1

ElioJahaj
DevelopmentalPsychologyaftertheGrandTheories
DavidAnderegg
06/04/2015

Veni,sawsomekids,andleftabruptly
Adevelopmentalconsiderationofvoluntourism

Introduction
Volunteeringisoftenviewedasoneofthelaststandingactivitiesthatofferindividuals
internalreward,whilecausingpositiveimpactonissuesthathavebeenoverlookedby
traditionalcareinstitutions.Nowadays,volunteeringexperiencecanbeadvantageouswhen
applyingforcollege,forajob,orevenpublicoffice.Despitetheapparentcommodificationof
issuesinfavorofexternalandquantifiablerewards,itiseasytodismissthisethicalargument
foramorepragmaticviewthattendstostressthepositiveimpactofthevolunteers.
DuringthepresentationsoftheirFWTexperiences,anumberofBenningtonstudents
describedtheirexperiencesvolunteeringabroadandhelpingchildreninneed.Arecurring
phraseinthosepresentationswas:
IgainedmorethefromthechildrenthanIcouldpossibly
givethem.
Thisstatement,whichwasfollowedwiththeanticipatedexclamationofthe
public,isbasedontheassumptionthatworkingwithchildrenindevelopingcountriesisa
selflessact,whichhelpsfillagreatvoidofcare.Thefactthatthevolunteerdidnotexpect
suchareturnoninvestment,furtherdemonstratesthenarrativesofneedthatareconstructed
arounddisadvantagedchildreninthesecountries.Althoughreturnoninvestmentappearsas
aharshphrasetodescribethisactivity,itisnotafarcryfromtherealityofmanyvolunteering
initiativesthatdealwithdisadvantagedchildren.Thispaperaimstoinvestigatethecausesand

effectsofvolunteeringondisadvantagedchildrenindevelopingcountries,througha
developmentallens.
Theissue
Volunteers,traditionallyfromtheglobalNorth,arewillingtopayconsiderable
amountsofmoneyinordertocontributetowardsthecareofdisadvantagedchildreninthe
globalSouth.Thisactivityisoftenreferredtoasvolunteertourism,orphantourismto
showtheprevalenceofvisitingorphanagesinordertoprovidecare,orthroughamore
troublingsubsection,AIDSorphantourism,asmanyoftheseprogramsstressthefactthat
thechildrentargetedhavelosttheirparentstoAIDS.Academicresearchonthistopicis
scarceandthereactionofinternationalandnationalinstitutionsstandsatevenlowerrates.
Theleadingresearchonorphantourismcomesfrom2010andfocusesonthelastsubsection
ofthephenomenonintheregionofSubSaharanAfrica.SincethepublicationofAIDS
orphantourism:AthreattoyoungchildreninresidentialcarebyLindaRichterandAmy
1

Norman,thisactivityhasonlyexpandedtomorecountries,suchasJamaica,Nepal
and
2

Cambodia
.
Inthisarticle,theauthorsprovidenumerousargumentsthat1)demonstratehowa
markethasbeencreatedforsuchactivitiesand2)howthiscommodificationnegatively
affectschildrenthroughthecreationofshorttermattachmentsandsubsequentlossofthe
attachmentfigure.Thispaperconcentratesonattachmentissuesthroughanexplorationof
differenttheorieshowever,fromadevelopmentalperspective,shorttermattachmentisnot
theonlynegativeimpactthatarisesfromvoluntourism,butitremainsthebestdocumented.

Prices|ProjectsAbroad.(n.d.).RetrievedMay31,2015,from
http://www.projectsabroad.org/prices/#volunteerandinternabroadbyprojectcare
2

Reas,P.J.(2013).Boy,havewegotavacationforyou:OrphanageTourisminCambodiaandthe
CommodificationandObjectificationoftheOrphanedChild.
ThammasatReview
,
16
(1),121139.

EvidencefromcountriessuchasCambodiarevealadarkerreality,asmanyofthese
programshavetobewearyofsexualabusersthatviewvolunteeringasapathforreaching
children.Moreover,concernshavebeenraisedregardingtheeffectsofculturalperformances,
as
Somestatedperformancesweresimilartomonkeyshavingtodancefortheirfood,or
3

dolphinsperforminginshows.

Combinedwithreportsofdiscontentfromthechildren,these
performancesshowhowtraditionalmediumsofplaysuchasdancearealsocommodifiedin
ordertocreateamoreenticingexperienceforthepayingvolunteer.
Itisimportanttonotethatthisinvestigationinnowaydealswiththeintentofthe
volunteers.UnlikethechildabuseillustrationfromCambodia,manyoftheseprogramsattract
individualswithgoodwillandgenuineintentionstocauseapositivechangeinthelivesof
thesechildren.However,itisthepurposeofthisinvestigationtodemonstratehowgoodintent
withoutproperinformationcancauseagreatdealofharmanddamagetothepsychosocial
wellbeingofalreadyvulnerablechildren.
ThecasefromsubSaharanAfrica
4

HIV/AIDShasviciouslytakenthelivesofmillionsofadultsinsubSaharanAfrica.
Asaresult,millionsofchildrenhavelosteitheroneorbothparentstothedisease.Inorderto
statisticallydemonstratethecripplingeffectsofthedisease,manynationalandinternational
organizationshaveconsideredchildrenaffectedbythedeathofonlyoneparentduetoAIDS
asorphans,whereasintheglobalNorthitisassumedthatAIDSorphanshavenotonlylost

Guiney,T.(2012).'OrphanageTourism'inCambodia:WhenResidentialCareCentersbecomeTourist
Attractions.ThePacificGeographies,July/August2012(#38),pg.914.
4

Dorrington,R.,Bourne,D.,Bradshaw,D.,Laubscher,R.,&Timus,I.M.(2001).
TheimpactofHIV/AIDSon
adultmortalityinSouthAfrica
(pp.156).CapeTown:MedicalResearchCouncil.

bothparents,butalsobeenabandonedbyotherlivingfamily.AsRichterandNorman(2010)
describe:
ThesefigureshavecreatedasenseofurgencyinrespondingtothecrisisofAIDS
orphansandplacedtheissueatthecenterofpolicyandprogrammingdebates,aswell as
prominencewithinthemediaandacademicresearch.

Thissenseofurgencyhasbeenlargelyperpetuatedbythemediaandhasledtothe
phenomenonofthecommodificationofcare,duetoanincreaseddemandonthepartof
volunteers.InconclusiontoherstudyinCambodia,Guineydescribesthematterof
voluntourismascomplicated,becausedespitethenegativedevelopmentaloutcomes,many
residentialcarehomesareoperationalduetothedonationsandfeesreceivedbythesesame
tourists.However,whatshouldreallybeamatterofconsideration,accordingtotheleading
researchersRichterandNorman,isweathertheresidentialcaremodelisthebestwaytohelp
orphans.
Upwardsof90%ofAIDSorphanseitherlivewiththeirsurvivingparentorwith
5

membersoftheirextendedfamilythankstotheimportanceofintergenerationalcontracts
in
countriessuchasSouthAfrica,whichinmanywaysserveassocialinsurance.Moreover,
thereisanabundanceofevidencebothfromsubSaharanAfricaandCambodiathatshows
howmanyfamiliesplacechildreninresidentialcareasawaytoprovidethemwithfoodand
shelter,thusalleviatingfinancialconstraintsonthefamilyitself.Inretrospect,theexaggerated
narrativeofAIDSorphansasincreasinginnumberandwithoutanyoptionsoffamilialcare,
createdamarketforbenevolentpayingvolunteerstohelpwiththeprovisionofchildcare.

Heymann,J.,Earle,A.,Rajaraman,D.,Miller,C.,&Bogen,K.(2007).Extendedfamilycaringforchildren
orphanedbyAIDS:balancingessentialworkandcaregivinginahighHIVprevalencenations.
AIDScare
,
19
(3),
337345

Consequentially,theexistenceofthisinteresthasgraduallycausedmorefamiliestoplace
childreninresidentialcare,causing1)theincreaseofthenumberofthesefacilities,2)the
increaseofchildrenplacedinthemduetofinancialreasonsdespitetheexistenceofliving
relativesand3)theincreaseofvoluntouristsaimingtohelpAIDSorphans.Thus,for
RichterandNorman,itisfarmoreimportanttoencourageandfinanciallysupportthecareof
thesechildrenbylivingrelatives,whichwouldallowforthecreationofstableattachment
relationships.
Thecostoforphanvoluntourism
a)Beforethearrivalofthevolunteer
Thedeathofoneorbothparentshasseriouspsychosocialconsequencesinchildren.
Dependingontheirage,childrenconstructrealitiesthroughrepresentationalmodelsanditis
notuncommonforthemtointernalizedeathasabandonment.Thisisespeciallytrueof
youngerchildrenastheyhave:
[A]greaterdependenceuponothers,moreeasilyactivatedandlesseasilymodulated
attachmentbehavior,lessfullydevelopedunderstandingoftheconceptsofspaceandtime,
greateregocentricityandincreasedvulnerabilitytoengaginginmagicalthinkingwithrespect

to

playingacausalroleinmalignantevents.

Thus,thishighlytraumaticeventcausesthefirstdisruptionofattachment,puttingthese
childrenatgreatrisk.Moreover,assumingthatthechildrenlivewithsomelivingmemberof
theirfamily,placingtheminresidentialcarecreatesanotherinstanceofabandonmentand

Main,M.(1991).Metacognitiveknowledge,metacognitivemonitoring,andsingular(coherent)vs.multiple
(incoherent)modelsofattachment.
Attachmentacrossthelifecycle
,pg.136

perpetuatesanacliticdepression,whichismanifestedwhenchildrenseparatefromtheir
primarycaregiver.
JohnBowlbysworkwithattachmenthasshownthatseparationsduetoentryintoan
7

orphanagecancauseextremedisruptionsinattachmentrelationships. H
owever,theseeffects
needtobefurtherstudiedinchildrenthathavebeenplacedinresidentialcarebyaliving
parentorotherfamilymembers,whichcouldcreateamorepersistentanddamagingfeelingof
abandonment,seeingastheirattachmentrelationshipswereseverelydamagedbythedeathof
theparent(s).
Itbecomesevidentthatinstitutionalizationinthiscountriesisnotthemostadequate
methodtoprovidecarefororphans,howeveritstillremainscommonpractice.This
inadequatenessaloneshouldbegroundforconcernandarethinkingoftheinstitutional
model.However,practicalrealityisevenmoredetachedfromtheoryandhasperpetuatedthe
psychosocialissuesthattheseorphansface.
b)Duringthestayofthevolunteer
Thedurationofthestayofthevolunteerishighlydependentonthefeesthattheyneedtopay.
Projectsabroad.org
,forexample,offersastayof212weekswithanextensionclauseforan
additionalfee.Fromtheperspectiveofthevolunteer,theeffectoftheirpresenceisbeneficial
tothechildrendespitethelengthofstay.Thus,manyvolunteersarealreadyclearofthe
significanceandimpactoftheirexperience,becausetheyhavearrivedwiththestrong
convictionthattheirhelpisnotonlymuchneeded,butalsobeneficialandappreciated.The

Bowlby,J.(n.d.).Attachmentandloss:Retrospectandprospect.AmericanJournalofOrthopsychiatry,
664678.

effectsofthevolunteers,tothechildsinnerworkingmodels,willbeassessedbasedontwo
scenarios.1)Thechildisnotwillingtoapproachthevolunteerinanyway,demonstartting
signsofReactiveAttachmentDisorder.And2)Basedonalargebodyofevidence,ithasbeen
shownthatchildreninresidentialcareareindiscriminatesocializersandcanformattachment
8

relationshipsduringaveryshorttimespan.
Itisparticularlythistypeofexperiencethat
confirmstheassumptionsofthevolunteers,asmuchneededfiguresinthelivesofthese
children.However,accordingtoDSMV,

activelyapproach[ing]andinteract[ing]with
unfamiliaradults
isthemainsymptomoftheattachmentrelatedDisinhibitedSocial
9

EngagementDisorder.
Thusthesecondscenariowillconsidertheconsequencesofthestayof
thevolunteeronthisgroupofchildren.
c)Veni,sawsomekids,andleftabruptly:Theaftermath
Thissectionfocusesontheshortandlongtermeffectsthatthevolunteerhasonthe
childrenthroughthetwodifferentscenariosmentionedabove.First,althoughthereislittle
evidencetosuggestthatchildreninresidentialcarearenotapproachable,ifthiswasareality,
thevolunteerwouldbehighlyunsuitedtotendtothem.Asarguedinthispaper,orphansthat
havemadetheirwayintoresidentialcareindevelopingcountrieshaveexperienced
attachmentdisruptionsinmultipleinstancesandhavebeenthesubjectsoftraumatic
experiences,suchasthelossofoneparentorbothandlivinginextremepoverty.Such
conditionsarechallenginganddelicatetotreatwiththehelpofexperiencedmentalhealth
professionals,thuswhenweconsiderthatmostvolunteersareinexperiencedhighschoolor

Zeanah,C.H.,Smyke,A.T.,&Dumitrescu,A.(2002).Attachmentdisturbancesinyoungchildren.II:
Indiscriminatebehaviorandinstitutionalcare.
JournaloftheAmericanAcademyofChild&Adolescent
Psychiatry
,
41
(8),983989
9

AmericanPsychiatricAssociation.(2013).Diagnosticandstatisticalmanualofmental
disorders(5thed.).Arlington,VA:AmericanPsychiatricPublishing.(pg.268)

collegegraduates,theinadequatenessofthiscarebecomesapparent.Amoresuitablesolution
wouldbethetrainingofindividualsinthelocalpopulationinordertoprovideadequatecare,
notonlysecuringthechildren,butalsoprovidingmuchneededjobstothecommunity.
Researchandreportsfromfostercareinstitutionsarethebasisforthesecondscenario.
AsZeanahetal.haveshowninstitutionalizedorphansdemonstrateindiscriminatebehavior
towardsunknownadults,astheyarehighlyapproachableandclingy.Thesechildrenare
abletoquicklyformattachmentrelationshipsandarethusaffectionatetowardsvolunteers.
Whenvolunteersleaveaftertheirshortstay,theattachmentisbrokenandthecycleis
repeatedwiththearrivalofnewvolunteers.Therearenofiguresthatshowhowmany
volunteerschildrenareexposedtoduringtheirstayinresidentialcare,howeverassumingthat
theaveragestayofavolunteeristhreeweeksthattranslatesintotwelvedifferentvolunteersa
year.Intermsofattachment,thatfigureistranslatedintotwelvedifferentbroken
relationships.Theevidenceisclear:
[S]eparationsmaybeexperiencedassignificantrejectionorloss,compoundinga
historyofparentalunavailabilityandpotentiallydistortingthechildsadjustmentto

surrogate

10

caregiversandthefosterhomeenvironment.

Inthiscontext,itisimperativetoconsiderBowlbysideaofmultiple(incoherent)
attachmentmodelsi.e.modelsthatarecontradictoryorincompleteandwhichhavebeen
proventobeasignificantlongtermriskfactorforchildren.AsMaryMainnotes:
[T]heinternalworkingmodelmustcontainmultiplerepresentationswhichreferencenot
onlydirectexperiencesregardingtheattachmentfigure,butalsoconceptsoftheselfwhich

10

Lawrence,C.,Carlson,E.,&Egeland,B.(2006).Theimpactoffostercareondevelopment.Develop.
Psychopathol.DevelopmentandPsychopathology.

9
arederivedfromsuchexperiences.Withrespecttoattachmentfigures,forexample,themodel
shouldcontaininformationregardingwhotheattachmentfigure(s)arewheretheyare
11

currentlylocatedandhowlikelytheyaretorespondtobidsforaccess.

Themainchallengeinconsideringtheserepeatedshorttermattachmentsasaninstanceof
formationofmultiplemodelsisthatBowlbysworkismainlybasedontheattachment
relationshipsofprimarycaregivers.Although,itisplausibletoassumethatthevariationof
thevolunteersandtherapidturnoverareenoughgroundfortheformationofmultiplemodels,
thereneedstobemoreempiricalresearchastowhatextentthisistrue.

Conclusion
Canonepersonmakeadifference?Whenitcomestovolunteeringwithdisadvantaged
childrenindevelopingcountries,theanswerisyes.Onemorepersonvolunteeringtranslates
intoonemoreattachmentbondbroken,addstotheeffectsofpreviousattachmentdisruptions
andtrauma,andhelpsperpetuatetherhetoricoftheglobalorphancrisis,whichhaslargely
commodifieddisadvantagedchildrenacrosstheglobe.Althoughwellintended,thedesireto
helpismisplacedasitismorecostlythanbeneficialtochildrenandthelocalpopulation.The
increasinglyinterconnectednatureofglobalrelationsoftencallsforanincreasedshared
responsibilityandactioninlocalissuesmanifestedindevelopingnations,howeverthese
responsesneedtobebasedontheoreticalmodelsandpracticalresearch.Attheveryleast,

Main,M.(1991).Metacognitiveknowledge,metacognitivemonitoring,andsingular(coherent)vs.multiple

(incoherent)modelsofattachment.
Attachmentacrossthelifecycle
,pg.131
11

10

thereisanimmediateneedtoraisethisissuetotheattentionofthepublic,aspotential
voluntouristsneedtobeawareoftheconsequencesoftheiractions.

References
1. Prices|ProjectsAbroad.(n.d.).RetrievedMay31,2015,from
http://www.projectsabroad.org/prices/#volunteerandinternabroadbyprojectcare
2. Reas,P.J.(2013).Boy,havewegotavacationforyou:OrphanageTourismin
CambodiaandtheCommodificationandObjectificationoftheOrphaned
Child.
ThammasatReview
,
16
(1),121139.
3. Guiney,T.(2012)'OrphanageTourism'inCambodia:WhenResidentialCareCenters
becomeTouristAttractions.ThePacificGeographies,July/August2012(#38),pg.
914.
4. Dorrington,R.,Bourne,D.,Bradshaw,D.,Laubscher,R.,&Timus,I.M.
(2001).
TheimpactofHIV/AIDSonadultmortalityinSouthAfrica
(pp.156).Cape
Town:MedicalResearchCouncil.
5. Heymann,J.,Earle,A.,Rajaraman,D.,Miller,C.,&Bogen,K.(2007).Extended
familycaringforchildrenorphanedbyAIDS:balancingessentialworkandcaregiving
inahighHIVprevalencenations.
AIDScare
,
19
(3),337345

11

6. Main,M.(1991).Metacognitiveknowledge,metacognitivemonitoring,andsingular
(coherent)vs.multiple(incoherent)modelsofattachment.
Attachmentacrossthelife
cycle
,pg.136
7. Bowlby,J.(n.d.).Attachmentandloss:Retrospectandprospect.AmericanJournalof
Orthopsychiatry,664678.
8. Zeanah,C.H.,Smyke,A.T.,&Dumitrescu,A.(2002).Attachmentdisturbancesin
youngchildren.II:Indiscriminatebehaviorandinstitutionalcare.
Journalofthe
AmericanAcademyofChild&AdolescentPsychiatry
,
41
(8),983989
9. AmericanPsychiatricAssociation.(2013).Diagnosticandstatisticalmanualofmental
disorders(5thed.).Arlington,VA:AmericanPsychiatricPublishing.(pg.268)
10. Lawrence,C.,Carlson,E.,&Egeland,B.(2006).Theimpactoffostercareon
development.Develop.Psychopathol.DevelopmentandPsychopathology.
11. Main,M.(1991).Metacognitiveknowledge,metacognitivemonitoring,andsingular
(coherent)vs.multiple(incoherent)modelsofattachment.
Attachmentacrossthelife
cycle
,pg.131