The Lake Challa Water Resources Integrated Development Project

Coast Development Authority
THE LAKE CHALLA WATER RESOURCES

INTEGRATED DEVELOPMENT PROJECT
FINAL ENGINEERING REPORT
MAY 2012
Contents
LOCATION MAP
PROJECT SUMMARY
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND .................................................................................................................................. 1-14
1.2 OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT ...................................................................................................... 1-14
1.3 SCOPE AND OBJECTIVES OF THE CONSULTANCY SERVICES ............................................. 1- 15
1.4 SCHEDULED OUTPUTS ................................................................................................................... 1-15
1.5 SCOPE OF THIS REPORT ................................................................................................................ 1- 16
CHAPTER 2: DESIGN OF IRRIGATION COMPONENT
2.1
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 2-7
2.2
GENERAL ....................................................................................................................................... 2-7
2.3
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION............................................................................................................. 2-7
2.4
THE PROJECT AREA .................................................................................................................... 2-8
2.5
CURRENT AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION .......................................................................... 2-21
2.6
PROPOSED CROPPING PATTERN FOR PROJECT AREA ..................................................... 2-22
2.7
IRRIGATION METHODS ............................................................................................................. 2.22
2.8
CHOICE OF IRRIGATION METHOD ........................................................................................ 2-28
2.9
COMPARISONS OF VARIOUS IRRIGATION METHOD(S) ................................................... 2-30
2.10
PREFERRED IRRIGATION METHOD(S) .................................................................................. 2-30
2.11
CROP AND IRRIGATION WATER REQUIREMENTS ............................................................ 2-34
2.12
PROPOSED IRRIGATION SYSTEMS COMPONENTS ............................................................ 2-59
CHAPTER 3: DESIGN OF WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS

3.1
GENERAL .......................................................................................................................... 3-4
3.2
SOURCES OF WATER ..................................................................................................... 3-4
3.3
INTAKE .............................................................................................................................. 3-5
3.4
LAKE CHALLA TANK ..................................................................................................... 3-6
3.5
TIMBILLA TANK .............................................................................................................. 3-7
3.6
TRANSMISSION PIPELINES ............................................................................................ 3-7
3.7
DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLY .......................................................................................... 3-8
3.8
ANCILLARY WORKS ....................................................................................................... 3-9
3.9
MATERIALS SPECIFICATIONS .................................................................................... 3-10
CHAPTER 4: COST ESTIMATES AND PROJECT PHASING

4.1
GENERAL ................. ..4-3
4.2
BASIS FOR ESTIMATION OF COSTS ............................................................................. 4-3
4.3
SUMMARY OF ESTIMATED COSTS .............................................................................. 4-3
4.4
ITEMISED WORKS COST ESTIMATES ......................................................................... 4-5
4.5
PROJECT PHASING ......................................................................................................... 4-8

PROJECT SUMMARY
Project Location:
Lake Challa Water Resources Integrated Development Project is primarily located in the Taveta District which
forms part of the bigger Taita-Taveta County. The project also covers some areas in the lower Mwatate District
(Mwaktau Division) and the western part of Kinango District.
Objective of the Project
The main objective of the Lake Challa Water Resources Integrated Development Project is to improve the living
standards of Taveta residents through Poverty Alleviation and Sustainable Development. This shall be
accomplished by;
Provision of water for domestic, irrigation and livestock uses.
Increasing food production for domestic use, export market and Income generation.
Enhancement of environment conservation and sanitation.
Promotion of eco-tourism.
Creation of employment for youth and women.
Lake Challa
Lake Challa is situated on the western side of Taveta District. It is a volcanic crater fresh water Lake on the South
Eastern slopes of the Kilimanjaro Range 45 km south of the summit and about 10 km North of Taveta town on the
Kenya Tanzanian border. It is a volcanic crater fresh water lake.
Latitude: - 3015 and 3025 S; Longitudes: - 370 40' and 37045E; Surface Area: - 3.44 km2 Depth = 100 m
Volume of water in the lake is approximately 300 to 350 million cubic meters.
KEY FINDINGS, RESULTS, RECOMMENDATIONS

Mean Monthly Climatical Data for Project area
Item
0
Temp.(Max) ( C)
Temp.(Min) (0C)
Open Water Surface Evaporation (mm/day)
Relative Humidity (%)
Description
Item
Description
30.4
16.6
5.28
61.2
Daily Wind Run (km/day)

Sunshine hours (h)
Mean Rainfall (mm)
141
12
673
Soil Chemical Characteristics of Project Area
Area
Kilanga
Challa (near Market)
Nakuruto
Timbila
Jipe
Mwaktau
Remarks
The soils are well suited for irrigation on the account of their very favourable
chemical and physical characteristics.
Soils are well suited for irrigation due to their lack of salinity, high fertility
and good physical properties.
Soils not suited for irrigation due to their very shallow depth in spite of having
good chemical properties.
Based on the available physical and chemical characteristics, the soils are
suited for irrigation.
The soils in the upper areas are well drained and are irrigable. However, the
soils close to the lake have high salinity and sodicity levels, and would not be
easy to drain.
Based on the available physical and chemical characteristics, the soils are
suited for irrigation.

Water Resources
Two options were identified as potential sources of water for irrigation and domestic use.
Option 1; Lake Challa and Lake Jipe

Option 2; Groundwater from boreholes
From analysis, it was found that;

Over 7,000,000 m3 of water per year can be abstracted from Lake Challa without negatively
affecting the lake levels.
3 boreholes (2 at Kilanga Scheme and one situated at Nakuruto Kasokoni producing 400 m3
per hour each and 100 m3 per hour respectively) can in combination provide over 7.0 million
m3 per year.
Quality of Irrigation Water
The water quality is satisfactory and suitable for irrigation purposes and can be used on most soils and crops. Its
the main raw material required for the operation of the irrigation and domestic water supply system.
Electricity
The electric power will be sourced from the national power grid with a connection being done from the HT power
line running along the Taveta Challa Road. Electricity will be supplied by the Kenya Power Company (KPC) on
a commercial basis.
RECOMMENDATIONS:
The major output of the Lake Challa Water Resources Integrated Development will be;
Development of an irrigation system that will cover 1020 ha at (five) 5 sites. These are Kilanga site,
Challa Irrigation Scheme, Timbila Scheme, Jipe Settlement Scheme and Mwaktau. Nakuruto/Kasokoni
area will also be supplied with raw water whose uses will be determined by residents.
Setting up of a domestic water supply system for households, livestock, fisheries and forestry.
Provision of water for wildlife within the park.
SALIENT FEATURES OF THE DESIGNED PROJECT
Population of Taveta District: 67,023; Land area: 4,205.63(Taveta District).
Major economic activities of Taveta District: Farming, Fishing, Quarrying and small scale trade.
Recharge/Discharge of the lake
Lake Challa is recharged by aquifers between 817m and 698m above sea level. The aquifers benefit from the
groundwater flows from the Kilimanjaro Region in the west and bounded by the fresh Basement System of rocks
in the East. Water flows in and out of the lake through these aquifers.
The groundwater basin is recharged by precipitation on Mt Kilimanjaro and local rainfall. The nearby springs also
get their recharge from the ground water basin.
Aerial Extent of the groundwater basin is approximately 10,500 Square Kilometres. Recharge in the basin
approximates 5,250 million Cubic Metres per year.

Table: Lake Challa Water Balance
Abbreviation
No.
Component
Groundwater inflow
Groundwater outflow
Gout
122,095
Precipitation falling in the lake
Pl
3,197,136
Precipitation falling in the entire Watershed
Pw
15,084,162
Evaporation from the lake
El
3,612,000
Change in storage
7,578,320
in
Measurement in m
8,115,279
Pumping from the Lake at a rate of 30,000cubic metres per day will have minimal effect on the Lake water level.
Boreholes
From the Hydrogeological study of the Lake Challa Watershed Area and the simulation results of the exploratory
boreholes in the Challa Irrigation Scheme and at Nakuruto Kasokoni, sustainable discharges for each borehole
within the Challa/Kilanga area were estimated to be 400 m3/h and 100 m3/h at Kasokoni.
Based on the above, water will be sourced and abstracted from three boreholes to be developed in the Kilanga,
Challa and Nakuruto/Kasokoni areas. The total available water from the boreholes will be 1,200 m 3/h.
Hydrogeological and Geological Setting of Lake Challa Watershed
Hydro-geology of Lake Challa catchment area is defined by the Kilimanjaro aquifer. The aquifer includes the
volcanic pyroclastic and volcanic alluvium deposits found at the base of Mount Kilimanjaro and extending across
the Kenyan-Tanzanian border. These deposits form basins which extend outward from the mountain and are
limited by the surrounding Precambrian Basement rocks.
Lake Challa is part of the aquifer and its recharge and discharge is strongly linked to the volcanic pyroclastic and
volcanic alluvium deposits which allow percolation through the faults, fractures and weathered zones. The
surrounding Precambrian Basement rocks, which are impermeable zones, enhance groundwater storage and
transmission within the aquifer by preventing transmission out of the aquifer.
IRRIGABLE LAND, PLANNED AREAS
Five sites i.e. Kilanga, existing Challa Irrigation Scheme, Timbila, Jipe and Mwaktau have been identified as
being suitable for development of the irrigation schemes based on agricultural suitability, soil profile,
flooding conditions and topography of the site.

Kilanga Site
Situated next to Lake Challa and between Taveta Loitoktok road to the east and Kenya Tanzania
border to the west.
Land presently occupied by about 120m households and used for farming and rearing of livestock.
Size of the scheme will be 140 ha. With 100 ha being used as a demonstration farm and the rest used
for construction of a reservoir, administration block and processing and value addition facilities.
Land is flat to very gently undulating with slopes ranging from 0.5% to 2% towards the west.
Soils are well suited for irrigation on the account of their favourable chemical and physical
characteristics.
Challa Scheme
Located
It is an existing irrigation scheme approximately 1680 Ha, owned by Challa Co-operative Society. It
relies on water supplied from Lumi River. The water is however not enough and more water to
compensate for the deficiency needs to be supplied.
The area is flat with slopes ranging from 0.5% to 1% towards the North.
There are no settlements within the Scheme, but people are settled within the surrounding areas.
in an alluvial plain North- west of Challa market and about 20 km north east of
Lake Challa.
Timbila Site
The Timbila site is located approximately 12 km south of Lake Challa and 4 km east of Taveta Town
The area has a gentle north-south slope of about 1% and there is a significant topographical height
difference of about 100 m between the site and Lake Challa.
The project area covers 2500 acres and has a population of approx. 300 households.
Jipe Settlement Scheme
The Scheme is located approximately 10 km southeast of Timbila and stretches from Voi-Taveta road
to the northern shores of Lake Jipe in the south and borders Tsavo West National Park to the east. It has
an area is about 10,000 ha.
The area was designated by the Kenyan Government as part of a new rural development area and was
subdivided into several plots to individuals ranging from 15 to 25 acres. There are about 600
households resident in the scheme but most of the plots are yet to be settled. The area is woodland
currently being used for grazing.
The topography is flat to very gently undulating with slopes ranging from 0 to 2% towards South and
South west.
Based on their physical and chemical characteristics, the soils on the upper part of the scheme are
suitable for irrigation, but are susceptible to gully erosion.
Mwaktau
The Mwaktau Site is located approximately 50 km from Timbila site (about halfway between Taveta
and Voi by road) and has a population of about 10,000 people.
The area is flat to gently undulating with slopes ranging from 0.5% to 2% towards the East and South
East.
The physical and chemical characteristics of these soils indicate that they are suitable for irrigation.
Nakuruto
This area is located on the eastern slopes of Challa crater.

The area is undulating with slopes ranging from 5 to10% towards the east.
The vegetation in the area is wooded grassland most of which is used for cultivation or grazing.
The soils are good for agricultural purposes.
Proposed Annual Irrigable Areas

Site
Status
Remarks
Mode of irrigation
Kilanga Pilot Project
Proposed
New Development
Drip (80 ha)
Area (ha)
Challa (Existing Scheme)

Nakuruto
Existing
Proposed
Extension
New Development
Sprinkler(120 ha)
Surface Irrigation
Surface Irrigation
200
200
90
Timbilla(Existing Scheme)
Jipe Settlement Scheme
Mwaktau
Total
Existing
Proposed
Proposed
Extension
New Development
New Development
Surface Irrigation
Surface Irrigation
Surface Irrigation
200
930
400
2,020
Proposed Cropping Pattern by Project Areas

Season
Season
One
(March
to July
Season
Two
(Sept
to Jan)
TOTAL
Crop
Area (ha)
Kilanga
Pilot
Scheme
Maize
Beans
Green grams Cowpeas
Tomatoes
20
Kales
10
Sunflower
Bananas
20
Melons
10
paw paws
20
Onions
10
Chillies
10
Sub-total
100
Maize
Beans
Green grams Cowpeas
Tomatoes
20
Kales
10
Sunflower
Bananas
20
Melons
10
Paw paws
20
Onions
10
Chillies
10
Sub-total
100
200
Challa
Scheme
Nakuruto
Timbila
Scheme
Jipe
Scheme
Mwaktau
Scheme
20
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
100
20
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
100
200
10
5
20
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
100
20
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
100
200
100
45
30
20
25
100
10
75
50
10
465
100
45
30
20
25
100
10
75
50
10
465
930
40
15
15
15
15
40
5
25
25
5
200
40
15
15
15
15
40
5
25
25
5
200
400
5
5
5
5
5
5
45
10
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
45
90
DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLY

Domestic water supply has also been incorporated in the project for areas that experience acute water shortages.
These are Kasaani in Jipe, Kidongu, Nakuruto/Kasokoni, Mwaktau Trading Centre and Kwa Mnengwa.
Total
(ha)
190
60
45
60
40
35
40
185
50
145
110
50
1,010
190
60
45
60
40
35
40
185
50
145
110
50
1,010
2,020

Forestry
The forest and tree establishment will be done along the following areas;
Rehabilitation of Lake Challa escarpment - This covers the outskirt of Lake Challa crater which is steep with
high vegetation degradation and soil erosion. 255 ha and a perimeter of 10km have been identified.
Rehabilitation of Kedong Hill This is situated within Timbila scheme, and covers an area of 130 ha and a
perimeter of 4km.
Rehabilitation of Salaita Hill The hill has an area of 11 ha and a boundary of 1km.
Agroforestry in proposed Challa, Timbila and L. Jipe Irrigation Schemes At each of these schemes, 10%
of the area will be put under tree cover. This will be done in different configurations including strip tree planting,
boundary tree planting, planting along canals, woodlots, pockets of forest, rehabilitation of degraded areas and
roadside tree planting.
River - line and springs Rehabilitation of 30% of the river line with a total length of 12km shall be done.
Natural springs will be rehabilitated to ensure integrity.
Farmland - Fast growing trees species which yield required wood and non wood products will be introduced.
Fisheries
Fish ponds, dams and rehabilitation of wetlands such as rivers, Lake Jipe and springs shall be done, to increase
fish farming in the project area by 30%.
IRRIGATION WATER DEMAND, DOMESTIC WATER DEMAND & DOMESTIC & IRRIGATION
WATER SUPPLY
Water demand requirements of various project areas for irrigation, domestic needs and others;
No.
Total Demand (m3/year)
Site
Irrigation
Water
Demand
(m3/year)
Average
Irrigation
Water Demand
(m3/day)
Domestic
Water
Demand
(m3/year)
Domestic
Demand
(m3/day)
Total
(m3/year)
Kilanga
810,307
2,214
810,307
Challa
881,823
2,410
881,823
404,834
1,107
58,552
160
463,386
Nakuruto/Kasokoni
Timbilla/
Kidongu
881,823
2,410
44,297
121
926,120
Jipe
4,692,931
12,823
53,351
146
4,746,282
Mwaktau
1,935,868
5,290
120,400
330
2,056,268
125,369
343
125,369
45,000
123
45,000
Msorongo
Environment
Conservation
Wildlife
National Park)
91,250
250
91,250
10
Fisheries
20,000
55
20,000
558,219
1,528
10,145,806
Total
(Tsavo
9,607,587
Demand

Water demand tabulation is based on a projection up to the ultimate year of 2035. This was derived from
population projection using population growth of 1.8%.
Water Supply
Water will be sourced from Lake Challa and two boreholes. The water abstracted will then be used for irrigation,
domestic, livestock and wildlife within the Taveta Mwaktau corridor.
The following table shows amounts of abstractions considered from the two sources;
Recommended Abstraction Rates from Sources
Source
Lake Challa
Capacity
m3/hr
400
Boreholes
400
in Pumping
Hours
20
20
No.
of
Boreholes
Abstraction
(m3/day)
8,000
No. of working
days
330
Volume
(m3/year)
2,640,000
24,000
330
7,920,000
Total water supply for entire project
32,000
10,560,000
The system;
Intake: Will consist of two submersible pumps, one on duty and one standby, in a pump house built on girders on
a floating pontoon.
Raw water pipeline: Two main pipelines have been designed for. One will convey water from Lake Challa and
the other from the boreholes. The two pipelines merge to deliver water to 1000m3 reinforced concrete tank to be
located at the top rim of Lake Challa.
Lake Challa tank: The tank with a capacity of 1000m3 is strategically located to command flow of water via
gravity to the entire project save for Mwaktau which is at a higher ground level.
Reservoirs: The project is designed to hold three major water storage earth-fill reservoirs as follows: Kilanga 75,000 m3; Jipe - 75,000m3; Mwaktau - 65000m3.
Timbila tank: The 1000m3 reinforced concrete tank will hold water for irrigation in the Timbila area.
Transmission pipelines: Water will be conveyed in all the pipelines by gravity except for Jipe Mwaktau
KwaMnegwa pipeline which is a pumping mains from Jipe to Mwaktau.
Domestic water supply: Elevated steel water tanks of capacity 200m3 have been provided for in Mwaktau and
Kasaani area, a 250m3 concrete tank provided for at Kwa Mnengwa and Kidongu and a 1000m3 elevated steel
tank at Nakurito. The location and design of the tanks allow the supply in the respective area by gravity.
building and laboratory, staff houses, site drainage,

workshop, pump house, access road and power supply.
Ancillary Works: These include administration
Cost Estimate and financial aspects for important components;

Development and equipping of three boreholes
KSH 73.74
Intake Works at Lake Challa
KSH 73.80
million
million
Transmission Pipelines
KSH 1,076.05 million
Civil Works including reservoirs
KSH 976.24
million
Project Phasing
For speedy implementation of the Project, it proposed that the project be implemented in three phases as described
below;

1.
Phase One to cover Kilanga Pilot Irrigation Project and the existing Challa Irrigation Scheme
2.
Phase Two to include Timbila and Jipe Irrigation Schemes (including provision of domestic water within the
areas covered by the pipelines)
3.
Phase Three to include Mwaktau Irrigation Schemes (including provision of domestic water within the areas
covered by the pipelines)
CHAPTER 1- INTRODUCTION
Table of Contents
............................................... 1-12
1.1 BACKGROUND .............................................................................................................. 1-14

1.2 OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT .................................................................................. 1-14
1.3 SCOPE AND OBJECTIVES OF THE CONSULTANCY SERVICES .......................... 1-15
1.4 SCHEDULED OUTPUTS ............................................................................................... 1-15
1.5 SCOPE OF THIS REPORT ............................................................................................. 1-16
1.1 BACKGROUND
Coast Development Authority (CDA) is one of the six Regional Development Authorities in
Kenya under the Ministry of Regional Development Authorities (MoRDA). Its mandate is to
promote socio-economic development, within the Coastal Region and other areas of its
jurisdiction, through initiation and implementation of integrated programmes and projects
such as provision of energy, flood control, water supply for irrigation, domestic and industrial
use, as well as environmental conservation, among others.
The Authority is mandated to improve the welfare of the people in the region in particular
and the country in general, through sustainable utilization of the natural resources such as
water, minerals, wind etc. in its area of jurisdiction.
Towards this end, CDA intends to assist the communities within its area of jurisdiction
through implementation of the Lake Challa Water Resources Integrated Development
Project.
When the project is fully implemented, it would have positive benefits and improvements on
the communitys poor state of health, education, enhance food production, promotion of
ecotourism development economy and the environment in general. It would also contribute to
curbing of the rural urban migration problem, as employment opportunities will be created
with the enhanced agricultural development and related facilities.
Lake Challa Water Resources Integrated Development Project is one of the flagship projects
of Vision 2030 and is slated for implementation during the first Medium Plan (2008 2012).
1.2 OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT
The main objective of the Lake Challa Water Resources Integrated Development Project is to
improve the living standards of Taveta residents through Poverty Alleviation and Sustainable
Development.
Specific objectives include;
Provision of water for irrigation, domestic and livestock uses,
Increasing food production (for domestic use and export markets) and Income,
Enhancement of environment conservation and sanitation
Promotion of eco-tourism,
Creation of employment for youth and women
1.3 SCOPE AND OBJECTIVES OF THE CONSULTANCY SERVICES

The Consulting Services are intended for the implementation of Lake Challa Water
Resources Integrated Development Project with the following as the main components:
Review of Previous Studies /Reports
Feasibility Study, Preliminary Designs and Implementation Programme
Environmental and Social Impacts Assessments
Detailed Engineering Designs
Preparation of Tender Documents and assistance in the Tendering Process
Institutional Development / Capacity Building
1.4 SCHEDULED OUTPUTS

The Consultant was required to prepare and submit the following reports:1. Inception Report
2. Interim Report
3. Feasibility Study Report & Preliminary Design Report
4. Environmental Impact Assessments Project Environmental Management
Reports
5. Resettlement Plan
6. Detailed Design Report
7. Tender Documents
8. Final Study Report
This Report forms the sixth output.
1.5 SCOPE OF THIS REPORT

Reports Nos. 1, 2, and 3 have already been submitted and accepted by CDA. Subsequently,
the Consultants carried out the field work in detail such as topographic survey, geological &
geotechnical investigations, agricultural, environmental and socio-economic surveys, etc. The
detailed desk studies such as hydrological studies, water demand studies, simulation studies,
irrigation planning, cost estimate and financial & economic analysis have also been carried
out to arrive at the feasibility of the project which has already been submitted and accepted
by the Client.
The survey, investigations, studies, project configuration, cost estimates and financial &
economic analysis are covered in the feasibility report. Design of irrigation systems and water
supply components were included in the Preliminary Design Report submitted to CDA earlier
and accepted by the client.
Report No. 4 (Environmental Impact Assessments Project Environmental Management
Report) is submitted together with this Report (Detailed Design Report). Also submitted with
this Report is the;
A.
Tender Documentation comprising of;

Tender documents for civil works.
Tender documents for pumps.
Tender documents for electrical supply & control equipment, power lines and substation equipment
Tender documents for irrigation equipment/system.
B. Final Estimates & Financial requirements
As per the Terms of Reference (ToR), this is Report No. 6 i.e. Detailed Report and comprises
of the following;
1. Detailed Design Report
1.4
Chapter 1;
Introduction
1.5
Chapter 2;
Design of Irrigation Systems
1.6
Chapter 3;
Design of Water Supply Systems
1.7
Chapter 4;
Cost Estimates
2. Tender documents
2.1
Conditions of Billing/contract Volume 1
2.2
Works Requirements Volume 2
2.3
Book of Drawings Volume 3
CHAPTER 2: DESIGN OF IRRIGATION COMPONENT
Table of Contents
List of Tables ........................................................................................................................................ 2-20
List of Figures ...................................................................................................................................... 2-21
List of Abbreviations and Acronyms ................................................................................................... 2-21

List of Symbols .................................................................................................................................... 2-22
CHAPTER 2 DESIGN OF IRRIGATION COMPONENT ........................................................... 2-23
2.1
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................... 2-23
2.2
GENERAL ............................................................................................................................... 2-23
2.3
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION..................................................................................................... 2-23
2.3.1 Evaporation .......................................................................................................................... 2-23
2.3.2 Transpiration ........................................................................................................................ 2-24
2.4
THE PROJECT AREA ............................................................................................................ 2-24
2.4.1 General Climatic Data .......................................................................................................... 2-24
2.4.2 Project Sites ......................................................................................................................... 2-26
2.4.3 Soils in the Project Area....................................................................................................... 2-29
2.4.4 Quality of Irrigation Water .................................................................................................. 2-34
2.5
CURRENT AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION .................................................................... 2-37
2.5.1 Agriculture and Land Use ........................................................................................................... 2-37
2.5.2 Crop Production .......................................................................................................................... 2-37
2.5.3 Conclusions ................................................................................................................................. 2-38
2.6
PROPOSED CROPPING PATTERN FOR PROJECT AREA ............................................... 2-38
2.7
IRRIGATION METHODS ...................................................................................................... 2-40
2.7.1 Surface Irrigation ................................................................................................................. 2-41
2.7.1.2
Furrow Irrigation .............................................................................................................. 2-41
2.7.1.3
Basin Irrigation ................................................................................................................ 2-41
2.7.1.4
Border Strip Irrigation ...................................................................................................... 2-41
2.7.2 Sprinkler Irrigation ............................................................................................................... 2-42

2.7.3 Drip (Or Trickle) Irrigation .................................................................................................. 2-43
2.8
CHOICE OF IRRIGATION METHOD(S) ............................................................................. 2-43
2.8.1 Natural Conditions ............................................................................................................... 2-44
2.8.2 Type(S) of Crop(S) .............................................................................................................. 2-45
2.8.3 Type and Level of Technology ............................................................................................ 2-45
2.8.4 Previous Experience with Irrigation..................................................................................... 2-45
2.8.5 Required Labour Inputs ....................................................................................................... 2-46
2.8.6 Costs and Benefits................................................................................................................ 2-46
2.9
COMPARISONS OF VARIOUS IRRIGATION METHOD(S) ............................................. 2-46
2.10 PREFERRED IRRIGATION METHOD(S) ............................................................................ 2-48
2.11 CROP AND IRRIGATION WATER REQUIREMENTS ...................................................... 2-50
2.11.1 Crop Water Requirements (ETCROP)................................................................................. 2-50
2.11.2
Net Irrigation Water Requirements (NIR) ....................................................................... 2-55
2.11.3 Gross Irrigation Water Requirements (GWR) ........................................................................... 2-65

2.12 PROPOSED IRRIGATION SYSTEMS COMPONENTS ...................................................... 2-72
2.12.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 2-72
2.12.2
Design Criteria and Data .................................................................................................. 2-72
2.12.3
Project Components ......................................................................................................... 2-75
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 - Mean Monthly Climatical Data for Taveta District
Table 2.2 - Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity Classification
Table 2.3 -Basic Infiltration Rates for Various Soil Types
Table 2.4 - Physical Characteristics of Soils in Taveta District
Table 2.5 Salinity and Sodicity of Soils
Table 2.6 - Values for Volumetric Water Content of Soils in Taveta District
Table 2.7 Soils Suitability for Irrigation
Table 2.8 - Guidelines for Interpretation of Water Quality for Irrigation
Table 2.9 - The pH and ECw of Water from the Proposed Sources
Table 2.10 - Food Crop Production Statistics, Taveta District- 2009/2010
Table 2.11 - Proposed Overall Cropping Pattern
Table 2.12- Proposed Cropping Pattern by Project Areas
Table 2.13 - Comparison of Irrigation Methods
Table 2.14 - Preferred Method(s) of Irrigation for Various Crops
Table 2.15 - Estimated Reference Evapotranspiration (ETo
Table 2.16 - Crop Coefficients
Table 2.17 - Cropping Calendar and Applicable Crop Coefficients
Table 2.18 - Estimated Crop Water Requirements (ETcrop)(mm)
Table 2.19 - Estimated Annual Crop Water Requirements (ETcrop)(mm)
Table 2.20 - Effective Soil Storages
Table 2.21 - Estimated Effective Rainfall (REFF) (mm)
Table 2.22 -Estimated Net Irrigation Water Requirements (NIR)(mm)
Table 2.23 -Net Monthly Irrigation Water Requirements per Crop
Table 2.24 -Net Monthly Irrigation Water Requirements per Site
Table 2.25- Irrigation Systems Efficiencies
Table 2.26 - Gross Irrigation Water Requirements (m3)
Table 2.27- Summary of Gross Irrigation Water Requirements (m3)

Table 2.28 - Proposed Annual Irrigable Areas
Table 2.29 - Design Parameters for Drip Irrigation System
Table 2.30 - Design Parameters for Overhead Sprinkler Irrigation System
Table 2.31 - Design Parameters of Straight Furrow Irrigation
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1- Annual Rainfall Pattern in the Project Area
Figure 2.2 Comparison of Rainfall and Evaporation
Figure 2.3 Typical Potable Lateral Move Overhead Sprinkler System
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

o
- Degree Centigrade
cm3
- cubic centimetre
dS/m
- deciSemens per metre
ECw
- electrical conductivity
FAO
- Food and Agricultural Organization
- gramme
GS
- Galvanised Steel
ha
- Hectare
HDPE
- High Density Polyethylene
HP
- Horsepower
km
- kilometer
Ksh.
- Kenya Shilling
KVA
- kilo Volt Ampere
lps
- litres per second
- metre
m2
- square metre
m3
- cubic metre
me/l
- milliequivalent per litre
mg/l
- milligrams per litre
mm
- millimeter
mm/h
- millimeter per hour
m/s
- metre per second
mS/cm
- milliSiemems per centimetre
No. or nr
- Number
PE
- Polyethylene
PE 63 Class 2 - 63 mm diameter Polyethylene Class 2

SAR
- Sodium Adsorption Ratio
TDS
- Total Dissolved Solids
PVC
- Un-plasticized Polyvinyl Chloride
PVC 110 A - 110 mm diameter Un-plasticized Polyvinyl Chloride Class A
List of Symbols
o
- Degree
- Diameter
- approximately
- inch
- per cent
CHAPTER 2 DESIGN OF IRRIGATION COMPONENT

2.1
INTRODUCTION
The irrigation systems design for the various sites within Lake Challa Integrated Water
Resources Development Project include the following components:
2.2
Estimation of crop and irrigation water requirement
Availability of Irrigation Water
Efficient Irrigation Water Distribution Systems
GENERAL
Irrigation is generally defined as the artificial application of water to the soil to supplement
natural rainfall in supplying the moisture essential for plant growth. Irrigation is desirable
where natural rainfall does not meet the plant water requirements for all or part of the year.
The most positive impact of irrigation compared to rain-fed agriculture is the improved food
security, followed by a rise in income, wellbeing, and empowerment.
2.3
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
Evapotranspiration is the loss of water through the combined effort of evaporation from the
soil surface and transpiration from the crop. Weather parameters, crop characteristics,
management and environmental conditions are the major factors affecting evaporation and
transpiration.
The principal weather parameters affecting evapotranspiration are radiation, air temperature,
humidity and wind speed. The crop type, variety and development stage also affect the rate of
evapotranspiration.
Management and environmental factors such as soil salinity, poor land fertility, limited
application of fertilizers, the presence of hard or impenetrable soil horizons, the absence of
control of diseases and pests and poor soil management may limit the crop development and
reduce the evapotranspiration.
2.3.1 Evaporation
Evaporation is the process whereby liquid water is converted to water vapour and
subsequently removed from the evaporating surface. Apart from the water availability in the
topsoil, the evaporation from a cropped soil is mainly determined by the fraction of the solar
radiation reaching the soil surface. This fraction decreases over the growing period as the
crop develops and the crop canopy shades more and more of the ground area. When the crop
is small, water is predominately lost by soil evaporation, but once the crop is well developed
and completely covers the soil, transpiration becomes the main process.
2.3.2 Transpiration
Transpiration is the process by which plants remove moisture from the soil and release it to
the air as vapour. It consists of the vapourisation of liquid water contained in plant tissues and
the vapour removal to the atmosphere.
Crops predominately lose their water through stomata which are small openings on the plant
leaf.
2.4
THE PROJECT AREA
2.4.1 General Climatic Data

2.4.1.1 DATA COLLECTION
Meteorological data was mainly acquired from Taveta Water Development Station of the
Ministry of Water and Irrigation. However, data for the sunlight hours is based on the
guidelines provided by the FAO (Food and Agricultural Organization) irrigation and
Drainage Paper No. 56.
2.4.1.2 TEMPERATURES, EVAPORATION AND HUMIDITY
The mean monthly maximum and minimum temperatures vary between 27.4 to 33.1C, and
13.5 to 18.4C, respectively. The daily evaporation varies from 4.35 to 6.25 mm per day. The
coldest period is between June and September while the hottest months are October, January,
February and March (Table 2.1).
The average annual open water surface evaporation and relative humidity are estimated to be
1930 mm and 61%, respectively.
2.4.1.3 RAINFALL
The total annual rainfall is about 673 mm. In general the project area has a bi-modal rainfall
pattern as it experiences two rain seasons; the long rains between the months of March and
May and the short rains between November and December.
The rainfall pattern presented in Figure 2.1, below, distinctly shows the occurrence of long
and short rainy seasons in the project area.
Figure 2.1- Annual Rainfall Pattern in the Project Area

2.4.1.4 SUMMARY OF CLIMATIC DATA
In general, the rainfall is very erratic in terms of amount and distribution and hence is not
reliable for successful production of crops. The mean annual pan evaporation is 1930 mm is
three times higher than the annual rainfall of 673 mm. Therefore, irrigation is necessary for
the development of agricultural production.
A comparison between the average rainfall and evaporation is graphically shown in Figure
2.2 below.
Figure 2.2 Comparison of Rainfall and Evaporation
The long term mean monthly temperature, evaporation, relative humidity, wind speed,
sunshine hours and rain data for Taveta Town, which could be considered as representing the
project area climate characteristics, are given in the table below.
Table 2.1 - Mean Monthly Climatical Data for Taveta District
Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Total/Average
Temp.
(Max)
(0C)
Temp.
(Min)
(0C)
Open Water
Surface
Evaporation
(mm/day)
Relative
Humidity
(%)
Daily Wind
Run
(km/day)
Sunshine
hours
(h)
Mean
Rainfall
(mm)
32.4
33.0
33.1
30.6
28.8
27.7
27.4
27.6
29.4
31.5
31.6
31.5
30.4
16.2
17.0
17.9
18.4
17.3
15.8
15.1
15.0
13.5
16.9
18.2
18.0
16.6
5.65
6.25
5.65
5.00
4.52
4.50
4.35
4.68
5.50
5.97
5.83
5.65
5.28
57.5
56.5
59.5
68.0
67.5
62.5
61.0
61.5
58.0
52.0
60.0
70.0
61.2
195
178
148
103
106
126
123
105
118
134
160
195
141
12.2
12.1
12.0
11.9
11.8
11.8
11.8
11.9
12.0
12.1
12.2
12.2
12.0
57
42
95
143
64
19
12
12
12
21
120
76
673
2.4.2 Project Sites

Six sites were identified as being suitable for development of irrigation projects based on the
following aspects:
Agricultural suitability
Soil profile
Flooding conditions
Topography of the site
2.4.2.1 KILANGA
The Kilanga area is situated next to Lake Challa and falls between Taveta- Loitoktok road to
the east and Kenya-Tanzania international border to the west and is currently occupied by
about 120 households. Much of the land is used for farming and rearing of animals.
However, most of the parcels near the international boundary are vacant. A demonstration
plot measuring 140 ha has been identified out of which 100 ha would be used to set up a
demonstration farm, leaving the rest for other uses reservoir, adminstration block,
processing and value addition facilities etc. About 115 land owners will be affected by the
acquisition of the demonstration plot.
This proposed irrigation scheme is located in an alluvial plain west of Challa market. The
area is flat to very gently undulating with slopes ranging from 0.5 to 2% towards the west.
The area is low lying without an obvious drainage system but ultimately excess water drains
into Lumi River.
The soils are well drained, extremely deep, very dark reddish brown clays with weak
prismatic structure breaking into moderate to weak fine sub-angular blocky structure. The
topsoil is dark brown clay. These soils are slightly acid to medium alkaline and are nonsaline. Available physical and chemical characteristics indicate that the soils are well suited
for irrigation on the account of their very favourable chemical and physical characteristics.
2.4.2.2 CHALLA IRRIGATION SCHEME
The Challa site is located in an alluvial plain North- west of Challa market and about 20 km
north east of Lake Challa.
This is an existing irrigation scheme of approximately 1,680 Ha and is owned by the Challa
Co-operative Society whose members own plots in the range of 4 and 6 acres. It relies on
water supplied from the Lumi River to supplement rainfed irrigation. The farmers are,
however, demanding more water to compensate for a critical decrease in the volume of water
flowing in the Lumi.
The area is flat with slopes ranging from 0.5 to 1% towards the North. The area is low lying
with slow surface drainage into Lumi River. Soils of the area are extremely deep, brownish
black clays.
There are no settlements within the scheme but people are settled within the surrounding
areas. Though the area is secured by means of fencing, it is prone to human/wildlife conflict.
2.4.2.3 NAKRUTO
This area is located on the eastern slopes of Challa crater. The area is undulating with slopes
ranging from 5 to10% towards the east. The area is drained by Lumi River and its seasonal
tributary, Kirimeri River. The vegetation in the area is wooded grassland most of which is
used for cultivation or grazing.
Soils of the area are developed on volcanic ash and are well drained, very shallow to
moderately deep, dark reddish brown clays and are chemically good for agricultural purposes.
2.4.2.4 TIMBILA
The Timbila site is located approximately 12 km south of Lake Challa and 4 km east of
Taveta Town. The area is demarcated by Taveta Voi Road to the south, the railway line to
the north,Lumi River to the west and the Road to Ziwani Sisal Estate to the east
The area has a gentle north-south slope of about 1% and there is a significant topographical
height difference of about 100 m between the site and Lake Challa.
The area covered is about 2,500 acres, with a population of approx. 300 households and the
average land size ranges between a quarter () and five (5) acres, although there are some
larger plots of 18 acres. Some of the households are involved in farming and livestock
keeping. The land sizes held by the people are generally small, thus the area is densely
populated.
The area is flat to very gently undulating with slopes ranging from 0.5 to 2% towards South
east. The area is drained by the perennial Lumi River. The original vegetation in the area is
riverline forest which has been cleared for human settlement and cultivation. Farmers
produce rain fed food crops and horticultural crops under irrigation.
Soils of the area are well drained, extremely deep, dark reddish brown silt loam to clay. The
topsoil is dark brown clay and is moderately saline. High salinity occurs only in the topsoil
leading to the suspicion that the soils are being salinized through irrigation with water from
River Lumi. Based on physical and chemical characteristics, the soils are well suited for
irrigated agriculture and are currently under furrow irrigation. However they have high
porosity and low bulk density leading to high infiltration rates and internal permeability.
2.4.2.5 JIPE
The Jipe Settlement Scheme is located approximately 10 km southeast of Timbila and
stretches from Voi-Taveta road to the northern shores of Lake Jipe in the south and borders
Tsavo West National Park to the east and has an area is about 10,000 ha.
The area was designated by the Kenyan Government as part of a new rural development area
and was subdivided into several plots to individuals ranging from 15 to 25 acres. There are
about 600 households resident in the scheme but most of the plots are yet to be settled.
The area is woodland currently being used for grazing. Wildlife-human conflicts were
common here in the past but have now reduced significantly since an electric fence was
erected by the Kenya Wildlife Services.
The topography is flat to very gently undulating with slopes ranging from 0 to 2% towards
South and South west. The area is drained by the Lumi River.
Based on their physical and chemical characteristics, the soils on the upper part of the scheme
are suitable for irrigation, but are susceptible to gully erosion. As noted in Section 2.4.2.5 of
this report, the soils in the scheme are susceptible to gully erosion. There are two major
gullies draining the waters from Salaita Hills and Tsavo West National Park to Lake Jipe.
2.4.2.6 MWAKTAU
Mwaktau is located approximately 50 km from Timbila site (about halfway between Taveta
and Voi by road) and has a population of about 10,000 people.
This proposed irrigation area will be located about 400 m east of Mwaktau Secondary School
along Mwaktau-Msorongo road on the Tsavo Plain. The area is flat to very gently undulating
with slopes ranging from 0.5 to 2% towards East and South east. The area is drained by a
seasonal stream on the eastern border.
Soils of the area are well drained to excessively drained, extremely deep, red to dark reddish
brown sandy clay loam to clay with murrum starting at depths of 80-110cm. The topsoil is
reddish brown to dark reddish brown sandy clay loam to sandy clay. The physical and
chemical characteristics of these soils indicate that they are suitable for irrigation.
2.4.3 Soils in the Project Area

2.4.3.1 INTRODUCTION
Soils play an important role in plant growth because they are a source of nutrients and water.
Soils determine the suitability of the land for irrigation by influencing rooting depth for
crops, aeration status, nutrients availability, salinity and sodicity.
The soil physical and chemical characteristics are important in the determination of the
suitability of land for irrigation. The findings of the studies carried out during the Feasibility
Study stage are summarised below.
2.4.3.2 SOIL PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Texture
Soil texture refers to its composition in terms of the sizes of soil particles. The texture of a
soil has an influence on several important soil characteristics including infiltration rate and
available water capacity and may be broadly classified as below;
a. Coarse textured soils - sand predominant - "sandy soils
b. Medium textured soils - silt predominant - "loamy soils"
c. Fine textured soils - clay predominant - "clayey soils"
The depth of soil is particularly important where water harvesting systems are proposed.
Deep soils have the capacity to store the harvested runoff as well as providing a greater
amount of total nutrients for plant growth.
Bulk Density
Soil bulk density is an indicator of the packing of soil particles and it influences the amount
of water retention and transmission. Soil bulk density changes in response to management. It
is influenced by land use, especially in the surface horizons.
Hydraulic Conductivity
Hydraulic conductivity is a measure of the ease with which water moves through a soil. It is
determined by size and continuity of water filled pores. Saturated hydraulic conductivity,
Ksat, is an indication of the ability of pores to conduct water maximally when water is not
limiting and describes water movement through saturated soil.
Saturated soil hydraulic conductivity plays an important role in soil drainage i.e. removal of
excess water and salts. Table 2.2 gives the classification of soils in relation to the saturated
soil hydraulic conductivity.
Table 2.2 - Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity Classification

Classification
Extremely slow
Very slow
Slow
Moderate
Fast
Very fast
Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity (mm/h)

4.167E-05
0.0041667
0.42
41.67
416.67
4166.67
Soil Water Infiltration Rate

The infiltration rate is the velocity or speed at which water enters into the soil. It is usually
measured by the depth (in mm) of the water layer that can enter the soil in one hour. In dry
soil, water infiltrates rapidly. This is called the initial infiltration rate. As more water replaces
the air in the pores, the water from the soil surface infiltrates more slowly and eventually
reaches a steady rate. This is called the basic infiltration rate.
The infiltration rate depends on soil texture (the size of the soil particles) and soil structure
(the arrangement of the soil particles) and is a useful way of categorizing soils from an
irrigation point of view. A very low infiltration rate can be detrimental because of the
possibility of waterlogging in the cultivated area. The soils of the cropped area should,
however, be sufficiently permeable to allow adequate moisture to the crop root zone without
causing waterlogging problems.
The infiltration rate of a soil depends primarily on its texture. Typical comparative figures of
infiltration rates are as given below;
Table 2.3 -Basic Infiltration Rates for Various Soil Types1
Soil Type
Sand
Sandy Loam
Loam
Clay Loam
Clay
Basic infiltration Rate (mm/h)

more than 30
20- 30
10- 20
5 - 10
1 -5
A summary of the physical characteristics of soils in various sites is given in Table 2.4.
Table 2.4 - Physical Characteristics of Soils in Taveta District2
Ministry of Water and Irrigation, 2005 .Practice Manual for Water Supply Services in Kenya: Part B. Irrigation
Feasibility Study and Preliminary Design -Lake Challa Water Resources Integrated Development
Project- August 2011
2.4.3.3 SOIL CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Area
Depth
(mm)
Kilanga
0-300
300-900
Challa
0-300
300-900
Timbila
0-300
300-900
Jipe
0-300
300-900
Mwaktau 0-300
300-900
Preliminary
Classification
Bulk
Saturated
Conductivity Infiltration Infiltration
Density Hydraulic
Class
Rate
Class
(g/cm3) conductivity
(mm/ h)
(mm/ h)
Chromic
1.23
6.1
Very slow
72.6
Moderately
CAMBISOLS
rapid
Very
slow
1.39
6.1
Chromic
1.18
6.0
Very slow
56.1
Moderately
LUVISOLS
rapid
Very
slow
1.40
2.4
Chromic
Slow
31.6
Moderate
0.94
18.0
CAMBISOLS
Very slow
1.41
0.6
Rhodic/ orthic
Slow
22.5
Moderate
1.60
16.7
FERRALSOLS 1.46
Very slow
6.0
Rhodic/ orthic
Slow
19.1
moderate
1.48
13.4
FERRALSOLS
1.73
4.0
Very slow
Salinity/Sodicity
A salinity problem exists if salt accumulates in the crop root zone to a concentration that
causes a loss in yield. In irrigated areas, these salts often originate from a saline, high water
table or from salts in the applied water. Yield reductions occur when the salts accumulate in
the root zone to such an extent that the crop is no longer able to extract sufficient water from
the salty soil solution, resulting in a water stress for a significant period of time. If water
uptake is appreciably reduced, the plant rate of growth is slowed down.
Salts that contribute to a salinity problem are water soluble and readily transported by water.
Salt content of the root zone varies with depth. It varies from approximately that of the
irrigation water near the soil surface to many times that of the applied water at the bottom of
the rooting depth. Salt concentration increases with depth due to plants extracting water but
leaving salts behind in a greatly reduced volume of soil water.
Sodic soils, which have a high exchangeable sodium percentage and saline soil which have
excess soluble salts, should be avoided for irrigation systems. These soils can reduce
moisture availability directly, or indirectly, as well as exerting direct harmful influence on
plant growth.
Classification
Salinity in a soil influences different plants differently and classification for suitability needs
to be plant specific. However, a general indication of salinity and sodicity for some sites is
shown in Table 2.5.
Table 2.5 Salinity and Sodicity of Soils3

Area
Kilanga
Challa
Timbilla
Jipe
Salinity
Non-saline
Severely saline
moderate
Non-saline
Sodicity
Non- sodic
Medium-sodic
Medium-sodic
Non-sodic
2.4.3.4 SOIL WATER

Available Water Capacity (AWC)
Soil water influences plant growth and crop production. The water in the soil is from
precipitation, irrigation or groundwater. It is either taken up by plants, lost through direct soil
evaporation or deep drainage beyond the rooting zone.
The capacity of soils to hold, and to release adequate levels of moisture to plants are vital to
irrigation. AWC is a measure of this parameter, and is expressed as the depth of water in mm
readily available to plants after a soil has been thoroughly wetted to "field capacity".
Field capacity refers to the water content in a field soil after the drainage rate has become
small and it is an estimate of the amount of water that may be temporarily stored in the soil
profile for plant use. On the other hand, the permanent wilting point or percentage is the soil
water content below which plants growing in that soil remain wilted even when transpiration
is nearly eliminated.
The amount of water released by the soil between field capacity and permanent wilting is
called the available water.
Generally, the available water for various types of soils is given as4;
Heavy textured soil : 200 mm/m
Medium textured soil : 140 mm/m
Coarse textured soil : 60 mm/m
The relationship between soil water potential and the amount of water in the soil (on the basis
of volumetric water) was determined during the Feasibility Study Stage. The values for the
volumetric water content of soils in potential irrigation sites are summarised in Table 2.6.
Practice Manual for Water Services in Kenya Ministry of Water and Irrigation (October 2005)
Table 2.6 - Values for Volumetric Water Content of Soils in Taveta District
Site
Kilanga
Challa
Kilanga
Timbila
Jipe
Mwaktau
Volumetric water content (cm3/cm3)

Soil layer
Available Water
(mm)
water
content at
content
permanent
at field wilting
capacity point
0-300
0.25
0.017
300-900
0.16
0.014
0-300
0.28
0.012
300-900
0.33
0.012
0-300
0.25
0.017
300-900
0.16
0.014
0-300
0.4
0.017
300-900
0.3
0.011
0-300
0.19
0.011
300-900
0.25
0.007
0-300
0.36
0.006
300-900
0.29
0.006
Available water
Available
water
capacity
In layer
(mm)
In profile
(total mm/m)
0.24
0.15
0.27
0.32
0.24
0.15
0.39
0.29
0.18
0.24
0.35
0.28
7.2
4.5
8.1
9.6
7.2
4.5
11.7
8.7
5.4
7.2
10.5
8.4
117
177
117
204
126
189
The soils with highest and lowest available soil water were at Timbila and Kilanga,
respectively.
2.4.3.5 SUMMARY OF SOILS SUITABILITY FOR IRRIGATION
The suitability of the various soils for irrigation purposes is summarised and tabulated below;
Table 2.7 Soils Suitability for Irrigation
Area
Kilanga
Challa
Nakuruto
Timbila
Jipe
Mwaktau
Remarks
The soils are well suited for irrigation on the account of their very
favourable chemical and physical characteristics.
Soils are well suited for irrigation due to their lack of salinity, high
fertility and good physical properties.
Soils not suited for irrigation due to their very shallow depth in spite of
having good chemical properties.
Based on the available physical and chemical characteristics, the soils
are suited for irrigation.
The soils in the upper areas are well drained and are irrigable. However,
the soils close to the lake have high salinity and sodicity levels, and
would not be easy to drain.
Based on the available physical and chemical characteristics, the soils
are suited for irrigation.
2.4.4 Quality of Irrigation Water

2.4.4.1 GENERAL
The suitability of water, from quality point of view, is determined by its potential to cause
problems and its relation to the special management practices needed.
The quality of irrigation water influences various aspects of irrigation; including infiltration
rates, salinity and sodicity of soil which affects crop yields and land productivity. It is
therefore imperative to assess water quality to ascertain its quality for irrigation. The criteria
mostly used for rapid assessment includes electrical conductivity (ECw) and sodium
adsorption ratio (SAR) of the water intended for irrigation.
2.4.4.2 INFILTRATION
Infiltration problem related to water quality occurs when the rate of water infiltration into and
through the soil is reduced (because of water quality) to such an extent that the crop is not
adequately supplied with water and yield is reduced. A low infiltration rate makes it more
difficult to supply the crop with adequate water and may greatly add to cropping difficulties
through crusting of seed beds, waterlogging of surface soil and accompanying diseases,
salinity, weed, oxygen and nutritional problems.
Infiltration problems are evaluated through the following parameters;
Total salts in the water (ECw):

Total salts in water are indicated by the electrical conductivity of the water (ECw).
Low salt content in water causes low soil infiltration due to the tremendous
capacity of pure water to dissolve and remove calcium and other solubles in the
soil.
Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) is the relative content of sodium to calcium and
magnesium in the water.
Where: Na, Ca and Mg represent the concentration in milli-equivalents per litre

(Me/l).
The SAR determines the exchangeable sodium (ESP) of a soil. A high ESP defines a soil
which has a high degree of saturation with exchangeable sodium or an alkali soil.
Carbonates and bicarbonates can also affect infiltration and must be evaluated.
Bicarbonates and carbonates in irrigation water increase the potential for problem by reacting
with soil calcium and magnesium to form insoluble compounds. Removing calcium and
magnesium from soil creates room for sodium to accumulate on the soil colloids.
The above three factors interact in determining the long-term influence of water on the soil
infiltration rate.
2.4.4.3 SALINITY
Salinity problem occurs in soils when the total quantity of salts in the irrigation water is high
enough for the salts to accumulate in the crop root zone to the extent that yields are affected.
Excessive soluble salts in the root zone inhibit water uptake by plants. The plants suffer from
salt-induced drought. Plants respond more critically to salinity in the upper part of the soil
profile than to the salinity levels at depth.
2.4.4.4 TOXICITY
Toxicity problem occurs when harmful ions in the water are taken up by the crop and
accumulate in amounts that reduce crop yield. In arid and semi-arid areas the toxic specific
ions in water include boron, chloride and sodium.
2.4.4.5 MISCELLANEOUS
Various other problems may occur including excessive nitrogen in the water supply, white
deposits on fruit due to high bicarbonate in sprinkler applied water, and suspected
abnormalities indicated by water with unusual pH.
2.4.4.6 GUIDELINES ON CLASSIFICATIONS SUITABILITY OF IRRIGATION WATER
The criteria for assessing the suitability of irrigation water as recommended by FAO and
shown in Table 2.8 was used to classify suitability of the three main sources of irrigation
water in the Taveta area.
Table 2.8 - Guidelines for Interpretation of Water Quality for Irrigation5
Potential Irrigation Problem
Salinity (affects crop water availability)

ECw
TDS
Infiltration (affects infiltration rate of water into
the soil. Evaluate using ECw and SAR together)
SAR =0-3 and ECw
=3-6=
= 6 - 12 =
= 12 - 20 =
= 20 - 40 =
Specific Ion Toxicity (affects sensitive crops)
Sodium (Na)
Surface irrigation
Sprinkler irrigation
5
Units
Restriction on Use
None Slight to
Severe
Moderate
dS/m
mg/l
<0.7
<450
0.7 - 3.0
450 - 2
>3.0
>2 000
>1.2
>1.9
>2.9
>5.0
1.2 - 0.3
1.9 - 0.5
2.9 - 1.3
5.0 - 2.9
<0.3
<0.5
<1.3
<2.9
<3
<3
3-9
>3
>9
SAR
me/l
Adapted from University of California Committee of Consultants, 1974
Chloride (Cl) V
Surface irrigation
Sprinkler irrigation
Boron (B)
Miscellaneous Effects (affects susceptible crops)
Nitrogen (NO3-N)
Bicarbonate (HCO3) (overhead sprinkling only)
pH
me/l
me/l
mg/l
<4
<3
<0.7
4 - 10
>3
0.7 - 3.0
>10
mg/l
me/l
<5
5 - 30
>30
<1.5
1.5 - 8.5
>8.5
(Normal Range 6.5 - 8.4)
>3.0
Notes:
1. ECw means electrical conductivity, a measure of the water salinity, reported in
deciSemens per metre at 25C (dS/m).
2. TDS means total dissolved solids, reported in milligrams per litre (mg/l).
3.
SAR means sodium adsorption ratio. SAR is sometimes reported by the symbol Tte. At
a given SAR, infiltration rate increases as water salinity increases. Evaluate the potential
infiltration problem by SAR as modified by EC. Adapted from Rhoades 1977; and Oster
and Schroer 1979
4. NO3-N means nitrate nitrogen reported in terms of elemental nitrogen. (NH4-N and
Organic-N should be included when wastewater is being tested).
Chemical and physical characteristics of water from the proposed water sources are shown
Table 2.9.
Table 2.9 - The pH and ECw of Water from the Proposed Sources
Lake Challa
8.19
Water Source
Challa Irrigation
Scheme Borehole
8.13
7.62
0.26
0.56
0.06
2.06
1.58
Not Detected
4.34
3.50
0.42
0.42
0.27
0.56
0.06
1.93
1.21
Not Detected
4.35
3.75
0.35
0.45
0.26
0.46
0.03
3.50
1.27
Not Detected
4.05
3.38
2.19
0.30
Parameter
pH
Electrical Conductivity
mS/cm
Sodium (me/l)
Potassium (me/l)
Calcium (me/l)
Magnesium (me/l)
Carbonates (me/l)
Bicarbonates (me/l)
Chlorides (me/l)
Sulphates (me/l)
Sodium Adsorption Ratio
Nakuruto
Borehole
2.4.4.7 SUMMARY OF WATER QUALITY

The water quality is satisfactory and suitable for irrigation purposes and can be used on most
soils and crops.
2.5
CURRENT AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION
2.5.1 AGRICULTURE AND LAND USE

Agriculture is the mainstay of majority of rural communities in Kenya and as such, people in
Taveta derive their livelihoods directly or indirectly from agriculture.
The agricultural potential of the arable land in the district is estimated to be 33,550 ha. The
area under cultivation is estimated to be 9,721 ha out of which 3,943 ha is under irrigation.
About 356,160.7 ha of land is covered by the National Park and forests.
The major land uses in the Lake Challa project area are subsistence rain-fed agriculture and
livestock keeping. Due to the harsh climatic conditions livestock production systems are
more extensively practiced than crop production. This is also aggregated by crop invasion by
wildlife particularly elephants. Other land uses include forest cover, bush land.
2.5.2 CROP PRODUCTION
Crop production in Taveta and Mwatate Districts is dominated by:
Food crops, which comprise cereals, pulses and root crops;
Horticultural crops, which include vegetables, fruits and fruit trees; and
Industrial crops, which include the factory processed crops such as sunflower, sisal
and tobacco.
Crop production is largely dependent on rainfall with a few acreages of horticultural crops
under irrigation. The major cropping season is the long rains and farming systems are
characterized by low levels of input use and are labour intensive.
Table 2.10 gives the statistics food crop production in Taveta District during the- 2009/2010
financial year.
Table 2.10 - Food Crop Production Statistics, Taveta District- 2009/2010
Crop
Maize
Sorghum
Rice
Millet
Beans
Pigeon
peas
LONG RAINS
(2009 crop)
(ha) Yield/ha
1,071
40
178
22
337
22
18
10
8
10
8
8
Total
Production
20, 992
400
1,680
160
3,200
176
SHORT RAINS
(2009/10 crop)
Area
Target
(ha)
Yield /ha
3,115
18
16
0
107
8
0
0
335
8
1
8
Total
Total
Production
25,330
0
886
0
2,037
2
46,322
400
2,566
160
5,237
178
Green
Grams
Cowpeas
Sweet
Potatoes
Cassava
Arrow
roots
101
812
55
162
974
117
21
8
12
1,448
253
39
5
8
12
154
59
1,601
312
39
11
12
12
451
128
21
4
12
12
181
20
632
147
Source: Farm Management Guidelines, Taveta District, 2009/2010
From the table above, it is evident that the yields of most crops are low compared to the
potential/ recommended yields. The low crop yields could be attributed to among others lack
of water and harsh climatic conditions.
2.5.3 CONCLUSIONS
The present agricultural production is largely under rain-fed conditions. The rainfall is not
sufficient to meet the water requirement of crops and this result in extremely low crop yields.
Irrigation farming is, therefore, the most reliable source of livelihood in the District.
2.6
PROPOSED CROPPING PATTERN FOR PROJECT AREA
Water availability, climate and type of crops grown at present are considered as key factors in
determining the proposed cropping pattern for the project area. Other factors such as farmers
preference, labour availability during peak season, cash requirement, market conditions and
the likes were also considered in the determination of cropping pattern.
The following selection criteria were taken into consideration for determining the cropping
pattern for the project area.
Adaptability of the crops to the general conditions of soil and climate of the
area.
Intended objectives of the project which among others include :

-
To bring about a state of sustainable food security in the target area in

particular and the whole region in general.
Promote the production of high value and market oriented crops.
Promote increased production of industrial and export crops
Availability of improved production technologies.
Existing market demand around the project area and in the neighbouring areas
in general.
Based on the results of an agro-economic baseline survey undertaken by the Consultants,

during which various agronomic and socio-economic issues were considered, major and
minor existing and proposed irrigated food security and commercial crops were accordingly
ranked. In addition, recommendations were sought from various stake holders. The list of
crops and acreages to be considered under irrigated agriculture is presented in the Table 2.11
below.
Table 2.11 - Proposed Overall Cropping Pattern
Season
Season One
(March to
July
Type of
Crop
Area
(ha)
%
Area
Individual
Crops
Cereal
190
19
17
Legumes
165
Maize
Beans
Green Grams
Cowpeas
Tomatoes
Kales
Water Melons
Onions
Chillies
Bananas
Pawpaws
Sunflower
285
28
330
32
Oil Crop
Sub-total
Cereal
40
1,010
190
4
100
19
17
Legumes
165
Vegetables
Fruits
Season Two
(September
to January)
28
330
32
40
1,010
2,020
4
100
100
Vegetables
Fruits
Oil Crop
Sub-total
TOTAL
285
Maize
Beans
Green Grams
Cowpeas
Tomatoes
Kales
Water Melons
Onions
Chillies
Bananas
Pawpaws
Sunflower
Irrigated Area
per Season
(ha)
190
60
45
60
40
35
50
110
50
185
145
40
1,010
190
60
45
60
40
35
50
110
50
185
145
40
1,010
2,020
% Area
19
6
4
6
4
3
5
11
5
18
14
4
100
19
6
4
6
4
3
5
11
5
18
14
4
100
100
Table 2.12- Proposed Cropping Pattern by Project Areas

Season
Crop
Maize
Beans
Green
grams
Cowpeas
Season Tomatoes
One
Kales
(March Sunflower
to July Bananas
Melons
Pawpaws
Onions
Chillies
Sub-total
Maize
Beans
Green
grams
Cowpeas
Season Tomatoes
Two
Kales
(Sept Sunflower
to Jan) Bananas
Melons
Pawpaws
Onions
Chillies
Sub-total
TOTAL
2.7
Nakuruto
Area (ha)
Timbila Jipe
Scheme Scheme
Kilanga
Pilot
Scheme
-
Challa
Scheme
20
-
10
-
20
-
100
45
40
15
190
60
20
10
20
10
20
10
10
100
-
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
100
20
-
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
100
20
-
30
20
25
100
10
75
50
10
465
100
45
15
15
15
40
5
25
25
5
200
40
15
45
60
40
35
40
185
50
145
110
50
1,010
190
60
20
10
20
10
20
10
10
100
200
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
100
200
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
100
200
30
20
25
100
10
75
50
10
465
930
15
15
15
40
5
25
25
5
200
400
45
60
40
35
40
185
50
145
110
50
1,010
2,020
5
5
5
5
5
5
45
10
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
45
90
IRRIGATION METHODS
There are three methods of irrigation commonly practiced in the country;
Surface Irrigation
Sprinkler Irrigation
Drip (Trickle Irrigation)
Mwaktau
Scheme
Total
(ha)
2.7.1 Surface Irrigation

Surface irrigation refers to a broad class of irrigation methods in which water is distributed
over the field by overland flow. A flow is introduced at one edge of the field and covers the
field gradually. The rate of coverage (advance) is dependent almost entirely on the
differences between the discharge onto the field and the accumulating infiltration into the
soil.
In surface irrigation systems, water moves over and across the land by simple gravity flow in
order to wet it and to infiltrate into the soil. Surface irrigation can be used for all types of
crops and may be commonly classified into furrow, border-strip or basin irrigation.
2.7.1.2
Furrow Irrigation
Furrows are small, parallel channels, made to carry water in order to irrigate the crop. The
crops are usually grown on the ridges between the furrows which must be carefully dug to
ensure an even distribution of water. Water is applied to the upper end of each furrow and
flows down the furrow with water infiltrating into the beds or ridges between the furrows on
which the crop is grown.
The flow of water into a furrow should be large enough to reach the end, but small enough
not to cause erosion, flooding or excessive tail losses. The size of the flow must be adjusted
to the infiltration rate of the soil, land slope, furrow length, erosion hazard and depth to be
applied. Depending on available water, and skill of irrigator, several furrows are irrigated at
the same time.
2.7.1.3
Basin Irrigation
Water is applied from a small canal by gravity to fill a level basin surrounded by earth buds.
The design is based on rapid application of water over the entire basin at a rate of least 2 to 4
times the infiltration rate of the soil6. The method is suitable for very flat and level land and
soils with low infiltration rates.
The cultivation of paddy rice is normally done using basin irrigation.
2.7.1.4
Border Strip Irrigation
Borders are usually long, uniformly graded strips of land, separated by earth bunds. In
Contrast to basin irrigation these bunds are not to contain the water for ponding but to guide
it as it flows down the field.
The field to be irrigated is divided into a number of level strips between ridges. Water is
applied from one end and, in flowing downslope, progressively covers the entire strip with a
thin sheet of water. Length and width of the strip depend on soil and land characteristics.
Civil Engineers Reference Book Fourth Edition (Blake, L. S.)
2.7.2
In the sprinkler method of irrigation, water is sprayed into the air and allowed to fall on the
ground surface, somewhat resembling rainfall. Water is distributed through a system of pipes
and then sprayed into the air through sprinklers so that it breaks up into small water drops
(between 0.5 and 4.0 mm in size) which fall to the ground. The spray is developed by the
flow of water under pressure through small orifices or nozzles.
The small drops fall close to the sprinkler whereas the larger ones fall close to the edge of the
wetted circle. Large drops can damage delicate crops and soils and so in such conditions it is
best to use the smaller sprinklers. Drop size is also controlled by pressure and nozzle sizes.
When the pressures are low, drops tend to be much larger as the water jet does not break up
easily.
Sprinkler irrigation can be used for almost all crops (except rice and jute) and on most soils. It
is, however, not usually suitable in very fine textured soil (heavy clay soils), where the
infiltration rates are very low, less than about 4 mm/h, and is particularly suited to sandy soils
that have a high infiltration rate.
Sprinkler irrigation is suited for most row, field and tree crops and water can be sprayed over
or under the crop canopy. Sprinkler irrigation is adaptable to any farmable slope, whether
uniform or undulating.
The application of water by overhead sprinklers takes many forms which include the
following.
1. Permanent and Solid Set
This consists of a network of pipes and sprinklers which covers the whole area to be
irrigated. This is the most expensive form of sprinkler irrigation.
2. Lateral Move Sprinklers
This consists of sprinklers on a lateral line that is moved by hand after each irrigation
application to the next area of irrigation to be irrigated. This is the most widely used system.
3. Traveller Systems
These are motorized methods of moving sprinklers and include:
Side roll - lateral pipe and sprinklers on wheels pushed by hand or small motor
from one position to the next irrigation position;
Mobile rain gun single gun winched across field whilst irrigating and fed
from a hose reel;
Centre pivot overhead lateral with sprinklers which rotates about centre
whilst irrigating;
Linear move similar to centre pivot but moves laterally across the field.
The most common system in developing countries is the lateral move sprinkler system.
Figure 2.3 Typical Portable Lateral Move Overhead Sprinkler System

2.7.3
Drip (Or Trickle) Irrigation
Drip irrigation works by applying water slowly, directly to the soil. Water is delivered at or
near the root zone of plants, drop by drop to individual trees, groups of plants or plant rows
through a system of small diameter plastic pipes fitted with outlets called drippers or emitters,
placed on laterals delivering a flow of between 2 to 20 1/h each.
Water is applied close to plants so that only part of the soil in which the roots grow is wetted,
unlike surface and sprinkler irrigation, which involves wetting the whole soil profile.
Drip Irrigation is the most expensive, but most water-efficient, method.
2.8
CHOICE OF IRRIGATION METHOD(S)
The choice of an appropriate irrigation method is determined by the following factors;

a. Natural conditions
b. Type(s) of crop(s)
c. Type and level of technology
d. Previous experience with irrigation
e. Required labour inputs
f. Costs and benefits.

2.8.1
Natural Conditions
The natural conditions such as soil type, slope, climate, water quality and availability, have
the following impact on the choice of an irrigation method.
Soil Type
On loam or clay soils all three irrigation methods can be used, but surface irrigation is more
commonly used.
Sprinklers are best suited to sandy soils with high infiltration rates although they are
adaptable to most soils. Sprinklers are not suitable for soils which easily form a crust. If
sprinkler irrigation is the only method available, then light fine sprays should be used. The
larger sprinklers producing larger water droplets are to be avoided.
Furrows can be used on most soil types. However, as with all surface irrigation methods, very
coarse sands are not recommended as percolation losses can be high. Soils that crust easily
are especially suited to furrow irrigation because the water does not flow over the ridge, and
so the soil in which the plants grow remains friable. Clay soils with low infiltration rates are
ideally suited to surface irrigation.
When a variety of different soil types is found within one irrigation scheme, sprinkler or drip
irrigation are recommended as they will ensure a more even water distribution.
Slope
Sprinkler or drip irrigation are preferred over furrow irrigation on steeper or unevenly sloping
lands as they require little or no land levelling. Sprinkler irrigation is adaptable to any
farmable slope, whether uniform or undulating. The lateral pipes supplying water to the
sprinklers should always be laid out along the land contour whenever possible. This will
minimize the pressure changes at the sprinklers and provide a uniform irrigation.
Uniform flat or gentle slopes are preferred for furrow irrigation. These should not exceed
0.5%. Usually a gentle furrow slope is provided up to 0.05% to assist drainage following
irrigation or excessive rainfall with high intensity.
On steeper sloping land, contour furrows can be used up to a maximum land slope of 3%. On
undulating land furrows should follow the land contours
Climate
Strong wind can disturb the spraying of water from sprinklers. Under very windy conditions,
drip or surface irrigation methods are preferred. In areas of supplementary irrigation,
sprinkler or drip irrigation may be more suitable than surface irrigation because of their
flexibility and adaptability to varying irrigation demands on the farm.
Water Availability and Quality

Water application efficiency is generally higher with sprinkler and drip irrigation than surface
irrigation
Surface irrigation is preferred if the irrigation water contains much sediment. The sediments
may clog the drip or sprinkler irrigation systems.
A good clean supply of water, free of suspended sediments, is required to avoid problems of
sprinkler nozzle blockage and spoiling the crop by coating it with sediment
Low-quality water (high in salts) should not be used, unless filtered, due to potentially
devastating effects of clogged emitters. Also, the use of water high in soluble salts will result
in localized soil salinity buildup around plants, since drip irrigation is an ineffective leaching
method.
2.8.2
Type(s) of Crop(s)
Sprinkler and drip irrigation, because of their high capital investment per hectare, are mostly
used for high value cash crops, such as vegetables and fruit trees. They are seldom used for
the lower value staple crops.
Sprinkler irrigation is suited for most row, field and tree crops and water can be sprayed over
or under the crop canopy. However, large sprinklers are not recommended for irrigation of
delicate crops because the large water drops produced by the sprinklers may damage the crop.
Furrow irrigation is best used for irrigating the following crops:
Row crops such as maize and vegetables;
Crops that would be damaged by inundation, such as tomatoes, vegetables, potatoes,

beans;
Fruit trees such as citrus, mangoes, bananas
2.8.3
Type and Level of Technology
The type of technology affects the choice of irrigation method. In general, drip and sprinkler
irrigation are technically more complicated methods. The purchase of equipment requires
high capital investment per hectare. To maintain the equipment a high level of 'know-how'
has to be available.
Surface irrigation systems, in particular small-scale schemes, usually require less
sophisticated equipment for both construction and maintenance (unless pumps are used). The
equipment needed is often easier to maintain.
2.8.4
Previous Experience with Irrigation
The choice of an irrigation method also depends on the irrigation tradition within the region
or country. Introducing a previously unknown method may lead to unexpected complications.
It is not certain that the farmers will accept the new method. The servicing of the equipment
may be problematic and the costs may be high compared to the benefits.
2.8.5
Required Labour Inputs
Furrow irrigation requires, regular maintenance and a high level of farmers' organization to
operate the system than sprinkler or drip irrigation systems
Sprinkler and drip irrigation require little land leveling and the systems operations and
maintenance are less labour-intensive.
2.8.6
Costs and Benefits
Sprinkler irrigation methods are more expensive than furrow irrigation, but are more efficient
at using water.
The drip irrigation method is the most water-efficient but the most expensive.
Construction/installation, operation and maintenance costs are compared with the expected
benefits (yields) to determine the most profitable method.
2.9
COMPARISONS OF VARIOUS IRRIGATION METHOD(S)
In order to choose an appropriate irrigation method(s), some of the advantages and

disadvantages of the various methods should be considered to determine the one which suits
the local conditions best. A comparison of the various irrigation methods, based on ten
important parameters, is presented in the table below.
Table 2.13 - Parameters Affecting the Choice of Irrigation Methods

No
1
Parameter
Initial
Investment
Cost
Operations
Surface Irrigation
Relatively inexpensive
(where water costs are low)
method per given area.
These systems can be
developed at the farm level
with minimal capital
investment. The control and
regulation structures are
simple, durable and easily
constructed with
inexpensive and readilyavailable materials like
wood, concrete, brick and
mortar, etc.
Surface systems tend to be
labour-intensive. Labour
engaged per irrigation is
higher than sprinkler and
drip.
Initial cost per given
area is higher than
surface irrigation.
High water pressure
required (>25 m
head)
Drip Irrigation
More expensive than
a more traditional
sprinkler system per
given area
Labour engaged per

irrigation is higher
than drip.
A drip irrigation
system can be
automated.
Labour required only
for starting and
stopping the system.
Ground
Topograph
y
Not suitable for undulating

ground and slopes of more
than 3%.
Suitable for
undulating ground
and slopes of up to
16%
Suitable for steep/

undulating land.
Pressure
compensating emitters
are available, so the
field does not have to
be level.
Table 2.13 - Parameters Affecting the Choice of Irrigation Methods (continued)

No
4
Parameter
Land
Preparation
Depth and
Porosity of
soil
Surface Irrigation
Perfect land smoothening
and levelling required.
(May be difficult to use on
irregular slopes as
considerable land levelling
may be required to achieve
the required land gradients).
Not suitable for shallow
and porous soils- Deep
percolation is more in light
soils while Runoff loss is
more in heavy soils.
Not suitable for coarse sand
(with an infiltration rate of
more than 30 mm/h)
Only land
smoothening is
required
Drip Irrigation
Only land
smoothening is
required
Suitable for shallow/

deep and all types of
soils except fine
textured soils (heavy
clay soils), where the
infiltration rates are
less than about 4
mm/h.
Adaptable to nearly
all irrigable soils
since sprinklers are
available in a wide
range of discharge
capacity.
Suitable for shallow/

deep and all types of
soils as flow rates can
be controlled.

No
6
Parameter
Water Use
and
Application
efficiency
Surface Irrigation
Losses occur due to
percolation, runoff,
and evaporation.
Application efficiency
of
50-60%
Higher water
application efficiency
(75-85%)
No channels for
conveyance, therefore
no conveyance loss.
Uneven water
distribution due to
high winds -difficulty
in irrigation during
wind in sprinkler
Evaporation loss when
operating under high
Drip Irrigation
Runoff and deep
percolation losses are
minimal with an
application efficiency of
90-95%
Weeds
Infestation
Weeds infestation is
very high.
Diseases
and Pests
Infestation
High
temperatures.
Weeds infestation is
high.
Problems due to foliar
moisture-some
diseases can arise if
over watering occurs.
Enhance weed control

by keeping much of the
soil surface dry.
Relatively less because
of less atmospheric
humidity and reduced
contact of water with
crop leaves, stems, and
fruit.

No
Parameter
Surface Irrigation
Quality of
water
Saline water cannot be

used for irrigation.
10
Application
of
Chemicals
(Fertilisers,
Herbicides,
Insecticides,
and
Fungicides
Not suitable for

application of agricultural
chemicals
2.10
Sprinkler
Irrigation
Saline water cannot
be used for
irrigation.
Not suitable for

application of
agricultural
chemicals
Drip Irrigation
Frequent irrigation
avoids the built up of
salt concentration
within root zone by
pushing salts away
from root zone.
Agricultural
chemicals(herbicides,
insecticides, and
fungicides can be
applied more
efficiently with drip
irrigation
(Fertigation)
PREFERRED IRRIGATION METHOD(S)
Based on the factors enumerated in sections 2.8 and 2.9 of this report, above, the following
observations and recommendations were made in the project areas;
1. Water application efficiency is generally higher with sprinkler and drip irrigation than
surface irrigation methods. The drip irrigation method is the most water-efficient but
the most expensive.
2. Sprinkler and drip irrigation, because of their high capital investment per hectare, are
mostly used for high value cash crops, such as vegetables and fruit trees. They are
seldom used for the lower value staple crops.
3. Sprinkler or drip irrigation methods are preferred over furrow irrigation on whether
uniform or undulating loping lands as they require little or no land levelling. On the
other hand while surface irrigation methods can be used for all types of crops, they
may be difficult to use on irregular slopes as considerable land levelling may be
required to achieve the required land gradients.
4. The type of technology affects the choice of irrigation method. In general, drip and
sprinkler irrigation are technically more complicated methods. The purchase of
equipment requires high capital investment per hectare. To maintain the equipment a
high level of 'know-how' has to be available. The choice of an irrigation method also
depends on the irrigation tradition within the region. Introducing a previously
unknown method may lead to unexpected complications. It is not certain that the
farmers will accept the new method. Servicing of the required equipment may be
problematic and the costs may be high compared to the benefits. Surface irrigation
systems, in particular small-scale schemes, usually require less sophisticated
equipment for both construction and maintenance
5. The use of water high in soluble salts will result in localized soil salinity buildup
around plants, since drip irrigation is an ineffective leaching method. This method is
not recommended on any of the sites.
6. A combination of the drip and overhead sprinkler system is recommended for the
Kilanga Scheme. The fact that the farm is expected to be a pilot scheme which will be
managed by CDA who in a position to engage qualified personnel to operate and
maintain the required equipment.
7. For Nakuruto, Jipe and Mwaktau Schemes, the preferred method of irrigation would
be the furrow irrigation. The people in the region are already practicing it in the
nearby Challa and Timbila Schemes. Furthermore, the use of the overhead sprinkler
systems would incur additional capital, operational and maintenance costs. The initial
cost per given area is higher for sprinkler than surface irrigation as high water
pressure of at least 25 m head is required.
The preferred methods of irrigation for different proposed crops are given in Table 2.14
below;
Table 2.14 - Preferred Method(s) of Irrigation for Various Crops
Area
Challa (Existing Scheme)

Timbila(Existing Scheme)
Jipe
Mwaktau
Crop
Tomatoes
Kales
Bananas
Melons
Pawpaws
Onions
Chillies
All crops
All crops
All crops
All crops
Mode of irrigation
Drip
Sprinkler
Drip
Sprinkler
Sprinkler
Sprinkler
Sprinkler
Surface (Furrow) Irrigation
2.11
CROP AND IRRIGATION WATER REQUIREMENTS
2.11.1 Crop Water Requirements (ET CROP )

2.11.1.2
DEFINITION
Crop water requirement, ETcrop, is defined as the depth of water required by the crop to meet
the water loss through evapotranspiration. The modified Penman Method (FAO paper No.56,
1998) is a globally accepted empirical method for estimating the crop water requirement
utilizing the available climatological data for a particular location. The Modified Penman
equation is given by;
ETcrop = ETO x KC.. (1)
Where
ETcrop is the Crop water requirement (mm)
ETo is the Reference Evapotranspiration (mm) and
KC is the Crop Coefficient (dimensionless).
2.11.1.3
REFERENCE EVAPOTRANSPIRATION (ETo)
The evapotranspiration rate from a reference surface, not short of water, is called the
reference crop evapotranspiration or reference evapotranspiration. A large uniform grass field
with specific characteristics is considered worldwide as the reference surface. ET o expresses
the evaporating power of the atmosphere at a specific location and time of the year and does
not consider the crop characteristics and soil factors.
The only factors affecting ETo are climatic parameters. Consequently, ETo is a climatic
parameter and can be computed from weather data.
For Kenya7, ETo can be found by multiplying the evaporation from a free water surface (Eo)
by an adjustment factor, this one being;
For highlands (above 1,100m)
= 0.75
For hot and dry low areas (below 1,100m) = 0.80

Hence for Taveta Area,
ETo
=
0.8
Eo(2)
Values for Eo (open water surface evaporation) found in Studies of Potential Evaporation in
Kenya by T. Woodhead8, alongside the computed values of ETo, are shown in the Table 2.15
below.
7
Table 15 - Estimated Reference Evapotranspiration (ETo)
Month
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
2.11.1.4
Eo -Open Water
Surface evaporation
(mm/month)9
Eo -Open Water
Surface evaporation
(mm/day)
175
175
175
150
140
135
135
145
165
185
175
175
5.65
6.25
5.65
5.00
4.52
4.50
4.35
4.68
5.50
5.97
5.83
5.65
ETo Estimated
Reference
Evapotranspiration
(mm/day)
4.52
5.00
4.52
4.00
3.61
3.60
3.48
3.74
4.40
4.77
4.67
4.52
CROP COEFFICIENT (Kc)
Factors affecting the value of KC are mainly crop characteristics, crop planting data, crop
development, length of growing season and climate considerations. Crop transpiration
increases over the growing season with the growth of the canopy surface while the soil
evaporation decreases proportionally over the growing season as the ground surface is
increasingly shaded by the crop canopy. There are four distinguishable crop growth stages
1. The initial stage: when the crop uses little water;
2. The crop development stage, when the water consumption increases;
3. The mid-season stage, when water consumption reaches a peak;
4. The late-season stage, when the maturing crop once again requires less water
The effect of both crop transpiration and soil evaporation are integrated into a single crop
coefficient KC incorporating crop characteristics and average effects of evaporation from the
soil.
The table below shows the crop coefficients of the selected crops at various stages of
development while the next table superimposes the applicable crop coefficients with the
proposed cropping calendar.
Table 2.16 - Crop Coefficients10 (Kc)

Crop
Crop
No.
Type
1
Cereals
Maize
Beans
Green Grams
2
Legumes
Cowpeas
Tomatoes
Kales
3
Vegetables Water Melons
Onions
Chillies
Bananas
4
Fruits
Pawpaw
5
Oil crops
Sunflower
Growing Period
(Days)
120 - 140
90-110
90-110
90-110
90-110
75-100
125-145
90-110
90-110
>365
>365
120-140
Initial
Stage
0.40
0.35
0.35
0.35
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.50
0.35
0.60
0.60
0.305
Table 2.17 - Cropping Calendar and Applicable Crop Coefficients

Crop
Mar
Apr
May
Maize
0.4
0.8
0.8
0.8
1.15
1.15
Beans
0.35
0.75
0.75
1.15 1.15
0.7
Green Grams
0.35
0.75
0.75
1.15 1.15
0.7
Cowpeas
0.35
0.75
0.75
1.15 1.15
0.7
Tomatoes
0.45
0.75
0.75
1.15 1.15
0.9
Kales
0.45
0.75
1.05
1.05 0.95
0.9
Water Melons
0.45
0.75
0.75
0.75 1.0
1.0
Onions
0.5
0.8
0.8
1.1
1.1
0.9
Chillies
0.35
0.7
0.7
1.1
1.1
1.0
Bananas
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.85
0.85
10
Crop
Development
0.80
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.80
0.70
0.85
0.85
0.75
Jun
1.15
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.6
0.85
0.8
0.85
0.85
Mid
Season
1.15
1.15
1.15
1.15
1.15
1.05
1.0
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.15
0.9
Jul
0.6
0.85
0.7
0.85
1.1
Late
Season
0.90
0.70
0.70
0.70
0.90
0.95
0.85
0.90
1.0
1.1
1.1
0.75
At
Harvest
0.60
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.60
0.90
0.70
0.80
0.85
0.1
1.1
0.40
Aug
1.1
1.1
1.1
Crop
Pawpaw
Sunflower
Crop
Maize
Beans
Green Grams
Cowpeas
Tomatoes
Kales
Water Melons
Onions
Chillies
Bananas
Pawpaw
Sunflower
Key to Table 2.17
Season
One
Mar
0.6
0.35
Sep
0.4
0.35
0.35
0.35
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.5
0.35
0.6
0.6
0.35
0.6
0.75
0.8
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.6
0.75
Apr
0.6
0.75
Oct
0.8
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
1.05
0.75
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.6
0.75
0.6
1.15
0.8
1.15
1.15
1.15
1.15
1.05
0.75
1.1
1.1
0.6
0.6
1.15
May
0.85
1.15
Nov
1.15
1.15
1.15
1.15
1.15
0.95
1
1.1
1.1
0.85
0.85
1.15
Annual crops
0.85
1.15
1.15
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.9
0.9
1
0.9
1
0.85
0.85
1.15
Jun
0.85
0.75
Dec
1.15
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.6
0.6
0.85
0.8
0.85
0.85
0.85
0.75
0.9
Jul
1.1
0.4
Jan
0.6
0.85
0.7
0.85
0.85
0.75
1.1
1.1
0.4
0.85
0.75
1.1
Aug
1.1
1.1
Feb
1.1
1.1
Season
Two
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
2.11.1.5
ESTIMATION OF CROP WATER REQUIREMENTS (ETcrop)
The applicable CROP WATER REQUIREMENTS (ETcrop) have been computed by applying
equation (1) and using the values of ETo and applicable crop coefficients (KC) as determined
in Sections 6.1.2 and 6.1.3 and tabulated in the Table below.
Table 2.18 - Estimated Crop Water Requirements (ETcrop)(mm)
Season
One
Season
Two
Crop
Maize
Beans
Green
Grams
Cowpeas
Tomatoes
Kales
Water
Melons
Onions
Chillies
Bananas
Pawpaw
Sunflower
Crop
Maize
Beans
Green
Grams
Cowpeas
Tomatoes
Kales
Water
Melons
Onions
Chillies
Bananas
Pawpaw
Sunflower
Mar
83.1
76.1
Apr
96.0
114.0
May
128.8
104.4
June
110.7
16.2
July
33.4
-
Aug
-
Total
452.0
310.7
76.1
76.1
83.3
83.3
114.0
114.0
114.0
126.0
104.4
104.4
115.3
103.7
16.2
16.2
32.4
-
310.7
310.7
345.0
313.0
83.3
90.3
72.7
119
119
76.1
Sept
79.2
72.6
90.0
114.0
108.0
102
102
114.0
Oct
118.4
139.6
112.0
112.4
117.8
123.2
123.2
128.8
Nov
161.0
129.5
91.8
43.2
45.9
118.8
118.8
81.0
Dec
144.1
21.7
64.8
64.8
22.3
Jan
43.4
-
69.6
69.6
Feb
-
416.1
359.9
344.4
597.4
597.4
422.2
Total
546.0
363.4
72.6
72.6
79.2
79.2
139.6
139.6
139.6
155.4
129.5
129.5
143.5
129.5
21.7
21.7
43.4
0
363.4
363.4
405.7
364.1
79.2
85.8
69.3
112.2
112.2
72.6
111.0
139.9
132.2
125.8
125.8
139.6
140.0
140.0
147.0
154.0
154.0
161.0
119.0
57.8
61.4
154.0
154.0
105.0
50.6
84.0
84.0
28.9
87.0
87.0
-
499.8
423.5
410.0
717.0
717.0
507.1
Worked Example 1
Estimation of Crop Water Requirements
ETcrop = ETO x KC as per equation (1)
For Maize in the month of March,
ETo = 4.52 mm/day and KC= 0.4 (16 days) and KC = 0.8 (15 days)
Therefore; ETcrop = 4.52 x [(0.4 x 16) + (0.8 x 15)] = 83.097 mm(3)

Other detailed calculations are tabulated in Table 2.18.
Table 2.19 - Estimated Annual Crop Water Requirements (ETcrop) (mm)
Maize
Beans
Green Grams
Cowpeas
Tomato
Kales
Water Melons
Onions
Chilies
Bananas
Pawpaw
Sunflower
Long Rains
452.0
310.7
310.7
310.7
345.0
313.0
416.1
359.9
344.4
597.4
597.4
422.2
Short Rains
546.0
363.4
363.4
363.4
405.7
364.1
499.8
423.5
410.0
717.0
717.0
507.1
Total
998.0
674.1
674.1
674.1
750.7
677.1
915.9
783.4
754.4
1314.4
1314.4
929.3
2.11.2 Net Irrigation Water Requirements (NIR)

2.11.2.2
DEFINITION
The Net Irrigation Water Requirement (NIR) is defined as the amount of water needed to
meet the Crop Water Requirement (ETCROP) less portion of rainfall stored in soil and
effectively utilised by the crop. Basically, the irrigation water requirement basically
represents the difference between the crop water requirement and effective precipitation.
Hence NIR = ETCROP - REFF .
Where,
NIR
ETCROP
REFF
2.11.2.3
Net Irrigation Requirement (mm)
Crop Water Requirement (mm)
(4)
Effective Rainfall (mm)
EFFECTIVE RAINFALL
Crop water needs can be fully or partly met by rainfall. Not all rainfall that falls is effective
(for the crops), as part of it may be lost by run-off, deep percolation or evaporation, hence the
term effective rainfall. The amount of effective rainfall mainly depends upon intensity of
rainfall, crop water requirements, soil type, and root depth of plant.
The average monthly effective rainfall is obtained based on its empirical relationship with the
mean monthly rainfall (Table 2.1) for different values of average monthly ETCROP (Crop
water requirements) (Table 2.18). A storage factor is applied when effective storage in the
root in the root zone differs from 75mm.11
The average available water in soil profile for all the project sites, as per the Soils Report in
the Feasibility Study, is 162.6 mm/m.12
Table 2.20 gives the effective soil storages and the applicable factors for the various crops as
extracted from the Practice Manual for Water Services in Kenya Ministry of Water and
Irrigation (October 2005). An adjustment factor of 1.06 is applicable where the effective
storage is greater or less than 75 mm.
Table 2.20 - Effective Soil Storages
Crop
Maize
Beans
Green grams
Cowpeas
Tomatoes
Kales
Water Melons
Onions
Chillies
Bananas
Pawpaws
Sunflower
Average Root
Zone13 (m)
1
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.7
0.3
0.8
0.3
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.8
Effective Storage
(mm)
162.6
97.6
97.6
97.6
113.8
48.8
130.1
48.8
81.3
81.3
81.3
130.1
Adjustment Factor14
1.06
1.02
1.02
1.02
1.03
0.93
1.04
0.93
1
1
1
1.04
The result of effective rainfall estimation for various crops, as extrapolated from the Practice
Manual for Water Services in Kenya Ministry of Water and Irrigation (October 2005) is
given in Table 2.21.
11
12
13
Irrigation and Drainage Paper No 56 - Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO) 1998
14
Worked Example 2
Estimation of Effective Rainfall (REFF)
Average available water in soil profile = 162.6 mm/m (See Section 2.11.2.3 of this Report)
For Maize, Average Root Zone = 1 m, (Table 2.20)
Therefore;
Effective Storage =162.6 mm/m x 1 m =162.6 mm (An adjustment factor of 1.06 is
applicable as per Table 2.20)
For ETcrop = 83.097 mm (equation (3)) and mean monthly rainfall of 95 mm (Figure 2.1) and
through extrapolation from Table 7 of the Practice Manual for Water Services in Kenya
Ministry of Water and Irrigation (October 2005) and applying a Storage Factor of 1.06 then
Estimated Effective Rainfall (REFF) = 58 x 1.06 = 61.480 mm . (5)
Table 2.21 - Estimated Effective Rainfall (REFF) (mm)
Season
Season
One
Season
Two
Crop
Maize
Beans
Green Grams
Cowpeas
Tomatoes
Kales
Water
Melons
Onions
Chilies
Bananas
Pawpaw
Sunflower
Crop
Maize
Beans
Green Grams
Cowpeas
Tomato
Kales
Water
Melons
Onions
Chilies
Mar
Apr
May
June
July
Aug
Total
61.5
59.2
59.2
59.2
57.7
52.1
95.4
91.8
91.8
91.8
92.7
85.6
48.8
45.9
45.9
45.9
46.4
42.8
15.9
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.2
-
4.2
-
225.8
203.0
203.0
203.0
202.9
180.4
64.5
57.7
62.0
66.0
66.0
58.2
Sept
87.4
83.7
90.0
90.0
90.0
95.7
Oct
44.7
44.6
46.0
43.0
43.0
48.9
Nov
14.6
7.4
8.0
13.0
13.0
15.6
Dec
8.3
7.0
7.0
8.3
Jan
8.0
8.0
Feb
219.4
193.4
206.0
233.0
227.0
226.7
Total
8.5
8.2
8.2
8.2
7.2
6.5
15.9
15.3
15.3
15.3
15.5
13.0
91.2
81.6
81.6
81.6
82.4
70.7
60.4
20.4
20.4
20.4
20.6
-
21.2
-
197.2
125.5
125.5
125.5
125.7
90.2
9.4
8.4
9.0
13.5
14.9
13.0
90.5
76.3
85.0
56.2
25.1
25.0
20.8
-
190.3
124.6
132.0
Season
2.11.2.4
Crop
Bananas
Pawpaw
Sunflower
Mar
9.0
9.0
8.3
Apr
15.0
15.0
16.6
May
85.0
85.0
91.5
June
53.0
53.0
58.2
July
36.0
36.0
20.8
Aug
26.0
26.0
-
Total
224.0
224.0
195.5
ESTIMATED NET IRRIGATION WATER REQUIREMENTS (NIR)
Based on equation 3, the estimated monthly and yearly net irrigation water requirement (NIR)
for the proposed project cropping scheme is given in Table 2.22.
Table 2.22 -Estimated Net Irrigation Water Requirements (NIR)(mm)
Season
Season
One
Season
Two
Crop
Maize
Beans
Green Grams
Cowpeas
Tomato
Kales
Water Melons
Onions
Chilies
Bananas
Pawpaw
Sunflower
Crop
Maize
Beans
Green Grams
Cowpeas
Tomato
Kales
Water Melons
Onions
Chilies
Bananas
Pawpaw
Sunflower
Mar
21.7
16.9
16.9
16.9
25.6
31.2
18.8
32.7
10.7
53.0
53.0
17.9
Sept
Apr
0.6
22.2
22.2
22.2
21.3
40.4
2.64
30.3
18.0
12.0
12.0
18.3
Oct
May
80.0
58.5
58.5
58.5
68.9
60.9
67.3
67.7
71.8
80.2
80.2
79.9
Nov
June
94.8
10.1
10.1
10.1
26.2
0
77.2
35.8
37.9
105.8
105.8
65.4
Dec
July
29.2
30.7
57.8
57.8
14.0
Jan
Aug
61.6
61.6
Feb
Total
225.7
107.7
107.7
107.7
142.1
132.6
194.1
166.5
138.4
370.4
370.4
195.5
Total
70.7
64.4
64.4
64.4
72.0
72.7
69.8
77.4
60.3
103.2
103.2
64.3
102.5
124.3
124.3
124.3
124.2
142.4
97.5
125.0
119.2
110.8
110.8
123.0
69.8
47.9
47.9
47.9
61.1
58.8
49.5
63.7
62.0
69.0
69.0
69.5
83.6
22.8
62.8
32.7
36.4
101.0
101.0
46.8
22.2
48.0
48.0
8.1
61.0
61.0
-
348.9
236.7
236.7
236.7
280.0
273. 9
309.5
298.9
278.0
493.0
493.0
311.6
Worked Example 3
Estimation of Net Irrigation Water Requirements (NIR)
Through extrapolation from Table 7 of the Practice Manual for Water Services in From
Equation 4 and applying the figures in equations (3) and (5)
NIR = ETCROP - REFF =83.097 61.480 = 21.617m
For the existing Challa Irrigation it is proposed that water for an additional 20 ha will
Be provided
Hence, the volumetric Net Irrigation Water Requirements (NIR) for the month of March is
estimated to be
NIR = 21.617 mm x 20 ha x 104 m2/ha x 10-3 m/mm
=4,323.4 m3(6)
Based on the above and the areas to be irrigated as proposed in Chapter 2.6 of this report, the
estimated Net Irrigation Water Requirements, by crops and specific sites, are shown in Tables
2.23 and 2.24, respectively.
Table 2.23 -Net Monthly Irrigation Water Requirements (by Crops)

Crop/
Area
Site
(ha)
MAIZE
Kilanga
0
Challa
20
Nakuruto
10
Timbilla
20
Jipe
100
Mwaktau
40
Total
190
BEANS
Kilanga
0
Challa
0
Nakuruto
0
Timbilla
0
Jipe
45
Mwaktau
15
Total
60
GREEN GRAMS
Kilanga
0
Challa
0
Nakuruto
0
Timbilla
0
Jipe
30
Mwaktau
15
Total
45
COWPEAS
Jan
Feb
Mar
Net Irrigation Water Requirements (NIR)(m3)

May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Apr
Nov
Annual
Dec
4,431.0
4,323.4
120.0
16,008.0
18,960.0
5,841.0
14,144.0
20,500.0
13,968.0
16,728.9
115,024.3
2,215.5
2,161.7
60.0
8,004.0
9,480.0
2,920.5
7,072.0
10,250.0
6,984.0
8,364.5
57,512.1
4,431.0
4,323.4
120.0
16,008.0
18,960.0
5,841.0
14,144.0
20,500.0
13,968.0
16,728.9
115,024.3
22,154.8
21,617.0
600.0
80,040.0
94.800.0
29,205.0
70,720.0
102,500.0
69,840.0
83,644.5
575,121.3
8,861.9
8,646.7
240.0
32,016.0
37,920.0
11,682.0
28,288.0
41,000.0
27,936.0
33,457.8
230,048.5
42,094.2
41,072.0
1,140.0
152,076.0
180,120.0
55,490.0
134,368.0
194,750.0
132,696.0
158,925.0
1,092,730.0
7,621.5
9,990.0
26,330.8
4,536.0
28,998.0
55,955.3
21,555.0
574.8
155,561.5
2,540.5
3,330.0
8,776.9
1,512.0
9,666.0
18,651.8
7,185.0
191.6
51,853.8
10,162.0
13,320.0
35,107.7
6,048.0
38,664.0
74,607.1
28,740.0
766.42
207,415.4
5,081.0
6,660.0
17,553.9
3,024.0
19,332.0
37,303.5
14,370.0
383.2
103,707.7
2,540.5
3,330.0
8,776.9
1,512.0
9,666.0
18,651.8
7,185.0
191.6
51,853.8
7,621.5
9,990.0
26,330.8
4,536.0
28,998.0
55,955.3
21,555.0
574.8
155,561.5
0
0
0
Crop/
Area
Site
(ha)
Kilanga
0
Challa
10
Nakuruto
5
Timbilla
10
Jipe
20
Mwaktau
15
Total
60
TOMATOES
Kilanga
20
Challa
10
Nakuruto
0
Timbilla
10
Jipe
0
Mwaktau
0
Total
40
KALES
Kilanga
10
Challa
10
Nakuruto
5
Timbilla
10
Jipe
0
Mwaktau
0
Total
35
SUNFLOWER
Kilanga
0
Challa
0
Nakuruto
0
Jan
Feb
Mar

May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Apr
Nov
Annual
Dec
1,693.7
2,220.0
5,851.3
1,008.0
6,444.0
12,434.5
4,790.0
127.7
34,569.2
846.8
1,110.0
2,925.6
504.0
3.222.0
6,217.3
2,395.0
63.9
17,284.6
1,693.7
2,220.0
5,851.3
1,008.0
6,444.0
12,434.5
4,790.0
127.7
34,569.2
3,387.4
4,440.0
11,702.6
2,016.0
12,888.0
24,869.0
9,580.0
255.5
69,138.5
2,540.5
3,330.0
8,776.9
1,512.0
9,666.0
18,651.8
7,185.0
191.6
51,853.8
10,162.1
13,320.0
35,107.7
6,048.0
38,664.0
74,607.1
28,740.0
766.4
207,415.4
5,128.5
4,260.0
13,780.3
5,244.0
14,398.0
24,839.0
12,220.0
4,551.0
84,420.8
2,564.3
2,130.0
6,890.2
2,622.0
7,199.0
12,419.5
6,110.0
2,275.5
42,210.4
2,564.3
2,130.0
6,890.2
2,622.0
7,199.0
12,419.5
6,110.0
2,275.5
42,210.4
10,257.1
8,520.0
27,560.7
10,488.0
28,796.0
49,678.1
24,440.0
9102.0
168,841.7
3,124.3
4,044.0
6,091.0
7,269.0
14,238.0
5,882.0
40,648.3
3,124.3
4,044.0
6,091.0
7,269.0
14,238.0-
5,882.0
40,648.3
1,562.1
2,022.0
3,045.5
3,634.5
7,119.0
2,941.0
20,324.2
3,124.3
4,044.0
6,091.0
7,269.0
1,4238.0
5,882.0
40,648.3
10,935.0
14,154.0
21,318.6
25,441.5
49,833.0
20,587.0
142,269.0
Crop/
Area
Site
(ha)
Timbilla
0
Jipe
25
Mwaktau
15
Total
40
BANANAS
Kilanga
20
Challa
10
Nakuruto
5
Timbilla
10
Jipe
100
Mwaktau
40
Total
185
WATER MELONS
Kilanga
10
Challa
10
Nakuruto
5
Timbilla
10
Jipe
10
Mwaktau
5
Total
50
PAWPAWS
Kilanga
20
Challa
10
Nakuruto
5
Timbilla
10
Jipe
75
Mwaktau
25
Jan
Feb
Mar

May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Apr
Nov
Annual
Dec
2,025.8
4,464.2
4,580.0
19,980.0
16,350.0
3,494.2
16,070.0
30,751.3
17,370.0
11,690.0
126,775.5
1,215.5
2,678.5
2,748.0
11,988.0
9,810.0
2,096.5
9,642.0
18,450.8
10,422.0
7,014.0
76,065.3
3,241.3
7,142.7
7,328.0
31,968.0
26,160.0
5,590.7
25,712.0
49,202.1
27,792.0
18,704.0
202,840.8
9,600.0
12,200.0
10,600.0
2,400.0
16,040.0
21,160.0
11,560.0
12,320.0
20,640.0
22,160.0
13,800.0
20,200.0
172,680.0
4,800.0
6,100.0
5,300.0
1,200.0
8,020.0
10,580.0
5,780.0
6,160.0
10,320.0
11,080.0
6,900.0
10,100.0
86,340.0
2,400.0
3,050.0
2,650.0
600.0
4,010.0
5,290.0
2,890.0
3,080.0
5,160.0
5,540.0
3,450.0
5,050.0
43,170.0
4,800.0
6,100.0
5,300.0
1,200.0
8,020.0
10,580.0
5,780.0
6,160.0
10,320.0
11,080.0
6,900.0
10,100.0
86,340.0
48,000.0
61,000.0
53,000.0
12,000.0
80,200.0
105,800.0
57,800.0
61,600.0
103,200.0
110,800.0
69,000.0
101,000.0
863,400.0
19,200
24,400.0
21,200.0
4,800.0
32,080.0
42,320.0
23,120.0
24,640.0
41,280.0
44,320.0
27,600.0
40,400.0
345,360.0
88,800.0
112,850.0
98,050.0
22,200.0
148,370.0
195,730.0
106,930.0
113,960.0
190,920.0
204,980.0
127,650.0
186,850.0
1,597,290.0
2,978.1
1,884.3
264.0
6,728.0
7,724.0
3,069.9
6,984.0
9,748.0
4,952.0
6,284.0
50,616.3
2,978.1
1,884.3
264.0
6,728.0
7,724.0
3,069.9
6,984.0
9,748.0
4,952.0
6,284.0
50,616.3
1,489.0
942.1
132.0
3,364.0
3,862.0
1,535.0
3,492.0
4,874.0
2,476.0
3,142
25,308.1
2,978.1
1,884.3
264.0
6,728.0
7,724.0
3,069.9
6,984.0
9,748.0
4,952.0
6,284.0
50,616.3
2,978.1
1,884.3
264.0
6,728.0
7,724.0
3,069.9
6,984.0
9,748.0
4,952.0
6,284.0
50,616.3
1,489.0
942.1
132.0
3,364.0
3,862.0
1,535.0
3,492.0
4,874.0
2,476.0
3,142
25,308.1
14,890.3
9,421.3
1,320.0
33,640.0
38,620.0
15,350.0
34,920.0
48,740.0
24,760.0
31,420.0
253,081.3
9,600.0
12,200.0
10,600.0
2,400.0
16,040.0
21,160.0
11,560.0
12,320.0
20,640.0
22,160.0
13,800.0
20,200.0
172,680.0
4,800.0
6,100.0
5,300.0
1,200.0
8,020.0
10,580.0
5,780.0
6,160.0
10,320.0
11,080.0
6,900.0
10,100.0
86,340.0
2,400.0
3,050.0
2,650.0
600.0
4,010.0
5,290.0
2,890.0
3,080.0
5,160.0
5,540.0
3,450.0
5,050.0
43,170.0
4,800.0
6,100.0
5,300.0
1,200.0
8,020.0
10,580.0
5,780.0
6,160.0
10,320.0
11,080.0
6,900.0
10,100.0
86,340.0
36,000.0
45,750.0
39,750.0
9,000.0
60,150.0
79,350.0
43,350.0
46,200.0
77,400.0
83,100.0
51,750.0
75,750.0
647,550.0
12,000.0
15,250.0
13,250.0
3,000.0
20,050.0
26,450.0
14,450.0
15,400.0
25,800.0
27,700.0
17,250.0
25,250.0
215,850.0
Crop/
Site
Total
ONIONS
Kilanga
Challa
Nakuruto
Timbilla
Jipe
Mwaktau
Total
CHILLIES
Kilanga
Challa
Nakuruto
Timbilla
Jipe
Mwaktau
Total
GRAND
TOTAL
Area
(ha)
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr

May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Annual
145
69,600.0
88,450.0
76,850.0
17,400.0
116,290.0
153,410.0
83,810
89,320.0
149,640.0
160,660.0
100,050.0
146,450.0
1,251,930.0
10
3,266.3
3,030.0
6,772.1
3,576.0
7,743.0
12,500.4
6,374.0
3,269.7
46,531.4
10
3,266.3
3,030.0
6,772.1
3,576.0
7,743.0
12,500.4
6,374.0
3,269.7
46,531.4
1,633.1
1,515.0
3,386.1
1,788.0
3,871.5
6,250.2
3,187.0
1,634.8
23,265.7
10
3,266.3
3,030.0
6,772.1
3,576.0
7,743.0
12,500.4
6,374.0
3,269.7
46,531.4
50
16,331.0
15,150.0
33,860.7
17,880.0
38,715.0
62,501.9
31,870.0
16,348.2
232,657.1
25
8,165.6
7,575.0
16,930.3
8,940.0
19,357.5
31,251.0
15,935.0
8,174.1
116.328.5
110
35,929.0
33330
74493.42
39,336.0
85,173.0
137,504.0
70,114.0
35,966.1
511,845.6
10
1,071.0
1,800.0
7,178.1
3,790.0
6,030.0
11,924.5
6,200.0
3,641.9
41,635.5
10
1,071.0
1,800.0
7,178.1
3,790.0
6,030.0
11,924.5
6,200.0
3,641.9
41,635.5
535.5
900.0
3,589.0
1,895.0
3,015.0
5,962.3
3,100.0
1,821.0
20,817.7
10
1,071.0
1,800.0
7,178.1
3,790.0
6,030.0
11,924.5
6,200.0
3,641.9
41,635.5
10
1,071.0
1,800.0
7,178.1
3,790.0
6,030.0
11,924.5
6,200.0
3,641.9
41,635.5
535.5
900.0
3,589.0
1,895.0
3,015.0
5,962.3
3,100.0
1,821.0
20,817.7
50
5,354.8
9,000.0
35,890.3
18,950.0
30,150.0
59,622.6
31,000.0
18,209.7
208,177.4
1,020
361,342.3
334,399.0
534,606.0
251,361.0
1,220,902.0
1,121,436.0
441531
337,688.5
1,343,322.0
1,921,792.0
1,055,165.0
1,002,444.0
9,925,989.0
Table 2.24 -Net Monthly Irrigation Water Requirements per Site

Area
Site
(ha) Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Kilanga
Challa
Nakuruto
Timbilla
Jipe
Mwaktau
Total
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Total
100
29,321.4
32,006.2
47,220.0
24,414.0
96,937.1
83,295.7
34,591.0
32,321.0
111,407.0
157,143.0
84,375.3
77,276.7
810,307.3
100
29,075.3
20,854.7
48,764.0
27,364.0
122,322.5
100,581.0
34,993.0
21,059.8
130,689.0
198,162.0
106,113.0
89,791.0
929,769.8
45
14,537.6
10,427.4
22,190.0
11,862.0
55,272.2
48,049.6
17,497.0
10,529.9
59,191.5
88,466.2
47,834.2
42,950.6
428,807.6
100
29,075.3
20,854.7
48,764.0
27,364.0
122,322.5
100,581.0
34,993.0
21,059.8
130,689.0
198,162.0
106,113.0
89,791.0
929,769.8
465
190,014.9
182,479.0
263,602.0
110,229.0
587,562.3
573,111.0
234050
184,273.5
650,149.0
905,049.0
506,815.0
512,089.0
4,899,424.0
200
73,105.1
67,777.8
107,761.0
50,231.0
250,167.8
232,022.0
90,399.0
68,444.4
273,286.0
392,330.0
215,853.0
204,844.0
2,026,222.0
1,010
361,342.3
334,399.0
534,606.0
251,361.0
1,220,902.0
1,121,436.0
441,531.0
337,688.5
1,343,322.0
1,921,792.0
1,055,165.0
1,002,444.0
9,925,989.0
2.11.3 GROSS IRRIGATION WATER REQUIREMENTS (GWR)

The annual Gross irrigation water requirement (GWR) is summation of annual net irrigation
water requirement (NIR) and extra amount needed to compensate for possible water losses and is
given by;
GWR = NIR/ and = a x c ...(7)
Where is the efficiency of Field Application and Conveyance
a = Field Application Efficiency (Ratio of Water Available to Crop versus Water at Field Inlet)
c = Conveyance Efficiency (Ratio of Water at Field Inlet versus water at
allowance due to water evaporation from the open reservoirs)
source including an
The irrigation efficiencies for different irrigation methods considered in the project are tabulated
in Table 2.25.
Table 2.25- Irrigation Systems Efficiencies
Irrigation
System
Field Application
Efficiency (a) 15 (%)
Drip
Sprinkler
Surface
90
80
65
Conveyance
Efficiency (c) *
(%)
90
90
90
Overall Efficiency ()
(%)
81
72
58.5
* Assumed
The project estimated crop-wise, monthly and yearly gross requirement in accordance with the
mode of irrigation recommended earlier and equation (7) is given in Tables 2.26 -2.29.
Worked Example 4
Estimation of Gross Irrigation Water Requirements (GWR)
From equation (7)
GWR = NIR/
For 20 ha of maize in the Challa project as per equation (6)
NIR = 4,323.4 m3
= 58.5 % (Table 2.25)
15
Therefore;
GWR = 4,323.4 m3 /58.5/100 = 7,390.4 m3...(8)
The Gross Irrigation Requirement is approximately 9,925,989.0 m3 for the proposed irrigation
area of 2,020 ha on annual basis as shown in Table 2.26.
Table 2.26 - Gross Irrigation Water Requirements (m3)

Area
Crop/
(ha)
Site
MAIZE
Kilanga
0
Challa
20
Nakuruto
10
Timbilla
20
Jipe
100
Mwaktau
40
Total
190
BEANS
Kilanga
0
Challa
0
Nakuruto
0
Timbilla
0
Jipe
45
Mwaktau
15
Total
60
GREEN GRAM
Kilanga
0
Challa
0
Nakuruto
0
Timbilla
0
Jipe
30
Mwaktau
15
Total
45
COWPEA
Jan
Feb
Mar
Gross Irrigation Water Requirements (m3)

May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Apr
Oct
Nov
Annual
Dec
7,574.3
7,390.4
205.1
27,364.1
32,410.3
9,984.7
24,177.8
35,042.7
23,876.9
28,596.4
196,622.7
3,787.2
3,695.2
102.6
13,682.1
16,205.1
4,992.3
12,088.9
17,521.4
11,938.5
14,298.2
98,311.3
7,574.3
7,390.4
205.1
27,364.1
32,410.3
9,984.7
24,177.8
35,042.7
23,876.9
28,596.4
196,622.7
37,871.5
36,952.0
1,025.6
136,820.5
162,051.0
49,923.0
120,889.0
175,214.0
119,385.0
142,982.0
983,113.3
15,148.6
14,781.0
410.3
54,728.2
64,820.5
19,969.0
48,355.6
70,085.5
47,753.8
57,192.8
393,245.3
68,168.7
66,513.0
1,846.2
246,276.9
291,692.0
89,862.0
217,600.0
315,385.0
214,892.0
257,368.0
1,769.604.0
13,028.0
17,077.0
45,009.9
7,753.9
49,569.2
95,650.1
36,846.2
982.6
265,917.1
4,342.8
5,692.3
15,003.3
2,584.6
16,523.1
31,883.4
12,282.1
327.5
88,639.0
17,371.0
22,769.0
60,013.
10338.5
66,092.3
127,533.0
49,128.2
1,310.2
354,556.2
8,685.5
11,385.0
30,006.6
5,169.2
33,046.2
63,766.7
24,564.1
655.1
177,278.1
4,342.8
5,692.3
15,003.3
2,584.6
16,523.1
31,883.4
12,282.1
327.5
886,39.0
13,028.0
17,077.0
45,009.9
7,753.8
49,569.2
95,650.1
36,846.2
982.6
265,917.1
0
0
0
Crop/
Site
Kilanga
Challa
Nakuruto
Timbilla
Jipe
Mwaktau
Area
(ha)
Total
TOMATO
Kilanga
Challa
Nakuruto
Timbilla
Jipe
Mwaktau
Total
KALE
Kilanga
Challa
Nakuruto
Timbilla
Jipe
Mwaktau
Total
SUNFLOWER
Kilanga
Challa
Jan
Feb
Mar

May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Apr
Oct
Nov
10
2,895.2
3,794.9
10,002.2
1723.1
11015.4
1,447.6
1,897.4
5,001.1
861.5
5507.7
10
2,895.2
3,794.9
10,002.2
1723.1
20
5,790.4
7,589.7
20,004.4
3446.15
15
4,342.8
5,692.3
15,003.3
2,584.6
60
17,371.0
22,769.0
60,013.2
20
6,703.9
5,568.6
10
4,383.3
3,641.0
10
4,383.3
3,641.0
40
Annual
Dec
0
21,255.6
8,188.0
218.4
59,092.7
10627.8
4094.02
109.2
29,546.3
11015.4
21,255.6
8,188.0
218.4
59,092.7
22,030.8
42,511.2
16,376.1
436.7
118,185.4
16,523.1
31,883.4
12,282.1
327.5
88,639.0
10,338.5
66,092.3
127,533.0
49,128.2
1,310.2
354,556.2
18,013.5
6,854.9
18,820.9
32,469.3
15,973.9
5,949.0
110,354.0
11,778.1
4,482.1
12,306.0
21,229.9
10,444.4
3,889.7
72,154.6
11,778.1
4,482.1
12,306.0
21,229.9
10,444.4
3,889.7
72,154.6
15,471.0
12,851.0
41569.6
15819
43,432.9
74,929.2
36,862.7
13,728.4
254,663.2
10
4,339.2
5,616.7
8,459.8
10,095.8
19,775.0
8,169.4
56,456.0
10
5,340.6
6,912.8
10,412.0
12,425.6
24,338.5
10,054.7
69,484.3
2,670.3
3,456.4
5,206.0
6,212.8
12,169.2
5,027.4
34,742.1
10
5,340.6
6,912.8
10,412.0
12,425.6
24,338.5
10,054.7
69,484.3
35
17,691.0
22,899.0
34,489.8
41,160.0
80,621.2
33,306.2
230,166.6
Area
Crop/
(ha)
Site
Nakuruto
0
Timbilla
0
Jipe
25
Mwaktau
15
Total
40
BANANA
Kilanga
20
Challa
10
Nakuruto
5
Timbilla
10
Jipe
100
Mwaktau
40
Total
185
WATER MELON
Kilanga
10
Challa
10
Nakuruto
5
Timbilla
10
Jipe
10
Mwaktau
5
Total
50
PAWPAW
Kilanga
20
Challa
10
Nakuruto
5
Timbilla
10
Jipe
75
Jan
Feb
Mar

May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Apr
0
Oct
Nov
0
Annual
Dec
0
3,462.9
7,631.1
7,829.1
34,153.8
27,948.7
5,973.0
27,470.1
52,566.3
29,692.3
19,982.9
216,710.2
2,077.8
4,578.7
4,697.4
20,492.3
16,769.2
3,583.8
16,482.1
31,539.8
17,815.4
11,989.7
130,026.1
5,540.7
12,210.0
12,526.0
54,646.1
44,717.9
9,556.8
43,952.1
84,106.1
47,507.7
31,972.6
346,736.4
11,851.9
15,061.7
13,086.0
2,963.0
19,802.5
26,123.5
14,272.0
15,209.9
25,481.5
27,358.0
17,037.0
24,938.3
213,185.2
8,205.1
10,427.4
9,059.8
2,051.3
13,709.4
18,085.5
9,880.3
10,529.9
17,641.0
18,940.2
11,794.9
17,265.0
147,589.7
4,102.6
5,213.7
4,529.9
1,025.6
6,854.7
9,042.7
4,940.2
5265.0
8,820.5
9,470.1
5,897.4
8,632.5
73,794.9
8,205.1
10,427.4
9,059.8
2,051.3
13,709.4
18,085.5
9,880.3
10,529.9
17,641.0
18,940.2
11,794.9
17,265.0
147,589.7
82,051.3
104,274.0
90,598.0
20,513.0
137,094.0
180,855.0
98,803.0
105,299.1
176,410.0
189,402.0
117,949.0
172,650.0
1,475.897.0
32,820.5
41,709.4
36,239.0
8,205.1
54,837.6
72,341.9
39,521.0
42,119.7
70,564.1
75,760.7
47,179.5
69,059.8
590,359.0
147,236.5
187,113.0
162,574.0
36,809.0
246,007.6
324,534.0
177,297.0
188,953.5
316,558.0
339,871.0
211,652.0
309,810.0
2,648,416.0
4,136.2
2,617.0
366.7
9,344.4
10,727.8
4,263.8
9,700.0
13,538.9
6,877.8
8,727.8
70,300.4
5,090.7
3,221.0
451.3
11,500.9
13,203.4
5,247.8
11,938.5
16,663.2
8,465.0
10,741.9
86,523.5
2,545.3
1,610.5
225.6
5,750.4
6,601.7
2,623.9
5,969.2
8,331.6
4,232.5
5,370.9
43,261.8
5,090.7
3,221.0
451.3
11,500.9
13,203.4
5,247.8
11,938.5
16,663.2
8,465.0
10,741.9
86,523.5
5,090.7
3,221.0
451.3
11,500.9
13,203.4
5,247.8
11,938.5
16,663.2
8,465.0
10,741.9
86,523.5
2,545.3
1,610.5
225.6
5,750.4
6,601.7
2,623.9
5,969.2
8,331.6
4,232.5
5,370.9
43,261.8
24,499.0
15,501.0
2,171.8
55,347.9
63,541.5
25,255.0
57,453.8
80,191.9
40,737.6
51,695.3
416,394.4
13,333.3
16,944.4
14,722.0
3,333.3
22,277.8
29,388.9
16.056.0
17,111.1
28,666.7
30,777.8
19,166.7
28,055.6
239,833.3
8,205.1
10,427.4
9,059.8
2,051.3
13,709.4
18,085.5
9,880.3
10,529.9
17,641.0
18,940.2
11,794.9
17,265.0
147,589.7
4,102.6
5,213.7
4,529.9
1,025.6
6,854.7
9,042.7
4,940.2
5265.0
8,820.5
9,470.1
5,897.4
8,632.5
73,794.9
8,205.1
10,427.4
9,059.8
2,051.3
13,709.4
18,085.5
9,880.3
10,529.9
17,641.0
18,940.2
11,794.9
17,265.0
147,589.7
61,538.5
78,205.1
67,949.0
15,385.0
102,820.5
135,641.0
74,103.0
78,974.4
132,308.0
142,051.0
88,461.5
129,487.0
1,106,923.0
Crop/
Site
Mwaktau
Total
ONION
Kilanga
Challa
Nakuruto
Timbilla
Jipe
Mwaktau
Total
CHILLIES
Kilanga
Challa
Nakuruto
Timbilla
Jipe
Mwaktau
Total
GRAND
TOTAL
Area
(ha)
Apr

May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Annual
Jan
Feb
Mar
25
20,512.8
26,068.4
22,650.0
5,128.2
34,273.5
45,213.7
24,701.0
26,324.8
44,102.6
47,350.4
29,487.2
43,162.4
368,974.4
145
115,897.4
147,286.0
127,970.0
28,974.0
193,645.3
255,457.0
139,560.0
148,735.0
249,179.0
267,530.0
166,603.0
243,868.0
2,084,705.0
10
4,536.5
4,208.3
9,405.7
4,966.7
10,754.2
17,361.6
8,852.8
4,541.2
64,627.0
10
5,583.3
5,179.5
11,576.3
6,112.8
13,235.9
21,368.2
10,895.7
5,589.1
79,540.9
2,791.7
2,589.7
5,788.1
3,056.4
6,618.0
10,684.1
5,447.9
2,794.6
39,770.4
10
5,583.3
5,179.5
11,576.3
6,112.8
13,235.9
21,368.2
10,895.7
5,589.1
79,540.9
50
27,917.0
25,897.0
57,881.4
30,564.1
66,179.5
106,841.0
54,478.6
27,945.7
397,704.4
25
13,958.0
12,949.0
28,940.72
15,282.1
33,089.7
53,420.5
27.0239.3
13,972.8
198,852.2
110
60,370.0
56,003.0
125,168.6
66,094.9
143,113.0
231,043.0
117,810.0
60,432.5
860,035.8
10
1,586.6
2,666.7
10,634.2
5,614.8
8,933.3
17,665.9
9,185.2
5,395.5
61,682.2
10
1,830.7
3,076.9
12,270.2
6,478.6
10,307.7
20,383.8
10,598.3
6,225.5
71,171.8
915.4
1,538.5
6,135.1
3,239.3
5,153.9
10,191.9
5,299.2
3,112.77
35,585.9
10
1,830.7
3,076.9
12,270.2
6,478.6
10,307.7
20,383.8
10,598.3
6,225.5
71,171.8
10
1,830.7
3,076.9
12,270.2
6,478.6
10,307.7
20,383.8
10,598.3
6,225.5
71,171.8
915.4
1,538.5
6,135.1
3,239.3
5,153.9
10,191.9
5,299.2
3,112.77
35,585.9
50
8,909.5
14,974.0
59,715.0
31,529.3
50,164.1
99,201.1
51,578.3
30,297.6
346,369.3
1,020
351,637.8
334,399.3
521,880.0
246,828.8
1,174,589.7
1,077,971.7
428,737.8
337,688.5
1,299,952.0
1,852,981.0
1,015,361.0
965,559.0
9,607,587.0
Table 2.27- Summary of Gross Irrigation Water Requirements

Area
Jan
Kilanga
29,321.4
Challa
27,655.1
Nakuruto
13,827.5
Timbilla
27,655.1
Jipe
182,914.0
Mwaktau
70,264.7
Total
351,637.8
Total Season One
Total Season Two
GRAND TOTAL
Feb

May
June
Jul
Aug
Sep
Mar
Apr
32,006.2
47,220.0
24,414.0
96,937.1
83,295.7
34,591.0
32,321.0
111,407.0
157,143.0
84,375.3
77,276.7
810,307.3
20,854.7
46,836.0
26,614.1
115,316.3
94,181.2
33,121.0
21,059.8
124,090.0
83,188.2
44,828.1
40,249.2
404,834.3
10,427.4
21,226.0
11,486.5
51,769.1
44,849.6
16,560.5
10,529.9
55,892.1
88,466.2
47,834.2
42,950.6
428,807.6
20,854.7
46,836.0
26,614.1
115,316.3
94,181.2
33,121.0
21,059.8
124,090.0
187,606.0
100,101.0
84,388.2
881,823.2
182,478.6
255,588.0
108,613.7
558,157.7
542,080.3
224,689.4
184,273.5
623,351.0
864,226.0
481,360.0
485,198.0
4,692,931.0
67,777.8
104,175.0
49,086.5
237,093.1
219,383.8
86,655.0
68,444.4
261,122.0
373,211.0
204,596.0
194,059.0
1,935,868.0
334,399.3
521,880.0
246,828.8
1,174,589.7
1,077,971.7
428,737.8
337,688.5
1,299,952.0
1,852,981.0
1,015,361.0
965,559.0
9,607,587.0
3,787,697.0
5,819,890.0
9,607,587.0
Oct
Nov
Dec
Annual
2.12
2.12.1
PROPOSED IRRIGATION SYSTEMS COMPONENTS

Introduction
One of the major objectives of the Lake Challa Water Resources Integrated Development Project
is to develop an Irrigation System that will cover 1,120 ha of various crops as detailed in
Sections 2.6 and 2.8 of this report, and as summarized below;
Table 2.28 - Proposed Annual Irrigable Areas
Site
Kilanga Pilot
Project
Challa (Existing
Scheme)
Nakuruto
Status
Remarks
Proposed New
Development
Existing Extension
Mode of irrigation
Drip (80 ha)
Sprinkler (120 ha)
Surface Irrigation
Proposed New
Development
Surface Irrigation
90
Timbilla(Existing
Scheme)
Jipe Settlement
Scheme
Mwaktau
Existing
Surface Irrigation
200
Surface Irrigation
930
Surface Irrigation
400
Extension
Proposed New
Development
Proposed New
Development
Total
Area (ha)
200
200
2,020
2.12.2 Design Criteria and Data

12.2.2.1 DRIP IRRIGATION SYSTEM
Area of Coverage
This will be designed for the 40 ha (per season) in the Kilanga Pilot Irrigation Project. This will
consist of 20 ha each of tomatoes and bananas.
Various parameters used for the design are described below in Table 2.29.
Table 2.29 - Design Parameters for Drip Irrigation System16

Parameter
Agro-Technical Parameters
Available Water (Amount of Water released
between Field Capacity and Wilting Point)
Management Allowable Deficit
Design (effective) Root Zone Tomatoes (Table
2.20)
Design (effective) Root Zone Bananas (Table 2.20)
Maximum Soil Infiltration Rate
Gross Water Requirements (the peak is experienced
in October)- for Tomatoes(Table 2.27)
Gross Water Requirements (the peak is experienced
in October)- for Bananas (Table 2.27)
Total Design Gross Water Requirements
Average CROP WATER REQUIREMENTS (TABLE
2.18)*
Technical Parameters
Total Area to be under Irrigation (per season)
Irrigation Period per week
Operational hours per day
Spacing between drip line laterals (Tomatoes)
Spacing between drip line laterals (Bananas)
Abbrev.
Unit
Quantity
AWC
mm/m
117
MAD
DRZ
%
m
50
0.7
DRZ
IM
GWRT
m
mm/h
m3/month
0.5
72.6
32,469.3
GWRB
m3/month
27,358.0
GWR
ETCROP
m3/month
mm/day
59,827.3
4.4
AT
Ip
Td
S1
S1
ha
day
h/day
m
m
40
6
15
1.2
5.0
*Worked on the average value of tomatoes and bananas
12.2.2.1.1 IRRIGATION SUPPLY REQUIREMENTS

Total Design Gross Water Requirements (GWR) per month = 59,827.3 m3/month
Therefore;
GWR per day = 59,827.3 m3/month/31 days per month
=1,929.91 m3 /day(9)
The net Required Discharge is given by;
Q = GWR per day x 7 / (Id x Ip)
Where;
Q
16
= Required Discharge in m3/h
GWR = Gross Irrigation Requirement (mm/day)
= 1,929.91 m3 /day
Id
= Operational hours per day
= 15 h
Ip
= working days per week
= 6 days
Therefore;
Q = 1,929.91 x 7 / (15 x 6) = 150.1 m3/h ..................(10)
12.2.2.1.1
IRRIGATION INTERVAL
The time interval (frequency) between successive irrigations, I, is given by;

I = MAD x AWC x DRZ days = 0.5 x 117 x 0.6/4.4 = 7.98 say 8 days...(11)
ETCROP
12.2.2.2 OVERHEAD SPRINKLER IRRIGATION SYSTEM
Area of Coverage
This will be designed for the 60 ha (per season) in the Kilanga Pilot Irrigation Project. The crops
composition is shown in Table 2.12.
The various parameters used for the design are described below in Table 2.30.
Table 2.30 - Design Parameters for Overhead Sprinkler Irrigation System17
Parameter
Available Water (Amount of Water released between
Field Capacity and Wilting Point)
Management Allowable Deficit
Design (effective) Root Zone (Average)
Maximum Soil Infiltration Rate
Gross Water Requirements (the peak is experienced in
October (Table 2.27)
Average CROP WATER REQUIREMENTS (TABLE
2.18)* Average CROP WATER REQUIREMENTS
Technical Parameters
Total Area to be under Irrigation (per season)
Irrigation Period per week
17
Abbrev.
AWC
MAD
DRZ
IM
GWRT
Unit
Quantity
mm/m
117
%
50
m
0.5
mm/h
72.6
m3/month 98,315.7
ETCROP
mm/day
4.3
AT
Ip
ha
day
60
6
Parameter
Operational hours per day
Spacing between overhead sprinklers on lateral
Spacing between overhead sprinkler Laterals
Discharge per overhead sprinkler
Overhead sprinklers designed operating head
Abbrev.
Td
S1
S2
Qs
P
Unit
Quantity
h/day
m
m
m3/h
m
15
12
18
1.9
30
12.2.2.2.1 IRRIGATION SUPPLY REQUIREMENTS

Total Design Gross Water Requirements (GWR) per month = 98,315.7 m3/month
Therefore;
GWR per day = 98,315.7 3 m3/month/31 days per month
= 3,174.47 m3 /day(12)
The net Required Discharge is given by;
Q = GWR per day x 7 / (Id x Ip)
Where;
Q
= Required Discharge in m3/h
GWR = Gross Irrigation Requirement (mm/day)
= 3,174.47 m3 /day
Id
= Operational hours per day
= 15 h
Ip
= working days per week
= 6 days
Therefore;
Q = 1,929.91 x 7 / (15 x 6) = 246.67 m3/h ................(13)
12.2.2.2.2 IRRIGATION INTERVAL

The time interval (frequency) between successive irrigations, I, is given by;
I = MAD x AWC x DRZ days = 0.5 x 117 x 0.5/4.3 = 6.80 say 7 days(14)
ETCROP
2.12.3 Project Components
2.12.3.1 SOURCE OF ENERGY
Electrical power will be acquired from the national power grid line running south-east along the
Taveta Challa Road through the Kenya Power and Lighting Company.
2.12.3.2 PUMP STATION

There will be a booster Pumping Station next to the reservoir site to pump water to the overhead
sprinkler irrigation system. The pump house will house pump motors, control valves, pressure
gauges and gantry crane, and delivery manifold connected to the main piping.
2.12.3.3 DRIP IRRIGATION SYSTEM
The drip irrigation system will consist of;
1
All suitable connections to the sub-main piping.
Secondary piping and fittings.
Suitable Control heads.

Each control head shall comprise of a filtration unit with gravel (for removal of algae and
any other organic materials) and 120 mesh screen filters (for the removal of fine sand),
air-release valve, control valves, and other ancillary fittings. The unit will be fitted with
an automatic back flushing unit powered by a rechargeable battery and will be installed
on a paved, easily drainable and lockable enclosure. Manual gate valves shall be used to
control the flow of water through the laterals.
4
5
The gravel/sand media filters, providing filtration up to 200 mesh, will be self cleaning
through a back-flush mechanism. This mechanism will detect the drop in pressure due
to the accumulation of filtered particles and then flushes water back through the media to
dispose of clay, silt, and organic particles.
The screen filters shall be located in a manner that allows both easy access to and
removal of the filter elements from the housing and shall be cleaned manually by
removing the screen and washing it with clean water.
Each control head will be fitted with suitable fertiliser injectors and tanks.
Tertiary piping and fittings.
Driplines.
Driplines with pressure compensating and self- cleaning integral emitters (at 1.0 m
spacing) with associated fittings shall be installed. Pressure Compensation ensures that
all of the emitters inside the drip-line emit the same amount of water. Each row shall be
served by a drip-line with a spacing of 5 m between the rows for bananas, and 1.2 m for
tomatoes.
Each control head shall comprise of a filtration unit with gravel (for removal of algae and
any other organic materials) and 120 mesh screen filters (for the removal of fine sand),
air-release valve, control valves, and other ancillary fittings. The unit will be fitted with
an automatic back flushing unit powered by a rechargeable battery and will be installed
on a paved, easily drainable and lockable enclosure. Manual gate valves shall be used to
control the flow of water through the laterals.
The gravel/sand media filters, providing filtration up to 200 mesh, will be self cleaning
through a back-flush mechanism. This mechanism will detect the drop in pressure due
to the accumulation of filtered particles and then flushes water back through the media to
dispose of clay, silt, and organic particles.
The screen filters shall be located in a manner that allows both easy access to and
removal of the filter elements from the housing and shall be cleaned manually by
removing the screen and washing it with clean water.
2.12.3.4 OVERHEAD SPRINKLER IRRIGATION SYSTEM
This will consist of a fixed 315 mm UPVC main piping, and 160 mm UPVC sub-main
piping. The sub-main piping shall be fitted with hydrants at 54 m spacing. The spacing of 18 m
between the hydrants has been adopted in order to minimize the number of hydrants to be
installed.
There shall be portable aluminium pipes fitted with full circle twin nozzle sprinklers with a
capacity of about 1.9 m3/h at 30 m head to be spaced at 12 m in a lateral and 18 m between the
laterals. This is designed to give an equivalent rainfall precipitation of about 8.8 mm/h.
2.12.3.5 SURFACE IRRIGATION SYSTEMS
Area of Coverage
This will be mainly designed to cover the 465 ha and 200 ha, per annum, in the Jipe Settlement
and Mwaktau Schemes, respectively. Water for irrigation will be sold in bulk to the farmers in
Challa, Nakuruto and Timbilla Schemes in order to boost their current efforts.
Design Criteria and Data
Various parameters used for the design of furrow irrigation are described below in Table 2.31,
below.
Table 2.31 - Design Parameters of Straight Furrow Irrigation
Soil
Texture
Coarse
Medium
Fine
Furrow
Slope,
(%)
0.05 0.1
0.1 0.2
02 0.3
0.05 .1
0.1 0.2
0.2 0.3
0.05 0.1
0.1 0.2
Furrow
Width
(m)
0.6 0.75
0.6 0.75
0.6 0.75
0.75 0.90
0.75 0.90
0.75 0.90
0.9 1.0
0.9 1.0
Furrow
Length
( m)
60 90
60 90
60 75
100-150
60-100
50-75
100-200
50 100
Flow rate
(l.p.s)
3-4.5
3 4.5
1.5 3
3-4
1.5-3
1.5 2.5
2.5 3.5
1.5 2.5
Cut off
length
(%)
100
95
90
100
95
90
95
90
Depth applied
(mm )
75-100
75-100
50-75
75-90
60-75
50-75
75-100
60-75
Conveyance Systems
From the ground reservoir, water will be conveyed to the field through a closed pipe system for
the main distribution and secondary network leading to unlined tertiary canals. Hazens Williams
and Mannings Equation are used in determining the most economical sections.
Some of the advantages of pipe line conveyance are listed below;
a) It can follow the most direct route from source to outlet points rather than following
land contours
b) Loss of land can be eliminated
c) Seepage/ evaporation losses are eliminated
Jipe Scheme
The conveyance system shall consist of UPVC 400 A (2,200 m long) main piping and UPVC 315
A (10,800 m long) secondary piping.
All the necessary tees, crosses, valves and other fittings shall be provided Farmers will be assisted
to lay strategies for the installation of the tertiary canals.
As noted in Section 2.4.2.5 of this report, the soils in the scheme are susceptible to gully erosion.
Therefore, two check dams will be constructed on each of the major gullies in the area.
Mwaktau Scheme
Like in the case of the Jipe Scheme, the conveyance system shall consist of UPVC 315 A (2,600
m long) main piping and UPVC 160 A (6,000 m long) secondary piping.
All the necessary fittings e.g. tees, crosses, valves shall be provided. Farmers will also be
expected to lay strategies for the installation of the tertiary canals.
CHAPTER 3: DESIGN OF WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS
Table of Contents
CHAPTER 3: DESIGN OF WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS .........................
3-79
Table of Contents............................................................... 3-17
List of Tables
.................................................................. 3-81
3.1
GENERAL ........................................................................................................................ 3-82
3.2
SOURCES OF WATER ................................................................................................... 3-82
3.3
RAW WATER PIPELINE ................................................................................................ 3-83
3.4
LAKE CHALLA TANK ................................................................................................... 3-83
3.5
RESERVOIRS .................................................................................................................. 3-84
3.5.1
Reservoir Characteristics ........................................................................................... 3-84
3.5.2
Timbila Tank .............................................................................................................. 3-85
3.6
TRANSMISSION PIPELINES ......................................................................................... 3-86
3.7
DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLY ....................................................................................... 3-87
3.8
ANCILLARY WORKS .................................................................................................... 3-87
3.8.1
Administration Building and Laboratory ................................................................... 3-88
3.8.2
Staff Houses ............................................................................................................... 3-88
3.8.3
Site Drainage .............................................................................................................. 3-88
3.8.4
Workshop ................................................................................................................... 3-88
3.8.5
Pump House ............................................................................................................... 3-88
3.8.6
Access Roads ............................................................................................................. 3-88
3.8.7
Power Supply ............................................................................................................. 3-88
3.9
MATERIALS SPECIFICATIONS ................................................................................... 3-89
3.9.1
Transmission and Distribution Pipelines ................................................................... 3-89
3.9.2
Flow Regulating Valves ............................................................................................. 3-89
List of Tables
Table 3.1 - Recommended Abstraction Rates
Table 3.2 Capacities of Water Reservoirs
Table 3.3- Reservoirs Technical Details
Table 3.4 Transmission Pipelines Technical Details
Table 3.5 Water Demands
CHAPTER 3 - DESIGN OF WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS

3.1
GENERAL
Water will be sourced from Lake Challa and three boreholes to be sited in the Kilanga area.
Abstracted water will then be used for irrigation, domestic, livestock, environmental
conservation and wildlife within the Taveta Mwaktau corridor.
Conveyance of this water will be by both steel and uPVC pipelines of various pressure ratings
based on the pressure requirements. There are three major areas of water supply i.e. Kilanga, Jipe
and Mwaktau, which are also the main focus for irrigation.
Irrigation system has been designed to operate by gravity save for Kilanga area where it is
pressurized.
It must also be noted that domestic water has only been supplied to areas which suffer acute
water shortages and which have otherwise not benefited from the existing TAVEVO Water and
Sanitation Company schemes. These areas include Kasokoni in Chala, Kasaani at Jipe, Kidongu
and Mwaktau.
Between Jipe and Mwaktau the water supply system cuts through the Tsavo West National Park
managed by Kenya Wildlife Service. Between Taveta and Mwaktau a shallow water pan has
been provided for to supply wildlife with water, a phenomenon that will improve tourism in the
area as the pan will be strategically located along the Voi Taveta Road.
3.2
SOURCES OF WATER
A combination of Lake Challa and boreholes has been identified as the sources of water for the
project.
Although Lake Challa has the capacity of supply the required demand for the entire project, to
include both irrigation and domestic water supply, trans-boundary issues had to be considered
due to the fact that Kenya shares the Lake water with Tanzania equally.
The following table shows amounts of abstractions considered from the two sources;
Table 3.1 - Recommended Abstraction Rates
Source
1
2
Lake Challa
Boreholes
Total
Volume (m3)
Annual
per day
2,640,000
8,000
7,920,000
24,000
10,560,000
32,000
per hour
400
1,200
1,600
The intake works will consists of two submersible pumps; one duty and the other standby; in a
pump house built on girders on a floating pontoon.
The structural components for the intake works include the reinforced concrete retaining walls,
structural steel buttress supports, reinforced concrete shaft, floating girder platforms and floating
pontoons
Retaining walls have been designed to provide a route for the transmission line and provide
access to the intake works. Due to the steep topography, the walls have been designed with a
maximum height of 5.8 m. For stability and strength considerations both the toe and heel have
been provided to safeguard against sliding and overturning.
To further support the high walls, a steel buttress structure has been designed supporting the
walls at various intervals along the height. This in effect reduced the cantilever effect of the wall
due to the active earth pressure acting behind it. Consequently, the walls have been designed as
simply supported slabs spanning between the supporting steel structures with the maximum earth
pressure at the bottom being considered for design.
The member sizing for the buttress is such as to effectively resist the horizontal forces without
overturning, excessive deflection or failure. The foundations have similarly been designed for the
resultant forces and moments.
The girder platform has been designed to accommodate the pumps and to float on the lake. This
has been achieved by designing pontoons such that the total weight of water displaced by the
pontoons is greater than the total weight of the structure. Additionally the possibilities of
fluctuations in water levels have been addressed by providing hinges on the girder thus allowing
vertical movement.
The entire steel girder is firmly secured by anchor bolts and high tensile galvanized gay cables
fixed on the buttress structure.
The pump house is a steel framed structure with sheet cladding on the external walls and the
roof. The interior is finished using a galvanized plate welded on the steel frame to form a
watertight surface. Additional surface treatment may be specified to enhance water tightness.
3.3
RAW WATER PIPELINE
There will be two main raw water pipelines for the project. One will convey water from Lake
Challa through pumping designed to deliver 8,000 m3/day via DN 300mm steel pipeline and the
other from two boreholes to deliver 16,000m3/day via a DN 400mm pipelines.
Pipelines have been designed with a Hazen-Williams C value of 140 for new pipes.
The three raw water pipelines merge and deliver water to a 1,000 m3 reinforced concrete tank to
be located at the top rim of Lake Challa.
3.4
LAKE CHALLA TANK
The Capacity of Lake Challa reinforced concrete as mentioned above is 1000m3. The tank is
strategically located to command flow of water via gravity to the entire project save for Mwaktau
which is at higher ground level than the tank location.
3.5
RESERVOIRS
The project is designed to hold three major water storage earth-fill reservoirs as indicated in the
following table.
Table 3.2 Capacities of Water Reservoirs
Site
Kilanga
Jipe
Mwaktau
Capacity (m3)
75,000
75,000
65,000
The sizing of the required earth-fill reservoirs depends on the volume of water stored based on
the amount of water required to irrigate the projected areas. They will be rectangular in shape. It
is assumed
that the earth removed from the reservoir bases during excavations will be
utilised in building the reservoir walls.
3.5.1
RESERVOIR CHARACTERISTICS
The reservoirs will be designed with the following characteristics;
Walls will be sloping with a ratio of 1:2 on the external side and 1:4 on the internal side.
A free board of 0.7m above the maximum water level.
The reservoirs will be lined with HDPE plastic linings in order to prevent seepage.
Width of the reservoir walls crown will be at least 5m wide to allow vehicles to drive
round the reservoir for maintenance and fishing purposes.
The reservoirs will be surrounded by an electrified perimeter fence in order to prevent

wild animal access.
Based on the water quality analysis, it is envisaged that there be will minimal deposits at the
bottom of the reservoirs in form of sedimentation. However, sludge/silt accumulated in the
reservoir over time will be carefully scrapped manually to ensure that the HDPE lining is not
damaged.
The following table gives the technical details of each reservoir in the proposed project areas.
Table 3.3- Reservoirs Technical Details

Description
Unit
Kilanga
Reservoir
Jipe
Mwaktau
Reservoir Reservoir
Reservoir Volume
m3
m2
m
m
m2
m2
m
m
m
75,000
36,000
225
160
18,780
9,750
5.3
0.7
6.0
75,000
36,000
225
160
18,780
9,750
5.3
0.7
6.0
65,000
20,250
150
135
16,505
8,125
5.3
0.7
6.0
1:4 & 1:2
1:4 & 1:2
1:4 & 1:2
m2
20,915
20,915
18,475
622
622
592
Total Area
Length
Width
Water Surface Area
Reservoir Area Base
Water Depth
Free Board
Total Embankment Height
Embankment
(internal/external)
Plastic Lining Area
Total Embankment Area
slopes
Total Embankment Length

3.5.2
TIMBILA TANK
The reinforced concrete tank is designed to have a capacity of 1000 m3 to be supplied through a
DN 220mm PVC pipe. The water is intended for irrigation in the Timbila area.
However, during the design stage, no land for irrigation was identified due to settlements and
many permanent houses developed in the area. However, a provision has been made at the outlet
end of the tank.
3.6
TRANSMISSION PIPELINES
The details of the transmission pipelines are as shown in the table below.
Table 3.4 Transmission Pipelines Technical Details
Pipeline Description
PIPELINE
Diameter
(mm)
Lake Challa- Challa Tank

300
Rising main
500
Challa - Jipe Pipeline
450
Jipe - Mwaktau Kwa

Mnengwa Pipeline
Kilanga - Challa Pipeline

Kidongu Pipeline
Jipe Reservoir Pipeline
Mwaktau
Reservoir
Pipeline
Timbila Tank Pipeline
KWS pipeline to water pan
Kilanga Existing Challa
Irrigation scheme
Mwaktau Tank Inlet pipe
Nakuruto Tank Inlet pipe
Jipe Tank Inlet pipe
Length (m) and Pressure Ratings

PN25
PN16
PN10
uPVC
Class D
232
2400
7200
14000
7200
400
22300
300
3,440
100
1,560
75
1,560
50
450
400
75
500
1,556
2,000
3,500
1,444
225
300
301
200
75
615
1,000
300
150
150
50
301
3,000
250
1,000
675
Water is conveyed in all the above pipelines by gravity except for Jipe Mwaktau Kwa
Mnengwa pipeline which is a pumping mains from Jipe at an altitude of 865 masl to Mwaktau at
1120 masl i.e. an elevation difference of 255m. The rest of the pipelines are served by Lake
Challa which stands at a height of 914 masl.
To minimise costs, the pipeline has been designed for various pressure ratings ranging from PN
30 to PN 25 according to the pressure requirements at those specific areas.
3.7
DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLY
Domestic water supply has also been incorporated in the project for only areas that experience
acute water shortages. Areas of concern that have been considered include Kasokoni, Kasaani in
Jipe, Kidongu, Mwaktau Trading Center and Kwa Mnengwa.
In all these identified locations, a water tank has been provided, strategically located and
designed to allow the supply in the respective area by gravity.
It is important to note that an elevated steel water tank with a capacity of 200m3 has been
provided for in Kasokoni, Mwaktau and Kasaani area and a 250m3 concrete tank provided for at
Kwa Mnengwa and Kidongu, located at the trading center and Kidongu Hill respectively.
Water demand projections for the ultimate year of 2035 were calculated focussing on the areas of
concern. This was derived from population projection using a population growth of 1.8%.
During computation of the demand requirements; irrigation demand and domestic water were
both considered simultaneously based on the total available water from the two sources.
Table 3.5 shows the water irrigation and domestic demands for the various sites.
Table 3.5 Water Demands
Area
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
3.8

Challa Irrigation Project
Nakuruto/Kasokoni
Timbilla/Kidongu
Jipe
Mwaktau
Msorongo
Environment Conservation
Wildlife (Tsavo National Park)
Fisheries
Total
Water Demands (m3/year)

Irrigation
Domestic
Others
810,307
881,823
404,834
58,552
881,823
44,297
4,692,931
53,351
1,935,868
120,400
125,369
45,000
91,250
20,000
9,607,587
401,969 136,250
ANCILLARY WORKS
The typical civil and ancillary works proposed include the following:-
Total
810,307
881,823
463,386
926,120
4,746,282
2,056,268
125,369
45,000
91,250
20,000
10,145,806
3.8.1
ADMINISTRATION BUILDING AND LABORATORY
The administration building is designed to house an office, laboratory and a toilet with separate a
shower compartment. This has been provided for in Kilanga, Jipe and Mwaktau.
3.8.2
STAFF HOUSES
2 No. twin housing will be provided for the staff operating the works at Kilanga, Jipe and
Mwaktau.
3.8.3
SITE DRAINAGE
Foul water from the administration building and staff houses will be channelled into a separate
system discharging into a septic tank and soak away pit.
3.8.4
WORKSHOP
A workshop has also been provided for to help in operation and maintenance purposes of various
items within the facility in Kilanga, Jipe and Mwaktau.
3.8.5
PUMP HOUSE
A pump house has been provided for the in the Jipe site. In addition, a 1,000 m3 concrete tank to
facilitate pumping water to Mwaktau has also been included.
3.8.6
ACCESS ROADS
New site access from the road adjacent to the site will be constructed. Service roads within the
treatment works will be constructed to single seal bitumen standards.
Access to Kilanga will however involve rehabilitation of an existing 3 km long gravel road to
motorable status.
3.8.7
POWER SUPPLY
An 11KV/415V electrical power line exists in the vicinity of Kilanga, Jipe and Mwaktau sites
and this will be utilized for power supplies to the works. Arrangements will be made with Kenya
Power Company for power supply to the respective sites.
3.9
3.9.1
MATERIALS SPECIFICATIONS
TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION PIPELINES
The pipelines shall be Steel Pipes suitable for working pressures ranging from 10 to 25 bar with
their respective flanges and other fittings of equivalent pressure ratings.
Pipes shall be manufactured to BS EN 1561 250 cast iron, suitable for on or off seat installations
as shown on the drawings.
3.9.2
FLOW REGULATING VALVES
Flow Regulating Valves will be mechanically operated incorporating a cylindrical sleeve or

needle valve. They will be suitable for operating at any flow for long periods of time without
vibration or cavitation. They shall be designed for minimal maintenance, safe energy dissipation
and low operating effort. Operation shall be manual via a removable hand wheel. Valve bodies
shall be cast iron or ductile iron with stainless steel operating trim.
CHAPTER 4: COST ESTIMATES AND PROJECT PHASING
Table of Contents
CHAPTER 4 COST ESTIMATES AND PROJECT PHASING
4.1
4.2
4.3
GENERAL ....................................................................................................................................... 4-92

BASIS FOR ESTIMATION OF COSTS ......................................................................................... 4-92
SUMMARY OF ESTIMATED COSTS .......................................................................................... 4-92
4.3.1
Intake Works .................................................................................... 4-93
4.3.2
Developing and equipping Boreholes ............................................................... 4-93
4.3.3
Transmission Pipelines ......................................................................................... 4-93
4.3.4
Civil Works ............................................................................................................... 4-93
4.3.5
Irrigation Works ..................................................................................................... 4-93
4.3.6
Trans-boundary Issues and Environment and Resettlement ...................... 4-93
4.3.7
Forestry and Fisheries .......................................................................................... 4-94
4.4
4.5
ITEMISED WORKS COST ESTIMATES ...................................................................................... 4-94

PROJECT PHASING....................................................................................................................... 4-98
4.5.1
INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 4-98
4.5.2
COST BY PHASES ..................................................................................................... 4-98
CHAPTER 4 COST ESTIMATES AND PROJECT PHASING

4.1
GENERAL
The project development will consist of irrigation works in Kilanga, Jipe and Mwaktau with a
pressurised system in Kilanga while the other two will be operated through gravity. Improvement
of the existing Challa Irrigation scheme has also been included as part of this project.
There will be three sites in total constructed for the operation and coordination of the project at
Kilanga, Jipe and Mwaktau, respectively. These sites will be fully equipped with administration
and laboratory buildings, staff houses, workshops and stores.
Domestic water supply has also been provided for areas which currently experience acute water
shortages within the project area such as Kasaani near Jipe, Kidongu and Mwaktau areas.
Water for wild animals at Tsavo West National Park has also been provided for through a shallow
water pan to be located near Murka area along the Taveta Voi Road.
The project also encompasses forestry and fishing activities in Taveta and Mwaktau areas.
4.2
BASIS FOR ESTIMATION OF COSTS
For the preparation of Cost Estimate, quantities for the various items in Bills Nos. 2 - 13 have been
calculated from drawings while for Bill No.1 the quantities have been estimated using the
Consultants experience on similar work in the past. The rates used in estimation have been derived
from unit rates and works of similar kind carried out by the Consultant in the recent past.
The rates for various items of works have been adopted after taking into account the current rates
of materials, labour and equipment prevalent in the project. A lump sum provision for some items
which cannot be quantified at this stage of project preparation are based on the experience of
consultants and also takes into consideration the current rates.
4.3
SUMMARY OF ESTIMATED COSTS
Intake Works at Lake Challa
Ksh 73.80 million
Development and equipping three Boreholes
Ksh 73.74 million
Ksh 1,076.05 million
Civil Works including reservoirs
Ksh 976.24 million
All the above costs are without any escalations.
4.3.1 INTAKE WORKS

Lake Challa Intake Works include submersible pumps in a pump house fully equipped with a
control panel at the surface of Lake Challa designed on a floating pontoon and a series of
reinforced concrete retaining walls cascading from the top of the rim to the to the lakeshores
reinforced by steel buttresses and girders. This adds up the cost by a further Kshs. 87.86 million
which includes for the required electromechanical installation.
4.3.2 DEVELOPING AND EQUIPPING BOREHOLES
Three boreholes will be developed in the Kilanga and Challa areas. They will be equipped with
all necessary pumping units, piping, associated accessories and other ancillary equipment all at
an estimated cost of Ksh 73.74 million.
4.3.3 TRANSMISSION PIPELINES
Transmission pipelines will be composed of steel pipes of various pressure ratings that is PN 30,
PN 25, PN 10 and uPVC Class D pipelines. The total cost of pipelines is therefore Ksh. 1,076.05
million.
4.3.4 CIVIL WORKS
Under civil works, the costs encompass the cost of reservoirs at Kilanga and Jipe, both of 75,000
m3 capacity and at Mwaktau with a capacity of 65,000 m3. It also includes for roadworks, onsite
water supply, foul water drainage, septic tanks and fencing (where fencing is mostly electric
fencing especially to areas prone to wild animals attack) at Jipe and Mwaktau areas. The total cost
of this work is estimated to be Kshs 976.24 million.
4.3.5 IRRIGATION WORKS
Irrigation works will involve the cost of infrastructure for irrigation. It also includes three
boreholes, one to supply the irrigation waters into Kilanga reservoir, and the other for Jipe and
Mwaktau. A pumping system for irrigation at Kilanga and an extension pipeline 3 km long for
expansion of the existing Challa Irrigation scheme.
Main pipelines and laterals including the necessary valves and fitting for both Jipe and Mwaktau
irrigation schemes have also been included. The total cost of Irrigation is therefore Ksh 205.59
million.
4.3.6 TRANS-BOUNDARY ISSUES AND ENVIRONMENT AND
RESETTLEMENT
A provision has been allowed as detailed in the Environmental Impact Assessment report on
Implementation of Trans boundary Action Plan due to the shared water of Lake Challa with
Tanzania and also in the implementation of the Environmental Mitigation Measures, all valued at
Ksh. 22.6 Million. A further Ksh. 10 Million has been allowed for the construction of a check dam
of a check dam on River Karimeri to be located about 200 m upstream of the bridge on the Challa
Taveta Road. The dam will mitigate the flooding effects and also serve as a water reservoir.
A provisional sum of Kshs 410 Million has been added for the resettlement of the affected
population.
4.3.7 FORESTRY AND FISHERIES
Cost of re-afforestation in identified areas and the setting up of a fisheries industry in the area has
also been factored in the works costs estimates. A provision of Kshs. 75 Million has been factored
in the project costs for this purpose.
4.4
ITEMISED WORKS COST ESTIMATES
Intake Works
Sl No
1
2
Boreholes
Sl No
1
2
Item of Works
Amount (Ksh)
Retaining walls, steel buttress and box girder, pump

house, pumps and raw water mains.
Electromechanical Installations
Total
Item of Works
73,808,498.00
14,057,500.00
87,865,998.00
Amount (Ksh)
Development of three boreholes @ Kshs 6,262,000

Equipping three boreholes @ Kshs 18,319,680
Total
18,786,000.00
54,959,040.00
73,745,040.00
Total
Amount (Ksh)
59,111,100.00
10,890,000.00
118,580,000.00
17,013,000.00
205,594,100.00
Irrigation Works
Sl No
Item of Works
1
Kilanga Irrigation Scheme
2
Expansion of Existing Challa Irrigation Scheme
3
Jipe Irrigation Scheme
4
Mwaktau Irrigation Scheme
Sl No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Item of Works
Amount (Ksh)
Kilanga - Challa Pipeline

Challa - Jipe Pipeline
Kidong'u Tank Pipeline
Timbila Reservoir Pipeline
Jipe Reservoir Pipeline
Jipe - Mwaktau - Kwa Mnengwa Pipeline
Mwaktau Reservoir Pipeline
Total
Kilanga Works
Sl No
1
2
3
4
5
6
Jipe Works
Sl No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Item of Works
67,611,336.00
329,337,106.00
11,753,939.00
13,303,642.00
6,087,396.00
627,310,466.00
4,831,104.00
1,076,051,327.00
Amount (Ksh)
Kilanga Reservoir 75,000m3

Administration and Laboratory Building
Workshop and Store
Gate House
Civil Works
Total
271,796,760.00
2,761,060.00
4,524,290.00
1,978,430.00
31,388,351.00
22,261,700.00
312,448,891.00
Total
Amount (Ksh)
338,300,620.00
2,761,060.00
4,499,050.00
1,978,430.00
9,893,351.00
15,086,240.00
7,898,875.00
29,299,600
26,358,400.00
409,649,336.00
Item of Works
Jipe Reservoir 75,000m3
Workshop and Store
Gate House
Civil Works
1,000m3 Reinforced Concrete Tank
Pump House
Pumps
Mwaktau Works
Sl No
1
2
3
4
5
6
Item of Works
Amount (Ksh)
Mwaktau Reservoir 65,000m

WorKshop and Store
Gate House
Civil Works
Total
Reinforced Concrete Tanks

Sl No
Item of Works
315,195,170.00
2,773,060.00
4,183,090.00
1,978,430.00
9,668,351.00
26,358,400.00
333,798,101.00
Amount (Ksh)
1
2
Challa Tank - 1000m

Nakuruto Tank - 1000m3
23,272,115.50
15,285,739.50
Timbilla Tank - 1000m3
15,527,740.00
Kidongu Tank 250m3
6,003,992.00
Kwa Mnegwa 250m3
5,709,114.00
Total
Elevated Steel Tanks

Sl No
Item of Works
74,344,286.00
Amount (Ksh)
Kasaani 250m3
3,780,055.00
Mwaktau 250m3
3,472,512.00
Total
7,252,567.00

LAKE CHALLA WATER RESOURCES INTEGRATED DEVELOPMENT PROJECT COST
Sl No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
Total Cost Estimate of The

Project
Item of Works
Bill No. 1 - Preliminary and

General Items
Bill No. 2 - Intake Works
Bill No. 2B - Electromechanical
Works - Intake Works
Bill No. 3 - Challa Tank
Bill No. 4 - Transmission Pipelines
Bill No. 5 - Kilanga Works
Works - Kilanga Works
Bill No. 6 - Timbila Tank
Bill No. 7 - Kasaani Tank
Bill No. 8 - Kidong'u Tank
Bill No. 9 - Jipe Works
Bill No. 9B -Electromechanical
Works Jipe Works
Bill No. 10 - Mwaktau Tank
Bill No. 11 - Mwaktau Works
Works Mwaktau Works
Bill No. 12 - Kwa Mnengwa Tank
Bill No. 13 Irrigation and
boreholes
Bill No. 14 - Kasokoni Tank
Bill No. 15 - Nakuruto Tank
Sub-Total 1
Add 10% Contingency
Amount (Ksh)
347,066,450.00
73,808,498.00
14,057,500.00
23,272,115.50
1,076,051,327.00
312,448,891.00
22,261,700.00
15,285,739.50
3,780,055.00
6,003,992.00
409,649,336.00
26,358,400.00
3,472,512.00
333,798,101.00
18,812,300.00
5,709,114.00
279,339,140.00
3,780,055.00
15,285,739.50
2,960,540,966.00
296,054,096.60
3,289,265,062.60
4.5
PROJECT PHASING
4.5.1 INTRODUCTION
The major objective of the Lake Challa Water Resources Integrated Development Project is to
develop an Irrigation System that will cover 1,010 ha of various crops as detailed in the irrigation
component sections of this report,
For speedy implementation of the Project, it is proposed that the project be implemented in three
phases as described below;
4. Phase One to cover Kilanga Pilot Irrigation Project and the existing Challa Irrigation
Scheme
5. Phase Two to cover Timbila and Jipe Irrigation Schemes (including provision of
irrigation and domestic water within the areas covered by the pipelines)
6. Phase Three to cover Mwaktau Irrigation Schemes (including provision of domestic
water within the areas covered by the pipelines)
4.5.2 COST BY PHASES
The project components and respective costs as itemized by phases are tabulated below.
Phase I
Phase II
Phase III
Sl
Item of Works
Kilanga and
Jipe &Timbila
Mwaktau
No
Challa
1 Bill No. 1 115,688,816.83
115,688,816.83
115,688,816.83
Preliminary and
General Items
2 Bill No. 2 - Intake
73,808,498.00
Works
3 Bill No. 2B 14,057,500.00
Electromechanical
Works - Intake
Works
4 Bill No. 3 - Challa
23,272,115.50
Tank
5 Bill No. 4 67,611,336.00
376,298,421.00
632,141,570.00
Transmission
Pipelines
6 Bill No. 5 - Kilanga
312,448,891.00
Works
7 Bill No. 5B 22,261,700.00
Electromechanical
Works - Kilanga
Sl
No
Item of Works
Phase I
Phase II
Phase III
Kilanga and
Challa
Jipe &Timbila
Mwaktau
Works
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
Bill No. 6 - Timbila

Tank
Bill No. 7 - Kasaani
Tank
Bill No. 8 Kidong'u Tank
Bill No. 9 - Jipe
Works
Bill No. 9B Electromechanical
Works - Jipe Works
Bill No. 10 Mwaktau Tank
Bill No. 11 Mwaktau Works
Bill No. 11B Electromechanical
Works - Mwaktau
Works
Bill No. 12 - Kwa
Mnengwa Tank
Bill No. 13
Irrigation and
Boreholes
Bill No. 14 Kasokoni Tank
Bill No. 15 Nakuruto Tank
Sub-Total 1
Add 10%
Contingency
Total Cost
15,285,739.50
3,780,055.00
6,003,992.00
409,649,336.00
26,358,400.00
3,472,512.00
333,798,101.00
18,812,300.00
5,709,114.00
94,582,780.00
167,743,360.00
17,013,000.00
3,780,055.00
15,285,739.50
612,593,524.00
61,259,352.00
1,251,012,028.00
125,101,202.00
1,126,635,413.83
112,663,541.38
673,852,876.00
1,376,113,231.00
1,239,298,955.22

Components of Phases
Phasing
Phase 1
Main Components
Kilanga Irrigation Scheme
Improvement of existing Challa Irrigation
Scheme
Fishing and Forestry
Phase 2
Jipe Irrigation Scheme

Timbila Irrigation Scheme
Nakuruto Irrigation and Domestic Water
Kidong'u Domestic Water
Jipe Domestic Water
Phase 3
Mwaktau Irrigation Scheme

Mwaktau Domestic Water
Kwa Mnengwa Domestic Water
KWS Drinking Water for Animals
Total
Cost Kshs.
673,852,876.00
1,376,113,231.00
1,239,298,955.22
3,289,265,062.00

The Lake Challa Water Resources Integrated Development Project

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The Lake Challa Water Resources Integrated Development Project

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