UNIT I

SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES
1. Give the value of Charge, Mass of an electron.
Charge of an electron = 1.6 x 10-19 coulombs & Mass of an electron = 9.11 x 10-31 Kgs
2. Define Potential.
A potential of V volts at point B with respect to point A, is defined as the work
done in taking unit positive charge from A to B , against the electric field.
3. Define Current density.
It is defined as the current per unit area of the conducting medium. J = I / A
4. Define Electron volts.
If an electron falls through a potential of one volt then its energy is 1 electron volt.
1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 joules
5. What is Electrostatic deflection sensitivity?
Electrostatic deflection sensitivity of a pair of deflecting plates of a cathode ray oscilloscope ( CRO)
is defined as the amount of deflection of electron spot produced when a voltage of 1 Volt DC is
applied between the corresponding plates.
6. What is the relation for the maximum number of electrons in each shell?
Ans: 2n2
7. What are valence electrons?
Electron in the outermost shell of an atom is called valence electron.
8. What is forbidden energy gap?
The space between the valence and conduction band is said to be forbidden energy gap.
9. What are conductors? Give examples?
Conductors are materials in which the valence and conduction band overlap each other so there is a
swift movement of electrons which leads to conduction. Ex. Copper, silver.
10. What are insulators? Give examples?
Insulators are materials in which the valence and conduction band are far away from each other. So
no movement of free electrons and thus no conduction Eg. glass, plastic.
11. Give the energy band structure of Insulator.
In Insulators there is a wide forbidden energy gap. So movement of valence electron from valence to
conduction band is not possible.
12. Give the energy band structure of Semi conductor.
In Semiconductors there is a small forbidden energy gap. So movement of valence electron from
valence to conduction band is possible if the valence electrons are supplied with some energy.

13. Give the energy band structure of conductor.

In conductors there is no forbidden energy gap, valence band and conduction and overlap each other.
so there is a heavy movement of valence electrons.
14. What are Semiconductors? Give examples?
The materials whose electrical property lies between those of conductors and insulators are known as
Semiconductors. Eg: germanium, silicon.
15. What are the types of Semiconductor?
1. Intrinsic semiconductor 2. Extrinsic semiconductor.
16. What is Intrinsic Semiconductor?
Pure form of semiconductors are said to be intrinsic semiconductor. Eg: germanium, silicon.
17. Define Mass action law.
Under thermal equilibrium the product of free electron concentration (n) and hole concentration (p)
is constant regardless of the individual magnitude.
n.p =
18. What is Extrinsic Semiconductor?
If certain amount of impurity atom is added to intrinsic semiconductor the resulting semiconductor is
Extrinsic or impure Semiconductor.
19. What are the types of Extrinsic Semiconductor?
1. P-type Semiconductor
2. N- Type Semiconductor.
20. What is P-type Semiconductor?
The Semiconductor which are obtained by introducing pentavalent impurity atom (phosphorous,
antimony) are known as P-type Semiconductor.
21. What is N-type Semiconductor?
The Semiconductor which is obtained by introducing trivalent impurity atom (gallium, indium) are
known as N-type Semiconductor.
22. What is doping?
Process of adding impurity to a intrinsic semiconductor atom is doping. The impurity is called
dopant.
23. Which charge carriers is majority and minority carrier in N-type Semiconductor?
Majority carrier: electron and minority carrier: holes.
24.Which charge carriers is majority and minority carrier in P-type Semiconductor?
Majority carrier: holes and minority carrier: electron

25. Why n - type or pentavalent impurities are called as Donor impurities?

n- type impurities will donate the excess negative charge carriers ( Electrons) and therefore they are
referred to as donor impurities.
26. Why P type or trivalent impurities are called as acceptor impurity?
p- type impurities make available positive carriers because they create holes which can accept
electron, so these impurities are said to be as acceptor impurity.
27. Define drift current?
When an electric field is applied across the semiconductor, the holes move towards the negative
terminal of the battery and electron move towards the positive terminal of the battery. This drift
movement of charge carriers will result in a current termed as drift current.
28. Define the term diffusion current?
A concentration gradient exists, if the number of either electrons or holes is greater in one region of a
semiconductor as compared to the rest of the region. The holes and electron tend to move from
region of higher concentration to the region of lower concentration. This process in called diffusion
and the current produced due this movement is diffusion current.
29. Define mean life time of a hole or and electron.
The electron hole pair created due to thermal agitation will disappear as a result of recombination.
Thus an average time for which a hole or an electron exist before recombination can be said as the
mean life time of a hole or electron.
30. Define the term transition capacitance?
When a PN junction is reverse biased, the depletion layer acts like a dielectric material while P and
N type regions on either side which has low resistance act as the plates. In this way a reverse biased
PN junction may be regarded as parallel plate capacitor and thus the capacitance across this set up is
called as the transition capacitance.
CT = dQ / dV
31. What is a varactor diode?
A diode which is based on the voltage variable capacitance of the reverse biased p-n junction is said
to be varactor diode. It has other names such as varicaps, voltacaps.
32. Define the term diffusion capacitance.
The diffusion capacitance of a forward biased diode is defined as the rate of change of injected
charge with voltage.
CD = I / VT
Where, CD time constant
I current across the diode
VT threshold voltage

33. What is recovery time? Give its types.

When a diode has its state changed from one type of bias to other a transient accompanies the diode
response, i.e., the diode reaches steady state only after an interval of time tr called as recovery
time. The recovery time can be divided in to two types such as
(i) forward recovery time
(ii) reverse recovery time
34. What is meant by forward recovery time?
The forward recovery time may be defined as the time interval from the instant of 10% diode voltage
to the instant this voltage reaches 90% of the final value. It is represented as t f r.
35. What is meant by reverse recovery time?
The reverse recovery time can be defined as the time required for injected or the excess minority
carrier density reduced to zero, when external voltage is suddenly reversed.
36. Define storage time.
The interval time for the stored minority charge to become zero is called storage time. It is
represented as t s.
37. Define transition time.
The time when the diode has normally recovered and the diode reverse current reaches reverse
saturation current I0 is called as transition time. It is represented as tt
38. What are break down diodes?
Diodes which are designed with adequate power dissipation capabilities to operate in the break down
region are called as break down or zener diodes.
39. What is break down? What are its types?
When the reverse voltage across the pn junction is increased rapidly at a voltage the junction breaks
down leading to a current flow across the device. This phenomenon is called as break down and the
voltage is break down voltage. The types of break down are
i) Zener break down
ii)Avalanche breakdown

40. What is Zener breakdown?

Zener break down takes place when both sides of the junction are very heavily doped and
Consequently the depletion layer is thin and consequently the depletion layer is tin. When a small
value of reverse bias voltage is applied , a very strong electric field is set up across the thin depletion
layer. This electric field is enough to break the covalent bonds. Now extremely large number of free
charge carriers are produced which constitute the zener current. This process is known as zener break
down.

41. What is avalanche break down?

When bias is applied, thermally generated carriers which are already present in the diode acquire
sufficient energy from the applied potential to produce new carriers by removing valence electron
from their bonds. These newly generated additional carriers acquire more energy from the potential
and they strike the lattice and create more number of free electrons and holes. This process goes
on as long as bias is increased and the number of free carriers get multiplied. This process is termed
as avalanche multiplication. Thus the break down which occurs in the junction resulting in heavy
flow of current is termed as avalanche break down.
42. How does the avalanche breakdown voltage vary with temperature?
In lightly doped diode an increase in temperature increases the probability of collision of electrons
and thus increases the depletion width. Thus the electrons and holes needs a high voltage to cross the
junction. Thus the avalanche voltage is increased with increased temperature.
43. How does the Zener breakdown voltage vary with temperature?
In heavily doped diodes, an increase in temperature increases the energies of valence electrons, and
hence makes it easier for these electrons to escape from covalent bonds. Thus less voltage is
sufficient to knock or pull these electrons from their position in the crystal and convert them in to
conduction electrons. Thus Zener break down voltage decreases with temperature.

UNIT II
BIPOLAR JUNCTION
1. What is a transistor ?
Transistor is a three terminal device whose output current, voltage and /or power is controlled by
input current.
2. What are the terminals present in a transistor?
Three terminals: emitter, base, collector.
3. State the two types of transistors.
There are two types of transistors : Unipolar junction transistor and Bipolar junction transistor.
4. Why transistor is also called bipolar junction transistor?
The current conduction in bipolar transistor is because of both the types of charge carriers, holes and
electrons .Hence this is called Bipolar junction transistor.
5. Why do we choose q point at the center of the loadline?
The operating point of a transistor is kept fixed usually at the center of the active region in order that
the input signal is well amplified. If the point is fixed in the saturation region or the cut off region the
positive and negative half cycle gets clipped off respectively.
6. List out the different types of biasing.
Voltage divider bias, Base bias, Emitter feed back bias, Collector feedback bias, Emitter bias.
7. What do you meant by thermal runway?
Due to the self heating at the collector junction, the collector current rises. This causes damage to the
device. This phenomenon is called thermal runway.
8. Why is the transistor called a current controlled device?
The output characteristics of the transistor depend on the input current. So the transistor is called a
current controlled device.
9. Define current amplification factor?
It is defined as the ratio of change in output current to the change in input current at constant.
10. What are the requirements for biasing circuits?
The q point must be taken at the Centre of the active region of the output characteristics.
Stabilize the collector current against the temperature variations.
Make the q point independent of the transistor parameters.
When the transistor is replaced, it must be of same type.

11. When does a transistor act as a switch?

The transistor acts as a switch when it is operated at either cutoff region or saturation region
12. What is biasing?
To use the transistor in any application it is necessary to provide sufficient voltage and current to
operate the transistor. This is called biasing.
13. What is stability factor?
Stability factor is defined as the rate of change of collector current with respect to the rate of change
of reverse saturation current.
14. Explain about the various regions in a transistor?
The three regions are active region, saturation region and cutoff region.
15. Explain about the characteristics of a transistor?
Input characteristics: it is drawn between input voltage & input current while keeping output voltage
as constant. Output characteristics: It is drawn between the output voltage &output current while
keeping input current as constant.
16. What is early effect?
When reverse bias voltage VCB increases, the width of depletion region also increases, which reduces
the electrical base width. This effect is called as Early effect.
17. What is high level injection effect?
When there is a high level of injected holes from the emitter, the extra electrons attract extra holes,
increasing the positive mobile charge in the base. If the density of these added charges approaches
the doping level in the base, the voltage necessary to maintain positive charge becomes important .A
portion of the applied base-emitter voltage appears across the positive charge in the base and is not
available to the base-emitter .This is the high level injection effect.
18. State the advantage of multi-emitter transistor.
Merged transistors, that are two or more devices which share one or more common regions, provide
one method of space saving on a chip. The most widely used merged transistor is the multipleemitter transistor.
19. Mention the benefits of h parameters.
1.Real numbers at audio frequencies.
2. Easy to measure.
3. Convenient to use in circuit analysis and design.
4. Most of the transistor manufacturers specify the h-parameters.
20. State the basic currents of the transistor.
The basic currents of the transistors are: base current, collector current and emitter current.They are
related by the equation IE = IB + IC

UNIT III
FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS
1. What is FET?
FET is abbreviated for field effect transistor. It is a three terminal device with its output
characteristics controlled by input voltage.
2. Why FET is called voltage controlled device?
The output characteristics of FET is controlled by its input voltage thus it is voltage controlled.
3. What are the two main types of FET?
1. JFET 2. MOSFET.
4. What are the terminals available in FET?
1) Drain, 2) Source and 3) Gate
5. What is JFET?
JFET- Junction Field Effect Transistor.
6. What are the types of JFET?
N- Channel JFET and P- Channel JFET
7. What are the two important characteristics of JFET?
1. Drain characteristics 2. Transfer characteristics.
8. What is transconductance in JFET?
It is the ratio of small change in drain current to the corresponding change in drain to source voltage.
9. What is amplification factor in JFET?
It is the ratio of small change in drain to source voltage to the corresponding change in Gate to
source voltage.
10. Mention the operating modes of MOSFET.
1. Depletion mode.
2. Enhancement mode
11. Mention three regions that are present in the drain source characteristics of JFET.
1. Ohmic region 2. Saturation region 3. Breakdown region
12. What is pinch off voltage in FET?
The voltage VDS at which the current ID reaches to its constant saturation level is called Pinch off
voltage.
13.List the characteristics parameters of JFET.
The important characteristic parameters of JFET are:
i)Transconductance (gm)
ii)Drain to source resistance (rd)
iii)Amplification factor ()
& iv)Power dissipation (PD)

14. List the special features of JFET.

i) Voltage controlled device
ii) Unipolar device
iii) More temperature stable
iv)Very high input impedance
15. Calculate the amplification factor , of FET , if rd = 4k and gm = 4 m A/V.
= gm rd = (4 x 10-3) x (4 x 103) = 16
16. Define Amplification factor in JFET.
The amplification factor in JFET is denoted by
=

17. State the limitations of Planar technology.

Planar technology results in following short-channel effects:
i)More leakage current
ii)Fluctuation of device characteristics
iii) Reduction of threshold voltage of the transistor at higher drain voltages commonly known as
Drain induced barrier lowering or DIBI. This may result turning on the transistor prematurely.
iv)Harder to turn the transistor off.
18. State the advantages of Dual Gate MOSFET.
i)Reduction of leakage current (Ioff)
ii) Undoped channel eliminates intrinsic parameter fluctuations and minimizes impurity scattering.
iii) Double gate allows for higher current drive capability.
19. State the applications of Dual Gate MOSFET.
i) Used in Automatic Gain Control (AGC)
ii) Used as a mixer in RF circuits
iii) Used as a RF amplifier
20. State the advantages of FINFET.
i) Provides better electrostatic control over the channel
ii) Reduces short channel effects
iii) Excellent control of short channel effects makes transistors still scalable
iv) The small length transistor can have a larger intrinsic gain compared to the bulk counterpart.
21. State the applications of FINFET.
i) Low power design in digital circuit, such as RAM, because of its low off-state(leakage) current.
ii)Power amplifier or other applications in analog area which requires good linearity.

UNIT IV
SPECIAL SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
1. What is Shockley diode (PNPN diode)?
Shockley diode is a four layered PNPN silicon diode. It is a low- current SCR without a gate. This
device is switched ON when the anode to cathode voltage is increased to forward switching voltage
which is equivalent to SCR forward break over voltage.
2. What is backward diode?
The backward diode is a diode in which the doping level is moderate. The forward current in this
case is very small, very much similar to that of the reverse current in the conventional diode.
3. What is a tunnel diode?
The tunnel diode is a pn junction diode in which the impurity concentration is greatly increased
about 1000 times higher than a conventional PN junction diode thus yielding a very thin depletion
layer. This diode utilizes a phenomenon called tunneling and hence the diode is referred as tunnel
diode.
4. What is tunneling phenomenon?
The phenomenon of penetration of the charge carriers directly though the potential barrier instead of
climbing over it is called as tunneling.
5.What is negative resistance in tunnel diode?
In tunnel diode characteristics ,the slope dI/dV becomes zero at the peak point. If the forward
voltage is increased further beyond the peak voltage Vp , then current starts decreasing rather than
increasing. Hence the dynamic conductance dI/dV becomes negative. Thus the dynamic resistance
dV/dI is also negative. This region is called negative resistance in tunnel diode.
6. State the advantages of tunnel diode.
i)The peak point is not sensitive function of temperature
ii)Low cost
iii)Low noise
iv)High speed
v)Low power consumption
7.State the applications of tunnel diode.
i)As high speed switch
ii)In pulse and digital circuits
iii)In switching networks
iv)In negative resistance oscillators
v)In timing and computer logic circuitry

8. What is the feature of varactor diode?

When reverse biased, the varactor diode shows a dominant transition capacitance.This capacitance
decreases as reverse voltage increases. Thus varactor diode shows voltage variable capacitance when
reverse biased.
9. State the application of varactor diode.
i)Tuned circuits
ii)FM Modulators
iii)Automatic frequency control devices
iv)Television receivers
v)Adjustable bandpass filters
10.State the materials used for Laser diode and its applications.
The materials used for laser diode are GaAs , AlGaAs and GaInAsP. The applications of laser diode
are CD players , laser printers ,fiber communications.
11. Mention the applications of Zener diode.
1. As a voltage regulating element in regulators
2. In various protection circuits
3. In clipping circuits
12. State the applications of metal-semiconductor junctions.
i)As Ohmic contacts in many electronic devices
ii)For determining doping profiles
iii)As a shunt diodes to reduce switching transients
iv)As a microwave diodes
v)In ultraviolet detectors
vi)In devices like MESFETs.
13.Write the features of GaAs MESFET.
i)Possesses very short channel length hence can be operated at very high frequencies upto few GHz.
ii)Electron mobility is very high.
iii)The transient time is small and response is very fast.
iv)Reduced parasitic capacitance
v)The fabrication process is simple.
14. What is LDR?
It is light dependent resistor whose resistance decreases with increasing incident light intensity.
15. State the applications of LDR.
i) Consumer items such as camera light meters, clocks, security alarms, street lights.
ii)In infrared astronomy and spectroscopy
iii)In sensitive light operated relays
iv)In light interruption detectors, photographic light meters, automatic light circuits.

16. Define electron affinity.

It is defined as the amount of energy released when an electron is added to a neutral atom to from a
negative ion.
17. Define work function for a material.
It is defined as the amount of minimum energy required to remove an electron from a material to a
point in the vacuum immediately outside the material surface.
18. What is temperature coefficient of Zener diode?
The percentage change in Zener voltage VZ for every C change in temperature is called temperature
coefficient of a Zener diode.It is denoted as TC and expressed as % / C.

UNIT V
POWER DEVICES AND DISPLAY DEVICES
1. What is a TRIAC?
TRIAC is a three terminal bidirectional semiconductor switching device. It can conduct in both the
directions for any desired period. In operation it is equivalent to two SCRs connected in antiparallel.
2. Give the application of TRIAC.
1. Heater control
2. Motor speed control
3. Phase control
4. Static switches
3. What are the different operating modes of TRIAC?
1. Keeping MT2 and G positive
2. Keeping MT2 and G negative.
3. Keeping MT2 positive and G negative.
4. Keeping MT2 negative and G positive.
4. What are the regions in the VI characteristics of UJT?
1. Cut-off region
2. Negative resistance region.
3. Saturation region
5. What is meant by negative resistance region of UJT?
In a UJT when the emitter voltage reaches the peak point voltage, emitter current starts flowing.
After the peak point any effort to increase in emitter voltage further leads to sudden increase in the
emitter current with corresponding decrease in emitter voltage, exhibiting negative resistance. This
takes place until the valley point is reached. This region between the peak point and valley point is
called negative resistance region.
6. Mention the applications of UJT.
1. It is used in timing circuits
2. It is used in switching circuits
3. It is used in phase control circuits
4. It can be used as trigger device for SCR and triac.
5. It is used in saw tooth generator.
6. It is used for pulse generation.
7. What is a DIAC?
DIAC is a two terminal bidirectional semiconductor switching device. . It can conduct in either
direction depending upon the polarity of the voltage applied across its main terminals. In operation
DIAC is equivalent to two 4 layer diodes connected in antiparallel.

8. Give some applications of DIAC.

1. To trigger TRIAC
2. Motor speed control
3. Heat control
4. Light dimmer circuits
9. What is a SCR?
A silicon controller rectifier (SCR) is a three terminal, three junction semiconductor device that acts
as a true electronic switch. It is a unidirectional device. It converts alternating current into direct
current and controls the amount of power fed to the load.
10. Define break over voltage of SCR.
Break over voltage is defined as the minimum forward voltage with gate open at which the SCR
starts conducting heavily.
11.Why SCR cannot be used as a bidirectional switch.
SCR can do conduction only when anode is positive with respect to cathode with proper gate
current. Therefore, SCR operates only in one direction and cannot be used as bidirectional switch.
12. How turning on of SCR is done?
1. By increasing the voltage across SCR above forward break over voltage.
2. By applying a small positive voltage at gate.
3. By rapidly increasing the anode to cathode voltage.
4. By irradiating SCR with light.
13. How turning off of SCR is done?
1. By reversing the polarity of anode to cathode voltage.
2. By reducing the current through the SCR below holding current.
3.By interrupting anode current by means of momentarily series or parallel switching
14. Define holding current in a SCR.
Holding current is defined as the minimum value of anode current to keep the SCR ON.
15. List the advantages of SCR.
1. SCR can handle and control large currents.
2. Its switching speed is very high
3. It has no moving parts, therefore it gives noiseless operation.
4. Its operating efficiency is high.
16. List the application of SCR.
1. It can be used as a speed controller in DC and AC motors.
2. It can be used as an inverter.
3. It can be used as a converter
4. It is used in battery chargers.
5. It is used for phase control and heater control.
6. It is used in light dimming control circuits.

17. What is meant by latching.

The ability of SCR to remain conducting even when the gate signal is removed is called as latching.
18. Define forward current rating of a SCR.
Forward current rating of a SCR is the maximum anode current that it can handle without
destruction.
19. List the important ratings of SCR.
1. Forward break over voltage
2. Holding current
3. Gate trigger current
4. Average forward current
5. Reverse break down voltage.
20. Compare SCR with TRIAC.
SCR
TRIAC
1. Unidirectional current
1. Bidirectional current
2. Triggered by positive pulse at gate 2. Triggered by pulse of positive or negative
at gate
3. Fast turn off time
3. Longer turn off time
4. large current ratings
4. lower current ratings

21. Differentiate BJT and UJT.

BJT
1. It has two PN junctions
2. Three terminals present
are emitter, base, collector
3. Basically a amplifying device

UJT
1. It has only one PN junctions
2. Three terminals present are emitter,
base1,base2
3. Basically a switching device

23. What is a thyristor?

Thyristor is a semiconductor device having three or more junctions .Such a device acts as a switch
without any bias and can be fabricated to have voltage ratings of several hundred volts and current
ratings from a few amperes to almost thousand amperes.
24. What are the types of thyristors?
1. Unidirectional thyristors
2. Bidirectional thyristors
3. Low-power thyristors

25. Give the various triggering devices for thyristors.

1. SCR
2. UJT
3. DIAC
4. TRIAC
26. What is a photo diode?
The photo diode is a diode in which the current sensitivity to radiation can be made much larger by
the use of the reverse biased PN junction. Thus this diode conducts heavily in the reverse bias when
there is some radiation allowed to fall on the PN junction.
27. What is a LED?
A PN junction diode which emits light when forward biased is known as Light emitting diode
(LED).
28. State the applications of CCD.
i) For obtaining signal processing functions such as delaying, filtering and multiplexing.
ii)In linear and area image sensor devices
iii)In digital memories and serial access memories
iv)In digital shift registers, logic arrays. Video time base correction circuits
v)In analog signal correlators
29. State the applications of photoconductive cell
i)Smoke detectors
ii)Burglar alarm
iii)Outdoor lighting control
iv)Photographic instruments
v)Punch card readers
30. What is photoconductive cell?
The photoconductive cell is a semiconductor device whose resistance varies inversely with the
intensity of light that falls upon its photosensitive material. These devices are also called
photoresitive cells or photoresistors, since the change in conductivity appears as a change in
resistance.
31.What is photovoltaic cell?
A solid state device which converts light energy into an electrical energy based on photovoltaic
effect is called photovoltaic cell or solar cell. It generates voltage proportional to the light incident
on it.
32. State the applications of photovoltaic cell.
i) Satellites and space vehicles
ii)Automated street lights
iii)Power supply to calculators
iv)Emergency lights
v)Solar panels for domestic purposes, water pumps

33.List any four applications of light emitting diodes.

i)All kinds of displays used in watches and calculators
ii)In optical devices such as opto-couplers
iii)As on-off indicator in various electronic circuits.
iv)In remote controls and burgler alarms.
34. What are the advantages of LCD?
i) Less power consumption
ii)Low cost
iii)Uniform brightness with good contrast
iv)Low operating voltage and current
35. What are the disadvantages of LCD?
i)Low reliability
ii)Limited temperature range
iii)Poor visibility in low ambient temperature
iv)Slow speed
v)Requires an a.c. drive