LEC 1

Break down into sub assembly if needed

LEC 2
6 main material classifications:
-

Metals/Alloys
Ceramics
Polymers
Hybrids
Glasses
Elastomers

ELASTICITY
All mats are elastic (have bulk modulus)
Only solids have non zero Youngs / shear
modulus
Solids usually have large moduli (elastic
strains are small)
NO MATERIAL is incompressible
Isotropic means only 2 elastic constants
Elastic strains are recoverable and store
energy (can find from area under graph)
Most common mats are approx linear
High modulus applications incude:
structural members, con rods, springs, gears, machinery
Low modulus include: skateboard decks, other springs, vaultingpole, seat
cushions

3 METHODS OF MEASURING ELASTIC MODULI

UNUSUAL ELASTIC BEHAVIOUR

Rubber E at room temp = 0.1GPA, E at -196C = 2GBA. Diffrence in bonds,
minor bonds are T sensitive, above Tg minor bonds melt at E lowers.
-

No cross linking; Tg = Tm
Light crosslinking, Tg -> major reduction in Modulus on HEATING
Moderatre cross linking, Tg -> becomes leathery
Heavey cross linking; Tg-> little influence on properties
Complete cross-linking; No Tg

COMP MATERISL
-

E perp to fibers can be up to 20x less than

parallel
Parallel is ~ same from both mats
- adds in series
Perp is VERY DIFF .
- adds in parallel
In theory, comps can access any value in
range of mats
Practical range is Vf = 20-65%

9 eqn, 81 unkowns
Symmetry reduces this to 21
unkowns in gen case
Orthotropic (i.e. 3 mutally perpen
axes) reduce to 9 elastic
constants

We can calc the value of ANY

ELASTIC CONSTANTS IN ANY
DIRECTION by using tensor
transformation

EXAMPLE:

SUMMARY:
-

Some mats
high nigh non-lin elastic properties, affects
FEA, can be advantage e.g. apply constant force over large range of
movement
Some mats have elastic prop that change majorly with small change in
temp
Some mats have high anistropic elastic props, e.g. single crystals, textured
alloys.
o Can be adv or disadv
o Can be modified in comps by fibre lay up but at reduced strength
and mod
o 2D layups are simple but still have low modulus in 3 rd D (transverse
to lamella)
o Comp modulus is a sens fn of fibre vol fraction.

WEEK 2:
-

Ideal bong strength of homogeneous solid; ~ E/15

In reality, much lower Why? Defects and flaws
In metals, DEFECTS ARE DISLOCATIONS
Can be describes as extr ahalf plane of atoms inserted in structure,
leading to LINEAR DEFECT at
base of extra h plane
We define the BURGERS
VECTOR or SLIP VECTOR b, as
the closure errror around the
dislocation, or distance moved
in single dislocation jump.

L = length, G = Shear
modulus, b- length of Burgers vector, v = Poissons ratio.
Note, diclocation energy is proportional to burgers vector squared
Means dislocations will for most easily in DENSELY PACKED planes of
atoms, where b Is small
Structures with large unit cells will have very large energies, therefore
fewer dislocations. (Major reason why ceramics do not plastically deform)
Line tension T associated with curved dislocations. i.e. DISCLATIONS WILL
TRY TO REMAIN STRAIGHT
Annealed metal typically has 103-= cm of dislocation line per cm3

How do dislocations move?

-

Respone to shear stress

Apllies axiel force
Arbitary shear plane
Sher force is Fsin(theta)

ONLY

We can use dislocation analysis to determine relo between yield strength

in tension, and yield strength in shear

Ds

Dislocation facilitate plastic

deformation in matelas bv instead
having to shear entire plane of bonds,
same net effect can be achieved by
hopping
This way breaks one row of bonds at
and allows plastic def at lower
The dislocation will move if the
stress > f /b where b= slip vector

of
dislocation
a time
stress.
shear

How do we stop them from moving?

-

Lattic resistance force fi (intrincis)

Disloc are surrounded by field, which interact with certain microstruc
features
So
if mincro
struc can be

manipulated, dislocs can be blocked

Increasing individual crystal strength Solid soln hardening

In a hard-sphere description, ZN atoms are slight bigger than Cu atoms, so

slip plane is not uniform.

Easy motion for disloc RELIES on slip-place being uniform/smooth. The

solute atoms will therefore procude additional resistance force that adds to
intrinsic lattice resistance. (First eqn)
Alpha? (omitted in slide) Inversely proportional to mean spacing of solute
atoms on slip plane., eqn 2. C solute concentration
Size of constant depends on whether solute in another metal dissolving
substitionally (i.e. replacing host atoms) or non0metal dissolving
interstitally (i.e. in spaces between atoms).
Interstital atoms are most effective, partly bc they migate to trained
regions around disloc and LOCK them.
Very effective strengthening mech per unit concentraition HOWEVER
solubility of interstitial elements usually very low before new phases
begain to appear.
Effectiveness of substitutional solutes depends on size compared with
solvent and whetehr they have similar electronic configs

Precipitation and dispersion strengthening

Regardkess wheter fored by precititation from super sat soln OR by

dispersion of 2nd phase
Presence of obstacles inside metal crystals obstructs dislocation passage
Dislocations interact with field rather than precipitates
Although dispersed particles are incoherent with matrix phase and disloc
interact directly with them
Disloc is forces to curve between obstacles.
Line tention increases requiring increased shear stress.
Yield criterion, F > 2T/L
Provides additional res force due to obstables given by eqns above.
IT IS BEST TO HAVE STRONG CLOSLEY SPACE PARTICLES.

Work Hardening

A metal/alloy that is plastic deformed to a certain stress level, adopts that

stress as its new yield.
If subsequently loaded to any stress at which it was plastically deform, it
will deform only elastically.

Recall annealed metal has low disloc density, while CW metal has far
greater
Greater number of dislocs DO NOT make slip easier as slip planes interact
with each other, several cases:
o Disloc on intersecting slip plans PIN each other if they meet.
DOESNT prevent motion but now requires much greater force
o Disloc on parallel slip attract or repel due to fields around
On diff slip plans, disloc align themselves, energy of crustal
can be reduces by cancellation of fields
On same, like dislocs repec bc overlap of fields is
energetically unfav.

As a result, disloc in
mats form into dense tangles, usually subdiving crystals into much smaller
regions.
Within regions, much harder for disloc to move bc of repulsive forces bw
dislocations
As a result becomes increasingly hard to cause slip and work hardening
occurs
Total yield strength of SINGLE CRYSTAL given by eqn above

Polycrystalline metals

Combining
-

Combining exp for polycrys mat with infinite g size, and hallpatch eqn we
obtain an expression for total yield strength of poly mat
Particulary metals + alloys

Ceramics contain some dislocations

Become active at very high temps, usually immobile at r temp
In tension, ceramics fail rapidaly + immobile
In comprasssion, failure begains locally by micro-craking
Preventing m-cracking relies on putting obstacles in the way of microcracks (instead of dislocs)

As with metals, strength defined as onset of plasticity

Plastic flow in poltmeers occure by relative motion of polymer chains w/
little disruption by FAILURE OF van der waals bonds and cross linkinge
STRONGLY time dependant
Strenght is GREATLY increased by cross-linking
Obstacles are also effective (e.g. fillers)

Steels canbe made very strong via heat treatment and alloyin
This can effect forming machining welding and toughess properties
HSLA steels are desgined to avoid this by compression of small alloying
additions and special processing

Grain size effects Mn in soln inhibits grain growth. V, Nb etc carbines in

Austenite inhibit growth

Some carbides dissolve during high T processing

Reform during cooling and give precipitation hardening effect, total effect
in figure aboce

PLASTICITY True strain and Stress-

Definitiions are flawed due to STRESS

not taking account of changing cross
section area
Remember Volume is conserved, in
tension doubling length gives 100%
strain, but in compression 100% strain
makes sample disspear. There for
STRAIN is flawed too
Tension and compression sides now
match on curve

INTERNAL WORK OF PLASTIC DEFORMATION PER UNIT VOL

-

Test machine strates/uses energy on sample

Consider energy dissipation during plastic deformation:

Variables include tool geom, temo, strain strain, flow stress

S-S state of mat in deformation zone is too complex to model analytically
Assumptions that can be made to SIMPLIFY:
o Plastic strain is large, elastic strain ~ 0
o Assume NO WORK HARDENING (adequate for hot, poor for cold
working)
o Assume uniform and homogeneous metal (poor for cast feed and
latter stages of CW)
Metal working is muti-dimension optimisation problem, we want:
o Minimum force per unit deformation
o High deformation rates (high strain, high prod rates)
o No fracture of work piece
o Nminimum reducant deformation (i.e. defor take makes no
contributions to final shape)
o Min friction losses
Many of these work gainst each other / mutally exclusive

eo
Metalworking theory requies:
o Static Equilibrium of force eqn
o Relo between stresss and strain
o Yielding criterion e.g. Von Mises
Various approaches, most comprehensive is finite element analysis, an
appromimation is Uniform Deformation Energy method

NECKING AND PLASTIC INSTABILITY

Normal S-S curvs of ductile mats

show DECREASE in stress past UTS
Part of this can be corrected by using
TRUE S-S.
However part of it persist due to
LOCALISED DEFORMATION/ NECKING
due to phenomenon known as PLASTIC
INSTABILITY
Once a neck is visible, most of plastic
flow is confined to it bc stress is higher
here (leading to rapid failure)

If work hardening is less than effects of reduces A, the neck is UNSTABLE

(grows)
Critical point is when Asigma = F = constant for whole material

When considering this in NORMAL S-S, unstable necking begains at UTS

and causes failure as expecte

WEEK 3 PROP OF MATERIALS + FRACTURE TOUGHNESS

FRACTURE TOUGHNESS
Failure in Service
-

Mechanical Failutre
o General Yielding

o Fast Fracture
o Fatigue
o Creep
Corrosion + Oxidation
Wear and Abrasion

These arnt necessary independent:

-

Degredation mechanisms (wear corrosion etc) can reduce loaracking)d

bearing cross section of componenent and therefore induce mechanical
failure
Converwsely, pressense of high stress can accelerate certain corrosions
(e.g. stress corrosion)

Many imcongrous behaciers, e.g. Why is Untempered Marensitic steel bittle

under impact when tensile strength = 2000GPA? Due to fracture toughness
Fractuve toughness is the property govering a materials susceptibility to fast
fracture
FAST FRACTURE IS HE CATASTROPHIC gROWth OF Pre EXISITING CRAKS/FLAS IN
COMPONENET
Crack growth can occur at speed of sound in material, virtually impossible to
crack to be arrested once propgating.
Fast fracture is important bc:
-

Often occurns in large structures

Very rapid
Can cause massive damage
Increased use of mats susceptible to f fracture in modern engineering

System would like to be in minimum energy state

Fracture is way to release stored energy
For e.g. a full boloon, introducing flaw causes fast fracture AND
o Whilist table at los pressure, a pre-existing flaw can propagate at
high pressure (high stress)
o Note stored energy is released as kinestic energy, sound and heat.

Not that also failure was independent on both the existence of flaw
AND the applied stress

TO propagate, crack MUST TO WORK on structure (i.e. assosicated energy

cost)
If it costs more energy to advance crack than the strain energy potentially
recovered, the crack will not propagate.
In this case, crack is NON-CRITICAL
Once energy gain exceeds energy cost, CRITICAL.

Consider a plate containing crack loading in tension, and relate to diagram

avoce.

DEFINITON OF FRACTURE TOUGHNESS

-

Eqn is (a)0.5 = (EG)0.5

LHS = Stress intensity (object + application properties) K
RHS = Critical stress intensity (material properties) K c
Fast fracture occurs when (a)0.5=K>Kc=(EGc)0.5
Critical combiniatio nof stress and crack length ONLY DEPNDS on Youngs
mod and Gc (toughness)

Remember
-

Tensinle strengths or ceramics are low due to low fracture toughness AND
processing flaws
Quenched steels become brittle due to Gc being reduces
Glass fibres are strong as they cannot contain significant flaws
Large structures are weaker due to flaws from assmelby

We have K1C, K11C, K111c respectiviley,

and K1<k11<k111

Therefore K1C gives safest

predictions and also takes into
account of mode changing

BC internal cack is like 2 smaller

cracks facing opposite direction, we
take internal crack length as 2a.

EXAMPLE
i)

ii)

iii)
iv)

Lmax = 100,000/2 (2 plates) = 0.49 MN

max = Lmax/A = 108.9 Mpa.
This is much less than yield stress of 900Mpa therefore no general
yielding
F fracture occurs when ( a)0.5 > K1C
c=kc/(a)0.5 = 40E6/ (*0.025)0.5
142.4MPA > 108.9
Since critical is > than L (108.9 MPA) hook can still upport up to 100T
(no f frac)
Safety factor, S = critical stress / load, = 142.7/108.9 = 1.31
For S 3, m=142.7/3 = 47.6Mpa
Lmax=m*A = 47.6E6-0.0045 = 0.214MN PER PLATE
To calculate how large crack must grow before it causes fast fracture at
Lmax

Let = m = 108.9Mpa
Crack will propagate when (a)0.5 = K1c
Solve for a, we get 0.043mm
Meaning of Gc energy cost of creating
a unit projected area e.g. 1m2
Several mechanisms add to this cost,
e.g. surface energy
True surface area > projected surface
area due to roughness
Each new cracked region produces new
surface area and hence costs energy
Another contributor is the need for
crack to do work against
microstructure.
For e.g Plastic deformation requires lots of work, relative size of
contributions to Gc allow us to distinguish bw 2 extreme cases, Ductile
tearing and Brittle fracture.
All mats are somewhere on this spectrum
- Fracture surface of ductile mats
show large amounts of plastic
deformation
- But in f fracture we talk about
failure below yield stress. How?
- Cracks act as a stress
CONCENTRATION
- Local stress is approx. by 1st eqn,
where r is distance ahead of crack
tip assuming semi elliptical crack.
- Local stress will excees yield
strength of aductile mat in a region
BOUNDED BY ry
- Failure usually begains adhjacent
to flaws
Some work hardening take place and crack blunting due to void formation
These ensure crack propagation isslowed down and requires large amount
of energy

BRITTLE FRACTURE
-

Little/no plastic defo (low fracture toughness)

local now exceeds BOND STRENGTH between atoms
2 Types
o Cleavage in which atomically flat fracture planes are formed leads
to fractures with very smooth/flat surfaces. Stress conc ahead of
crack tip exceeds theoretical strength. In rrality, quite common in
certain ytpes of minerals, but RARE in engineering materaisl. Some
steels and hcp metals at low temps do this
o Conchoidal (shell like) in which concentric riges form on fracture
surface. Non-crystallyne usually therefore no plans of metals to park
No plastif def occurs therefore crack can propagate at speed of sound in
material.

Creation of new surface is the ONLY ENERGY cost to resist craking

In polycrystal mats (most metal and ceramics) britlle facture propagates
from graint to g and takes slightly diff path in each. Size of crack expands
as it propagates and leaves distinctive features on face (chevron marks)
Chevron markes often point back to fracture origin
energy as a function of room temp, and

Some ductile mats remain

ductain over full range of temps
(e.g copper at 4K)
Some mats undergo ductile to
brittle trans as temp is reduces
This had lead to steels in shpis
breaking, ski lifts failing, etc
We can study transition via
impact test, and plot absorbed
look for transition
- 1) Lower shelf energy
- 2) Trainsition temp
- 3) Uppershelf energy
- Transition temp is
definted as temp at
where absorbed
energy is midway bw
upper and lower shelf
- We can see mat B high
much higher transition
temp than A, and is
not suitable for use at

low temp
FRACTURED SAMPOLES ARE ALSO INSTRUCTVE
Ductile mats have fibrous (rough and dark) fractures and cross sectional
area is deformed
Brittle sample has pale non fibrous fracture and area does not
change.remains square
Usually lots of cleavage fracture in brittle zone

STEELS
-

Majpr influence on transformation is Carbon conten

3 Major changes when increasing carbon content
o Upper shelf energy decreases
o Transition temp increase
o Transition becomes spread out over grater range
Only SOME steels are susceptible to this effect (usually strongest of the
unaklloyed steels)
To aboud low T britltlness, in addition to using lowest C, we can use steels
with V SMALL GRAIN SIZES
High alloyed steels often immune from transformation, same as austentic
and ferritic stainless steels
Impact energy and Kc are closely related

MICROSTRUCTUAL STRATEGIES
-

G size reduction has similar benefit on Kc as it does with yield strength

Fabrication techniques cause anisotropy of inclusions, leads to Kc variation

of up to 50% depending on direction.
Often detrimental in service (e.g. rolled steel plates, fracture toughness is
diff in directions, need to be considered in orientation)
2 phase + comp mats oftens have enhanced fracture toughness due to
other meachinisms. Recall rubre reinforced comps are usually much
tougher than polymers and ceramins from which they are made
2 major reasons,
o Ceramic fibres are TOO THIN to contain significant flaws
o They act as crack stoppers/deflrectors (crack deflection) note does
not work for cracks along fibres which readly lead to splitting (delamination)
Rubber toughnes polymers - tougher than parent material due to crack
bridging
Partially stabilised zirconia ceramic mat with highest fracture toughnes.
Very complex microstructure to but to understand the mechanism we only
need to consider it as a high volume fraction of tiny precipitates of the
tetragonal phase of zirconia embedded withing other zirconia phases. In
stress field of advancing crack, tetra phase undergoes martensitic trans to
monoclinic phase which it 5% larger in vol. This swlling of precips causes
crack closing forces to be exerted on crack. KNOWN AS TRANSFORMATION
TOUGHENING.

WEEEK 4 FATIGUES OF MATS

Failure can occure not only when > y and
Kic> root a but also if m > endurance
-

In most engineering cases, failure if by

slow crack growth i.e. fatigue.
Image shoes fractured face of fatigued
railway axle

3 Types of Fatigue
1) Fatigure of uncracked components No pre-existing cracks, initiation
controlled fracture E.g. most small components like gudgeon pins, gear
teech, crank shafts. This can lead to:
a. High Cycle fatigue. Failure > 104 cycles to fracture. E.g. all rotating /
vibrating sysmtel like wheel.s engine componenets
b. Low cycle Fatigue. Failure < 104 e.g core components of nuclear
reactors, turbine components, any component subject to occasional
overload

2) Fatigue of cracked structres cracks pre0exists, propgration controlled

fracture e.g. large structures, particulary containing weld, bridges, ships
etc
Fatigue Testing
-

Stress range = max min

Mean stress, take average of stress
Stress amplitures a=( max min) /2
Many loading modes, e.g. Tension Tension, Tenstion Compression, Rotation
Bending (easiest for many cycles at high frequency.
Note that there is extreme sensitivity to stress concentration even at level
of minor surface imperfections E.g. hot rolled streel with 700MPa UTS has
only 0.55 fatigue life of the same steel with a polished surface
There are also several surface treatments that can greatly enhance fatigue
life. These include shot peening, carburising, and nitriding. All include
residual compressive stresses at surface (Any applied tensile stress must
first overcome residual stress)

F fracture of brottle mats is probabilistic

Usually necessary for most matls as distribution of failure strengths is so
narrow
This cases to be the case uner cyclic loading conditions
Even mats with very well defined fracture strengths for a single stress
cycle will have fatigue lifetimes distributed over a very wide band
- For E.h. 300 torsion bar springs
loaded identically, mea life is
134,000 cycles but standard
deviation is 37,000 from this SMALL
smaple. The span of first to fail was 5
times less than longest surviving
- Manufacturers only often quote mean
fatigue props, where as for safe
deisgn, entine distribution needs to
be examined
Low Stress - > High Cycle fatigue
1) We can identiy these failures
become component was able to
survive until only a small fraction
of cross area was uncracked
2) The effect of a stress conc is to
make crack propagate more
rapidaly at surface than centre
due to inc surface stress
3) Reversed bending and rotation
bending lead to the initiation of
multiple cracks
4) In rotational bending, the crack normal processes against the direction
of rotation, allowing identificant of loading situation.

High Stresss - > Low Cycle Fatigue

Coomapred with previous we can see
1) At high load uncracked area just prior to
failure is a large proportion of cross
sectional area
2) Multiple Initiation points are more likely
3) In torsion cracks are more definiate and
occur at 45oC to torsion axis in absence of
stress conc/

FATIGUE EQNS
1) Uncrack components
a. HighCycle Fatigue
i. Zero Mean stress
Basquins Law (Nf)a=C1 where a is constant usually
between 1/8 and 1/15 and C is a material constant
Can only use of ZERO MEAN STRESS ONLY
Constnats can be calc from any 2 known S, N points and
used to predict fatigue lifetimes at sresses between 2
known points (or beyond with caution)
ii. Non-Zero Mean Stress
Goodmans Rule - m = 0 (1-(|m|/UTS)
Where 0 = stress range to give life Nf at zero mean
stress
m=mean stress
m = stress range must be REDUCE to in order to still
survie same Nf cycles at non zero mean stress
- Stress in one dir is closed to yield than in other

b. Low Cycle Fatigue

Coffin-Manson Law pl Nfb = C2
In this same =/= to E (i.e there
is plastic which dominates fatigue
life)
B and C2 are material constants
with b ~ +0.5 - 0.6
c. Non-Uniform stress cycles
Most common in real world, we need statistic approach

At every stress range

there is a fatigue
lifetime.

Relies on assumptions that

Each stress cycle no matter how small is doing damage
Damage from each stress regime is simply additive
There is nomemory in material (i.e. order of stresses doesnt
effect)
=

2) Cracked
Components

Note K = f(N) bc crack size increases with every cycle..

Note long steady state region (where A, m are mat constants and m ~ 4)

We can usually estimate a (initial

crack length) from NDT results.
We can calculate final a before f
fractire from the f fracture
criterion
Therefore we can estimate safe
number of cycles from
intergration

Same mechanisms operate regardless

of whether crack is originates as slip
line intrusion or from manufacturing
flaw.
Clean material Local yielding creates
new surface at crack tip
-

Is incremental (hence micro

beach marks)
2 Phase or dirty material

enhances yielding due to stress conc

Voids form ahead of creak
Growth much faster or at lower applied stress.

WEEK 5 MORE PROP OF MATS

CREEP ELEVATED TEMP EFFECT OF MAT PROPS
-

Recall heat is kinetic energy of atoms in system

Due to rigid framework of solids, atoms vibrate about the mean position
Interactions between atoms lead to wavelike bhavior
These lattice vibrations increase with temp and leads to greate mobement
/ diffusion of atoms, and electrons in solids are also able to be excited into
higher energy states
- DEFINITION: Creep is slow continuous
deformation usually ending in failure/rupture
- Time and temp are now functions of material
properties
- Thereofor definition of yielding becomes
blurred at high temps
- Functionally we write intstead of the low temp
approx. that we are accustomed to using
- This behaviour is called CREP or VICROELASTIC DEFORMATION

TEMP SCALE
-

Use K

Observations;
o Lead creeps at room temp (300K) and melts at 600K
o Al alloys creep at >373K and mekt at ~900K
Rule of thumb
o Mettallic mats creep at 0.3 0.4 Tmax
o Ceramic mats creep at 0.4 0.5 Tmax
Polymers do not have melting temp, instead have glass transition temp

CREEP TESTING
-

creep is multi dim, i.e. is function

of stress, temp AND time.
In real wor, temp is determined by
thermos dynamic considerations
e.g. engine efficiency increases
with temp
Stress is usually determined by
design and service conditions e.g.
gas pressures
Therefore for given T, we can
measure vs time

3 Stages

1) Initial, rpaid, sometimes added as invetible effect in design calcs

2) Steady state, constant, dominates creep life
3) Accelerating, followed by rupter. Creep damage begins to occur, voids
formed in g boundaries, and lead to failure (creep rupture)
Remember we are taking a 1D slice. Changing T and stress will change
graph.
Note increasing stress or T shortens creep lifetimes, increases slop of all
staes, increases total creep stain, and stage 2 becomes less distinct.

EQUATIONS OF CREEP
Stage 1) Trainsient Creep (rate not constant)
-

=t1/3
Valid for many metallic systems, but expononent differs in non-metallic
system.
=( / E) + t
More general form
Decreasing creep rate is due to exhaustion of creep mechanism OR
dynamic recovery process

Statge 2) Steady State Creep

-

ss = B

Power law behaviour, n usually 3-8

At low stresses n~1
Strongly suggests 2mechanisms can
operate, one at very low stresses and
another over a wider stress srange.
If we try to extrapolate low stresses form
high stress data, we cross this boundary
and this leads to underestimates of
rates or overestiemates of time till failure

ACTIVATION ENERGY
-

R is universal gast const, T is ABSOLUTE temp, Q is creep Activation

Energy
The simlilatieies bw numberical values of activation energy and selfdiffusion provides the key to creep mecahnisms.
Diffusion becomes appreciable at ~0.3Tmax, which is why creep in metals
begins near there

DISLOCATIONS
-

Stage 1 Creep

Arises from thermally activated dislocation glide. Stage 1 creep rate decreases
with time bc dislocations eventually meet obstacles too big for thermally
activated glide, and the supply of mobile dislocations is gradually used up by
work hardening processes (i.e. thermally activated glide can overcome things
like intrinsic lattic res, small fields, vacencies, but are not able to overwith
without an increase in the stress)

Stage 2

Consider a dislocation pinned by large precipitate. There Is a balance between

glide for tb per unit length, and f the reaction force of precipitate. Dislocs not on
the mid plane of precipitate (most_ also have component force of perpendicular
to the slip plane, equal to tbtan(theta). This is known as the CLIMB FORCE and
tried to push dislocation out of glide path.
Dislocations cannot glide in this dir, but can climb if atoms diffuse away from half
plane.
Instead of being driven by conc gradient, climb is driven by stored mechanical
energy in pinned dislocation. After sufficient climb, disloc is free to glide again.
Therefore stage 2 creep is linear bc work hardening (pinning) and recovery
(unpinning) mechanisms are balance. The rate increases as stress increases bc
climb force increases. Increases with temp bc diffusion rate increases

PURE DIFFUSIONAL MECHANISMS

-

Remember creep vs stress has 2 regions

At low stresses, climb force is insufficient overcome most obstacles
This is pure diffusional creep. If diffusion of atoms can occur such that
crystals bcome narrower and longer, the stress at a constant load will be
reducddes.
At T>0.5tmax this occurs by BULK DIFFUSION, and at 0.3-0.5Tmas occurs
by grain boundary and dislocation core diffusion

POLYMerS:
-

Ciscoelastic solid ss = C e-Q/RT

Viscosity n=/3
Overall n=(1/3C)e+Q/RT

Mot stpolymres dont have well defined melting temp.

Above transition temp, mats show rubber like bhavioe (elastomers) or
viscous liequid behaviors (thermoplastics)
Viscous-liquid behaviour is more commong and governed by Newtonianviscous flow, a type of creep
Q is activation energy, energy req to overcome ptentiall energy barrier bw
atoms in lattice of crustalline solid.
In polumers, relates to res of long branched polymer chains to sliding over
each other.

PRACTICAL COMPONENTS
-

Components that are subjected to high temps in service must be

manufactured to keep creep in mind.
Components loaded below yield will fail over time due to either creep or
shape deformation
Components relying on elasticity for tightness will loosen over time. For
example, we have a bolt tightened to stress i. Total is constant and
initially all elastic. As creep takes place, creep gradually replaces initial
elastic strain

Consider bolts in steam turbine.

IF we
decide we need to tighten every time clamping stress has relacted to half
initial value, we can use eqn above right.

REPRESENTATION OF CREEP
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Creep is 4D = f(, T, t) by creeo rupture diagrams usally are t r=f()T,

usful but limited
Assumes is not important, only time to failure is

LARSONS MILLAR CURVES

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Takes a rupture diagram

For constant t plot a stress vs T diagram
Make constant stress polt logtvs 1/T
Extrapolate to find 1/T = 0 to find c
Cinstuct a plot of stress vs LM paremeter
P=TA(logt+c)
Trues to combine time and temp into single parameter (easier to graph as
multiple combinations will have same constant)

EXAMPLE: Consider alloy loaded to 900MPA, how long till rupture at 600C?
=900, P = 46000 from figure
46000=(1.8T+492)(logt+25)
logt=29.26
t=18197h

MATS RES TO CREEP

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Metls and ceramics

o Reduced Diffusion rate
Choose high Tm (reduces T/Tm)
o Obstructions to dislocations
Solid solns
Precipitaes
o Intrinic or lattic res to glide
Covalent bonding
Intermetallic compoints
Polymers
o Cross longing of polymer chains raises temp/ slows creep
o High melting point addictive also reduces creep rates
Creep is not always detrimaentaql, it is exploited extensively in mat
processing such as
Metal forming
Ceramics
Polymer shapingRolling forging
Hot presing
Injection moulding

WEEK 12 WELDING
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Requires 3 tihings
o Source of intense localied heat
o Source of metal to melt and form the oin, and most often a filler mat
o A means of protecting the hot metal from burning or otherwise
reaction with surrounds dueing the joining process