a,
is
m^dx = 0.
first of these,
if
fi is
From
mjdx = 0,
in the
integral.
same way,
v.2=b; then
To deduce the
may
mi
be integrated
= wij. When
=2ydx
dz
when
which,
Ex.
1.
+ q dy,
Solve r
aH
(This equation
=: 0.
is
in Art. 128.)
Hence
(1)
dy
(2)
dp dy
y +
a dx
ax
(4)
and
= 0,
dy
ci,
a dx
= 0.
ax d.
ahlx dq
(5) are
= 0,
127.]
Combining the
dp
first
adq
173
= 0,
whence p
ag
= c'l =
aq
Fi,{y
ax);
From
adq
= 0,
whence j)
c'a
= F^^y ax).
two integrals
the last
and
= K^i(y +
= r- l^iiv +
2
;)
+ F^iy -
*)
ax)},
- ^^Cv - *)]
and q
=pdx +
in dz
q dy, gives,
on
re-
arranging terms,
dz
which
is
Integration gives
exact.
= <P(j/ + ax)+y/(y -
in this example,
The equation
a^
ax).
0, is
first
integrated
it
in 1747.*
It
appears in considering
tlie
vibrations of a
for instance, in
Ex.
ps-qr =
2.
Ex.
0.
3.
xV +
2 xys
+ yH = 0.
first.
A partial
differential equation,
d''z
d''z
S'z
j^
d"~'z
the principle in
in the
is linear
form
.
which
its derivatives, is
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
174
where the
On
putting
D for
dx
(AD" + AiD''-W
and B'
++
By
for
A^D""
=f{^,
F{D,
or briefly,
As
[Ch. XII.
this
may
x and v
be written
+ - + MD + ND' + P)z
y),
(2)
D') z =f{x,
y).
(3)
F{D,D^z = Q.
Also,
if
2i,
22,
z.=
=Ci2i
is
(4)
be solutions of
C222H
(4),
f-CZ
also a solution.
{A,DIf
it
be
the
this
(1)
will
show that
Dz =
m(l>'(y
+ mx),
D"z
= m"<^'"' {y + mx),
Z>'"2
<^("'
(y
+ mx),
iny'z
= m''^<''+'' {y + mx).
(^
(y
+ moo) for z
A^
mentary function
if
m is
a root of
1-
is
in the first
mem-
{y + mx).
This
<^'"'
129.]
128,
Am" + Aim'-' +
which
may be
+ A= 0,
(2)
complementary function of
2
175
\-4>niy
-I
The
are arbitrary.
<^
+ i),
mj)',
of z in (1) corresponding to these roots are
~mD'; and these are easily shown to be
rriiD', ,
efficient
then the
(1) is
(Compare Arts.
commutative.
Since
e-^c^C?/)
50, 54.)
= (1 + mxD' + '^D" +
-)<l>{y),
-,
==<l>(y+mx),
the part of the C.F. corresponding to a root
of (2)
may
be
written e'^"'<^{y).
Ex.
1.
J^-a2^=0.
Here (2)
is
m?
the solution
is
cl^^
0(2/
(See Ex.
whence
0,
ax)
3.
129. Solution
when
As
Art. 126.)
a.
Hence
+ ^(2^ ax).
^-|-3-^+2^ =
^ ^ - ^ =
6
Qxdy
5x2
imaginary roots.
1,
the
a;
xm.
dy^
auxiliary equation
has repeated or
between two
{D
On putting v
for
(D
- mD^D - mD') z = 0.
mD')
z,
this
becomes (D
mD') v = 0,oi
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
176
tCn. XII.
is
^^^_dy^
m ^
and hence,
By
is
dz
+ mx)
axe y + mx = a, z =
+il/(y + mx).
= x^(y + mx)
first
(2/
X(t>
(a)
+&
mentary function
is
x'-'^<l)i(3/+mx)+x'-^<l>2(i/+mx)
\-X(l>,_i(y+mx)
-\
+ 4>Xy+'mx).
When the roots of (2) Art. 128 are imaginary, the corresponding part of the solution can be made to take a real form.*
Ex.
3!_3-3!^ + 3-5^-3! = o.
Equation
be denoted by j, J"^
.^ (x,
F{D,
By
^
F{D,
(Compare Art.
D').
of
y),
^^^^
when it
being defined as
operated upon by
is
67.)
Art. 128,
=
ny ^'"' D- m,D' D - m,D' D - m,D'^^
<h(x, v)
It is easily
P{D,
y),
shown that
it
A{x,y).(V)'
'"^ ^
The
value
D')
D mD'
<l>(x,
y) will
now be
For
indicated.
this purpose,
130.]
it is first
necessary to evaluate
128
{D
mD')
From
(x, y).
<j}
the
follows that
it
= ^{x,y mx)
y) = D<i> {x, y mx).
e-""^'<^ {x, y)
De-""^> (a;,
therefore,
177
De-""^.^ {x, y)
tions,
that
(D
mD')4>
(x,
y)
y)
= e-^i
e"-Z)^ {x,
two equa-
last
e""-',
mx).
- mx)
it
follows
-^-i-^ ^ (x,
<^
(x,
(2)
D mD'
the application at
d> (x,
y)
= (D mD')e-^'''~^{x, y mx),
= {D mD')e""'>'\l/ (x,
on putting
\p(x,
Art. 128,
<^ (x,
For,
y)
for <t>(x,
-^
y)z= (D
y),
mx);
and, therefore, by
But the second member of the last equation is also the result
would be obtained by putting y + mx for y in Dtp (x, y)
after the differentiation had been performed
and this would
be (j>(x, y) from the definition of
given above. Hence
that
xj/
D-mD
is
-<l>(x,
y)
integrate this
with respect to
rule,
which
x,
DlFPMBENrlAL EQUATIONS.
178
[Ch. XII.
and exemplified
Ex.
1.
The
particular integral
"d^ + 3DD' +
=
Ex.
2.
2 2>'^
""
Evaluate
can be used
= Z> +
dTd^
Z)'
(x''+x
<t>(.ax
^'^
hy).
'
^"^ "^
y-x) =
^^
xy
F{D, D')=
Fi^\'P{ax +
hy)
D^fI],
= Fi-\
it
and 0(aa;
is
follows that
When^isarootofF(^] = 0,
the integral
^^
32
F{D, D')
Since
"^^
'
case.
e-""' (2 x+y)
in Art. 132.
^-
then
("
J^(^] =
f... ^rj,{ax
f^- *)^(^],
6)(dx)-i
^' - a^
Ex.
3.
Ex.
4.
3,
^=
x^.
Art. 128.
and
the latter
131.]
179
tie
F{D, D')z
first
50.)
assume
The
= ce'"'^"'.
(1)
(This procedure
This
is
zero
is
z = ce'"^'^
The solution of
is
(2) for
F{D,D')z
= 0;
(2)
and h
all
all
the values of k
may
when k = ah
(2)
Exs.
2,
is,
k,
is
f(li) is
is
true
of course, a special
when
In particular this
b.
case of (1).
D'
sponding to k =fi(Ji) is
series obtained by giving
is,
,/,(/i), if
The
of degree r in (1).
linear in h, that
gives
if
F(h,k)
is
= 0,
cF(h,.lc)e'"+'^.
and then
the solution of
is,
Equally well
of the
3!5_a%^o.
Ex.l.
Ifi
= 'Sce'"+^*'i, where
Here (2)
z
obtained
for
h^
is
= 0,
whence h
J^,
= +!',
1, 5,
6^"^+?^".
is
2ce*!'+".
Ex.2.
2^'^-552_a%
bx^
Here (2)
-ihjh +
is
dx dy
dy^
IK^ -hlc-h^
Z; hence
is
e^'^+^^y, z
If
6^+3& =
dx
+ Qh +
dy
?,
= 0,
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIOIS S.
180
[Ch. XII.
0(x
2 y)
-^,k- 3.
Scie'v~i)
+ se'(i+s)-3j:=0/'j^ _2\
another
way
Ex.
3.
Solve Ex.
ak,
and hence
Ex.
4.
Ex.
5.
ak,
in
1,
Scie'(!'+'"^)
Scae'C-""^)
dx
32/2
y)
^(y
^{y
of h are
ax).
of
dy
+ ^-^ =
fi-T^
dx'
dx dy
dy
6.
e-^\jj{x
-|-
dx^
Ex.
y).
Hence,
z
is
e^y'pix
of
<^os(x
2y)+ey.
of
dx
dy"
dy
The
It is easily
e'"+'"
F{D, D')
F{D\
sin (ax+hif)
"=
DD', D'f
F{-a\
6''"^+'"':
that
F{a,
h)
-ab,
sin (ax+hy),
^"
^
-V)
and that -
afy'
can be
F{D, D')
132.]
EXAMPLES.
dxdy
dx^
dx
dy^
181
dy
<p(y-x)+e-^(2x +
The particular integral
.,^^3,
2Z>
= e^+^''.
-10
2i'
i)2
_ 2 i)'2 + 2 D +
j)j)i
2(i)
^
+
sin(23i
D')
cos(2 x
y).
is
!_i>_D'_2Z)'2
is
sin(2a;
2 i>
y)
"'
=l
^ - ^'
2 i>2
j/)
sin(2u:
i)'2
y)
y)
6
1
BH
- DD' _1.
D'-'
Z)
2x^
0(2/
- K) +
e-^<l/{2
'
12).
2.
Solve Exs.
Ex.
3.
1.30,
y)
12),
Ex.
Art.
j^
is
+ ~(6xy - Sy -2x<' + 9x 1, 3, 4,
B + S' D ~ 2 D' + 2
(D-2i?02\
+ 9x-
D' ^^
2>'i
= ^(6a;?/ -6y~
-2
i)-2i)'
/^
+ 2B+
Art. 131.
'
''^
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
182
133. Transformation
two
tion between
equations.
of
with variable
ential equation
variables,
The
which the
may sometimes
be transformable
In particular, an equa-
[Ch. XII.
any derivative
coefficient of
is
of a degree
Ex.1.
x'^S^-y^^-y^
+ x^=0.
"
ax2
On
= log x,
dx
dy
5i/2
assuming u
log?/,
a!?._a!?=o,
of which the solution
The
is
0(tt
+ v)+^{u
it,
v,
v).
gives
:0(log(xj/))+^(log^) =f(xy)
Ex.
2.
x2
+ P(f)-
ex'
Ex.
3.
1 Sfz _ 1 95 = i 5^2 _ 1
x^dx^
x^'dx
y^dy^
5^
usually written
_9z.
y^dy
= 0a^ a^_
v'^
The equation
(1)
V^'"
= 0,
is
involved.
Because
it
was
first
given, in 1782,
(1749-
LAPLACE'S EQUATION.
133,134]
For instance,
if
attracting mass, at
mass
tlie
itself,
satisfies
any point
potential at
V satisfies (1)
183
(1)
* again,
if
V be
tlie electric
y, z)
(a;,
is
=
civ
0,
and v
two instances
= c in
is
If /(, y, z)
satisfies (1).
the
first
and in the
On changing
= r sin 6 cos
y = r sin 6 cos
z = r cos Q,
(1)
becomes
which
4>,
a^
5^
2 aw
cote
5;y
^__ a^
br"
r" ee'
r dr
r"
60
r' sip,^
may be
if ;a
<^,
:j:
I'^Xdry
and
by the transformation
to spherical co-ordinates
6 d^'
wi'itten
drj
= cos 9,
it
sined6\
86J
dHvr)
8,^
^8^]^
(.^
sin'O 84,' j
^dv)
d'v
_Q
'^^8^ri-l^'S<l>'
is
,^.
^^
^^
form
Tait,
'
Thomson and
ism, p. 14.
t
tion
Williamson, Differential
The equa-
DIFFEBENTIAL EQUATIONS.
184
[Ch. XII.
homogeneous
spherical co-ordinates,
is,
which
is
a value of v satisfying
ical
known
If V be independent of
<^,
(3)
<^)
in
(1), is
and f{0,
is
x, y, %
f'f{B,
<f>)
Spher-
as Laplace's coefficients.!
reduces to
ju,
^^(l-,^')^ + n(n
which
is
+ l)P=0,
(6)
function that
satis-
particular
harmonics is also known as Legendrean coeffiFor a treatment of spherical harmonics, see Byerly,
Fourier's Series and Spherical Harmonics, Chap. VI., pp. 195218; and of zonal harmonics, see the same work, Chap. V.,
class of zonal
cients.!:
pp. 144-194.
337
monics.
t So called after Laplace, who employed them in determining F in a
paper bearing the date 1782.
t After Legendre, who first introduced them in a paper published in
Legendre's work in this subject, however, was done before that of
1785.
Laplace (Byerly, Fourier''s Series and Spherical Harmonics, Chap. IX.,
p. 267).
See Ex.
5,
Art. 82.
SPECIAL CASES.
135.]
185
r dr
dr'
'
= A + --
(2)
Equation
(1),
obtained directly
r'
= x^ +
y''
+ z\
in
For,
dr
_x dv
dr dx
r dr
_dv
dv
dx
d^v
_1
dv_oi^dv,3^ ^v
r dr
da?
r^
r'
dr"
- v^j ^^^
adding, there
>
^y
results (1).
_
'
dr
^^
Part
Vol. I,
II., p.
If the point
of a
35.
=
d<l)
and
(2)
follow as before.
Emtage, Mathematical
pp. 14, 35, 37.
134
is
made up
body in the
first
or,
instance
common
P is a point
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
186
an
outside
conducting
long
infinitely
charged with,
cylinder
electricity,
[Ch. XII.
uniformly
cylinder.
is,
upon
oi?
dis-
y'^,
(I)
^^^dx^^
dr
dr^
= A log
or V
= C A log r,
= ~i:wp.
member be
Airp,
p being a function of
x, y, z,
then
e^ + df^d^^'
which
is
known
^^
''
as Poisson's equation.*
An
example
of its
occurrence
(1) Art.
is
dr
and the
first
integral
2 dv
is
Jo
dr
where
r dr
'^
r.
who thus
Laplace's equation.
t
See
Thomson and
Tait,
co-axial
becomes
extended
EXAMPLES.
136.]
d'v
r dr
dr^
and the
1 dv
187
integral is
first
=
dr
prdr.
IT I
Jo
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
4.
{a
{7/+z^-x'')p-2xyq + 2xz = 0.
5.
{y
x^ + y^ + t^ = az + f.
6.
a{p + q)=z.
1.
xp
2.
3.
yq
dx
nz.
dy
at
7.
xp
9.
(x-^-!/2>
2/2
z)P
11.
cos(x
12.
p2
13.
9=( + px)2.
(x2
1/2)
sin(x
2/^
+ (2
2/
z''.
y)q
z.
+p =
14.
x-j3'^
15.
(f)
=1.
~{n -\)yp +
30.
yr
32.
xr-p =
j)2
9)r
j-^j-j
!/g2.
52
a.
(6
cg)2r-2(6
aj/3.
npg.
17.
Vp + V? =
18.
19.
p(l
pg
-V
p+
35.
38.
1.
=px +
qy.
= x"'!/"2'.
- qy = 1.
ZZ.
?)=ga.
9)(px
28.
+ 2 V1>
C3)(a
= xp + p2.
+ ?^ = ^.
- (p +
y^).
/T
22.
x2/.
36.
27.
x2i/2.
g(l
y)q
(X
y.
= 9z{x^-
x^y);;
s.
+{z + x)q = x +
z)p
(pi
29.
S'!'-
2 x*)p
_ 22(-i _ p^)
23.
26.
a Vx'''
y}p
20.
24.
+ (2/2-za;)5 = 22_xj/.
X
(2 x)o
(y
=c
x)p +{b
(j/'x
in
21.
XII.
q''r
??/)=
+ P)t =
= xy.
cp)s
b)s
+ (a +
s
1.
-2pqs
vO-
+ (a +
0.
aht
cp)2f
15 xy^.
+pH=^
= zy.
= 0.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.
NOTE
A
of
A.
dx"-^'
Vdx"'
and put 1^
ax
2,1,
pL
dx^
'
(1)
dx
'
y,,...,iL!M
dx" '
= y_,
n equations
dx
""
dx
dy
Vn-l,
dx
fl (iy-\
^XOx"'
2/-ll2/n-2, ,2/i,,2/,xj=0.
h[x,y,^,
dx
h (x
\
On
putting fM
dx
V
'
^
dx'
= 2,,, ^^
dx^
^
(Jx'^'
dx''
-^
dx^'
C&3'
dz
^'
= zi,
dx
189
'
dz
dx
d%^
dx:''}
dxy
\ =
cfe'
these
190
DIFFEMENTIAL EQUATIONS.
order
ay
dx
first
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.
It is
to be
shown
there
tl]at
which identically
y'
+ aiX+a2x'^+
(2)
satisfies
+
X
a convergent series
is
ixo
191
a given
satisfies
aiy
aiX'HI^
a^x^
atxy
a^y'^
...
...
(3)
y = yo when
= Xa*
That
2/
when x =
any
loss of generality.
ym
(1), It
and
it is
may
For, on substituting xi
initial
condition without
xo for x
and
j/i
ya for
becomes
2/i'
0(xi,
(4)
2/i);
ao'
ai'x
0.2'
x'^
...
the
that
tto
in (2)
It will
be zero.
now be shown
series,
2/=OiX+ 02X2+
which
...,
(5)
and
On transforming
the series in (3), which has been supposed convergent for lx|^)s |!/|^{, by putting x = j-Xi, y = tyi, equation (3) takes the
form
y'
=f{rxu tyi)=ao' +
when
=1
ai'xi
a2'2/i
of this equation
is
as'xy'
ai'xiyi
....
xi
j/i
and, therefore,
oo'
make any essential change in the problem, and hence it might have been
assumed at first that the 's of (3) were each not greater than A. In
what follows the a's are accordingly regarded as not greater than A.
*
If
an
initial
number
of series
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
192
stitated in (3),
ai
latter
an
y'
+ 2 a^x + 3 aaa:^ +
= ao + aix + a2(aix + 02x2 + ) +
...
+ asCaiX + 02X2 +
asx^
y+
is
an identical equation.
ai
00
whence
ai
as
+ ^(ai +
03
evident that
of the a's
ajx^
...)
a^au whence 02
0200)
= ' +
a4ao
"g""
;
and
Sas
as
(2202
05,
....
aiai,
It is
all
and
aix(aix
Hence
2 02
it is
On
by A, a quantity not
less than
any
one of the
y'
The
A{l
+ x+y + x^ +xy +
occur in
tlie
is
+ x^ + x^y+ ).
y^
(6)
out above
hence,
if
is
is also.
directly.
On
becomes
y'
= A(l +
= A1
Therefore,
x^
X
(1
+ -)(i +
+ y^+-),
y)dy
!/
=A
dx
1-x'
whence, on integration, y
Therefore,
Here
namely, that y
initial
condition be.
satisfied,
= 1 Vc +
1.
sign,
and
must be
zero.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.
193
Therefore,
j,=
l-[l+2^1og(l-x)]* =
The
series
a;
++
l-[l-2^(x+^ + |+...)]l
ofl-2^(x + + H
(7)
is finite
for x
Note A sliowed that an equation of order n can he replaced by a system of n simultaneous equations of the first order, each containing an
unknown function to be found. In the case of the equation of order n,
the proof of the existence of integrals is
made
The method
of proof
given above
is
known
as
"the Power-Series
method."
Historical Note.t
Augustin Louis Cauchy (1789-1857) of Paris, who
was one of the leaders in insisting on rigorous demonstrations in mathematical analysis, gave the two first proofs of the existence theorem for
The
first
Paris the
second was given in 1835 for complex variables in a lithographed memoir.
He was
differential
equation.
who proved
The first
it
in
new
proof, that
ifcmile
by "the method
of succes-
(Leipzig,
1889), p. 27.
t
pp. 26-29.
}
S.
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
194
In the Traite d' Analyse of i.. Pioard, t. II., pp. 291-318, will be found,
besides the author's own proof just mentioned, Cauchy's first and second
and Madame
proofs, the latter as modified by Briot and Bouquet
Kowalevsky's proof* of the existence of integrals of a system of partial
;
(A knowledge
differential equations.
complex variable
Is
tNOTE
[This Note
The complete
tains
C.
supplementary
is
to Art. 3.]
n arbitrary independent
Let y',
and
to X,
)/",
denote the
first,
...
of
F(y',
when expanded
in
But
B shows
j/(x)
y,
X)
-\-
cix
y, y', y",
...
order be considered
first
= 0,
CiX'^
when
;
and
(1)
is
(2)
= y(0)+y'(0)x + -y"{0)x'^ +
and therefore
Now
the
ascending powers of x
y
Note
y(0), ci
= y'(0),
ci
...
(Maclaurin's Theorem);(3)
= y"{0),
= y(0)
determinable.
Ply'(fi)^ 2/(0), 0}
of
0,
that
is
F{ci,
c,
0)=
0.
This determines
ci in
terms
''
'
-'*
c.
/',
thus,
=/(/, X);
(4)
then, on differentiation,
For
Note,
Hilbert at Gottingen.
t
this
am
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.
195
in terms of c
terms of
in
c^
alone.
stants
that
C4, C5,
is,
Therefore
all
first
an equation
y', y,
x)=0
into the
y" =f(y',
2/'(0), C2
= 2/"(0),
= +
..
y, x}-,
ciz
CiX^
determines
this
putting X
= 0,
and hence
there
Cj is
C2 in
is
c, ci, C2, ,
as before, gives c
J/(0),
y"(0)=/{!/'(0),
and
(5)
is
be considered.
form
2/(0), 0};
terms of c and
c\.
On
differentiating (5)
found in terms of
and
Cj.
By
but
it
will
and
obtained
and
and
first
NOTE
[This Note
is
D.
supplementary
to Art. 4.]
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
196
i/'{x,
is
meant that
this solution
which there
that the determinant
/(ci, C2)}, in
/(ci, C2), is
d<p
is
really only
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.
197
M.
3L
ay
c^,
-,
c in
...M.
ay
ay
.,
dcidxdC2dx
dCndx
d"f
be not equal to zero.
NOTE
[This Note
* Proof that
Pdx + Qdy
E.
is
an exact
is
differential
when
^=
dy
( Pdx
'
Let
= V,
then
SZ= p.
dx
= dP^dR.
J^
dx
dx
dy
dy
dR=(dV\.
tlierefore
dx\dy
dx
Hence
rlV
5i
dy
<p'(y),
where ^'{y)
is
some function
[This Note
criterion that
is
of
y.
Therefore
<t><{y)dy
dy
F+
NOTE
On the
i2.
dx
<()(!/)],
differential.
P.
supplementary
n integrals
an exact
yi, yi,
to Art. 49.]
,yn
equation
be linearly independent.
* I
am
McMahon,
of Cornell.
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
198
where
Vh
2/2,
(2),
ai, aj,
022/2+
may
=0,
(2)
= cij/i + 022/2 +
= lc2 - Cl]y2 + Us -
and therefore
Form
c"j/,
in virtue of
written
ci'^\ys
+lcn-
be remarked that
Vn,
may be
it
ci^\y.
arbitrary con-
is
the determinant
2/2
Vn
(.1-1)
Jn-l)
2/i'
known
by
iJ.
dence of
yi,
j/2,
Suppose that
it
",
2/(1
is
and
will
be denoted
that
re
1 functions,
j/i,
y^,
then
j/,
then the elements of one of the columns of R are formed from several
other columns by adding the same multiples of the corresponding elements
of these other
columns
and, consequently,
will
be identically equal
to
zero.
+ ^22/2H
+ X22/2' +
Xi2/i<-"
hX2/
---
X2/'
+ X22/i<"-" +
(3)
+ Xn2/<'- =
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.
Xj/j,j(n-2)
If
A2'j,2("-2)
2/1
...
X'2/("-
199
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
200
The difierential equation is fonned by elimifrom tlie given integral by the method shown in Art. 3.
n times there is obtained the set of n + 1 equations,
nating
By
ci, C2, , c
difEerentiatiug
Krom
tlie
= ClJ/l
yi
ayi'
+
+
J/lC)
Ci2/i()
ciJ/i'
+ + c2/
+ + cyj
C2j/2<''
C22/2
yi
Vi
y'
yi'
yJ
CnVn^"').
found to be
:0,
(2)
Now
2/2i
""i yn is in the
form
|:i+P,|r^+P,^+... +
On
tively, (2)
y, y',
2/()
in (2)
P(,)
by
= o.
T, Ti,
(3)
T, respec-
on expansion becomes
Comparison of
(3)
and
(4)
Pi=-^,
shows that
P2=-%=^,P=(-1)"|^
Jn
J-
It will
(4)
da;-i
be observed that y
is
JLn
the determinant
show
that r-i
of
*In
Note F.
= ^^,
Pi
dx
and hence 7
[This Note
On
T dx
e~J^i<'-".
NOTE
It
pg,rtlc-
Ll^;
is
H.
0.
has been shown in Art. 102 that the necessary condition for the
existence of an integral of
is
(1)
at
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.
is
201
pm_dB\+g(dB_dPWM(dP-d^) =
\dz
^\dx
dy)
d^r
dxl
\dy
0.
(2)
^^
It will
that
if
fj.Qdy
+ ixnde =
(3)
0,
any function of x, y, z. If Pdx + Q,dy is not an exact differcan be found for it,
ential with respect to x and y, an integrating factor
and (3) can then be taken as the equation to be considered. Hence there
is no loss of generality in regarding Pdx + (^dy as an exact differential.
where
/x
is
]i.
On assuming then
that
5^ = 55,
by
and that
it
follows that
dx
F = j*(P(ix+
Qdy),
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
202
sX.
Therefore,
dz
^F - iJ =
Suppose that
(3,
V alone.
T).
(4)
ds
Pdx
Since
equation (1)
Qdy
may
tie
dz
dy
dz
dV-<j>(z,
V)dz = 0.
F(V
Hence (2)*
an
is
integral.
tNOTE
Modern Theories
I.
of Differential Equations.
Invariants of Differential
Equations.
variable
(6)
complex
The study
Even
functions.
and methods
was
in terms of
known
of functions of a
is
is
to
be found
in
Forsyth, Theory of Differential Equations, Part I., pp. 4-12. (See footSee Serret, Calcul Integral (edition 1886), Arts. 785-786.
note, p. 138.)
t
Two
T. Craig, "
Some
would do well
to consult are
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.
203
mathematicians saw tliat any marked advance in tbis direction was imBut it
possible witbout the aid of new conceptions and new methods.
was not until a comparatively recent date, that wider regions were discovered and began to be explored.
" A new era began with the foundation of what is now called functionThe study and classificatheory by Cauchy, Riemann, and Weierstrass.
tion of functions
assumed to
solution,
exist,
new theory
are
publication of the
of functions defined
ferential
in
which
satisfies
and, perhaps,
most important
of
all,
by
the
dif-
on the
Riemann
differential equation
at Gottingen in 1857
coeffi-
cients, in
in discussing differential
equations
is
knowledge of the theory of substitutions, as well as of functiontheory, is required for reading some of the modern articles on differential
equations.
Friedrich
professor at Berlin.
X
T. Craig, Treatise
in 1889).
theories.
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
204
Professor Lie * of Leipzig has discovered, and since 1873 has developed,
the theory of transformation groups.
to Galois' theory of substitution groups
which play
published,
The theory
is
a function of
its coefficients
and
when
the
dependent variable undergoes any linear transformation, and the independent variable any transformation whatsoever, this function is equal
to the
same function
The
is
due to E. Laguerre of
Paris.
||
the
memoir
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.
portant investigations
Forsyth.
205
among
NOTE
Works on
brief list of
books on
who intend
useful to those
J.
Differential Equations.
differential equations
may
be interesting and
The
first
For
two
groups consist of works which have been written from the older point of
view
works
in
which any
substitutions, transformations,
functions,
mentary works
modern
etc.,
theories of
are
more or
The
less discussed.
of the
invariants,
first
ele-
I.
OsBOitNE
Examples
tions, vii
Byerly
Key
50 pp.
Boston, 1886.
Edwards
Boston.
Johnson
Merriman
and Woodward,
Higher
1896.
Stegemann
Airy
Hannover, 1896.
viii
58 pp.
London, 1866.
II.
De Morgan
Differential
A, pp. 377-489.
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
206
Price
Hymees
II.,
pp. 51-3-707.
viii
London, 1865.
180 pp. 2d
edi-
London, 1858.
Boole A Treatise on Differential Equations, xv + 496 pp. London,
1859. The same, new edition with supplementary volume, xi +
235 pp., by I. Todhunter, 1865.
FoKSYTii A Treatise on Differential Equations, xvi + 424 pp. London,
tion.
:
1885.
Johnson
xii
MoiGNo
368 pp.
New
DuHAMEL
Equations,
York, 1889.
Calcul Infinit&imal,
II.,
t.
Paris, 1844.
2d
pp. 122-490.
Paris,
edition.
1861.
Serket
Houel:
Calcul Infinit&imal,
pp. 1-237.
Laurent:
t.
Paris, 1868.
1st edition.
II.
t.
IIL (1880),
Paris.
Traits d'Analyse,
t.
t.
Paris,
1890.
Dn
229-535.
Bois-Rkymond
pp. 177-229;
physikalische
325 pp.).
t.
II.,
Heft
I.
Characteristiken, xviii
:
II., 1,
RiEMANN
t.
Paris, 1890.
Fragen (edited
Anwendung
by Hattendorff, 3d
edition,
aut
xiv
Braunschweig, 1882.
III.
tion 1896.
Paris.
t.
II.
(1893), pp.
291-.347
t.
III.
(1896),
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.
LiE-ScHEPFEKs
VorlesungeH
207
fiber Differentialgleichungen
568 pp.
mit bekannten
Leipzig, 1891.
d'impression), 1897.
PocKELS
Ueber die
partielle
+ k^u =
+ 339 pp.
Am
Differentialgleichung
und
Leip-
zig, 1891.
Mansion-Masbr
PoiNCARE
Sur
Ordnung, xxi
+ 489
les
Berlin, 1892.
pp.
Paris, 1894.
New
*
York, 1889.
Hepftek
Klein:
Vorlesungen
(Lith.)
die
tiber
258 pp.
hypergeometrische
Leipzig, 1894.
Function,
571
pp.
Gbttiugen, 1894.
Klein
Vorlesungen tiber lineare Differentialgleichungen der zweiten
Ordnung, 524 pp. (Lith.) Gottingen, 1894.
Haudbuch der Theorie der linearen Differentialgleichunt ScHLEsiNGKF
:
gen, Bd.
532 pp.
I.,
XX
+ 486
pp.
Leipzig,
1895.
Bd.
II.,
Th.
1, xviii -f
1897.
* See review
Soc, 2d
series.
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
208
NOTE
[This Note
is
K.
supplementary to Art.
The Symbol
53.]
D.
Du = (tt),
It
is
or
Du = -
(1)
evident from definition (1) and the results (2), (3), that the result
by
taken n times in succession will be
dx"
Also,
three,
be noted
/d\"
\dx/
is
let the
D"u
and not
''*"
From this
definition of
D"
it
dx''
dx'\dx
'x"!
jy
D'"(u
+ ?))= (u +
v)
dx"'
Since
exponents.
It is
u be indicated by
it
j,^
D<u
D-^v.
'
+ D'"v.
now be
Du = v,
J,,
dx"
dx"'
represents an operation,
Suppose that
let
D"+<-u
'^^
/d'u\
dx^\dvi
dx"-^'
D^n -
For,
dx'
dx''
dx''
and
represents
integral
considered.
(4)
(5)
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.
be inconsistent with
of (6)
On
definition of D.
tlie
209
operating on each
member
with D,
Du = D-
whence by
D-^v,
D D-H = v.
(4),
is
left
unaltered.
used for
is
D'h)
is
+ c,
that
Dm D-^v = D-"
.
it is
Therefore, in order
D'^v,
tion indicated
similar to
= v.
Dv =
D-i
which c
is
is
But
in
if
by
by D~^
is
when
the opera-
performed.
NOTE
[This Note
L.
is
Integration in series.
The law
in the first
by
obtained
member
this substitution is
./i(m)a;"''+/2(m)a;"'".
(3)
In general (3) will contain more than two terms in the case of the
equations in Art! 66 it contains only one term.
Under the supposition
;.
just
sought
denoted by
s.
Solution (2)
= A((e^ +
^ia;(+'
may now be
^,_ia;'+('-i''
r=Qo
or simply
2/
written
= 2 ArX?^+".
r=0
A,x''+'"
(4)
DIFFEBENTIAL EQUATIONS.
210
'
:0.
(6)
of
coefficients of
each power
and
/i^m)=0
(6)
(7)
The
roots of (6) give the initial exponents of series that will satisfy
(1); and equation (7) shows that
fx{m
rs)
solving
/2(m)=
0.
In determining the
initial
power
of
tedious.
I.
^.
dx
Art. 3.
2.
(pfi-2y^)p^-ipxy-x^
4.
= Q.
3.
xyp^ + xm'-y^=0.
dx'
\dxj
Page
1.
(1 +i>2)'
11.
dx
J-2^|^\
ANSWERS.
212
Art. 9.
xy^
2.
= c^(x + 2y).
Art. 10.
1.
A^
^
,^
9,-,i
y^ce'"'.
3.
j_
f22/-(5+-v/-2T)x + 2f2+-\/2l)1
i,N
l22/-(5-v'21)x+2(2-\/2l)
v^JT
Art. 13.
yZ
3.
a'^x
^ x!/^ x^y = c.
xV
5.
-I-
x'!/
+ cy^ +
4 XJ/' + 'f x0i + e^^ + x* =
4.
ax''
hxy
gix
e^
= A.
c.
Art. 16.
3.
2 a log X
a log 2/
= c.
xV + my"^ =
4.
2/
5.
cx'^.
x^
+ - = c.
Art. 17.
1.
+ log?^ = c.
21ogx-log2/=
3.
X-
+c.
xy
Art. 18.
1.
e(x''
2/'^)
= c.
x^
2.
4.
XJ/
y^
3.
ex.
+ 2/2+^ =
x^y^
x''
= cy.
c,
2/^
Art. 19.
2.
5 x~Jt2/H
12 x'iiy'ii
=c
3.
^yi
= c.
+ c) (x +
1)".
6Vx!/
Art. 20.
2/=(x
c)e-''.
3.
= tanx-l + ce"""*.
5. 3(x2 + l)y = 4x3 +
4.
2^
j^
(e"^
c.
Art. 21.
3.
y~i
cxt
- 3 x'.
4.
5.
yS
aj
-I-
cxVl -
2/^
x^.
A])fSWEItS.
Page
a;
_
~
a
2.
x2
^^^ y
213
29.
'
= *.
4.
tan
6.
log^-?^=c.
6.
a;
tan y
2c2/
c2.
2 V
cey
7.
60 2/3(a;
8.
x^
~xy +
l)2=10a;'i
y^
= x2(l + ce').
+ 15x4 + c.
24a;6
y=
c.
9.
>/i^^
ce
^
-{
= e*.
11.
y* + 2 a;V - 2 aV - 2 6V = c.
+ l)2 = tan-ix + c.
16. logVai^ + ys
3
logcy = ^^.
^
17. r = ce'9.
y = ox + cxVl
l=
= ex.
x^
18. x + yey = c.
2
i"
"+1 = ce*"-')
+ 2 sin x +
19.
10.
ca;
a;*
12.
IS.
14.
15.
j/(a;2
TO
tan-i- =
c.
a;2.
ca;.
t/^
2/
l)ev
(.+
21.
l=
a:2
/2
= 2. + c.
+l+
^
i2.?^ = t +
n
+2
Vx^
c.
+
(a; + Va^ + x^)y =
2/2
ax^
+ f_3,.,. = c.
3
24.
2/4+2aV+a;*-2a2a;2+2xy=c.
S85.
1-
= 2-2,^
o + ce-K
.
30.
c''.
a!'
log(x
1) 2,2
y2
34.
+ c.
2 a(sin
a;
32.
'
ca;2.
9 log(3
a;V
2/
+26
cos
a;)
ce-^.
c!/.
33.
x")
=^
a;2
3 2/2-2a;2e>^
+ .Va^ +
+ tan-i = c
(4 6=
29.
31.
22,B
ce".
y^
27.
log
a;
26.
28.
23^
a;y
a;
+ -2f
log C2/
= 1.
c(y-6):
^
14(3
2/
a;
6a;
c).
ANSWERS.
214
35.
^x^y
= o + cxwr:
S'-
36.
cj/
38.
^=
e".
CHAPTER
ax
c.
log '^-y +
=
y ~a +y
''
c.
III.
Art. 22.
3.
c,
4.
343(1/
c)3
= c, xy + x^ +
= 27 aa;'.
y'^
= c.
5.
x^
6.
?/
+ 2 y^ = c, x* + y^ =
= 4a; + c, = 3x + c.
c.
?/
Art. 24.
2.
8.
log (
4.
2y
;)=
h c,
px
relation.
= cx^ + -c
Art. 25.
1.
2.
3.
+ 2p +
= c a log (p 1),
y^ = 2cx+ d^.
y
2\og(p-l)-\,
c-{_p''
2/
=c+
a;
o log
= c-[2p + 21og(i)-l)].
Art. 26.
+ 6p +
c= Vx X- tan-ii./L
-v
1.
2.
3.
2!/
4.
a;
logjB^
+c=
c.
alog(p
+ Vl
+p2^,
2/
= aVl
a;
= avT+^.
+^''..
Art. 27.
2
Art. 28.
3.
ca;
+ sin-i c.
4.
e^"
= ce^* +
6.
c'^.
^^
Page 38.
1.
sin-i
log ex.
2.
2/
c(a;
6)
+ -
g-ga
i ^.
c,
ANSWERS.
3.
4.
Qx?
=c+
xy
7.
8.
tan-i -
9.
sin"i"
rVj'2
where
1/2
11.
x2
2,2
2/2
(2/
- 4 ex +
(y
18.
and
r^
x'
2 c(x
= 0.
3 c2
2/)
= x^ +
u^.
sin-1
c]
(Put x2
= .b2.)
14.
2/2
15.
2/(1
+ -^^ = 0.
c + 1
COS x) = c.
cj
2/^
19.
(y
20.
[2/
2/2
= 0.
c2
+ c)2 + (x - a)2 =
= 2 c-^/x +/(c2).
17.
= tan-i ^,
j/^
+ V2/2 + rax2 _ c^
& = (x + c)2.
16.
c(2 x
02(,^)
i-i/
n
13.
ac'^
- 3x + c) = 0.
= o.
6) -
c)iy
x2
24.
6.
'^^'^^ ^
- 6x +
(y
+ sin-i-X = c.
10.
12.
23.
5.
cH.
+c= f
J
fl
= 0.
ex*)
cos"^
1.
cx2
X2
= 0.
c
J
- cx^) (2/2 +
= c(x - c)2.
3 x2
- c) = 0.
C2/ + !) = &.
=
p2
log
mp + m'^
+e f
(p + m), with the given relation.
- 6)2 = 1.
ee = ce" + c^.
25. (x + c)2 +
21.
(xS-32/+c)(e2 +C2/)(X!/+
22.
ax
()/
logX
I____=cj/.'
+ \/x2
26.
2/
= c; +
"
2/2
27.
2/2
= cx+|c3.
CHAPTER
IV.
Art. 33.
2.
3.
2/
= ex + c2, x2 + 4 = 0.
+ X c)2 = 4 X2/, X2/ = 0.
2/
(2/
4 x^)
0.
4.
x2(2/2
5.
Page 49.
= cx2 + "
1.
2.
a'x
2/
is
8.
(j/
CX2/
2/2
0,
c2
ax2.
singular
solution
= m^
also a tac-locus.
- cxY =
m2
c2,
2/2
w2a;2
is
x(x2/2
- 4 a') =
0.
ANSWERS.
216
4.
5.
6.
y'^
c'^,
4:
7.
8.
a;
a;
a;
x{x'
c(y
c)2}
singular solution
vertex at the
= 2.
its
is
J/S
27 x'
is
is
pan
= a^"^.
+ V^^~+, bV +
x2 + 2/2-c(x2-2,2)_ 1 + c2 = 0; that is,
+ -^=1.
Singu1 + c
1 c
4x2_4i,2^.4_o. ^^^ jg^
lar solution is x* 2 xV +
(x + 2/+V^)(x + 2/-V2)(x-2/+V2)(x- 2/--v/2)=0.
Tlie
=
cx
aP-y'^
-^
!/*
general solution
is
CHAPTER
V.
Art. 43.
= Vox - x^ + - vers-i
2
= k(1 cos S).
6.
= x + c.
K cos
=
c
r
6.
cr
3.
The
6.
8.
y/ny
ff;
4.
when
c =
k,
2/
the cardioid r
e".
Art. 47.
ellipses
2si!'
+ y^ =
yi
4.
c^.
x^
= cl
2r
cos 9
25
+ tan59 = ce'.
6.
sec5fl
2.
1.
y = ce<"'.
7.
= ce-*">'9,
= Vx" +
i/^,
4>
= tan-i--
Art. 48.
= JaJ2 + o + so.
3.
^jr{2.
Page 60.
2.
xt
+ j/t = oi
3.
Zy'^
= 2K(x^-\-c).
ANSWERS.
i.
217
= -,
5.
The
lines
6.
The
8.
The system
sin (e
a)
and
its
vertex,
k.
c.
and having
x^
11.
r"
+ = 2 a' log x + c.
= c" sin nS; r^ = c^ sin 2 8,
k'^
r^
14.
Parahola
15.
a;2
17.
log -^
x
cr cosec
(/
2 a(^y
x)
+ t = a^((/
xV' = c.
19.
20.
)-
16.
c sin
c^.
= ^^-v-
= 0.
x^
= 2 ex.
2/2
- x2).
V2/2
= c sin 9
n9; r
c(l
cos &)
-cos9).
"{^^i
v^ 4- ^^
Vj/ - v^
= c(l + cos).
)-
27.
28.
23.'
31.
32.
The catenary y
33.
34.
(a)
a cosh^a
+ c = 2 axV4 a^x^ -
+-e
'''
re
^'
(b) i
ce ^
(c) i
ce~^'
+ -
If i
(1
")
esin(e
+ c)
30.
foci.
(See Johnson,
Diff.
- log (2 ax + ^40%'^ -
1).
e''' fCt)dt.
a"^.
k^).
= /when =
If
= c.
The
i=:ce
22.
24.
at/
a^^
j/2
x^
18.
= c(l
13.
0.
- x)^ -
series of lemniscates
a,
at
12.
29.
x^
10.
y''
0, i
when
= 0,
le '
f
= f (l - e~^' ).
ANSWERS.
218
((J)
ce ^
R
^
= ce
(e) i
{B
sin ut
Lw cos at).
^ (B
sin wt
La cos ut)
-\
-\
"^^,
n,
t_
35.
(a)
= ^rj'e^/'(0c? +
cij1.
(_
(6) i
= ce
1^
"B.
(c)
ce "".
t_
(d)
i=ce *"+,
1
~5o
36.
^".
Jc^
(cosat
(?
(6)
q=
_L
=?- e^7(0* + ce
(a)
+ BCasinut).
07^(1)2
*".
Qe
'"',
wliere
is
= 0.
37.
(c) g
= C +
(d) g
ce~^.
^' +
ce
,).
s^ '^^^^o'^+l-^
>
CHAPTER
VI.
Art. SO.
3.
a;
= cie^' +
cac-^.
= e2^(ci +
cax)
i.
x= Ciel" + C2e~t'.
Art. 51.
1.
3^
+ Cse-"^.
?/= e-'^Cd
2.
C2a;
+ C8a;2)+ c^e^.
Art. 52.
3.
= e''(ci +
C2x)sin x
e'(cs
+ C4a;)cos .
Art. 58.
2.
2/
cie
4.
+ Cae-"^ - 2 - 5
e^'Cci
e^)
a;.
cse-*"
3.
+ e'*
e-'{cx
f f e-5
c^x)
+ - e^.
fe^'^'XCdx)'.
ANSWERS.
219
Art. 60.
3.
3/
= e~2"'(cicos +
a;
4.
C2sin--a;j
e"^(cs
+ |a;)+
^e^'-
1.
= e'{ax+ 6)+|e?^
Art. 61.
Cie-^
3.
j;
3.
^ = C\e^
4.
1/
e' (C2
cos
V3 +
Cs sin
a;
VSa;) + J(k*
-+
1).
Art. 62.
-\-
ce~"
r}^ sin J
CiB-'^
e^fcicos
sin 3
a;
ai
a;.
27 cos 3
a:
730
r
2.
= cxe-" +
3.
j/
= ccos(V2a; +
Cje-^
'^
sin
4'
cos x
Art. 63.
o)
x\
Casin
7 cos
a;).
+ -^(lla;2-12a;+|5'\+|!(4sin2a;-cos2x)
Art. 64.
2.
3.
j;
a;
a;
Page 80.
\..
(fiiff
Z.
cie-"'
cos
3.
2/
ci
4.
2/
= ciCOs2x+
Cje"^) cos
(a;
o)
(cse"^
046""^)
c^e^" cos (2
a;
sin x.
0)
cse"^*.
e-(c2
C2sin2a;
+ ^(e=-sin3a;)+i(2x2pfnx
5.
2/
6.
7.
2/
Cie2
ci
+ c2e- + ^,-^+2
C2e3
+ yV(6a; + 5) + 2 5 TO + 6
a;e"'
= Cie-2'^ +
Cae^
Cge"
+ ^x +
i).
1).
220
AJSrSWERS.
8-
ci
9.
cie'
10.
= c sin
(na;
11.
2/
= (a +
6x)sin x
2,
CiX
c^e^
^fcs siu-^a;
cge-^"^
a) (aa:
+ d cos
a;^
13.
cicos(ax
- J ax'
/"^'"^^
9x^-xi
^^^ ^
+ (c + dx)cos x + ^1^ +
48
12
12.
fex^
a)
+ ^liM^ +
^25if^M^2^a?!.
a^
y=(c + C2X)e+^(2x2_4K +
_ 96(2a: + 3)
3).
__3i
J-
11.
18.
19.
2/
= Cie- +
20.
2/
15.
2/
16.
J/
,V3_
Vcicos
x+
,
cie-^
V^
, :
czsin
ia;]-,Jj(2cos2a;
22.
23.
24.
25.
3sin2a;).
p2i
+ cae*"
12 V
21.
12 j
2/
!/
2^
26.
27.
^8.
2/
=
=
=
29.
2/
Cie*"
Cze"^
^{2 sin 3 x +
cos 3 x)
ca
+ .^
(3 sinx 130^
cos
11 cos x)
^
cos 2 x).
e'(ci
cie-"'
(sin 2 x +
9).
+ Ca sin
t^(cos x
3 sin x)
).
- xeYsin^^ + VS cos^Y
I
ANSWERS.
CHAPTER
221
VII.
Alt. 65.
2.
a;
x''.
Art. 66.
3.
!/
= (c, +
a;
+ (ca +
Art. 69.
2.
= x-Hci + c^\ogx-) + ^-
3.
!/=cia;-Hc2x*-
g+
+ iy
Art. 71.
= i5 +
2 x)2 [ci(5
1.
2.
!/=(29;-l)[ci
2 a;)^2+ C2(5
C2(2a;-l)2
Page
1.
= Cia;2 + a;2(c2a;
%.
= X\Cx +
4.
2/
= ci(x +
i.
6.
2/
a)2
8.
logx
C2(x
CsX
2 x)-'^^].
C3(2a;-l)
].
91.
)- ^-
2-
2/
= V-i +
CiX-"
+ x-H\
5
C3(l0gx)2].
a)3
+ 3jl.
o
+ x-i(C8 + 2 log x)
x" + 52x +
4log(x
C3 + C *
,^-, /^-T
/
^ +1)^ +
y = r[ci + C2log(x + l)]Vx+l+-^5
^jxs
'^^''
Vx + 1
x
y = CiX + C2X-i +
^^_^
1
7.
C2
>=
9.
I/
10.
2/
= x2(Ci +
C2l0gX)
5)
+ ^^J^3^-
11.
12.
WzziflOg-^ +Cil0gX +
X\
X 1
C2).
/
51
ANSWERS.
222
13.
14.
= a;2(cia;*^ +
C2
Ci/c-^^)
+ X + 4fOJ.
log x)
+ 6 cos log x)
(5 sin log a;
uC
CHAPTER
VIII.
Art. 75.
4.
e^^'y
6.
dy
= i(e^xdx +
CiCe'^dx
+ cj.
= V^y^T^dx.
7.
aj/^
+ CiK^ = cj.
Art. 76.
2.
3/
3.
= Ci + CaK + Csx^ H
4.
= ci +
y = Ci +
2.
3.
Vci2/2
4.
OK
[-
CbK"-'
+ 1=|m +
a;
Art. 77.
a;
= 2 a*(!/* +y
+ Cj.
log( Vc^/ + Vl + 61^) = aciv^ + C2.
2 ci) (y*
ci)*
a;
= log(^ + V^'^ +
Ci)
C2,
or y
ci'e""'
Cs'e-"*.
Art. 78.
2.
2(2/-6) = e'-
4.
e-('-).
16 cx^y
3.
j/
= 4 (cia; +
cja;
a^)i
ci)
Art. 79.
+ C2.
= x^ + CiX + Ci.
1.
e-""
2.
y''
c-iX
3.
log y
4.
sin (ci
+ c^e ".
2 V2 ^) = c^e'^.
Cifi"'
Art. 80.
1.
Z.
a?(jofi
- m")
Cj.
ANSWERS.
3.
J^
ci
+ C2S + a;^(c8a;
= Ci + C2X +
+ C4a;
_
nZ
Csx^ cosi -i^!i
5
/ ^ /4
223
^
1
when a<i,
X\
log - when
1
> ^.
Ca.
Art. 81.
2ci^
2.
15
4.
2/
= ci2e+e
+ C2.
3.
ciloga;
1.3
1.3. 6-3.
-11
r.2
6.
2/
= ^l[l-Ji.M + l.^+n-n-2.re +
l.ji
+ 3.^
[3
2.2n-l
ii
2.4.2re-1.2re-3
+^a;--i('l+"+^-^+^x-H''+'""+^-"+^-"+*a:-^+-V
2.2n+3
2.4.2i + 3.2n+5
>/
\,
Page 107.
.'
^fx^^ay+^y-'^-
^-
^'S.+ ^fx+-'y
=''+'=
S.
= ci + Cja; + cae'" + Cie""".
= cW^^ + C2.
(1 +
+ a;2)2/ = cia;2 + C2X + Ca. 6. Cit^ = C2e=' - nVT+o^c?.
7. xyy/x'^ 1 = sec-i
+ CiVa;^ - 1 + c^ log + Vx^ - 1) + cj.
9. y = ci sin-i
= C2 - sln-i Cie-.
+ (sin-i xy + c^
8.
2.
2ay +
3.
a;
2/
x^
a;
2/
(a:
a;
224
AN8WMBS.
10.
ci sin2
a;
11.
C2e"^(x
axlogx
C2
1)
12.
2/
13.
log,-l=L_.
cix
cos x
cix
C2 sin^x
j/
ci fxe"' i x-^e-'^(^dx)^
c.
ca.
^4_
y=;xHc.x+cs+^+5Hl2x.
15.
2/
1^
C1X+C2
16.
log tan -
e-="=^ re""^(cix
C2)(?x
= Cie-' +
smx-
"""^
cae
C2
16
ie^-
2
17.
21.
!/
= logsecaK(x
alog(j/
18.
6)
= x + c.
Cl!/2.
c).
CHAPTER
IX.
Art. 87.
y=:Ax + Bx(x-^ei^dx +
2.
3.
2/
= ^e +
JSe3'(4a;8-
42x2+
150
X- 183).
l.
4.
2/
=X
cifx
+ -V
x/
Art. 88.
2
3.
= ae^ + Cze^'J
e*
2
"'(j,.
i.
= ae^ +
cae^ fx-^e^'^'^dx.
Art. 91.
-
2.
3.
2/
(cisin -\/6x
2/
ce
C2COS
^x^sin
V6x)
/~
( logx + o).
secx.
4.
= e'(ciX^ + cix)
Art. 92.
2.
2/
= csmY21ogtan|+ay
4.
2/
"
Ci
3.
?/
cisin (x2
aV
cos-^+ Casin-^ H
2x2
2x2^
0)
x''
-
AN S WEBS.
225
Page 120.
1.
5.
a).
6.
4.
2.
xy
S.
!/
= c sin (nx +
ex sin ()ix
8.
2/
9,
2/
a;^
a;
11.
2y
Vl +
= e-'^iciS''^ + Cie-''^).
= e(Ciloga; + C2).
= cix + C2(x sin-i x + Vl - x^) x(l - x^)^.
^ = cix + C2 cos X.
= cix^ + C2X + Ca x^ I x-'e-^dx x x'h'^dxy
1.
10.
14.
a).
= l(cie"'+C2e-^).
2/
12.
2/
= Cie"
13.
2/
= x(cxe2=
='"""'*
+ C2X
+ C2 x).
Cix
15.
!/
= cism
16.
= ci sin (m Vx^
C2e-=~-'*.
x-^e
^dx
17.
19.
j/^
ho.
-vl
x-^e
<
'
cx^
+ cix.
J
c cos
o).
CHAPTER
xe ^f{x) (dxy.
X.
Page 124.
1.
The
circle of radius
2.
Acatenary,
3.
y^ -\-{x
4.
(x
2/
= -(e
ay =
cr',
ay = 4 o{y
'
+e
circles
c),
\.
'
x-axis.
to the axis of y.
5.
+ Ci = c vers-i- V2 c^ circle
6.
The
ellipses
k2 times
if
rolling
any
a'^y^
- k^(x -
cy
a*,
if
is
is
by
The hyperbolas
y'^,
K^
first
integration.
ANSWERS.
226
7.
The
elastic
- (a;2 -
{4 k2
8.
9.
lo.
a2)2jj
dy
= (a;^ -
a^)dx.
The
i
iat^
relation
o<
So-
-^^^{-Vs^ cs +
ci
c log
(Vs
+ Vi^^)},
is
according as the
^2
acceleration
is
s2
11.
= log cosh
nt, if
is
n^
the velocity.
12.
"
if
the acceleration
k times the
is
cube of the
velocity.
13.
T = 2Tr-\}-^^
MH
Magnetism,
14.
s=l + (so
Hint
p. 85.)
V)
Put
cos
Kt,
sl
equal to a
16.
-^,
17.
if
acceleration
t_
+ Cie
where
Same
19.
21.
+ Cae
Ti =
^1
where
Kt,
variable.
-^
^jfeV'CO*}
_t_
'i,
^^ ^
and T^
^^-
2i(ci+C2)-
20.
= cie-(-^'<''-<"2)< +
6 /(/ = P(3 IH - a;3)
9-0.
2.
is
new
sin
je ''ij"eV'(0*-e
18.
= k(so
u>k
i=:7sin
!:
Vie
w< k.
= )(4 i^x - a;*).
24 .B/j/
ANSWERS.
24.
On
227
is
and therefore,
^^
2
(Jf
WMI-,
(1
-B
= 0;
cosh -y/^- x^
^m
CHAPTER
2Q
XI.
Art. 98.
2.
a;
3.
a;
= Cie-5'
i.
5.
x=
e'(^cos
Bsint), y
-\-
Art. 99.
3.
x^
= g^ + ci,
x3
4.
= ;^^
log ^ +
5.
X^
6.
ax2
J/'
x'
Ci',
6j/2
c2
+-=
= ci,
ci,
- X = cxy.
C2.
a2x2
h'^y'^
i.
6.
y(x
c^z^
= cj.
Art. 103.
3.
5,
(y + z)e' = e.
e^(jf + z2 + x) =
c.
cy -y log 2 = 0.
+ z)=c(y + z).
Page 143.
1.
2.
3.
4.
cie"?'
^ e2'
e',
+1=
+ -^
Cae"'
+ ie^-
e'.
7^-
e^
Cse"!"'
-f
ANSWERS.
228
+ y + z = c.
10. (M + z) ( + c) + z(k - m) = 0.
- M + a;% = c.
11- x^ +
=
6)2
+ (!/
log xyz
9.
6.
'
x^+y^+e^=cu x^+y'z^=Ci.
~^'^~jr~
a;2,2
(X _
z2 ^.
12.
ft2.
a)2
f,
13.
2/
14.
M
+
V2
^1-1/2
e^^fci cos
c, sin
2/
= e^fci sin
X
y
15.
=
=
=
c.
cos
MU
V2/
MU
sin :^')
v^/
V'2
v'2/
^+ a
M
_
V2
C3 sin
^y
v'2/
Oi sin kJ
mci
n5i
_ nai
02
Zai
le.
See Forsyth,
17.
miy
Ici
Diff. Eq.,
6i
Ex.
= cie(<'+'^''''*' +
3,
Art. 174
Johnson,
c2e-(''+'"i''''*',
When
j^
C2
+ ci = 0,^ = ^ = ^.
_ Ibi mai _
t>2
of a'm^
Ex.
+(a b)m
4, p.
= 0.
the horizontal
in the plane of
of the path
is
= vot cos
of
4>,
= vdt sin
^ gfi
va' cos-*
19.
as in Ex. 18,
= -^-t + ^"""/ +
^ (1
").
ANSWERS.
20.
the hyperbola
(ai!/
229
CHAPTER
XII.
Art. 108.
2.
z=px +
qy
3.
pq.
4.
q.
dx
Vax^
ax
= pq.
= (w +
nq)x.
+ 2^)-
= 2yp^.
5.
dy
\dyl
dy^
Art. 109.
2.
yp^xq = 0.
3.
(?
ip)^
dx^^dy
(g
P)
dx'
dy'
Art. 116.
mt/
0(a;''
2.
=e0(a;-J/).
3.
ix
4.
i_l=//'i_lV
5.
/(a;2-22, a;S-!/')=0.
\x
rez
2/'*
z)
Art. 117.
a:2,.-3
2.
^(|.^).
Art. 119.
3
z=a{x +
V
^^zz^Vc.
2+VlO
4-
= ma; + 2/e" + c
5.
= ax+^+h.
a
Art. 120.
2.
aa;
by
-iVab.
Art. 121.
2.
gVteJ+l-i
= (x +
ay
+ cy + B)2 + 4.
[2Vz2-4o2 - 4 a^ log ( + Vi^^^Io^)] = 4(x +
ay
j^2^a_
4.
4c(3
5.
^2
_[.
3.
a)
(2
a2)3
c)".
(x
6).
ANSWERS.
230
Art. 122.
2.
at
= (x +
a)t
3.
=ax +
aPy^
g^
6.
gVa''
(!/ -I-
g^
a)t
6.
b.
y Vj/i'
- a' +
4.
S.
g^ log
a:
2/
= ^(2 a;
= (a; +
a) (^
Another form
3.
C.I. is s2
6), S.I. is 3
a''
= 0.
of the C.I. is
= aV + (aa; +
2Va = - +
6)*.
Art.
= f(a;+ a)t + f
+ Va?" + ^ ^_
+ V2/2 _ o2
Art. 123.
2.
a)^
ay
1).
+ 6.
- a)t +
a^^
(j(
6.
ANSWERS.
231
Art. 133.
2.
<l>(.x^y)
3.
+ xi^(,x'h/) + ^-
0(a;2
+i/(x^-
2,2)
y^).
^2.)
Page 187.
2-2
2^1 _ j.
2.
a;2^.2,-2 4.
y-^ = ^l^^^Z^\.
s-c
Vs-cy
9.
J^^^::^,
?^l^\
+ 2/) +
8.
Vx2
10.
fi.
+ 2/)}e!'- =
{ z^tan
12.
VTT^ - logi+^^S^ = X + ay +
13.
a;2
17.
ax
ax
6j/
^g^
(1)
+ cVl +
+ (1 - Va)'h/ +
2z=(-+a2/y +
(3) z
21.
a log (x2
^2
+ 2/2) +
b.
= a;i-0('^V
\x/
0(a;2/z).
(^ - il) }
6.
ax
'
c.
nVn2_4
a2
az
&;
(2)
S.I. is x2
62.
18.
6.
19.
20.
.#.
= as^ + 2V^ + 6.
(g-6-alogx)2 = 4a22/.
z
2/2
2/
{cos(a;
16.
+ +=
11.
14.
+(1 - ac)y +
aex
sin(x
alogg
6.
1=
z = X2/
axes
2/2
ai2
z'^
a^e^y
c2
b.
06"+"".
+2/ Vx2
= xy + xVf+ a^ +
Vn^ *"'| +
61
62.
nates.)
22
AL/-l'=^!!iL+ riL.
m+1 +l
2-i
23.
= av^Ti+ vT:^^-/^^ +
24.
axy
a2(x
2/)
6-
&.
(P"t xy
Vx + = M, Vx-2/ = )
x + = w.)
(Put
= v,
i/
?/
ANSWEBS.
232
25.
Vl + as =2y/x +
26.
iifly^
ay
^(y)losx
= xy + F(_x)+'p(y).
= x<t>{z)+^j/(z).
b.
27.
zy^
^(y).
28.
30.
= 0Cz)+i/'(a; + y + z).
(n - l)s2/ + OK = e(''-i)*i|J'(j;) +f(y).
31.
39.
a;
= j'e-J>(='>*'reJ>W'^i;'(y)da; +
0(2;)l(ia;
+ ^(v).
34.
= iyx!^logx + x^(y-)+^(>(y).
= I a^,, ^xy + <j>(y)+ e-^(y).
iz = xV + Hy)+^{x).
35.
= - ^^** +
^+
-F(y
36.
2^
+ x<l>{ax +
37.
30=aa;(^2-l)(2/2
38.
^z
32.
33.
hy
cz)
6a;)
+ /(J' -
ax)-
+ 2)+0(a;)vT=r^^
(>xV+{<t>i-'Y'Ji
+ yl'{y).
(K2/).
INDEX OP NAMES.
(The numbers refer to pages.)
Airy, 205.
Gilbert, 193.
Glaisher, 48, 106.
Bedell, 145.
Goursat, 207.
Gray, 106.
Bernoulli, 28.
Bessell, 105, 106.
Bocher, 207.
Boole, 23, fi(i, 206.
Boussinesq, 206.
Briot and Bouquet, 193, 194, 203.
Brooks, 204.
Byerly, 105, 106, 169, 184, 205.
Hoiiel, 206.
Cajori, 202.
Johnson,
Hymers,
206.
25, 48, 80, 105, 106, 107, 111,
Jordan, 206.
Klein, 207.
De Martres, 200.
De Morgan, 205.
DuBois-Eeymond,
Kowalevsky,
Lamb,
184.
206.
Duhamel,
206.
Edwards,
Legendre,
205.
Emtage,
194.
Lipschitz, 193.
Fiske, 193.
Mansion,
Mathews,
193, 207.
106, 203, 207.
54, 65, 196, 197.
McMahon,
205, 206.
Meray, 193.
Merriman, 126, 127.
Merriman and Woodward, 54,
Puchs, 203.
202.
Galois, 204.
233
127, 176,
INDEX OF NAMES.
234
Moigno,
Monge,
171.
Newton,
27.
Biemann,
203, 206.
Schlesinger, 207.
Serret, 206.
Osborne, 205.
Stegemann, 205.
Taylor, 40.
Thomson and
Price, 206.
Todhunter,
106, 183.
INDEX OF SUBJECTS.
(The numbers refer to pages.)
mechanics,
Equation, Equations.
Invariants of, 204.
Laplace's, 182.
Legendre's, 90, 105.
Linear, ordinary, 26, 28, 63, 64, 70,
82-84, 90, 101, 128.
Linear, partial, 153-158, 173.
Linear, simultaneous, 128-133.
Characteristic, 151.
Monge's, 171.
Constants of integration,
2, 149, 194,
195.
Criterion
for independence
of,
con-
Non-homogeneous,
stants, 195.
Partial.
integrals, 197.
Partial,
definition,
derivation,
2,
146, 148.
16, 179.
4.
Partial, linear
179-181.
non-homogeneous,
153.
169-187.
Poisson's, 186.
Reduction to equiyalentsystem,189.
Decomposahle,
Definitions,
31.
134,
Transformation
Homogeneous,
Works
174.
235
117, 182.
on, 205-207.
INDEX OF SUBJECTS.
236
Nodal
134, 140,
142, 158.
Geometry.
See applications.
171.
of,
105, 107.
136,
138,
cients, 199.
200.
Integral, integrals
and
Removal
coefficients, 199.
first, 94.
general, 150.
of linear partial equations, 153.
of simultaneous equations, 133.
particular, G, 64, 73-80, 87-90, 149,
176, 180.
singular, 150.
See con-
constants of.
Integration,
38, 48.
67, 68.
Symbolic function
stants.
hypergeometric,
Solutions, 2, 6
Summary,
Symbol J),
of
105, 107.
70.
Symbolic functions/(fl),-i^,
Lagrangean
f{.D,m
174, 176.
lines, 155.
Mechanics, applications
86.
to.
See equations.
cations.
Modem
theories, 202.
Works on
1^^