MARGINAL-MARINE

ENVIRONMENTS

377

river-dominated deltaic sediments have geometry and sediment characteristics very

similar to those of the modern Mississippi delta. Other ancient river-dominated deltas
are described by Bhattacharya and Walker (1991), Fisher and McGowan (1967), Gal
loway (1975), and Pulham (1989).
Weise (1980) describes Upper Cretaceous sediments from the San Miguel Forma
tion in the subsurface of Texas that are interpreted from core and well-log information
to be wave-dominated deltaic sediments. He constructed thickness (isopach) maps of
10 sandy delta lobes having a variety of sand-body shapes ranging from those with the
characteristics of river-dominated deposits (reflecting least influence of marine
processes) to those with the characteristics of marine wave-dominated deltas (Fig.
11.18B). During periods of high sediment input and a low rate of sea-level rise, redis
tribution of sediment by waves was minimal, and lobate deltas resulted. During peri
ods of low sediment input and high rates of sea-level rise, sediment was extensively
reworked by waves to form elongate, strike-aligned sandstone bodies. Other ancient
wave-dominated deltaic sediments are described by Elliott (1986a) and Leckie and
Walker (1982).
Relatively few examples of ancient tide-dominated deltas have been reported.
Verdier, Oki, and Suardy (1981) describe, on the basis of drilling and seismic data, a
Miocene-age, tide-dominated delta that lies underneath the modern Mahakham delta
in Indonesia (Fig. 11.18C). These authors identified delta-channel and bar sands,
which form reservoir rocks for petroleum, interbedded with silty or organic shales and
coal beds. Eriksson (1979) describes tide-dominated delta sediments from the Precam
brian of South Africa.
The Late Carboniferous-Permian Reinodden Formation of western Spitsbergen
provides an example of an ancient fan-delta depositional system (Kleinspehn et al.,
1984). Several fan-delta successions are present in this area, one of which is shown in
Figure 11.19. The stratigraphic succession in Figure. 11.19 begins with carbonate and
siliciclastic muds, deposited in a prodelta setting. These fine-grained prodelta deposits
are succeeded upward by barrier/spit and distal mouth-bar sands, cross-bedded in
part, deposited by turbidity currents and other processes on the delta front. Sandy
deposits are overlain by planar to cross-bedded gravels that formed in fluvial channels
on the fan-delta plain. A thin unit of wave-reworked gravels caps the succession, rep
resenting a minor phase of marine transgression. The small maps in Figure 11.19 show
the postulated evolution of the fan with time as it prograded over the delta-front and
prodelta environments to generate the coarsening-upward succession of facies shown.
These examples illustrate the characteristics of a few specific ancient delta sys
tems and are not intended to serve as general models for all delta deposits. Readers
should consult the references given above for additional examples of the wide variety
of facies and stratigraphic successions that characterize ancient delta systems.

11.3 BEACH AND BARRIER-ISLAND SYSTEMS

Introduction
Mainland beaches are long, narrow accumulations of sand aligned parallel to the
shoreline and attached to land. Bodies of beach sand are typically cut across here and
there by headlands and sea cliffs, estuaries, river deltas, tidal inlets, bays, and lagoons.
Barrier-island beaches are similar to mainland beaches but are separated from land by
a shallow lagoon, estuary, or marsh. They are also commonly dissected by tidal chan
nels or inlets. Beaches may occur within delta systems, along depositional strike from

378

SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENTS

FIGURE 11.19 Vertical facies sequence (A) developed in Carboniferous-Permian fan-delta

deposits of western Spitsbergen in response to various stages of fan progradation (B). Phases 1-6
in the stratigraphic column correspond to phases 1-6 in the plan-view sketches. The depositional
site, represented by the striped oval area, remained fixed in space while the fan-delta geometry
changed relative to that area. (After Kleinspehn, K. L., et al., 1984, Conglomeratic fan-delta
sequences, Late Carboniferous-Early Permian, western Spitsbergen, in E. H. Koster and R. J. Steel
(eds.), Sedimentology of gravels and conglomerates: Canadian Soc. Petroleum Geologists Mem.
10. Fig. 8, p. 289, reproduced by permission.)

deltas, or in other marine or even lacustrine settings that have no connection with
deltas. They are the most dynamic of all depositional environments and are subject to
both seasonal and longer-range changes that keep them in a state of virtually constant
flux. In contrast to deltas, which are influenced by both fluvial and marine processes,
beach and barrier-island systems are generated predominantly by marine processes,
aided to a minor degree by eolian sand transport.
Modern and Holocene beaches have perhaps been studied more extensively than
any other depositional environment owing to their recreational use; their accessibility;
their economic potential as a source of placer gold, platinum, and various minerals;
and their importance as an erosion buffer between the sea and the land. Much of the
study of modern beaches has been carried out by coastal engineers, geographers, and

MARGINAL-MARINE

ENVIRONMENTS

379

geomorphologists. Geologists also have a strong scientific interest in beaches owing to

the insight they provide into ancient depositional processes and environments. More
over, beaches are a great place to do research and relax a little on the side, which may
account for some of their research appeal. Ancient beach deposits also have been
extensively studied. In addition to their significance as indicators of ancient nearshore
processes and conditions, ancient beach and barrier-island sediments have consider
able economic importance as reservoirs for petroleum and natural gas and as host
rocks for uranium. Hundreds of research papers have been devoted to study of modern
and ancient beaches, and several books have been published on this subject (e.g., Davis
and Ethington, 1976; Fisher and Dolan, 1977; Hails and Carr, 1975; Hardisty, 1990;
Hayes and Kana, 1976; Komar, 1976; Oertel and Leatherman, 1985; Pilkey, 1983;
Schwartz, 1973). Useful, shorter summaries of beach and barrier-island systems are
provided by Davis (1985), Elliott (1986b), Heward (1981), McCubbin (1982), Reineck
and Singh (1980), and Reinson (1992), among others. Although most beaches are com
posed of siliciclastic sediments, some modern beaches on carbonate shelves are made
up predominantly of carbonate grains consisting of skeletal fragments, ooids, pellets,
and other particles. Carbonate beach deposits are known also from the geologic record
(Inden and Moore, 1983).

Depositional Setting
Beach and barrier-island complexes are best developed on wave-dominated coasts
where tidal range is small to moderate. Coasts are classified on the basis of tidal range
into three groups: (1) microtidal (0-2 m tidal range), (2) mesotidal (2-4 m tidal range),
and (3) macrotidal (>4 m tidal range). Hayes (1975) has shown that barrier-island and
associated environments occur preferentially along microtidal coasts, where they are
well developed and nearly continuous. They are less characteristic of mesotidal coasts
and, when present, are typically short or stunted, with tidal inlets common. Barriers are
generally absent on macrotidal coasts; extreme tidal range causes wave energy to be dis
persed and dissipated over too great a width of shore zone to effectively form barriers.
Considerable difference of opinion exists about the origin of barrier-island com
plexes. As summarized by Reineck and Singh (1980), mechanisms of origin may
include the following:
1. shoal and longshore-bar aggradation, that is, upward building and eventual emer
gence of offshore bars
2. spit segmentation by breaching and detachment of spits oriented parallel to the
coast
3. mainland ridge engulfment owing to submergence and drowning of shorelineattached beaches
4. welding or veneering of Holocene dune, beach, and foreshore sand into and over
pre-Holocene topographic highs
5. lateral shifting of coastal sands during transgression to form the barrier islands
Mechanisms (2), (3), and (5) appear most feasible; however, composite modes of origin
seem possible. The origin controversy remains unresolved because most of the evi
dence pertaining to origin has been destroyed by subsequent modification (Reinson,
1992).
Subenvironments. Deposits of the beach and barrier-island environment can occur as
one of the following:

380

SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENTS
1. a single beach attached to the mainland
2. a broader beach-ridge system that constitutes a strand plain that consists of multi
ple parallel beach ridges and parallel swales but that generally lacks well-developed
lagoons or marshes
3. a barrier island separated wholly or partly from the mainland by a lagoon or marsh
(Fig. 11.20)
A type of strand plain consisting of sandy ridges elongated along the coast and sepa
rated by coastal mudflat deposits is called a chenier plain. As illustrated in Figure
11.21, the barrier-island setting is not a single environment but a composite of three
separate environments:
1. the sandy barrier-island chain itself (the subtidal to subaerial barrier-beach com
plex)
2. the enclosed lagoon, estuary, or marsh behind it (the back-barrier, subtidal-intertidal
region)
3. the channels that cut through the barrier and connect the back-barrier lagoon to the
open sea (the subtidal-intertidal delta and inlet-channel complex)

FIGURE 11.20 Morphological

relationship between beaches,
strand plains, and barrier islands.
(From Reinson, G. E., 1984, Barrierisland and associated strand-plain
systems, in R. G. Walker (ed.),
Facies models: Geoscience Canada
Reprint Ser. 1. Fig. 1, p. 119,
reprinted by permission of Geologi
cal Association of Canada.)

A. MAINLAND-ATTACKED BEACH

B. BEACH STRAND PLAIN

C. REGRESSIVE BARRIER ISLANO

D. TRAN8QRE8SIVE BARRIER ISLANO

381

MARGINAL-MARINE ENVIRONMENTS
FIGURE 11.21 Generalized model
illustrating the various subenviron
ments in a transgressing barrierisland system. (From Reinson,
G. E., 1992, Transgressive barrier
island and estuarine systems, in
R. G. Walker and N. P. James (eds.),
Facies of models. Fig. 3, p. 180,
reproduced by permission of Geo
logical Association of Canada.)

DUNES
BEACH

TIDAL FLAT

MARSH

Identification and interpretation of ancient barrier-island complexes require that this

intimate association of lagoonal, estuarine, and tidal-flat facies be recognized. Barrierisland systems are not simply barrier-beach complexes.
Morphology of the Beach-Nearshore Zone. The morphological features of the beach
profile are similar on mainland coasts and the seaward coast of barriers. The beach is
divided into the backshore, which extends landward from the beach berm above hightide level and commonly includes back-beach dune deposits; the foreshore, which
mainly encompasses the intertidal (littoral) zone between low-tide and high-tide lev
els; and the shoreface, also called the nearshore, which extends from about low-tide
level to the transition zone between beach and shelf sediments (Fig. 11.22A), that is, to
fair-weather wave base at a depth of about 10 to 15 m. Figure 11.22A illustrates also
the approximate zones of shoaling and breaking waves and the position of the surf
zone and swash zone, discussed in a succeeding section. The relationships of the
beach profile to other elements of a barrier-island complex (washover fan, lagoon,
mainland) are illustrated in Figure 11.22B.

Depositional Processes on Beaches

Erosion, sediment transport, and depositional processes on beaches have been studied
extensively by engineers interested in coastal processes, as well as by geologists. The
published results of engineering studies tend to be expressed in mathematical terms
that may not be of much interest to the average geologist. Perhaps the most detailed
and mathematically rigorous descriptions of beach processes written for geologists are
those by Komar (1976) and Hardisty (1990). Beach processes have been summarized in
less rigorous form by several other workers, including Davis (1985), Elliott (1986b),
and Reineck and Singh (1980). Only a very brief description of these processes is given
here. As mentioned, beaches are best developed on wave-dominated coasts where tidal
ranges are small. Beaches and barrier islands are constructed primarily by waverelated processes, which include wave swash, storm waves, and nearshore currents
(longshore and rip currents). Wind also plays a role in sediment transport on beaches.

382

SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENTS

FIGURE 11.22 Generalized profile

of (A) the beach and nearshore zone
and (B) a barrier-island complex
showing major environments. (A,
from Reinson, G. E., 1984, Barrierisland and associated strand-plain
systems, in R. G. Walker (ed.),
Facies models: Geoscience Canada
Reprint Ser. 1, 2nd ed. Fig. 5, p.
122, reprinted by permission of
Geological Association of Canada.
B, from Richard A. Davis, Jr., Depo
sitional systems: A genetic
approach to sedimentary geology,
1983, Fig. 12.2, p. 405. Reprinted
by permission of Prentice-Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, N.J.)

SHOREFACE

FORESHOREN

BACKSHORE-DUNE

-SWASH
ZONE

Lagoon

Mainland

(wind tidal flat)

Wave Processes. The influence of orbital wave motion in generating bedforms such as
ripples and dunes is discussed in Chapter 3. As deep-water orbital waves approach
shallow water where depth is about one-half the wave length, the orbital motion of the
water is impeded by interaction with the bottom. Orbits become progressively more
elliptical and eventually develop near the bottom a nearly horizontal to-and-fro motion
that can move sediment back and forth. This to-and-fro movement is important in gen
erating ripple bedforms as well as in producing some net sediment transport. As waves
progress farther shoreward into the shallow shoaling zone (Fig. 11.22), forward veloc
ity of the wave slows, wave length decreases, and wave height increases. The waves
eventually steepen to the point where orbital velocity exceeds wave velocity and the
wave breaks, creating the breaker zone. Breaking waves generate turbulence that
throws sediment into suspension and also brings about a transformation of wave
motion to create the surf zone. In this zone, a high-velocity translation wave (a wave
translated by breaking into a current), or bore, is projected up the upper shoreface,
causing landward transport of bedload sediment and generation of a short-duration
"suspension cloud" of sediment. At the shoreline, the surf zone gives way to the swash
zone, in which a rapid, very shallow swash flow moves up the beach, carrying sedi
ment in partial suspension, followed almost immediately by a backwash flow down
the beach. The backwash begins at very low velocity but accelerates quickly. (If heavy
minerals are present in the suspended sediment, they settle rapidly to generate a thin
heavy-mineral lamina.) The width of the surf and swash zones is governed by the
steepness of the shoreface and foreshore. Very steep shorefaces may develop no surf
zone at all, and waves break very close to shore, whereas gentle shorefaces commonly
have very wide surf zones.
Sediment transport on beaches is particularly important landward of the shoal
ing zone. In the high-energy breaker zone, coarse sediments move by saltation in a

MARGINAL-MARINE ENVIRONMENTS

383

FIGURE 11.23 Sediment transport

associated with a breaking wave.
Coarser sediment moves as bedload
in a series of loops at position (B).
Finer sediment moves in suspen
sion in position (A). Shoreward
sediment (C) and seaward sediment
(D) move toward the breaking wave
as shown by the arrows. (After
Ingle, J. C, 1966, The movement of
beach sand: Developments in sedi
mentology, v. 5. Fig. 46, p. 53,
reprinted by permission of Elsevier
Science Publishers, Amsterdam.)

series of elliptical paths that move sediment parallel to the coast, while finer sediment
is thrown into suspension (Fig. 11.23). So-called translation waves, which are actually
currents, transport sediment through the surf and swash zone up the beach face. If
waves approach the shoreline obliquely (a very common occurrence), sediment is
transported alongshore in a zigzag manner owing to the fact that the upswash is
directed across the beach at an angle, whereas the backswash flow is perpendicular to
the beach face. Thus, normal waves of moderate to low energy tend to produce a net
landward and alongshore transport of sediments in a largely constructive sedimenta
tion regime in which the beach builds owing to deposition. Repeated deposition and
reentrainment of sediment in the beach regime tends to winnow and remove the finest
sediment, producing generally well-sorted, positively skewed deposits. Owing to highenergy conditions created by storms, steep, long-period storm waves cause consider
able erosion of the beach area and a net displacement of sediment in a seaward direc
tion (Davis, 1985). Great quantities of sediment are thrown into suspension during
storms for transport by surf-zone currents, and sand bars on the inner beach may be
planed off and displaced seaward considerable distances. Thus, it is quite common to
observe marked seasonal changes on modern beaches, which often build in a landward
direction during low-energy summer conditions but are eroded and reduced in size
during winter storm conditions.
Wave-induced Currents. As breakers and winds pile water against the beach, not only
do they create bidirectional translation waves that move up and down the swash zone,
but they also create two different types of unidirectional currents: longshore currents
and rip currents. Longshore currents are generated when waves that approach the
shore at an angle break, and a portion of the translation wave is deflected laterally par
allel to the shore. These currents move parallel to shore following longshore troughs,
which are shallow troughs in the lower part of the surf zone oriented parallel to the
strandline (shoreline) (Fig. 11.22). This system of parallel longshore troughs between
shallow beach ridges is referred to as a ridge and runnel system. The velocity of long
shore currents is related to wave height and the angle at which the waves approach
shore. As water piles up between shallow sand bars and the shoreline with continued
shoreward movement of waves, it cannot go back against incoming waves the way it
came. It must find a different way to return seaward. Thus, it moves parallel to shore
as a longshore current until it finds a topographic low between sand bars, where it con
verges with flow moving in the opposite direction (Fig. 11.24) and moves seaward as a
narrow, near-surface current. These converging, seaward-moving currents are called
rip currents. Longshore currents play a very important role in sediment transport and

384

SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENTS

Wave Crests

Wave Approach

FIGURE 11.24 Schematic representation of longshore currents that move locally in opposite
directions, generated owing to bending (refraction) of wave crests as they move over an irregular
seafloor, leading to the formation of rip currents that flow seaward through the breaker zone.
deposition on beaches because they achieve velocities great enough to transport sand.
Together with the processes producing transport in the swash zone, they are primary
agents of alongshore sand movement. The transport paths of sand under longshore cur
rents of different relative velocity are illustrated in Figure 11.25. Rip currents are pri
marily surface phenomena and thus are less important in near-bed sediment transport
than longshore currents. Nonetheless, they can entrain considerable quantities of sedi
ment (and perhaps an occasional unwary swimmer) and move it through the breaker
zone out into shoal water.
Wind. In addition to the indirect role that wind plays in generating normal waves,
storm waves, and longshore currents, wind also plays a direct role in sediment trans
port on beaches. The subaerial parts of beaches, above high-tide level, are more or less
continuously under the influence of wind. Large quantities of sand may be trans
ported, in a largely onshore to alongshore direction, by wind action. (Sea breezes tend
to move from cool ocean water onto warmer land surfaces.) Wind may also move sand
about on the lower shoreface as sands dry out during low-tide phases.

Characteristics of Beach and Barrier-Island Deposits in

Modern Environments
Overall Geometry and Lithofacies. The mainland-beach and barrier-island system as a
whole generates a narrow body of sediments elongated parallel to the depositional
strike, or strike of the shoreline. This body of sediment is composed predominantly of
sand that originates on the beach shoreface, foreshore, and backshore and is commonly

385

MARGINAL-MARINE ENVIRONMENTS

^.NJ
<

Dominant and secondary paths of tracer

grains on the foreshore slope

-i Path of tracer grains within and immediately

shoreward of the breaker (plunge) zone
Path of tracer grains seaward of the breaker

FIGURE 11.25 Transport of sand on beaches by longshore currents under different surf condi
tions. A. Sediment movement under surf conditions where the longshore current and the wave
motion exert an equal influence. B. Sediment grain motion under conditions of a high-velocity
longshore current (velocity > 60 cm/s). C. Sediment grain motion where the longshore current
velocity is less than 30 cm/s, and the onshore-offshore motion of waves controls the sediment
grain transport. (After Ingle, J. C, 1966, The movement of beach sand: Developments in Sedimen
tology, v. 5. Fig. 46, p. 53, reprinted by permission of Elsevier Science Publishers, Amsterdam.)
tens to hundreds of meters broad, up to hundreds of kilometers long, and 10 to 20 m
thick (Reineck and Singh, 1980). It may be interrupted in many places along its length
by deltaic, estuarine, bay, and other deposits where these features cut across the beach.
Where barrier islands occur, sands of the barrier beach grade landward into back-barrier
sediments that may include washover sands; tidal-delta sands and muds; lagoonal silts
and muds; and sandy, muddy tidal-flat and marsh deposits (Fig. 11.21).
Beach (Foreshore and Backshore) Deposits. The beach face, or foreshore, is the intertidal zone extending from mean low-tide level to mean high-tide level, corresponding
to the zone of wave swash. Sediments of the foreshore consist predominantly of fine to
medium sand but may also include scattered pebbles and gravel lenses or layers. Sedi
mentary structures are mainly parallel laminae, formed during swash-backwash flow,
that dip gently (2-3) seaward. Thin, heavy-mineral laminae are commonly present,
alternating with layers of quartzose sand. Thin, lenticular sets of low-angle, landwarddipping laminae, possibly formed by antidune migration during backswash, may be
present also. Some foreshore sands display high-angle, landward-dipping cross-beds
caused by migration of foreshore ridges. The foreshore is separated from the backshore
by a break in slope at the berm crest (Fig. 11.22), which is formed by sand thrown up
by storm waves. The backshore is inundated only during storm conditions and is thus
a zone dominated by intermittent storm-wave deposition and eolian sand transport
and deposition. Faint, landward-dipping, horizontal laminae, interrupted locally by
crustacean burrows, record deposition by storm waves. These beds may be overlain by

386 SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENTS

small- to medium-scale eolian trough cross-bed sets, which are commonly disturbed
by root growths and burrows of land-dwelling organisms.
Shoreface Deposits. The shoreface environment extends from mean low-tide level on
the beach down to the lower limit of fair-weather wave base. Wave base is the depth
below which normal waves do not react with the bottom. It is a function of wave
length and wave period and thus varies with the wave conditions on the shoreface.
The depth of wave base on the shoreface is commonly on the order of 10 to 15 m (Fig.
11.22A), but this depth can be lowered significantly during storms. The shoreface can
be divided into the lower, middle, and upper shorefaces, which correspond roughly to
the surf, breaker, and shoaling zones. Each is distinguished by characteristic facies.
Upper-shoreface (surf-zone) deposits form in an environment dominated by
strong bidirectional translation waves and longshore currents. Depending upon local
sediment supply and energy conditions, sediment grain size ranges from fine sand to
gravel. Sedimentary structures consist predominantly of multidirectional trough crossbed sets (which form owing to migration of ripples and dunes), but they may also
include low-angle, bidirectional cross-beds and subhorizontal plane beds. Bidirectional
cross-beds oriented parallel to depositional strike (shoreline) are common also. These
structures may indicate deposition under strong longshore current conditions (Rein
son, 1984). Trace fossils such as Skolithos (Fig. 5.38) are common but not abundant.
Middle-shoreface (breaker-zone) deposits also form under high-energy condi
tions owing to breaking waves and associated longshore and rip currents. This is the
zone of longshore-bar development. Sediments consist mainly of fine- to mediumgrained sand with minor amounts of silt and shell material, although gravels may
accumulate also in this environment. Sedimentary structures can be highly complex,
depending upon the presence or absence of longshore bars, and can include landwarddipping ripple cross-lamination; seaward-dipping low-angle planar bedding; subhori
zontal plane laminations; and seaward- and landward-dipping trough cross-beds.
Trace fossils consisting of vertical burrows, such as Skolithos and Ophiomorpha (Fig.
5.38), are common in this zone.
Lower-shoreface (shoaling-zone) deposits form under relatively low-energy con
ditions and grade seaward into open-shelf deposits. They are composed dominantly of
fine to very fine sand but may also contain thin, intercalated layers of silt and mud.
Small-scale cross-stratification formed by predominantly landward-migrating ripples
and planar, nearly horizontal laminated bedding (probably resulting from upper-flowregime sediment transport) are the predominant sedimentary structures present. Hum
mocky cross-stratification may occur also in lower shoreface sands. Hummocky crossstratified deposits may, in fact, constitute much of the ancient record of shoreface
deposits. In some deposits, hummocky stratified beds have a basal lag deposit consist
ing of shells or mud clasts and may be capped by a thin layer with wave-ripple stratifi
cation, suggesting that each hummocky stratified unit was deposited by a single storm
event (McCubbin, 1982). Such deposits may contain abundant plant materials, mica
flakes, and other hydraulically light particles. Laminae in lower shoreface deposits
tend to be obliterated by bioturbation, and suspension-feeder and deposit-feeder traces
such as Thalassinoides may be common.
Storms may strongly modify shoreface deposits formed under normal waveenergy conditions owing to lowering of effective wave base by storm-generated waves.
The effects of storm waves are particularly important on the middle and lower
shoreface, causing severe erosion and redeposition of sediment. Waves scour the bot
tom, causing suspension of sediment, which is then redeposited farther seaward as the

387

MARGINAL-MARINE ENVIRONMENTS

storm wanes (Reinson, 1984). Storm deposits tend to be thicker and more lenticular
than normal shoreface deposits and, as mentioned, are commonly characterized by
hummocky cross-stratification.
Summary Characteristics of Modern Beach Deposits. Beach deposits are composed
predominantly of fine- to medium-grained, well-sorted sand that displays subhorizon
tal parallel laminations and low-angle, seaward-, landward-, and alongshore-dipping
cross-beds. Characteristic facies developed along different parts of the beach profile are
shown in Figure 11.26. Bioturbation structures are common in middle and lower
shoreface deposits and in sediments of the transition zone between the beach and open
shelf. A typical vertical succession of facies developed on an idealized, low-energy,
prograding (regressive) beach is illustrated in Figure 11.27. In a preserved transgressive
beach-shelf deposit, the succession of facies shown in Figure 11.27 would be essen
tially reversed; however, transgressive beach-shelf successions appear to be less com
monly preserved than are regressive successions.
Swash zone
100

200
I

Surf zone
Wave
reformation
Breaker-Surf

Trough

Landward
slope

300

400

_L_

Breaker zone

Shoaling waves

Shoaling waves Spilling breakers

Wave
reformation

Bar crest

Seaward
slope

Trough

500 meters

_J
Shoaling zone

Mean water level

Landward
slope

Bar crest

FIGURE 11.26 Facies model of near-surface sediments developed on nearshore barred topogra
phy showing principal kinds of sedimentary structures in different parts of the beach. (From
Davidson-Amott, R. G. D., and B. Greenwood, 1976, Facies relationships on a barred coast,
Kouchibouguac Bay, New Brunswick, Canada, in R. A. Davis, Jr., and R. L. Ethington (eds.), Beach
and nearshore sedimentation: Soc. Econ. Paleontologists and Mineralogists Spec. Pub. 24. Fig. 4,
p. 154, reproduced by permission of SEPM, Tulsa, Okla.)

Seaward
slope

388

SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENTS

Sand dune cross-bedding .plant roots and

their burrows
Winter beach: laminated sand, heavy mineral con
centration, laminae dipping seaward- 2-5'
Summer beach: a small beach bar, beach cliffs,
laminated sand , laminae dipping landward - upto
30 toward sea - max. 5*

^f^ssss

; Mainly cross-bedding (both large and small scale)

Medium
^ - s a n d mainly of ripple origin, some laminated sand,
weak bioturbation

SAND DUNES

FORESHORE

UPPER
SHOREFACE

\-::

Predominantly laminated sand with gentle

discordances, minor amounts of ripple
cross-bedding
Medium bioturbation, mostly burrows

Strong bioturbation , some laminated sand.

MIDDLE
SHOREFACE

LOWER
SHOREFACE

sVWl
^ cccccc?

acaP <&4

j C CCCCC C7
GXCOZ O CCCQ

Fine sand
Very strong bioturbation, mainly by heart-urchins.
Almost no inorganic primary sedimentary structures

TRANSITION- ZONE

Ode C? cccc

50

Strong bioturbation .mostly deformative.

Patches of faecal pellets. Fucoid-like stuffed-burrows. SHELF-MUD
Intercalations of storm-silt layers, laminated
and weakly graded.

200

FIGURE 11.27 Idealized sequence of beach sediments found on a low-energy, prograding,

Holocene beach. (From Reineck, H. E., and I. B. Singh, 1980, Depositional sedimentary environ
ments, 2nd ed. Fig. 534. p. 387, reprinted by permission of Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg.)

MARGINAL-MARINE

ENVIRONMENTS

389

Back-Barrier Deposits. Sediments are deposited in several subenvironments in the

back-barrier lagoon landward of barrier beaches. Washover deposits occur where
storm-driven waves cut through and overtop barriers, washing lobes of sandy beach
sediment into the back-barrier lagoon (Fig. 11.21). Washover sediment consist domi
nantly of fine- to medium-grained sand that displays subhorizontal planar laminations
and small- to medium-scale, landward-dipping foreset bedding. Where tidal channels
cut through barriers into the inner lagoon, sediments are deposited in a number of
tide-related environments, including tidal channels, tidal deltas, and tidal flats (Fig.
11.21). Tidal-channel deposits consist dominantly of sand, and the deposits commonly
have an erosional base marked by coarse lag sands and gravels. Sedimentary structures
may include bidirectional large-to small-scale planar and trough cross-beds that may
display a general fining-upward textural trend. Tidal-delta deposits form on both the
lagoonal side of the barrier (flood-tidal delta) and the seaward side of the barrier (ebbtidal delta). They are predominantly sandy deposits to tens of meters thick with a gross
parabolic shape or geometry. They are characterized by a highly varied succession of
planar and trough cross-bed sets that may dip in either a landward or a seaward direc
tion. Tidal-flat deposits form along the margins of the mainland coast and the back of
the barrier. They grade from fine- to medium-grained ripple-laminated sands in lower
areas of the tidal flats through flaser- and lenticular-bedded fine sand and mud in midtidal flats to layered muds in higher parts of the flats. Lagoonal and marsh deposits
accumulate in the low-energy back-barrier lagoon and grade laterally into higherenergy, sandy deposits of tidal channels, deltas, and washover lobes. They consist
largely of interbedded and interfingering fine sands, silts, muds, and peat deposits that
may be characterized by disseminated plant remains, brackish-water invertebrate fos
sils such as oysters, and horizontal to subhorizontal layering. A generalized succession
of facies deposited in an ancient back-barrier environment is illustrated in Figure
11.28. The cyclic nature of this deposit suggests recurring episodes of transgression
and regression. Such a succession might be confused with some deltaic successions,
although the absence of delta-front muddy sands and prodelta clays and mud tur
bidites should help to distinguish it from deltaic deposits.

'Transgressive and Regressive Beach and

Barrier-Island Deposits in the Geologic Record
Recognition of ancient beach and barrier-island complexes requires general knowledge
of idealized models plus an understanding of how real stratigraphic successions can
deviate from these norms. Facies developed during regression produce vertical succes
sions different from those formed during transgression: Successions developed on
mainland beaches without barriers lack the back-barrier lagoonal and associated
deposits that characterize those deposited on coasts with barrier islands, and local
variations in depositional patterns within a given beach and barrier-island environ
ment can generate different vertical patterns of facies that may include tidal-delta
deposits, tidal-channel deposits, beach deposits, and back-barrier lagoonal and marsh
deposits.
The vertical succession of facies generated in beach and barrier-island systems
depends upon whether changes in depositional environments with time are the result
of transgression or regression. The specific characteristics of transgressive or regressive
successions depend upon rates of sea-level change, rates of basin subsidence, and the
sediment supply. Transgression, or movement of the shoreline in a landward direction,
can take place as a result of rising sea level, either eustatic or relative rise, provided
that concurrent influx of terrigenous clastic sediment is not too rapid to prevent the

390

SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENTS
SWAMP.

COAL SEATROCK,CLAYEY
SILTSTONE WITH OUARTZOSE SANDSTONE FLASERS

TIDAL FLAT
LAGOON

CLAY SHALE WITH SlDERITE BANDS,

BURROWED FOSSILIFEROUS
COAL SEATROCK.CLAYEY

STORM
WASHOVERS

LAGOON
SWAMP
TIDAL CHANNEL
TIDAL FLAT
FLOOD TIDAL DELTA

LAGOON

SANDSTONE, OUARTZOSE PLANAR ACCRETIONS BED

SHALE AND SILTSTONE COARSENING UPWARD BUR
ROWED
CLAY SHALE, SlDERITE BANDS,
LIMESTONE BURROWED, FOSSILIFEROUS
COAL SEATROCK, CLAYEY
SANDSTONE,OUARTZOSE, FINING UPWARD,
RIPPLED AND CROSS-BEDDED
SILTSTONE WITH SANDSTONE FLASERS
BURROWED SIDERITIC SANDSTONE
SANDSTONE OUARTZOSE CROSS-BEDDED
SHALE AND SILTSTONE
COARSENING UPWARD, BURROWED
CLAY SHALE , SlDERITE BANDS,
BURROWED. FOSSILIFEROUS

FIGURE 11.28 Generalized sequence of facies deposited in a back-barrier environment, Car

boniferous of eastern Kentucky and southern West Virginia. Such successions range from 7.5 to
24 m thick. (From Home, J. C., J. C. Ferm, F. T. Caruccio, and B. P. Baganz, 1978, Depositional
models in coal exploration and mine planning in Appalachian region: Am. Assoc. Petroleum
Geologists Bull., v. 62. Fig. 4, p. 2385, reprinted by permission of AAPG, Tulsa, Okla.)
shoreline from shifting landward. Regression, or seaward shift of the shoreline, occurs
particularly as a result of falling sea level, but it can also occur during static sea level
or even rising sea level if influx of clastic sediment is exceptionally great. These factors
are discussed further in Chapter 14.
Transgression leads to the formation of barrier-island complexes in which backbarrier lagoonal and marsh deposits are overlapped by sandy deposits of the barrierbeach complex. The generation of transgressive beach and barrier-island deposits has
been suggested to occur by two different mechanisms (Reinson, 1992):
1. Landward advance of the shoreline occurs owing to shoreface erosion, as might take
place during slow rise of sea level.
2. Relatively sudden upward "jumps" of the shoreline occur during rapidly rising sea
level.
These alternative mechanisms are illustrated in Figure 11.29. During shoreline retreat,
beach and upper shoreface deposits are presumably eroded and transported to the
lower shoreface or offshore, as storm beds, or to the lagoon as washover deposits (Fig.
11.29A). In-place drowning owing to "sudden" inundation during a rapid rise in sea
level would cause the barrier to be covered by water, resulting in the wave zone mov
ing landward until a new sand barrier forms on the inner side of the lagoon (Fig.
11.29B). Ancient beach and barrier deposits interpreted to be transgressive deposits
have been reported (e.g., McCubbin, 1982).
Barrier islands can prograde, under conditions of high sediment supply relative
to sea-level change, to produce regressive barrier-island facies. Under these conditions,
barriers tend to be transformed into strand plains, producing dominantly sandy facies
in which beach (backshore and foreshore) deposits overlie foreshore deposits. Galves
ton Island, Texas (Fig. 11.29C), provides an example of such a progradational deposit;

391

MARGINAL-MARINE ENVIRONMENTS
FIGURE 11.29 Barrier-island
facies generated by transgression
and regression. Part A illustrates
transgression owing to shoreface
retreat during gradual sea-level rise,
and B shows the effects of rapid
sea-level rise, producing in-place
drowning. SL = sea level. Part C
illustrates the facies formed as a
result of progradation under condi
tions of high sediment supply rela
tive to sea-level change. (A and B,
after Rampino, M. R., and J. E.
Sanders, 1980, Holocene transgres
sion in south-central Long Island,
New York: Jour. Sed. Petrology, v.
50. Fig. 8, p. 1075, reproduced by
permission of Society of Economic
Paleontologists and Mineralogists,
Tulsa, Okla. Elliott, T., 1986, Silici
clastic shorelines, in H. G. Reading
(ed.), Sedimentary environments
and facies: Blackwell Scientific
Publications. Fig. 7.33, p. 180.
Based on Fischer, 1961; Swift,
1975; and Sanders and Kumar,
1975. C, after Galloway, W. E., and
D. K. Hobday, 1983, Terrigenous
clastic depositional systems:
Springer-Verlag, New York. Fig.
6.10, p. 126.)

A Transgression by shoreface retreat

Washover ot
barrier sands

Advancing
shoreface/shelf sand

Rising
sea level

B Transgression by in-place drowning

New barrier

Shoreface
_,
..
.
sediments Drowned bamer
Rising
sea level

C Regression

however, Galveston Island is not necessarily typical of all regressive barrier-island

complexes.
Differences in vertical successions of lithofacies generated by transgression and
regression are illustrated in the generalized facies succession shown in Figure 11.30.
The general succession of facies deposited on a regressive, prograding beach is shown
in Figure 11.30A (also see Fig. 11.27). In general, regression produces a coarseningupward succession from fine-grained, lower-shoreface deposits to coarser foreshore
and backshore deposits. Back-barrier lagoonal and marsh deposits commonly are not
preserved during regression and thus do not appear in this facies model.
The model for a transgressive barrier-island complex shown in Figure 11.30B is
characterized by interbedded back-barrier deposits and does not display a definite fin
ing- or coarsening-upward trend. This model is incomplete in the sense that it does not
show the deposits of the foreshore and shoreface that would lie on top of backshoredune deposits with continued transgression. Figure 11.30C illustrates an idealized
model of the vertical succession of facies generated in the barrier-island environment

392

SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENTS
REGRESSIVE (PROGRADING)
BARRIER MODEL
10

k^AJ^/DUNE

S<^4^
^g^ BACKSHORE

2 6 Hl^ll FORESHORE
0)
"S
UPPER
LU
O

H9

S MIDDLE
r

:*.r.|

LOWER

BARRIER-INLET
MODEL

TRANSGRESSIVE
BARRIER MODEL
BACKSHORE
-DUNE
WASHOVER
MARSH
WASHOVER

NCHANNEL
^TIDALFLAT
FLOOO TIDAL
DELTA
SUBAQUEOUS
LAGOON

LEGEND
FLASERS
BIOTURBATION,TRACE FOSSILS
SHELLS, SHELL DEBRIS
ROOTS.ORGANIC DEBRIS
SANDSTONE
SILTY, MUDDY
COAL LENSES
EROSIONAL SURFACE
WITH LAG DEPOSIT
PLANE BEDS
PLANAR CROSSBEDDING
TROUGH CROSSBEDDING
RIPPLE LAMINAE

FIGURE 11.30 End-member facies models for transgressive barrier, regressive barrier, and bar
rier inlet stratigraphic sequences. A standard 10-m unit is shown, but thickness could range up to
a few tens of meters. A spit platform (C) is the subaqueous part of a spit, formed by longshore cur
rents. (From Reinson, G. E., 1984, Barrier island and associated strand-plain systems, in R. G.
Walker (ed.), Facies models, 2nd ed: Geoscience Canada Reprint Ser. 1. Fig. 26, p. 133, reprinted
by permission of Geological Association of Canada.)
by migration of spit and beach sands over tidal-channel deposits. (A spit is a fingerlike
extension of a beach into deeper water.)
Two specific examples of ancient beach and barrier-island deposits are included
here to illustrate differences in ancient regressive deposits and transgressive barrier
deposits. Figure 11.31 shows a regressive, or progradational, succession in the Creta
ceous Gallup Sandstone of Northwestern New Mexico (McCubbin, 1982). In this suc
cession, sandy beach deposits overlie burrowed silty, offshore shales containing nor
mal marine fossils. The basal unit of the succession consists of fine- to very
fine-grained sandstone with mostly subhorizontal to planar stratification and hum
mocky cross-stratification. Burrows are abundant. This unit is overlain above a scoured
surface by fine- to medium-grained sandstones with high-angle cross-stratification in
trough-shaped sets. Some thin interbeds with planar stratification are also present.
Burrowing is less common in this unit than in the basal section. The uppermost part of
the succession consists of fine-grained, well-sorted sandstones characterized by nearly

MEDIAN GRAIN SIZE

FT. M .
(mm.)
.0625 0.125 0.25 0.5
0 - 0
10-1

n-r
k

5-

o-

10-

HIGH ANGLE
CROSSSTRATIFICATION

n=81

40-

50- 15-

*,
\

20

n=5

\r

25-

25

Roots at top
Low angle cross stratification
inclined 0-5 NE (seaward)
Heavy mineral placers

Beach foreshore deposi

tion by swash

High angle (15-25) cross

stratification in trough-shaped
sets, formed by currents flowing
SE and NW (parallel to shore)

Upper shoreface or surfzone with scour and

deposition by longshore
currents

Wave ripples with crests oriented

NW-SE (parallel to shore)

Tabular beds with low angle

hummocky cross-stratification
with indistinct orientation.
Wave ripples with crests oriented
parallel to shore

Rare marine fossils

/
VERY
FINE
SAND

FINE
SAND

MED.
SAND

Siltstone-shale with abundant

burrows
Marine fossils

CO
CO
CO

Lower shoreface
Rapid deposition by storm
surge and slow deposition
with bioturbation.

Abundant burrows

|
\

90100- 3D-J

WAVE RIPPLE
CRESTS

20-

INTERPRETATION

Scour surfaces

70-

DESCRIPTION

Some burrows in lower part.

15-

60-

80-

BEACH PLACERS
.5

/
\

2030-

DIRECTIONAL FEATURES

FIGURE 11.31 Vertical facies sequence in part of the Cretaceous Gallup Sandstone, northwestern New Mexico. The
sequence is interpreted as a progradational beach deposit, probably formed on a nonbarred coast. (After McCubbin,
D. G., 1982, Barrier island and strand-plain facies, in P. A. Scholle and D. Spearing (eds.), Sandstone depositional
environments: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Mem. 31. Fig. 25, p. 260, reprinted by permission of AAPG, Tulsa,
Okla.)

Offshore
Slow deposition from
suspension with bioturba
tion

394

SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENTS
horizontal, planar stratification and very low-angle cross-stratification; root traces are
present at the top. These three divisions of the Gallup Sandstone are interpreted to
represent, in ascending order, lower-shoreface, upper-shoreface, and beach-foreshore
deposits. The grain-size and stratification characteristics of the Gallup Sandstone sug
gest that it was developed on a coast with moderate to high wave energy. Because
back-barrier lagoonal sediments are absent in this succession, we can infer that it is
probably a mainland beach deposit, formed on a coast that lacked barriers.
The Cretaceous Cliff House Sandstone in the San Juan Basin of northwestern
New Mexico has been interpreted as a transgressive barrier complex (Donselaar, 1989;
McCubbin, 1982). The interpreted paleogeography of the Cliff House depositional site
in Late Cretaceous time is shown in Figure 11.32. The basal part of the stratigraphic
section shown in this figure consists of dark, laminated shales with abundant plant
fragments and widely spaced layers with carbonized plant roots. Coal beds up to 1.8 m
thick are common, and brackish-water fossils such as oysters are present. This shale
and coal unit is interpreted as back-barrier lagoonal sediments. It is overlain by and
interfingers with fine- to medium-grained barrier-bar sandstones characterized by highangle trough cross-stratification, hummocky cross-stratification, and planar stratifica
tion. Ophiomorpha burrows are common. Although the overall succession shown in
Figure 11.32 is interpreted to be a transgressive succession, accumulation of the barrier
sands took place during regressive intervals (Donselaar, 1989). During subsequent
transgressive intervals, part of the barrier sand was eroded; only topographically lowlying parts of the barrier (e.g., shoreface, tidal-inlet, and lagoonal sediment) were pre
served. The Cliff House barrier sands interfinger in a seaward direction with the
marine Lewis Shale.
Other siliciclastic sedimentary successions identified as beach and barrier-island
complexes are present in rocks of widely differing ages in North America. Such suc
cessions have been reported from several Pennsylvanian formations in the
Appalachian Basin of Kentucky, Virginia, West Virginia, and Tennessee; the Lower Cre
taceous Muddy Sandstone of Wyoming and Montana; the Eocene Wilcox Group of east
Texas; and the Quaternary of California (e.g., Davis, 1992). Several ancient carbonate
deposits have also been interpreted as beach complexes. The Lower Cretaceous
Edwards Formation of west Texas, the Lower Cretaceous Cow Creek Formation of cen
tral Texas, the Mississippian Newman Formation in eastern Kentucky, and the Missis-

FIGURE 11.32 Diagrammatic

sketch illustrating the paleogeogra
phy of the coastal area of the San
Juan Basin, northwestern New
Mexico, during deposition of the
Late Cretaceous Cliff House Forma
tion. Numerals 1-4 refer to differ
ent stacked, barrier-beach sand
stones bodies. Kmf = Menefee
Formation; KL = Lewis Shale. No
scale shown. (After Donselaar,
M. E., 1989, The Cliff House sand
stone, San Juan Basin, New Mexico:
Model for the stacking of "trans
gressive" barrier complexes: Jour.
Sed. Petrology, v. 59. Fig. 4, p. 15,
reproduced by permission of Soci
ety of Economic Paleontologists
and Mineralogists, Tulsa, Okla.)

MARGINAL-MARINE

ENVIRONMENTS

395

sippian Mission Canyon Formation in the Williston Basin in the Montana area are
examples of ancient stratigraphic units that contain putative carbonate beach deposits.
Carbonate beach deposits are further discussed in Chapter 13.

11.4 ESTUARINE AND LAGOONAL SYSTEMS

Introduction
Relatively small, semienclosed coastal embayments are loosely called coastal bays.
Two broad types of coastal bays are recognized: estuaries and lagoons. Estuaries (term
derived from the Latin word aestus, meaning tide, and from the adjective aestuarium,
meaning tidal) are considered in a general sense to be the lower courses of rivers open
to the sea; however, they have been defined somewhat differently by geologists, geogra
phers, and chemists. Fairbridge (1980, p. 7) defines an estuary as "an inlet of the sea
reaching into a river valley as far as the upper limit of tidal rise, usually divisible into
three sectors: (a) a marine or lower estuary, in free connection with the open sea; (b) a
middle estuary, subject to strong salt and freshwater mixing; and (c) an upper or fluvial
estuary, characterized by fresh water but subject to daily tidal action." Dalrymple,
Zaitlin, and Boyd (1992) argue that the concept of net landward movement of sediment
derived from outside the estuary mouth is necessary to distinguish estuaries from
deltas. Therefore, they define an estuary as "the seaward portion of a drowned valley
system which receives sediment from both fluvial and marine sources and which con
tains facies influenced by tide, wave and fluvial processes. The estuary is considered
to extend from the landward limit of tidal facies at its head to the seaward limit of
coastal facies at its mouth." According to Dalrymple, Zaitlin, and Boyd, estuaries can
form only in the presence of a relative sea-level rise (i.e., a transgression). Progradation
tends to fill and destroy estuaries, causing them to change into deltas.
A coastal lagoon is defined as a shallow stretch of seawatersuch as a sound,
channel, bay, or saltwater lakenear or communicating with the sea and partly or
completely separated from it by a low, narrow, elongate strip of land, such as a reef,
barrier island, sandbank, or spit (Bates and Jackson, 1980). Lagoons commonly extend
parallel to the coast, in contrast to estuaries, which are oriented approximately perpen
dicular to the coast. Many lagoons have no significant freshwater runoff; however,
some coastal embayments that otherwise satisfy the general definition of lagoons do
receive river discharge. Estuaries and lagoons may occur in close association with river
deltas, barrier islands, and tidal flats.
Owing to the generally small size of coastal bays, estuarine and lagoonal sedi
ments are volumetrically less significant in the geologic record than are deltaic sedi
ments. When present, they provide important information about shoreline conditions
and environments; further, they may have economic significance. Estuaries are among
the most biologically productive environments known (Lauff, 1967); therefore, estuar
ine sediments may be important source rocks for petroleum. Furthermore, the associa
tion of well-sorted sandy facies and muddy facies in many estuaries and lagoons pro
vides a favorable setting for stratigraphic traps for petroleum. The hydrologic
characteristics and sediment transport conditions of estuaries and lagoons are quite
variable depending upon the climate, tidal range, and wave energy. These characteris
tics, as well other aspects of the geologic, biologic, and chemical properties of estuaries
and lagoons, are described in several monographs, including Ashley (1988), Barnes
(1980), Castanares and Phleger (1969), Cronin (1975), Kjerfve (1978), Lauff (1967), Nel
son (1972), Officer (1977), Olaussen and Cato (1980), van de Kreeke (1986), Ward and

396

SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENTS
Ashley (1989), and Wiley (1976). The distinguishing characteristics of estuaries and
lagoons have been summarized in shorter contributions by Boothroyd (1978), Clifton
(1982), Colombo (1977), Fairbridge, (1980), Hayes (1975), Nichols and Biggs (1985),
Phleger (1969), and Reinson (1992).

Physiography of Estuaries and Lagoons

Based on the physiographic characteristics of relative relief and degree of channelmouth blocking, seven basic types of modern estuaries are recognized (Fig. 11.33; Fairbridge, 1980). Fjords are high-relief estuaries with a U-shaped valley profile formed by
drowning of glacially eroded valleys during Holocene sea-level rise. Fjards or firths are
related to fjords but have lower relief. Estuaries developed in winding valleys with
moderate relief are rias. Coastal-plain estuaries are low-relief estuaries, funnel-shaped
in plan view, that are open to the sea. Low-relief estuaries that are L-shaped in plan
view and that have lower courses parallel to the coast are bar-built estuaries. Similar

FIGURE 11.33 Principal types

of estuaries based on physio
graphic characteristics. (From
Fairbridge, R. W.. The estuary: Its
definition and geodynamic cycle,
in E. Olausson and I. Cato (eds.),
Chemistry and biochemistry of
estuaries, Fig. 2, p. 9, 1980 John
Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Reprinted by
permission of John Wiley & Sons,
Ltd., Chichester, England.)

(1b) Fjord

High relief '",;

Shallow sill,constriction;

(2) Rio

( im" ^'~ow re,,e'"

Z^./ / Emerged Strondlm.es

Coastal Plain Type

funnel shape

(4) Bar-built Estuary

15) Blind Estuary

(6) Delta-front Estua

(7) Tectonic Estuary

compound type

ow relief