JOMO KENYATTA UNIVERSITY

OF
AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL, CONSTRUCTION AND ENVIRONMENTAL
ENGINEERING

FINAL YEAR PROJECT REPORT

TITLE:
POLLUTION PROFILE IN A RIVER CROSSING A TOWN:
CASE STUDY OF RIVER RUIRU IN RUIRU TOWN
AUTHOR:
OCHIENG S. SYLVESTER
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SUPERVISOR
Dr. G. M. THUMBI

A Project submitted in partial fulfillment of the award of BSc. Civil, Construction and Environmental Engineering of the
Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology

DECLARATION
I Ochieng S. Sylvester do solemnly declare that this report is my original
work and to the best of my knowledge, it has not been submitted for any
degree award in any University or Institution.

Signed (Author)
Date...

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CERTIFICATION

I have read this report and approve it for examination.

Signed (Supervisor)
Date...
Dr. G. M. THUMBI

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DEDICATION

I dedicate this project to my parents and siblings who have been there for me
through countless ups and downs and who have always had been there for me.
To my future wife and kids, this is for you too, and to my friends who have
encouraged me throughout the whole course, my classmates and my
supervisor, this is for you all.

In the end, you're measured not by how much you undertake but by what you finally
accomplish.

Donald Trump

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The following have contributed in one way or the other in making this Project a
success.
My project supervisor, Dr. Thumbi for guiding and advising me through the whole
period
The Civil Engineering department for technical and material support throughout the
entire project period
Mr. Mwaura who gave me vital insights necessary for the project
I am highly indebted to Mr. Munyi and Mr. Karugu for their technical support in the
environmental laboratory throughout my practical sessions
My classmates for their friendship and assistance
To all my friends, who have in one way or another contributed to the completion of
this project
I am entirely grateful to you all for your support

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Collected data
Table 2: Average values for the respective sampling stations
Table 3: Kenya standards for water for use
Table 4: World Health Organization standards for water
Table 5: European standards for water
Table 6: budget for the whole project
Table 7: schedule for the project duration

LIST OF FIGURES
Fig 1: Google maps Kenya showing Ruiru town and its environs.
Fig 2: temperature variations for the four sampling stations
Fig 3: hydrogen ion concentration (ph) for the four sampling stations
Fig 4: dissolved oxygen concentrations for the four sampling stations
Fig 5: chemical oxygen demand concentrations for the four sampling stations
Fig 6: ammonia concentration variations for the four sampling stations
Fig 7: variations of the averages of the parameters tested with relation to the sampling
stations

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LIST OF PLATES
Plate 1; a man washing his clothes after bathing in the Ruiru River
Plate 2; direct effluent discharge into Ruiru River located behind the Henkel chemical
industry
Plate 3; Photo adapted from Google maps Kenya showing the entire study area and
the location of the sampling stations.
Plate 4: the water fall section near Thika road
Plate 5: Google earth image of the section showing the river crossing under Thika
road
Plate 6: sampling point for station 2, dry period.
Plate 7: the researcher taking samples at sampling station 2, wet period
Plate 8: stagnant and polluted section of the river
Plate 9: the researcher collecting samples from station 3
Plate 10: car washing in the river; one of the sources of pollution in the river
Plate 11: the researcher testing samples in the University laboratory

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

COD

Chemical Oxygen Demand

DO

Dissolved Oxygen

BOD5

Biochemical Oxygen Demand

pH

Hydrogen ion concentration

DDT

Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane

Mg/L

milligrams per liter

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION........................................................................................................... i
DEDICATION ............................................................................................................. ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT........................................................................................... iii
LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................................... iv
LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................... iv
LIST OF PLATES ........................................................................................................ v
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ...................................................................................... v
TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................ vi
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................ ix
CHAPTER 1 ............................................................................................................ - 1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... - 1 1.1 BACKGROUND .................................................................................... - 2 1.2 STUDY JUSTIFICATION ..................................................................... - 3 1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT ..................................................................... - 5 1.4 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES ................................................................... - 5 1.4.1 Main objective: ................................................................................ - 5 1.4.2 Specific objectives ........................................................................... - 5 1.5 RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS .................................................................. - 5 1.6 STUDY LIMITATIONS. ....................................................................... - 5 CHAPTER 2 ............................................................................................................ - 6 LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................ - 6 2.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................. - 6 2.2 TYPES OF POLLUTANTS ................................................................... - 7 2.3 SOURCES OF POLLUTANTS.............................................................. - 8 2.3.1 Municipal Wastes............................................................................. - 8 2.3.2 Industrial Wastes .............................................................................. - 9 2.3.3 Agricultural wastes ........................................................................ - 10 2.3.4 Storm water .................................................................................... - 10 2.4 EFFECTS OF WATER POLLUTION ................................................. - 11 2.5 SELF-PURIFICATION OF STREAMS............................................... - 12 2.6 DESCRIPTION OF SOME POLLUTION PARAMETERS................ - 13 2.6.1 Temperature ................................................................................... - 13 -

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2.6.2 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) ................................................ - 13 2.6.3 Dissolved Oxygen (DO) ................................................................ - 14 2.6.4 Hydrogen ion concentration (pH) .................................................. - 14 2.6.5 Ammonia ....................................................................................... - 14 CHAPTER 3 .......................................................................................................... - 15 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .......................................................................... - 15 3.1 STUDY AREA ..................................................................................... - 15 3.2 SAMPLING STATIONS ...................................................................... - 16 3.3 SAMPLING .......................................................................................... - 17 3.4 CATCHMENT CHARACTERISTICS ................................................ - 17 3.5 LABORATORY EXAMINATION OF WATER................................. - 19 CHAPTER 4 .......................................................................................................... - 20 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ........................................................................... - 20 4.2 DATA COLLECTED/RESULTS ......................................................... - 20 4.3 AVERAGES ......................................................................................... - 21 4.4

DATA ANALYSIS ......................................................................... - 22 -

4.4.1 Temperature ................................................................................... - 22 4.4.2 Hydrogen ion concentration ........................................................... - 23 4.4.3 Dissolved Oxygen .......................................................................... - 24 4.4.4 Chemical Oxygen Demand ............................................................ - 25 4.4.5 Ammonia ....................................................................................... - 26 4.4.6 Averages ........................................................................................ - 27 4.4.7 Pollution Profile ............................................................................. - 28 4.5

Discussion ....................................................................................... - 29 -

CHAPTER 5 .......................................................................................................... - 30 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................ - 30 5.1 CONCLUSIONS .................................................................................. - 30 5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS ...................................................................... - 31 BIBLIOGRAPHY/REFERENCES ....................................................................... - 33 APPENDIX ........................................................................................................... - 34 APPENDIX 1: BUDGET ...................................................................................... - 34 APPENDIX 2: SCHEDULE ................................................................................. - 34 APPENDIX 3: TABLES OF STANDARDS ........................................................ - 35 -

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APPENDIX 3.1: Kenya standards .......................................................... - 35 APPENDIX 3.2: World Health Organization Standards ........................ - 35 APPENDIX 3.3: European Standards..................................................... - 35 APPENDIX 4: PROCEDURES ............................................................................ - 36 4.1 Temperature .......................................................................................... - 36 4.2 COD (Open Reflux Method) ................................................................ - 36 Reagents: ................................................................................................. - 36 Apparatus: ............................................................................................... - 36 Procedure: ............................................................................................... - 37 Calculations: ........................................................................................... - 37 4.3 Dissolved Oxygen (DO), Titration Method .......................................... - 38 Introduction:............................................................................................ - 38 Reagents: ................................................................................................. - 38 Procedure ................................................................................................ - 38 Calculations: ........................................................................................... - 38 4.4 Hydrogen Ion Concentration or pH (Using The pH Meter Method.) ... - 39 Procedure ................................................................................................ - 39 4.5 Ammonia Test (DPD Method).............................................................. - 39 Apparatus ................................................................................................ - 39 Reagents .................................................................................................. - 39 Procedure ................................................................................................ - 39 APPENDIX 5 : PLATES ...................................................................................... - 40 -

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ABSTRACT
The industrial revolution has brought with it substantial benefits to mankind, but at
the same time it has instigated negative impacts on the environment. The casualties
have been air, soil and water among others, which are being polluted at alarming
rates. The focus of the study was on water pollution, with an emphasis on rivers that
flow through urban areas. Rivers that traverse towns, cities and other urban centers
have been great casualties since they are mostly used to discard most of the wastes.
The study aimed to use laboratory tests and procedures to determine whether River
Ruiru is polluted as it flows through Ruiru town.
The parameters tested in the research process included the standard water quality
variables such as chemical oxygen demand (COD), biochemical oxygen demand
(BOD), and ammonia, environmental variables Dissolved Oxygen (DO), Temperature
and hydrogen concentration (pH). A case study of River Ruiru was used to determine
whether indeed the pollution profile of the river changes as it flows through Ruiru
town. The data was collected from four sampling stations selected as representative of
the flow characteristics and pollution profile of the river.
The values obtained were then compared against those recommended by the various
standardization organizations to determine whether they fall within the recommended
values. The pH values ranged from 7.25 to 8.27 which were within the recommended
values of between 6.5 and 8.5. The maximum ammonia concentration recommended
is 0.5mg/L; however the ammonia concentrations went as high as 1.33mg/L with the
lowest value being 0.55mg/L. These are much higher than the recommended values.
The recommended dissolved oxygen concentration is at least 5.0mg/L, the specimen
concentrations were well below this value, ranging between 2.1 and 4.4. The
recommended maximum chemical oxygen demand concentration is 50g/L, however
the river sample concentration went as high as 335mg/L with the lowest
concentration being 155mg/L.
These results indicate that the river is therefore polluted as it flows through the town,
especially since the values increase as the river progresses towards the town exit.
Conclusions and recommendations were then made on the way forward in mitigating
the pollution of the river.

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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
In most developing countries, point and non-point source pollution are major
environmental problems affecting water quality. The situation is exacerbated by
inadequate treatment for domestic wastes and poor agricultural practices. In East
Africa, land use changes caused by rapid urbanization and clearance of forests to
create room for agriculture have emerged as major stressors of streams and rivers. In
Kenya, degraded water quality, losses of biodiversity and altered hydrography have
been recorded among streams and rivers draining urban areas. On the other hand,
deforestation and cultivation have been found to cause an increase in water
temperature, conductivity, total suspended and dissolved solids and turbidity. Animal

Plate 1; a man washing his clothes after bathing in River Ruiru

overuse on the riparian areas has been found to increase ammonia and nitrite as a
consequence of increased run-off of animal wastes into streams.
Near-stream human activities like sand mining, bathing, (see plate 1) laundry and row
crop agriculture have been reported to cause the greatest influence on stream habitat
and biotic characteristics, (Wandiga, S., 1999).

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1.1 BACKGROUND
Pollution of rivers which exists today in the world actually began in the 19th Century
with the coming of the Industrial Revolution and the resulting phenomenal growth of
population in developing countries. The problem was further intensified by the
establishment of factories on the banks of rivers where the water was freely available
for power and for manufacturing processes. Thus large quantities of liquid, solid and
sewage wastes find their way into the rivers.
Fish, which was formerly abundant, disappeared and water supplies became
endangered. Kenya, a third world country in the East African region had a population
of about 31 million according to the 1999 census, (Wikipedia).
The rapid growth in population has placed great pressure on housing especially in
urban areas and services such as health, water and education. This is due to increasing
levels of poverty and unemployment, poor general sanitation, environmental
degradation, and insecurity which remain a major concern for Ruiru. This has led to a
definite disposal of solid and liquid wastes into the streams and rivers running though
these areas. For town and city residents, potable water supply by relevant authorities
is less than 60% and most people use the water directly without prior treatment.
Against this backdrop, increased intensity of agriculture and deforestation coupled
with the rapid growth of urban centers and industrial activities pose a potential threat
in degrading small streams and rivers. Because of their urban set up these small
ecosystems are often not protected by buffer zones that allow for the absorption of
immense run-off from Jua Kali sheds and settlements on the riparian areas,
(Wandiga, S., 1999).
The problem is worsened by the fact that most industries and malfunctional sewerage
facilities discharge directly into the small streams and rivers. This has consequently
led to sedimentation and eutrophication that have affected domestic and industrial
water supply. Ruiru is a town located in Thika District of Kenyas Central Province.
It is located within three kilometers of Nairobi's city boundary, Ruiru is a dormitory
town for the Kenya's capital city, and is connected by both railway line as well as a
road network. The town covers an area of approximately 292 km, and is surrounded
by numerous coffee plantations. According to the 1999 census, Ruiru town had a
population of 100,000, but has since undergone a rapid population growth as a result

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of the shortage of available housing in Nairobi. A 2005 estimate put the towns
population at over 220,000. The town has struggled to adapt to the influx of people
and social amenities such as schools, health centers, and waste disposal systems have
been put under pressure, (Wikipedia).
Nine rivers flow through Nairobi city and its surroundings. There should be enough
water for its three million residents. However, years of unchecked pollution have
turned them into death traps flowing with poison. Ruiru River, which is part of the
Nairobi river basin, is highly polluted with waste from industries, sewage from
domestic settings and runoff from agricultural areas. As a result of pollution, very
little or no aquatic life exists along the river. Water from the river is no longer
available for domestic and agricultural use. By mitigation of pollution through
policies and public awareness, a number of benefits can be realized from the Ruiru
River such as a source of clean water for domestic, agricultural and industrial use and
a source of fish which can supplement the food in the country. The overall effect
would be the improvement of the lives of the town and city residents, (K. V. Ellis,
1989).

1.2 STUDY JUSTIFICATION

Worldwide, more than one billion people lack access to safe drinking water. At the
end of the 20th century an estimated 80 per cent of the Earths urban residents did not
have

adequate

potable-

water supplies. Only a very

small quantity of the Earths
fresh water, around 0.008
per

cent,

is

currently

available for human use.

Seventy per cent of that
goes to agriculture, 23 per
cent to industry, and only 8
Plate 2; direct effluent discharge into Ruiru River
located behind the Henkel chemical industry

per

cent

to

domestic

consumption. At the same

time, demand for fresh water is rapidly rising. In developing countries, 95 per cent of
human waste water is discharged untreated into nearby rivers (see plate 2) that are

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frequently also sources of drinking water. People who drink such water are likely to
get infected with water-borne diseases, the foremost health problem in the developing
world. Sewage pollution also kills freshwater fish, an important food source, and
leads to deleterious algae blooms in coastal areas. The amount, variability, and
reliability of water flow in rivers have enormous significance for plants, animals, and
people living along the course of the river. Rivers and their flood plains possess
diverse and valuable ecosystems. Not only is the availability of fresh water in itself
vital to sustaining life, but it also supports lush vegetation and abundant insect life
that form the base of the food chain. In the river channel fish feed on the plants and
insects and are themselves eaten by birds, amphibians, reptiles, and mammals. Away
from the channel, wetlands maintained by seepage and occasionally flooded by the
river support rich and diverse habitats that are important not only for resident species,
but also for migrating birds and animals that use wetlands as staging posts while
moving seasonally between different homes (domiciles), (Wandiga, S., 1999).

River (riparian) ecosystems are some of the most important in nature and they depend
entirely on the regime of the river for their existence. Hence, great care must be
exercised when altering this regime through basin and river management, as careless
handling or over-exploitation of water resources has catastrophic impacts on riparian
ecosystems. Despite rivers importance, Ruiru residents have been unforgiving;
destroying what was once a source of fresh drinking water. In the 1990s, people could
fish in some of the rivers, some of which are now choked with weeds and dangerous
chemicals. Conservationists say if these rivers were cleaned up, their waters would
significantly help in the attainment of Millennium Development Goals set by the
United Nations. People would have enough clean water, diseases would reduce,
bringing down health bills, and people would in turn have more money to improve
their livelihoods. This study is meant to examine the quality of water and pollution in
general along the river profile at selected points of the river. The study is meant to
focus on current pollution levels of Ruiru River and highlight how pollution changes
along the profile of the river. From this, it is hoped that it will be possible to
determine whether Ruiru town has an influence on the river, (Wandiga, S., 1999).

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1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT

Pollution along Ruiru River is at critical levels. Previous studies done by various
environmental groups, has shown that there is urgency to restore the river to its
natural state. Population growth has sharply increased demand for freshwater. The
much needed water can be sourced from the river if it is clean. The residential areas
surrounding the river, but do not have access to potable water for domestic use can
benefit greatly from this river if it is restored to a clean state. This study is meant to
determine whether Ruiru town is responsible for polluting the river and if so, what
can be done about it.

1.4 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

1.4.1 Main objective:
The main objective is to evaluate the pollution profile of River Ruiru as it flows
through Ruiru town.

1.4.2 Specific objectives

To evaluate the organic levels at different points along the river.
To determine the effluent discharge points from Ruiru town.

1.5 RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

Most Rivers flowing through urban centers get polluted by wastes, based on that fact,
it is therefore hypothesized that River Ruiru is polluted as it flows through Ruiru
town.

1.6 STUDY LIMITATIONS.

The research will be limited to selected points along the river. These points will be
carefully selected to give a picture of how pollution changes along the profile of the
river. This is due to limited time assigned to the project. Due to limited financing,
only selected areas can be studied within a limited budget and as such an extensive
study of the whole river is not possible.

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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 INTRODUCTION
A river is a natural stream of water, usually freshwater, flowing toward an ocean, a
lake, or another stream. In some cases a river may flow underground or dry up
completely before reaching another body of water. Usually larger streams are called
rivers while smaller streams are called creeks, brooks, rivulets, rills, and many other
terms, (Wikipedia). The great majority of rivers eventually discharge into either the
sea or a lake, although some rivers disappear due to water loss through seepage into
the ground and evaporation into the air. Rivers have long been used, and abused, for
the disposal of human, agricultural and industrial waste (effluent). Through their
natural flow and ecology rivers have the capacity to cleanse themselves and they can
cope with surprisingly large amounts of effluent. However, any river has a finite
capacity to digest sewage and absorb fertilizers washing from crop lands, (Microsoft
Encarta).

If this capacity is exceeded, over-abundant bacteria, algae, and plant life consume all
the oxygen dissolved in the water (Eutrophication),suffocating insect and fish life,
and leading to the destruction of the entire riparian ecosystem through disruption of
the food chain, (Microsoft Encarta).Rivers and lakes, being formed from water which
has percolated through the surface soil will contain dissolved salts, traces of organic
matter, suspended matter, and such dissolved gases as oxygen, nitrogen and carbon
dioxide. The Human activities, however, may lead to alterations in the natural
composition of river water. Mans pollution of the air adds to the chemical
composition of the rainwater (acid rain).Run off from fields and gardens often carry
nutrients and pollutants from fertilizers, pesticides and animal wastes. Effluents
which man adds to river and other waterways have a direct effect on the hydrologic
cycle, (Microsoft Encarta).

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2.2 TYPES OF POLLUTANTS

The main types of pollutants of rivers include:
Sewage and other oxygen-demanding wastes
These are largely carbonaceous organic material, the decomposition of which
leads to oxygen depletion. These include raw sewage discharged directly to a
river.
Pesticides and herbicides.
Chemicals used to kill unwanted pests, insects and weeds on farms may be
collected by rainwater runoff and carried into streams, especially if these
substances are applied too lavishly. Some of these chemicals are biodegradable
and quickly decay harmless or less harmful forms, while others are nonbiodegradable and remain dangerous for a long time. Substances such as DDT
(Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) are absorbed into tissues of animals and are
passes on the food chain increasing the concentration of the pollutants. Animals
at the top of the food chain may suffer cancers, reproductive problems and death.
Infectious agents (pathogens). Many disease causing organisms that are present in
small numbers in most natural waters are considered pollutants when found in
drinking water. Such parasites as Giardia lamblia and Cryptspridiumparvum
occasionally turn up in urban water supplies. These parasites can cause illness
especially in people who are old or very young, and in people who are already
suffering from other diseases. In 1993 an outbreak of Cryptspridium in the water
supply of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, sickened more than 400,000 people and killed
more than 100.
Plant nutrients that can stimulate the growth of aquatic plants, which then
interfere with water uses and, when decaying, deplete the dissolved oxygen and
produce disagreeable odors.
Petroleum, especially from oil spills.
Inorganic minerals and chemical compounds.
Sediments consisting of soil and mineral particles washed by storms and flood
water from croplands, unprotected soils, mine workings, roads, and bulldozed
urban areas. They can also be pollutants if it is present in large amounts. Soil
erosions produced by the removal of soil-trapping trees near waterways, or
carried by rainwater and floodwater from croplands, strip mines, and roads, can
damage a stream or lake by introducing too much nutrient matter. This leads to
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eutrophication. Sedimentation can also cover streambed gravel in which many

fish, such as salmon and trout, lay their eggs.
Radioactive substances from the wastes of uranium and thorium mining and
refining, from nuclear power plants, and from the industrial, medical, and
scientific use of radioactive materials. Thermal Pollution Thermal pollution is a
temperature change in natural water bodies caused by human influence. The
temperature change can be upwards or downwards. In the Northern Hemisphere,
a common cause of thermal pollution is the use of water as a coolant, especially
in power plants. Water used as a coolant is returned to the natural environment at
a higher temperature. Increases in water temperature can impact on aquatic
organisms by;
Decreasing oxygen supply
Killing fish juveniles which are vulnerable to small increases in temperature
Affecting ecosystem composition.
In the Southern Hemisphere, thermal pollution is commonly caused by the release of
very cold water from the base of reservoirs, with severe effects on fish (particularly
eggs and larvae), macro invertebrates and river productivity. Temperature may be the
most important single factor affecting the occurrence and behavior of life in surface
water. It affects practically every physical factor that is of concern in water quality
management in that it alters the density, viscosity, vapor pressure, surface tension,
gas solubility and the rate of gas diffusion. It also affects the rate of all chemical and
biological reactions, (K. V. Ellis, 1989).

2.3 SOURCES OF POLLUTANTS

The major sources of water pollution can be classified as municipal, industrial,
agricultural and storm water.

2.3.1 Municipal Wastes

Municipal water pollution consists of wastewater from homes and commercial
establishments. For many years, the main goal of municipal sewage disposal was
simply to reduce its content of suspended solids, oxygen-demanding materials,
dissolved inorganic compounds (particularly compounds of phosphorus and
nitrogen), and harmful bacteria. The Royal Commission on Sewage Disposal has
recommended that in order to avoid nuisance, sewage effluent should have a
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5) of not more than 20ppm and a suspended solids

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content of not greater than 30ppm where the dilution with the river water is at least
eightfold. In recent years, however, more stress has been placed on improving the
means of disposal of the solid residues from municipal treatment processes.
The basic methods of treating municipal wastewater fall into three stages;
1. Primary

treatment,

including

grit

removal,

screening,

grinding,

flocculation(aggregation of the solids), and sedimentation;

2. Secondary treatment, which entails oxidation of dissolved organic matter by
means of biologically active sludge, which is then filtered off;
3. Tertiary treatment, in which advanced biological methods of nitrogen
removal and chemical and physical methods such as granular filtration and
activated carbon adsorption are employed.
The handling and disposal of solid residues can account for 25 to 50 per cent of the
capital and operational costs of a treatment plant, (Wandiga, S., 1999).

2.3.2 Industrial Wastes

The characteristics of industrial wastewaters can differ markedly both within and
among industries. The impact of industrial discharges depends not only on their
collective characteristics, such as biochemical oxygen demand and the amount of
suspended solids, but also on their content of specific inorganic and organic
substances. Three options (which are not mutually exclusive) are available in
controlling industrial wastewater;
1. Control can take place at the point of generation within the plant;
2. Wastewater can be pretreated for discharge to municipal treatment systems;
3. Wastewater can be treated completely at the plant and either reused or
discharged directly into the receiving waters.
Even if the effluent is treated by the best practicable means and is satisfactory on the
basis of certain arbitrary standards, any waste effluent into a stream cannot be as good
as the natural river water. Industrial waste is a major contributor of chemical
pollution, (Microsoft Encarta).

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2.3.3 Agricultural wastes

Agriculture, including commercial livestock and poultry farming, is the source of
many organic and inorganic pollutants in surface waters and groundwater. These
contaminants include both sediment from the erosion of cropland and compounds of
phosphorus and nitrogen that partly originate in animal wastes and commercial
fertilizers. Animal wastes are high in oxygen-demanding material, nitrogen, and
phosphorus, and they often harbor pathogenic organisms. Wastes from commercial
feeders are contained and disposed of on land; their main threat to natural waters,
therefore, is via run-off and leaching. When farmland is tilled and bare soil is
revealed, rainwater carries billions of tons of topsoil into waterways each year,
causing loss of valuable topsoil and adding sediment to produce turbidity in surface
waters, (Microsoft Encarta).
The other context of agricultural issues involves the transport of agricultural
chemicals (nitrates, phosphates, pesticides, herbicides etc.) via surface runoff. This
result occurs when chemical use is excessive or poorly timed with respect to high
precipitation. The resulting contaminated runoff represents not only a waste of
agricultural chemicals, but also an environmental threat to downstream ecosystems.
The alternative to conventional farming is organic farming which eliminates or
greatly reduces chemical usage. Control may involve settling basins for liquids,
limited biological treatment in aerobic or anaerobic lagoons, and a variety of other
methods, (Microsoft Encarta).

2.3.4 Storm water

Storm water is a term used to describe water that originates during precipitation
events. It may also be used to apply to water that originates with snowmelt or runoff
water from overwatering that enters the storm water system. Storm water that does
not soak into the ground becomes surface runoff, which either flows into surface
waterways or is channeled into storm sewers. Storm water is of concern for two main
issues: one related to the volume and timing of runoff water (flood control and water
supplies) and the other related to potential contaminants that the water is carrying, i.e.
water pollution. Because impervious surfaces (parking lots, roads, buildings,
compacted soil) do not allow rain to infiltrate into the ground, more runoff is
generated than in the undeveloped condition, (Microsoft Encarta).

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The additional runoff can erode watercourses (streams and rivers) as well as cause
flooding when the storm water collection system is overwhelmed by the additional
flow. Because the water is flushed out of the watershed during the storm event, little
infiltrates the soil, replenishes groundwater, or supplies stream base flow in dry
weather. In addition to delivering higher pollutants from the urban catchment
increased storm water flow can lead to stream erosion, encourage weed invasion and
can alter natural flow regimes which native species rely on for a range for activities
including spawning, juvenile development and migration, (Wandiga, S., 1999).

2.4 EFFECTS OF WATER POLLUTION

1. Notable effects of water pollution include those involved in human health.
Nitrates (the salts of nitric acid) in drinking water can cause a disease in infants
that sometimes results in death. Cadmium in sludge-derived fertilizer can be
absorbed by crops; if ingested in sufficient amounts, the metal can cause an acute
diarrhea disorder and liver and kidney damage. The hazardous nature of inorganic
substances such as mercury, arsenic, and lead has long been known or strongly
suspected. Lakes are especially vulnerable to pollution. One problem,
eutrophication, occurs when lake water becomes artificially enriched with
nutrients, causing abnormal plant growth. Run-off of chemical fertilizer from
cultivated fields may trigger this. The process of eutrophication can produce
aesthetic problems such as bad tastes and odors and unsightly green scum of
algae, as well as dense growth of rooted plants, oxygen depletion in the deeper
waters and bottom sediments of lakes, and other chemical changes such as
precipitation of calcium carbonate in hard waters.
2. Another problem, of growing concern in recent years, is acid rain, which has left
many lakes in northern and Eastern Europe and north-eastern North America
totally devoid of life. Eutrophication may perhaps best be described as increased
lake productivity resulting from an increased loading of nutrient material which
has not been balanced by an equivalent release of these nutrients materials in the
outflow, (K. V. Ellis, 1989).
3. It was once assumed that lakes became naturally more eutrophic through time.
However, evidence strongly indicates that most recent changes are due to the
increase in nutrients coming from the land in consequence of human activities
(such as forest clearance, ploughing and fertilizing). This increase caused by
human beings is known as anthropogenic eutrophication. The supply of dissolved
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phosphorus to lakes and rivers is greatly increased by domestic and industrial

sewage disposal, unless steps are taken to remove it from the final effluent.
Polyphosphate-based detergents may also contribute a significant proportion. As
the turbidity of water (its murkiness, caused by suspended nutrients) increases so
does the production of phytoplankton: greater rates of bacterial decomposition
remove dissolved oxygen from deep water faster than it can be replaced from the
atmosphere ,leaving less of the water habitable for fish.
4. Eutrophication can cause massive growth of aquatic plants due to high supply of
nutrients. Eutrophication can be reversed by cutting back the phosphorus loads,
either by diversion from sensitive waters or by chemical precipitation with iron
salts (phosphate stripping) at such point-sources as the effluents of sewageworks. Shallow lakes take longer to restore because they recycle phosphorus
much more efficiently than deep lakes, and methods to stimulate alternative food
webs (bio-manipulation) are used to overcome the symptoms of eutrophication.
Where nutrient sources are diffuse and difficult to control, the use of artificial
mixing systems can be considered as a means to reduce algal growth, (K. V. Ellis,
1989).

2.5 SELF-PURIFICATION OF STREAMS

Self-purification is the sum of those processes which bring a polluted water body
back into its normal original state. Rivers receiving continuous pollution by organic
wastes tend to overcome the pollution load by purifying itself and recover naturally in
the course of time, thus exemplifying the ancient saying that running water purifies
itself. Self-purification of rivers, one of the most remarkable of natures working
leading to the eventual elimination of the organic pollution is dependent on
biochemical reactions brought about by the activities of micro-organisms which give
sufficient dissolved oxygen, utilize the organic matter as food and break down
complex compounds to simpler and harmless end products.
The river thus recovers naturally from the effects of pollution and is said to have
undergone self-purification. Self-purification is a complicated process and each
river has its own specific capacity for purifying itself which can only be properly
evaluated after an extensive chemical, physical, hydrological and biological survey.
Some rivers are able to undergo self-purification in a fairly short distance; others
require dozens of miles or even more, (K. V. Ellis, 1989).

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The factors influencing self-purification of a river are:Dissolved oxygen

Type of organic matter
Toxic substances
Physical characteristics of a stream
Weather conditions
Dilution
Sedimentation and Sludge deposits
Temperature

2.6 DESCRIPTION OF SOME POLLUTION PARAMETERS

2.6.1 Temperature
Temperature is one of the important parameters in natural surface water systems. The
temperature of surface waters governs to a large extent the biological species present
and their rates of activity. Temperature has an effect on most chemical reactions that
occurs in natural water systems. Oxygen is less soluble in warm water than in cold
water. Temperature also has pronounced effect on solubility of gases in water. High
order species such as fish are affected dramatically by temperature and by dissolved
oxygen levels, which are a function of temperature, (K. V. Ellis, 1989).

2.6.2 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

The chemical oxygen demand (COD) test is a measure of the quantity of oxygen that
is required to oxidize the organic matter in a wastewater sample under specific
conditions of oxidizing agent, temperature and time. During the determination of
COD, organic matter is converted to carbon dioxide and water, amino nitrogen to
ammonia nitrogen and organic nitrogen in higher oxidation states to nitrates
regardless of biological degradability of the substances. COD values should be
greater than BOD values and may be much greater when significant amounts of
biologically resistant organic matter is present. The COD test is used extensively in
the analysis of industrial wastes.
Results may be obtained within a relatively short time (3 hours). In conjunction with
the BOD test, the COD test is helpful in indicating toxic conditions and the presence
of biologically resistant organic substances. The test is widely used in the operation
of treatment facilities because of the speed with which results can be obtained, (K. V.
Ellis, 1989).

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2.6.3 Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

Surface waters of good quality should be saturated with dissolved oxygen. The
average concentration of dissolved oxygen in water is 6mg/l. A fall in dissolved
oxygen level in water is one of the first indications that organic matter has polluted a
body of water. The dissolved oxygen level in water depends on physical, chemical,
and biological activities prevailing in the water body and thus, it is one of the
important parameters for assessing the purity of the water body. Dissolved oxygen
levels in natural and wastewaters are dependent on the physical, chemical and
biochemical activities prevailing in the water body.
Adequate DO is necessary for the life of the fish and other aquatic organisms. The
DO concentration may also be associated with corrosivity of water, photosynthetic
activity and septicity. The DO is also used in the biochemical oxygen demand
determination, (K. V. Ellis, 1989).

2.6.4 Hydrogen ion concentration (pH)

Pure water is only weakly dissociated into hydrogen and hydroxyl ions (H+ and OH
respectively).Theoretically, pure water contains H+ and OH- each at a concentration
of10-7g ions/l. If the H+ concentration is more than 10-7g ions/l the solution is said
to be acidic; if the H concentration is less than 10-7, it is said to be alkaline. The pH
of a solution is the logarithm (to base 10) of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion
concentration. PH values less than 7 indicate acidity and pH values greater than
7indicate alkalinity. The pH of most natural water lies between 4 and 9. Many waters
show an alkaline reaction due to presence of carbonate and bicarbonate ions, (K. V.
Ellis, 1989).

2.6.5 Ammonia
Ammonia occurs as a breakdown product of nitrogenous material in natural waters. It
is also found in domestic effluents and certain industrial waste waters. Ammonia is
harmful to fish and other forms of aquatic life especially for ammonia levels greater
than 0.2mg/l, and the ammonia level must be carefully controlled in water used for
fish farms and aquariums. Ammonia test are routinely applied to pollution control on
effluents and waste waters, and for monitoring of drinking water, (K. V. Ellis, 1989).

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CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 STUDY AREA
Ruiru River flows through the Ruiru town and it is the main river in the town. It one
of the tributaries of Nairobi River which eventually flows into the Athi River,
ultimately flowing to the Indian Ocean about 600km away. This river is mostly
narrow, shallow and polluted .It is characterized by a brown colour and it has a
waterfall about four meters high about fifty meters away from the busy Thika Road.

Fig 1: Google maps showing Ruiru town and its environs

After the waterfall, the river disappears under the rocks and what is left on the surface
is a very slender stream that also eventually vanishes underground, (Wikipedia). See
location of Ruiru town and its environs in the Google map figure shown in fig: 1

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3.2 SAMPLING STATIONS

A total of four stations were selected for sampling. Since the objective of the study
was to determine if Ruiru town influences the pollution profile of the river, the first
sampling station was taken at the point where the river enters the town, before being
influenced in any way to determine if it was polluted before it entered the town. The
next two stations were taken within the town but at convenient distances apart. The
last sampling station was taken at the rivers exit from the town. By comparing the
results from the four sampling stations, it was possible to determine from laboratory
tests whether the river was polluted as it flowed through Ruiru town.

Plate 3; Photo adapted from Google maps Kenya showing the entire study area and the
location of the sampling stations.
The sampling stations are located as shown in the satellite map above, (see plate 3):
Station 1- Entry into Ruiru town
Station 2- Behind Henkel chemical industry
Station 3- Underneath Thika Road bridge
Station 4- Exit of Ruiru town

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3.3 SAMPLING
Water samples were collected from all the four sampling stations. During the
sampling process, date, time, exact location and temperatures of the samples were
recorded on site. Water samples were collected at right angles to the flow of the
stream on straight stretches of the stream. Samples were collected in clean containers
and labeled with necessary information for easy description of the samples. They
were then transported to the laboratory and refrigerated until tests were done.
Choice of sampling stations was based on the following rationale;
Areas with low and extreme pollution for purposes of comparison. The
assumption here was that the river was not highly polluted as it entered the
town, it got polluted in the town and thus its pollution load should have been
greater in the town.
Adequate spacing between the sampling stations for a more accurate study of
the pollution profile.
Areas with little or no settlements to avoid confrontations with hostile
residents.
To avoid polluted water at major outfalls such as drains, industrial outfalls,
stagnant pools and areas of standing water.
Cost effectiveness for collection, analysis and reporting.

3.4 CATCHMENT CHARACTERISTICS

The topography of the section of interest was determined by the softwares Google
Earth and Google maps. The figure shows a screen capture of the area from Google
Earth. The software gives altitudes and coordinates of points of interest. Software
with similar capabilities is Microsoft Encarta, but it is less powerful and accurate.
Using the software, the entire study area can be viewed. Attached are screen shots of
the entire study area as well as the individual sampling stations, complete with their
elevations and their coordinates, (Wikipedia).

Station 1: (Entry into Ruiru Town)

Altitude: 1901 meters
Flow characteristics: slow flowing
Color: clear
Odour: not detected

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Main activities: farming, animal husbandry, clothes washing, (see plate 1), car
washing

Station 2: (Behind Henkel chemical industry)

Altitude: 1769 meters
Distance along the river from station A: 2.97 kilometers
Flow characteristics: mostly stagnant with very slow flow
Color: greenish grey with traces of light brown
Odour: noticeable trace of foul smell
Main activities: formal residential areas, river goes through farms and flows behind
industries, has effluent flowing from some pipes, (see plate 3).

Station 3: (Under Thika Road bridge)

Altitude: 1680 meters
Distance along the river from station B: 1.92 kilometers
Flow characteristics: slow moving, then very fast flowing after a waterfall near the
bridge.
Color: dark grey with traces of brown
Odour: noticeable trace of foul smell
Main activities: town life, business, industries, the river passes underneath Thika
road.

Station 4: (Exit Ruiru town)

Altitude: 1643 meters
Distance along the river from station C: 2.81 kilometers
Flow characteristics: slow flowing
Color: dark grey/ brown
Odour: foul, pungent smell
Main activities: Industrial processes, solid wastes (plastics, metals, papers dumped
along the river)

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3.5 LABORATORY EXAMINATION OF WATER

The following Water Pollution Parameters were examined using standard methods,
(see appendix 4) (Andrew D. Eaton, LenorS.Clesceri, Arnold E. Greenberg, 1995).
1. Temperature
2. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
3. Hydrogen ion concentration or pH
4. Dissolved Oxygen(DO)
5. Ammonia (DPD test)

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CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The Ruiru Rivers longitudinal profile shows that it stands at a mean altitude of
1901m at the town entrance and drops to 1680m at the Thika Road crossing after it
has gone through the town; a drop of 221m. The horizontal distance between the
entry point and the exit point is about 7.7 km. The slope of the river is fairly steep for
the upper section of the river. The slope is crucial in the creation of turbulent mixing
of regimes in the river, which enhances oxygen transfer (mixing) from the
atmosphere to the river. The data collected from the river is tabulated as shown in
table 1 below:

4.2 DATA COLLECTED/RESULTS

Date

Sampling
station

Temperature
(oC)

4TH NOV

1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4

24
24
23
24
22
23
23
22
22
22.5
22
23
24
23
24
24
24
23
24
23
22.5
23
23
24

12TH NOV

19TH NOV
(wet day/
period)
19TH JAN

27TH JAN

9TH FEB

1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4

Hydrogen ion Dissolved

concentration Oxygen
Mg/L
Mg/L
7.06
4.1
6.65
3.6
6.56
2.5
6.83
2.1
8.57
3.8
8.36
3.4
8.23
3.2
7.53
2.6
8.73
4.4
8.33
4.1
7.85
3.6
7.56
3.3
8.65
3.8
8.32
3.6
7.22
3.2
6.85
2.5
8.63
3.6
8.26
3.5
7.96
2.8
7.65
2.3
7.98
3.7
7.86
3.2
7.21
2.6
7.08
2.1

Chemical
Oxygen
Demand mg/L
180
200
205
258
208
225
238
249
155
185
188
203
210
212
227
245
198
255
268
305
225
248
285
335

Ammonia
Mg/L
0.63
0.86
0.96
1.05
0.76
0.92
1.15
1.25
0.55
0.59
0.67
0.78
0.65
0.77
0.98
1.22
0.83
0.96
1.23
1.26
0.85
0.98
1.28
1.33

Table 1: collected data

Around the midpoint of the river, human characteristics involve farming, car washing
and bathing. There is runoff from farms and domestic waste from the nearby Ruiru
municipal sewage treatment plant settling into the river. There is also significant
effluent coming from pipes behind the Henkel chemical industry just behind the river,

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located as shown on the Ruiru map. It is not clear exactly what kinds of effluent
discharge are deposited from the industries or where exactly the effluent discharge
pipes come from.

4.3 AVERAGES
Sampling
Station

Temperature
(x101)
o
C

Hydrogen ion
concentration
Mg/L

Dissolved
Oxygen
Mg/L

Chemical Oxygen
Demand
(mg/L)
(x102)

Ammonia
Mg/L

2.325

8.27

3.9

1.96

0.71

2.325

7.96

3.6

2.21

0.85

2.35

7.51

3.0

2.35

1.05

2.35

7.25

2.5

2.66

1.15

Table 2: Average values for the respective sampling stations

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4.4 DATA ANALYSIS

4.4.1 Temperature

Temperature
24.5

Temperature 0C

24
23.5
23

Station 1

22.5

Station 2

22

Station 3
Station 4

21.5
21
4th Nov 12th Nov 19th Nov 19th Jan 27th Jan 9th Feb
Sampling date

Fig 2: temperature variations for the four sampling stations

Temperature variations are mainly due to time of day when the samples were taken.
Dry periods registered higher values on average as compared to the wet period- 19th
Nov, (see fig 2). According to Kenyan standards, (see appendix table 3) the
temperature of water was within the required range of ambient temperature. There
was no indication of thermal pollution at any of the sampling stations. High
temperature in the river is responsible for killing aquatic life especially fish. It upsets
biological processes in the water that are responsible for breaking down organics.

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4.4.2 Hydrogen ion concentration

Hydrogen ion concentration

10
9
8
7
pH

Station 1

Station 2

4
3

Station 3

Station 4

1
0
4th Nov 12th Nov 19th Nov 19th Jan 27th Jan

9th Feb

Sampling date

Fig 3: hydrogen ion concentration (pH) for the four sampling stations
The pH is an important indicator of the status of the natural waters. The river pH
value can be used to indicate the health status of river. Most biological and chemical
reactions take place at normal pH range of between 6.5 and 8.5, (see appendix table
3), fig 3shows the pH profile of Ruiru River. These results indicated that the
discharges into the river did not affect the river pH, or that the river natural buffering
capacity was adequate to withstand any basic or acidic discharges. There is not much
variation in the pH values with the highest values being recorded at station 1 on four
different occasions. The recommended values lie within 6.5 and 8.5, and most of the
values recorded are within this range.

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4.4.3 Dissolved Oxygen

Dissolved oxygen
5
4.5
4

mg/L

3.5
3

Station 1

2.5

Station 2

2
1.5

Station 3

Station 4

0.5
0
4th Nov 12th Nov 19th Nov 19th Jan 27th Jan

9th Feb

Sampling date

Fig 4: dissolved oxygen concentrations for the four sampling stations

The low DO concentration at station 4 downstream shows high microbial activity in
the river to the extent of depleting the dissolved oxygen. The wet period shows high
DO concentrations opposed to dry period, (see fig 4). The upstream areas are
characterized with higher DO concentration values. This profile shows how DO
concentration drops downstream showing higher presence of microbial activity
depleting oxygen. This shows evidence of organic pollutants and organic matter in
the river water downstream The DO upstream is relatively sufficient for aquatic life
as opposed to downstream. There is presence of solid waste and industrial effluent
downstream into the river. These wastes introduce a lot of suspended solids and
organics that reduce aeration of the river. The flow of the river upstream is fast due to
topography, this enables aeration that adds oxygen into the river. Downstream flows
are much slower limiting aeration. The DO values are below those of the Kenya
standards (see appendix table 3).

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4.4.4 Chemical Oxygen Demand

Chemical Oxygen Demand

400
350
300
mg/L

250

Station 1

200

Station 2

150

Station 3

100

Station 4

50
0
4th Nov 12th Nov 19th Nov 19th Jan 27th Jan

9th Feb

Sampling date

Fig 5: chemical oxygen demand concentrations for the four sampling stations

The COD levels upstream at station 1 and station 2 change slightly, at this stage,
levels of COD are low and self-purification of the river is evident in reducing
organics in the river (see figure 5). This area is characterized by suburban residential
areas; discharge of pollutant into the river is fairly minimal. As the river enters the
town, its seen that the COD level increase considerably. This is attributed to
discharge of waste from surrounding areas. At station 3 the COD level increase
sharply due to high loading by solid wastes, (see plate 3) which contains considerable
amount of organics. The data shows wet weather has a dilution effect on the COD
especially for downstream areas where dry weather COD levels is much higher than
wet weather COD levels. The high COD was evidence of presence of nonbiodegradable material substances in the river The Ruiru River is heavily polluted
with organics and chemical waste. The COD levels were way above the
recommended standards for natural river discharge (see appendix table 3).

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4.4.5 Ammonia

Ammonia
1.4
1.2

mg/L

1
0.8

Station 1
Station 2

0.6

Station 3
0.4

Station 4

0.2
0
4th Nov 12th Nov 19th Nov 19th Jan 27th Jan

9th Feb

Sampling date

Fig 6: ammonia concentration variations for the four sampling stations

Ammonia concentration was lower at the upstream section of the river than at
downstream section (see figure 6).The ammonia concentrations are relatively low
indicating absence of human waste contamination at the sections tested. It increases
downstream up to station 4. The ammonia concentration for all stations is above the
recommended standards, (see appendix table 3), indicating pollution by chemicals
containing ammonia and fertilizes used in the farming area around Ruiru. The cause
of reduced levels of ammonia during wet period was due to dilution effect from
surface runoff.

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4.4.6 Averages

23.55

23.5

23.45

23.4

23.35

23.3

23.25

23.2

23.15

Temperature

mg/L

Averages

23.1
Station 1

Station2

Station 3

Station 4

Parameter
pH

DO

COD

Ammonia

Temperature

Fig 7: variations of the averages of the parameters tested with relation to the
sampling stations
The average values show station 1 having the highest average values for the hydrogen
ion concentration as well as the dissolved oxygen (see fig 7). The ph for station 1 lies
within the recommended values (see appendix table 3), the DO is however below the
recommended minimum value. The values reduce progressively as the river
progresses through and outside the town, evidence that the water gets polluted with
organics which use up the oxygen in the water, hence the reduction in the DO levels
(see fig 7). There are also chemical reactions that take place in the water hence the
progressive change in the pH values.

The Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) and the ammonia levels increase gradually,
signifying high loading by solid wastes and other ammonia containing wastes. Both
the COD and ammonia levels are above those recommended by the various standards
even as at the time the river enters the town, (see appendix table 3) but they increase
to worse levels by the time the river exits the town.

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4.4.7 Pollution Profile

26

2000

24

23.25

22

Elevation, Station 1, 1901

23.5

23.25

23.5
1900
1800

20
Elevation, Station 2, 1769

18

Elevation, Station 3, 1680

Elevation, Station 4, 1643

1600

14

1500
12
10

1400
8.27

7.96

7.51

7.25

1300

6
3.9

1200

3.6

4
1.96

2.21

Station 1

2.66

1100

1.15

1.05

0.85

0.71

2.5
2.35

1000

Station 2

Station 3

Station 4

Sampling Stations
Temperature

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OCHIENG S. (2010)

Ammonia

pH

Elevation

Elevatin (m)

16
values (mg/L)

1700

4.5 Discussion
From the Rivers flow profile on the previous page, the temperature is on a gradual
increase from 23.25 to 23.5 degrees Celsius. This temperature increase may be
attributed to a rise in metabolic reaction which can be as a result of the presence of
reactive effluent in the water. The effluent is chemically reactive thereby giving off
heat as a result of the metabolic processes that occur in the water body. The pH is on
a decrease from 8.27 to 7.25. The values are well within the recommended pH ranges
even though the reduction signifies a transformation from a more basic state to a
more neutral state, which is attained at pH of 7.0.
The values of the dissolved oxygen reduce from 3.9 mg/L to 2.5 mg/L which signifies
considerable consumption of the dissolved oxygen in the water as the river progresses
towards the exit of the town. The reduction is evidence of metabolic reactions in the
water which leads to the consumption of the dissolved oxygen and this may in turn
lead to the suffocation of the aquatic life present in the water. The values fall well
below the recommended value of 5.0 mg/L
The values of the Chemical Oxygen demand are on an increase from 196 mg/L to 266
mg/L. The high COD was evidence of presence of non-biodegradable material
substances in the river The Ruiru River is heavily polluted with organics and
chemical waste. The COD levels were way above the recommended standards for
natural river discharge which are recommended to be at not more than 50mg/L.
The values of ammonia are on a gradual increase from 0.71 mg/L to 1.15 mg/L.
Ammonia concentration was lower at the upstream section of the river than at
downstream section. The ammonia concentrations are relatively low indicating
absence of human waste contamination at the sections tested. It increases downstream
up to station 4. The ammonia concentration for all stations is above the recommended
standards; indicating pollution by chemicals containing ammonia and fertilizers used
in the farming area around Ruiru.

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CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 CONCLUSIONS
The pollution monitoring of the Ruiru River has revealed interesting results, and the
following conclusions have been arrived at after the analysis of the monitoring and
assessment of data obtained:

The field investigations coupled with laboratory analysis of samples obtained

from 4 monitoring stations from Ruiru River confirmed gross pollution of the
River. Most pollutants in the river exceed accepted discharge standards into
natural rivers.

The Ruiru River pollution increases as the river flows progressively

downwards. The upstream section shows lesser pollution, followed by the
middle section and the downstream section showing the highest pollution
load which is past the town.

The most polluted area was found to be downstream. This area is

characterized by solid waste and the water has a characteristic odour which is
strong and pungent. This is an indication of high microbial activity
(anaerobic) giving up a lot of gases. This also indicated presence of
chemicals with the pungent smell that has been introduced by industries in
the area. There is the need to create policies to mitigate pollution of riparian
bodies and ensure they are implemented.

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5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
To control pollution of River Ruiru, a lot has to be done. The following are some of
the measures that need to be taken to achieve this:
Clean up action plan be drawn up and to involve communities living and
operating along the Ruiru River. These are the informal settlements and the
industries.

The discharge of human waste into the river should be addressed through
efforts to have human settlements and agricultural activities within the river
relocated or stopped.
The industrial discharges should be stopped through efforts by the industries
to take measures to address pollution emanating from their production
processes. In the industrial and commercial areas, there is need to install
automatic water quality detectors to ensure no illegal industrial effluents are
discharged into the rivers at night. Impromptu water samples should also be
taken at night for analysis to ascertain the quality status of the river water
regularly.
Some technical and financial support should be considered in developing
technologies to pre-treat discharges from industries within their premises.
There is need, to look at the existing legislation in relation to environmental
pollution, penalties and enforcement.
Continue to build the capacity of the Local Authorities through improvement
of the monitoring laboratories and equipment as well as organizing refresher
courses.
Continuous monitoring of the river to ascertain that the pollution levels are
within recommended levels.
Studies on polluters pay principle should be initiated with a view to assess
the capacity of the existing treatment plants and sewer system to handle more
concentrated waste discharges.
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Engineering solutions to clean up efforts should be investigated such as

channeling, introduction of flow weirs in the river in order to increase the
flow conditions, especially on the stagnant sections of the river to enhance
the river self-purification and increase oxygen dissolution.
Initiate efforts of assessment of pollution, community sensitization and clean
up action plan The Ruiru River.
There is need to create a buffer zone between the river banks and human land
use activities to avoid any tendency of dumping any wastes into the rivers.
The informal activities (Jua-Kali Motor garages) and Food Kiosks which dot
most of the river sub-basin profiles should be sited far away from the river
banks. These discharge and dump waste oils and solid garbage onto the rivers
and hence pollute the waters.
A vigorous campaign to educate people on the importance of a clean
environment and the danger of polluted waters should be initiated
immediately. The focus should be a zero tolerance of garbage and solid
wastes and limited generation of the same at the household level. The town
council of Ruiru needs to consider a viable use of the river waters which can
sensitize the towns inhabitants on the need to take care of the waters. This is
one factor which has necessitated the clean-up campaigns of river waters in
the developed countries where some of the rivers passing through major cities
have since been cleaned and are now habitable for many uses.
There should be initiated a proper Solid waste collection and disposal
mechanism. A community approach should be adopted in solid waste
handling. Separation of solid waste before disposal would go a long way in
solving collection problems especially by recycling industries which need to
be encouraged to collect the waste from generation points. Since recycling is
the ultimate solution to control solid waste, every effort to make it more
efficient must be explored, this being one of them. Community approach
would reduce institutional spending and promote more responsible garbage
and in the long run a more responsible and environmentally sensitive society.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY/REFERENCES

Andrew D. Eaton, Lenor S. Clesceri, Arnold E. Greenberg, (1995).Standard methods

for the examination of water and waste water. American Health association,
19th edition.
David Kuria, Ecotact, (2004) Best practices for environmental conservation for River
Basin programs.
Kenya Standards Legislation, 2006. Second schedule; Water quality monitoring
sources of domestic water.
Third Schedule; Standards for Effluent discharge into the environment.
K.V. Ellis, (1989).Surface water Pollution and its control. Macmillan Press Ltd 1989.
Microsoft Encarta 2005 encyclopedia.
Ministry of land reclamation, regional and water development discharge standards.
SEPA: Diffuse Pollution reports, http://www.sepa.org.uk/dpi/whatis/index.htm
(Last accessed 13th November 2009)
UNEP: Environmental Management Information System (EMIS),
http://www.unep.org/roa/Nairobi_River_Basin/default

(Last

accessed

13th

November 2009).
Wandiga, S. O (1996.) River Pollution In Developing Countries-A case study III:
Effect of Industrial Discharges on Quality of Nairobi River Waters in Kenya
Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/River (Last accessed 13th November 2009)
Wikipedia: Biosafety News, October/November 2002: Nairobi river pollution a threat
to health, http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nairobi_River (Last accessed 13th
November2009)
World Health Organization's drinking water standards 1993: Guidelines for Drinking
Water Quality.
Geneva. The international reference point for standard-setting and drinking-water
safety.
World Health Organization/European Union drinking water standards comparative
table: The EU standards (1998)

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APPENDIX
APPENDIX 1: BUDGET
EXPENDITURE

COST(Kshs)

Chemical Oxygen Demand (C.O.D) test

4,000

Ammonia test

2,000

Dissolved Oxygen (DO) test

2,000

Printing, binding and miscellaneous.

2,000

Data collection and transport

1,000

TOTAL

11,000
Table 6: budget for the whole project

APPENDIX 2: SCHEDULE
1st SEMESTER
WEEK NO.

2nd SEMESTER
9

10

10

11

12

Topic
Proposal
Data
Collection
Presentation

Literature
review
Visit to the
study area
Laboratory
Tests
Progress
report
Final report
compilation
Report
submission

Table 7: schedule for the project duration

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APPENDIX 3: TABLES OF STANDARDS

APPENDIX 3.1: Kenya standards
Parameter

Guide value

Station 1

Station 2

Station 3

Station 4

(maximum
allowable limit)
pH

6.5 8.5

8.27

7.96

7.51

7.25

Ammonia

0.5 (mg/L)

0.71(mg/L)

0.85(mg/L)

1.05(mg/L)

1.15(mg/L)

DO

5.0 mg/L

3.9(mg/L)

3.6 (mg/L)

3.0(mg/L)

2.5(mg/L)

COD

50 (mg/L)

196(mg/L)

221(mg/L)

235(mg/L)

266(mg/L)

Table 3: Kenya standards for water

APPENDIX 3.2: World Health Organization Standards

Parameter

Guide value

Station 1

Station 2

Station 3

Station 4

(maximum allowable
limit)
pH

6.5 - 8.5

8.27

7.96

7.51

7.25

Ammonia

0.2 mg/l (up to 0.3

0.71(mg/L)

0.85(mg/L)

1.05(mg/L)

1.15(mg/L)

3.9(mg/L)

3.6(mg/L)

3.0(mg/L)

2.5(mg/L)

196(mg/L)

221(mg/L)

235(mg/L)

266(mg/L)

mg/l in anaerobic
waters)
DO

5.0 mg/L
about 75%
saturation

COD

50(mg/L)

Table 4: World Health Organization standards for water

APPENDIX 3.3: European Standards

Parameter

Guide value

Station 1

Station 2

Station 3

Station 4

(maximum allowable
limit)
pH

6.5 8.5

8.27

7.96

7.51

7.25

Ammonia

0.5 mg/L

0.71(mg/L)

0.85(mg/L)

1.05(mg/L)

1.15(mg/L)

DO

at least 5.0 mg/L

3.9 (mg/L)

3.6(mg/L)

3.0(mg/L)

2.5(mg/L)

COD

50 (mg/L)

196 (mg/L)

221(mg/L)

235(mg/L)

266(mg/L)

Table 5: European standards for water

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APPENDIX 4: PROCEDURES
4.1 Temperature
The temperature was determined on-site at the time of sampling. This was done by
simply inserting a thermometer into the sampling point within the river and taking a
reading. Precaution was however taken to ensure the thermometer was not damaged,
therefore very turbulent areas of the river should were avoided, thereby making sure
the possibility of having debris that may break the bulb of the thermometer was
minimized.

4.2 COD (Open Reflux Method)

Introduction: it is used as a measure of the oxygen equivalent of the organic matter
content of a sample that is susceptible to oxidation by strong chemical oxidant. The
test is usually carried out for monitoring and control of wastewater processes.

Reagents:
Distilled water
Standard potassium dichromate solution, 0.025N
Sulphuric acid concentrated reagent containing silver sulphate
Standard ferrous ammonium sulphate, 0.025N
Powdered mercuric sulphate
Phenanthroline ferrous sulphate (indicator)

Apparatus:
Reflux apparatus with ground glass joint
250ml Erlenmeyer flask with ground glass joints
Pipettes

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Procedure:
1. 50ml of the sample was placed in 500ml refluxing flask.
2. 1gm of mercuric sulphate, several glass beads were added into the solution. 5ml
of H2SO4 (concentrated sulphuric acid) was added slowly while mixing to
dissolve the mercuric acid.
3. The sample was mixed while cooling to avoid possible losses of volatile
materials.
4. 25ml of 0.0471M K2Cr2O7 solution was added and mixed thoroughly.
5. The samples were then transferred to the Liebig condenser apparatus. The
remaining sulphuric acid reagent (70ml) was then added through the open end
of the condenser.
6. The samples were continuously stirred while adding the acid reagent.
7. The reflux mixture was mixed thoroughly by applying heat to prevent local
heating of the flask bottom and a possible blow out of the flask contents.
8. The open end of the condenser was covered with a foil to prevent foreign
materials from entering the refluxing mixture.
9. Refluxing was then carried out for 2hours.
10. The condenser was thereafter cooled and washed down using distilled water.
11. The reflux was then disconnected and diluted to about twice its original volume
with distilled water.
12. This mixture was then cooled to room temperature (due to the exothermic
nature of the reaction). The excess k2cr2o7 was then titrated using FAS using
0.1-0.15ml (2 to 3 drops) ferroin indicator.
13. The same volume of ferroin indicator was used for all titrations.
14. The end point of the reaction was taken as the first sharp change in colour, from
blue-green to reddish brown.
15. Similarly a blank of equal volume to sample, distilled water was titrated against
FAS.

Calculations:
COD = (A-B) x m x 8000)
ml of sample
Where: A = ml, FAS used for blank water
B = ml, FAS used for sample water
m = molarity of the FAS

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4.3 Dissolved Oxygen (DO), Titration Method

Introduction:
It is required for supporting fish and aquatic life in water. When it reaches the level
below 2mg/l some aquatic life die.

Reagents:
1. Manganous sulphate solution. Mnso4.7h20.
2. Alkaline azide iodide solution.
3. Sulphuric acid solution.
4. Starch indicator.
5. Standard sodium thio-sulphate solution, 0.025N

Procedure
1. 200ml of the sample was collected in a beaker.
2. 1ml of manganous sulphate was added to the sample while stirring. A pipette
was used during the experiment.
3. 1ml of alkaline azide iodide was then added to the sample whilst stirring.
Some precipitates formed.
4. 1ml of concentrated sulphuric acid was then added to the mixture. The
sulphuric acid dissolved the precipitates.
5. 5 drops of starch indicator were added to the mixture. At that point the
mixture turned blue-black colour.
6. The mixture was then titrated against standard sodium thio-sulphate solution.

Calculations:
The 200ml of solution taken for titration corresponds to 200ml of the original sample,
because 1ml of 0.025N sodium thio-sulphate solution titrant is equivalent to 0.2mg
DO, each milliliter of sodium thio-sulphate titrant is equivalent to 1mg/lt DO. When
volume equal to 200ml of the original sample is titrated, therefore the DO
concentration is ml of titrant used under the above conditions.

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4.4 Hydrogen Ion Concentration or pH (Using The pH Meter Method.)

Procedure
1. Approximately 75ml of sample was placed in a 100ml beaker.
2. The electrodes were carefully raised out of the beaker and rinsed with
distilled water. Drops of water were wiped from the electrodes.
3. The electrodes were immersed in a beaker containing a blank sample and
used to calibrate the pH Meter.
4. The electrodes were immersed in the beaker containing the sample.
5. The pH was read directly from the indicator screen on the pH meter.
6. The electrodes were carefully raised, rinsed with distilled water and replaced
in a beaker of distilled water.

4.5 Ammonia Test (DPD Method)

The range is between 0 to 1.0 mg/1N. For higher concentrations dilute the sample and
multiply result with a factor

Apparatus
a) Photometer at 640nm
b) Round test tube 10ml

Reagents
1. Palintest Ammonia No 1 tablets
2. Palintest Ammonia No 2 tablets

Procedure
2. The test tube was filled with the sample to the 10ml mark
3. One ammonia No 1 and one Ammonia No.2 tablet were added, crushed and
mixed to dissolve
4. The solution was then let for ten minutes to allow colour development
5. A wavelength of 640nm was selected on the photometer
6. The photometer reading (% T) was then taken in the usual manner.
The ammonia calibration chart was then consulted to find the Ammonia concentration
in the sample.

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APPENDIX 5 : PLATES

Plate 4: the water fall section

near Thika road

Plate 5: Google earth image of the

section showing the river crossing
under Thika road

Plate 6: sampling point for

station; dry period.

Plate 7: the researcher taking samples at sampling

station 2, wet period, note the rise in water level,
compare to plate 7
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OCHIENG S. (2010)

Plate 8: stagnant and polluted section

of the river

Plate 9: the researcher collecting

samples from station 3

Plate 10: car washing in the river;

one of the sources of pollution in
the river

Plate 11: the researcher testing samples in the University

laboratory

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