The Aesthetics of Space: Modern Architecture and Photography

Author(s): FILIP MATTENS

Source: The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, Vol. 69, No. 1, SPECIAL ISSUE: The
Aesthetics of Architecture: Philosophical Investigations into the Art of Building (WINTER 2011),
pp. 105-114
Published by: Wiley on behalf of The American Society for Aesthetics
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/42635841
Accessed: 15-09-2015 12:47 UTC
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FILIP MATTENS

The
Modern

Aesthetics

Architecture

i. introduction:
architectureand space
In his essay "ModernistPainting",Clement
situatedthe"essenceofModernism"
Greenberg
in each art'sdutyto establisheffects
exclusive
to itself.1
what
is
By exhibiting
uniqueand irreduciblein eachartistic
eachparticular
discipline,
wouldensuretheposart,Greenberg
maintained,
sessionofitsproperareaofcompetence.
Onemay
feelsuspicious
aboutreadingcertain
motives
into
historical
in
but
the
case
of
archidevelopments,
a criticalreflection
on itsprinciples
led
tecture,
to a suddenshiftfromwithin.If one listensto
theforerunners
ofarchitectural
itapmodernism,
that
to
retrieve
their
creative
aupears theysought
andto preservetheirartistic
tonomy
uniqueness
a newmission
forthemselves:
in1908,
byclaiming
HendrikBerlageproclaimed
that"theaimofarchitecture
isthecreation
ofspace."2TheAustrianCalifornian
architect
declared
RudolphSchindler
in his 1912Manifesto
thatthearchitect
had "fithemediumofhisart:Space."3
nallydiscovered
Andin 1916,TheoVanDoesburgexplainedthat
the aestheticvalue of the
space "determines
building."4
Architects
and architectural
theorists
immedithisdiscovery.
For example,
atelyappropriated
Scottdeclaredthatarchitecture
"has
Geoffrey
themonopoly
ofspace,"whileErichMendelsohn
identified
space as its essentialnature:"Architectureis space itself."5
In orderto precludea
possiblerelapseintoan impurestateofinterdisHermanSrgelarguedthat
confusion,
ciplinary
"architecture
is nottheartofspace,volumes,
and
architecture
isjusttheartofspace
planes;rather,
alone."6

of Space:
and

Photography

architects,
however,did not
Earlymodernist
have the conceptualtoolsnecessaryto capture
whatis uniqueanddelightful
inexperiencing
how
thevoidsthatsurround
us interlock.
Theycould
have availedthemselves
of thelate nineteenthaesthetic
theories
of AdolfHildebrand,
century
or TheodorLipps,butthey
AugustSchmarsow,
did not.It is remarkable
thateventhestandard
bearerofmodernist
architectural
theory,
Sigfried
Giedion,who was a formerpupil of Heinrich
did notmentionthesetheorists
in his
Wlfflin,
classicSpace,Timeand Architecture.
Even now,
the discourseon spatialexperiencein architectureremains
As a contheoretically
ungrounded.
the
that
itself
would
sequence, suggestion space
be ofaesthetic
interest
stillprovestobe easyprey
foropponents
ofthemodernincontemporary
architecture.
theideathatarchitecture
isintrinNonetheless,
related
to
has
since
become
sically
spatiality long
To givejust one example,when
commonplace.
StevenHoll describeshis HelsinkiMuseumfor
Art,sayingthatit providesa vaContemporary
of
thissoundsfamiliarriety spatialexperiences,
evenself-evident.
However,whenthesesortsof
statements
wereadvancedshortly
beforeWWI,it
was thefirst
timein history
thatarchitects
themselvesexplicitly
appropriated
spaceas theprinciaimedat securing
ple of theirart.As architects
their"peculiarprovince,"
theidea arosethatarchitectural
shouldbe accompanied
spatiality
by
"a pleasurewhichis typically
itsown."7Theabilityto shapethevoidsaroundus is whatuniquely
characterizes
architectural
design,and"whatever
delight
maybe derivedfromthatis thegiftofarchitecture
alone."8To servethispurpose,space

TheAmerican
for
Aesthetics
2011
Society

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106

TheAesthetics
ofArchitecture

ofan
thattheoriginofthisaesthetic
thusneedsto be conceivedas thecorrelate
pleasureliesinthe
The qualityof
aesthetic
spatialnatureofthecomposition.
experience.
In thefirstsectionsof thisarticleI showthat suchan architectural
can be judged
composition
theveryidea ofan aesthetic
ofspace
totwodifferent
to
experience
according
aspects:(a) itsability
facesthreedifficulties.
The firsttwodifficulties enhanceoursenseofspaceand(b) theingenuity
thenatureofarchitectural
voidsinterlock.
arisefrom
space.While ofthewayinwhichencapsulated
I canpointtoanyobjectinspace,I cannotdo that
aremostlikelyto be found
Suchcompositions
Nordoes therepresen- whereseparaterooms,or spaces,connector inwithinterior
spaceitself.
that tersectwithotherspaces.Whenwe divertour
tationofthatspaceallowmetocommunicate
I
I
in
it.
call
the attention
fromthematerial
elements
ofthebuildto
as
would
others,
anyobject
space
and
enhanceoursensory
"directdemonstration"
first
kindofshowing
ing,suchcompositions
perthelatter"indirect
Thus,thefirst ceptionof theirspatialqualitiesas we imaginarepresentation."
voids themselves.
is thatarchitectural
space does notaltivelygraspthe interlocking
difficulty
second
This
means
that
The
lowdirectdemonstration
(SectionII).
(b) generally
implies(a). A buildin
indirect
which
different
is thatarchitectural
repre- ing
spacesconnectin complex
spaceescapes
to aris that waysis morelikelyto drawour attention
sentation
(SectionIII). A thirddifficulty
of
thana building
consisting
image chitectural
spatiality
spacecametobe associatedwitha negative
views(SectionIV).
ofmodernist
strictly
separatedrooms.However,thisrelation
In order
ofthethirddifficulty, doesnotworkintheoppositedirection.
Againstthebackground
I willjuxtaposethreeobservations
space,
concerning to enhanceourawarenessofarchitectural
doesnothavetobe complex;a modest
and architectural a building
rationale,
space,themodernist
ofboundaries
and transitheremarkable and subtleelaboration
Thelatterconcerns
photography.
in
tions
can
also
result
a
that
factthat,fromthe outset,architectural
building engenders
spaces
a senseofspace.Well-known
weredepictedas desolateplaces,mostlyfreeof
examplesofbuildhumantraces.At firstsight,architectural
complexity
pho- ingsinwhicha certainorganizational
can be
thenegativeim- resultsin intriguing
spatialcompositions
mayseemto confirm
tography
in
houses
or
in the
found
some
of
Adolf
Loos's
of
Howof
the
modernist
aesthetics
space.
age
andmainchapel
betweenthesacristy
ever,myanalysesshowthatmattersare more connection
A beautiful
examofLe CorbusiesLa Tourette.
complex.
thatdoesnotseemto needsuch
fromtherelationbetweenperception ple ofa building
Starting
in orderto engender
a subtlesense
beI willinvestigate
theinterplay
anddepiction,
complexities
House.
of livingspacesand the ofspacecanbe foundintheWittgenstein
tweentheapperception
of
can
if
the
The
results
have
been
Clearly,
perceptual
experience
spaces
depicted.
typically
waythey
of thisanalysisindicatethatthe effects
proper be a sourceof aestheticdelightor architectural
ofinthismight
to themannerof depictionmayhave sustained interest,
justas wellbe a matter
or
aboutmodernar- geniousgeometry,
certainideasand expectations
organicfluidity, elegantsoI
will
a
as
of
for
chitecture
complexity.
briety playful
argue
(SectionV). Finally,
reA first
of therelationbemorepositiveinterpretation
majorobstaclefortheart-theoretical
ofspaceisthe
ontheaesthetic
tweenspace and depiction,
experience
showingthattheef- flection
andthe factthatspace is not a deicticobject;one canfectspropertoarchitectural
photography
as
a
medium
rein- notsimply
to
effects
pointatspaceinordertoexplainwhat
proper photography
overallshape,decooutthecompositional is meant.Whilea building's
forceeachotherinbringing
color,and materialcan easilybe identiqualitiesofspatialdesign.Thiswillbe shownby rations,
fied-noless bythosewhodo notfindaesthetic
meansofa concrete
example(SectionVI).
in them-theveryidea thatspatiality
enjoyment
risksrecan be a sourceof aesthetic
enjoyment
becausevoidsare
ANDAESTHETICS
II. SPACE
bymany,
maining
unrecognized
andspaceis,in a certainsense,invisiintangible,
anduseofmateof
ble.
Whatcanbe meantbyan aesthetic
form,
decoration,
Moreover,
experience
inthehistory
of
that rialsenableus toplacea building
architectural
suggests
space?Thenotionitself
ofan
canbe takeninthevisualperception
art,and thesehaveprovento be moreprevalent
delight
of architecture
as art
in theappreciation
insucha way,however, factors
architectural
composition,

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MattensTheAesthetics
ofSpace
thantheexperience
ofitsspace.FromSchmarsow
to GiedionandZevi,severaltheorists
havetried
ofarchitecture
in termsof
to rewrite
thehistory
different
erasofspace.Yet,thishasonlybrought
outtheweakness
oftheconceptofspaceas anartTheclaimthatspacewouldbe
historical
criterion.
theessenceofarchitecture
to
inspired
opponents
pointoutthatspacedoesnotexplainmuchofwhat
in architecture.
matters
A commonstrategy
has
beento arguethatspacecertainly
cannotexplain
thatmatters
everything
byposingrhetorical
questionslikewhether,
ifthecolonnades
ofa historical
wererebuiltin a different
this
material,
building
wouldaffect
theiraesthetic
value.However,such
questionsactuallyfocuson whatis notspatialin
architecture
ratherthanon whatis.9In orderto
focusattention
ontheimportance
ofthespatialasI proposeanother
pectsofa building,
question:is
itconceivable
thatarchitecturally
comfascinating
would
remain
unaffected
as
far
positions
largely
as theirspatialqualityis concerned
iftheywere
rebuilt
ina different
material
orcoveredwithdifferent
colors?
No doubt,a changeinsurfacecoloror texture
of a giveninterior
howwe
space willinfluence
feelaboutit.Yet,it is perfectly
that
imaginable
a certaininterior
andremains
spaceis intriguing
nomatter
howdrastically
itscolorsand
fascinating
materialsare modified.Imaginethatthe coland textures
of GerritRietveld's
ors,materials,
SchrderHouse and Mies van der Rohe's
BarcelonaPavilioncouldbe exchanged.
Anyone
whoappreciates
eitherbuilding
mayfindthisexeachbuilding's
Yet,obviously,
periment
repulsive.
interior
wouldretainitsownspecific
spatialcharacter.Similarly,
it wouldbe a ridiculous
underto
rebuild
a
of
the
Barcelona
taking,say,
copy
Pavilionentirely
in redplastic-butthepointof
thisimaginary
is thatitcannotbe deexperiment
niedthatsomething
ofitsinterior
qualitieswould
stillbe presentand thatourredplasticpavilion
wouldstillhavecertainspatialqualitiesthatthe
vastmajority
of otherbuildings
lack.It follows
thatthetangibleaspectsof a givenbuildingdo
notexhaustouraesthetic
inarchitectural
interest
interiors.
III. PERCEPTION
ANDREPRESENTATION
The extentto whichthequalitiesof a givenarchitectural
interior
cannotbe fullycapturedin a
two-dimensional
indicates
theaesrepresentation

107
theticimportance
ofitsspatialnature.Therefore,
theaesthetic
valueofa givendesigncanbe saidto
insofar
as therealperceptual
resideinitsspatiality
ofitsinterior
volumetric
experience
proportions
is indispensable
fortheexperience
ofitsarchitecturalqualities.
fewbuildings
do fulObviously,
onlyrelatively
fillthisaesthetic
criterion.
Still,thesefewbuildings
do succeedinmakingus attentive
to thevoidencapsulatedin betweenthematerialarchitectural
elements.
In a word,theysucceedin makingus
to spatiality.
Suchbuildings
thusrealsusceptible
izeanexperience
thatonlyarchitecture
(andmonumentalart)can evoke.Onlyourinterest
in excan
the
of
periencing
spatiality explain point the
recent"preview"
ofZaha Hadid'sartmuseumin
Romeon completion
oftheconstruction
andbeforeanyexhibits
wereinstalled.
Onlyan interest
in theimmediate
of a building's
experience
spacan
the
exhibit
tiality explain opening
upofempty
spacesto thepublicin themiddleofan open-air
museum.
Thereis, however,no need to contendthat
space is theonlycriterion
uponwhichbuildings
shouldbe judged;norwoulditbe desirablethat
all buildings
shouldbe designedin orderto enhanceoursenseofspace;neither
is therea reason whya buildingshouldbe designedentirely
inorderto fulfill
thisobjective.
howConversely,
thatrefuseto considerspatiality
ever,criticisms
becauseit is intangible
or indefinite
throwaway
theopportunity
fora uniquesourceof aesthetic
noelement
intheaesthetics
Nevertheless,
delight.
ofarchitecture
haseverprovokedsuchfierceopposition.For example,a recentneofunctionalist
treatise
Feldtkeller
isentitled
ArchibyChristoph
tectural
.10It is so easytodenyits
Space:A Fiction
existence
becausearchitectural
spacenotonlyesbutalsoindirect
capesdeicticreference
representation.Ifsomeonerefusesto recognizeitsvalue,
onecannotrelyonothermeanstodemonstrate
it.
Justas it is impossibleto explainin words
to someonebornwithout
sightwhatis pleasing
aboutthejuxtaposition
of certaincolors,words
willneversuffice
to capturewhatcanbe exciting
incontemplating
ormoving
a spatialcomthrough
insofar
as therealexperience
Moreover,
position.
of depthand the nexusof variousperspectives
are requiredfortakingdelightin a spatialcomarchitectural
position,
spaceevenescapesphotoThisforms
a seconddifgraphical
representation.
ficulty.

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108

TheAesthetics
ofArchitecture

Thatreal perception
On thisaccount,it is notjusta disadvantage
providesan experiential
indicates thatspatialqualitiescannotbe fullyrepresented
surplusover(a seriesof) photographs
theaesthetic
relevanceofspatiality,
forms
anobstacle
while,on the inpictures;
rather,
photography
otherhand,thefactthatspacecannotbe properly totheappreciation
ofspatiality
becauseitdistracts
in photography
takesawaytheopourattention
fromwhatis uniqueto realperceprepresented
to
show
it
This
is
a
distual
portunity
indirectly.
major
experience.
becausetheappreciation
oftwentiethinsofaras buildingsare spatial
Nevertheless,
advantage,
architecture
has a uniquerelation
to arcentury
alreadyhas to deal witha
objects,photography
is
peculiarproblem.Someonewho does noteven chitectural
design.Architectural
photography
see thedifference
betweena neoclassicalfaade different
from
thephotographic
of
representation
anda frivolously
decorated
imitation mostartin one keyrespect:whereasartbooks
postmodern
mightstilllikeboth.But someonewhodoes not generally
onlywishto provideneutralreproducsee thedifference
betweencontemporary
archi- tions,a spatialdesigndoes not allow forany
tectureand merecommercial
construction
will such neutrality.
Whileone could arguethata
dislike
both.
Because
of
the
first
obone (and onlyone) reproprobably
cataloguecontaining
stacle,thepossiblevalueof space is easilyover- ductionof all 182 paintings
by FelixNussbaum
looked,whilethisseconddifficulty
impliesthat somehowcaptureshis oeuvre,it does not even
onecannotdrawattention
to itindirectly.
to saythatDaniel LibeHence, makesenseinprinciple
it mightbe too muchto hope fora shiftof the skind'smuseumforNussbaum'sworkcouldbe
observer's
attention
fromthephysicalpartitions capturedin a bookwithone or twoor even182
to theenvelopedspaces.
pictures.
Thisevenseemsto shinethrough
someearly
Whena painter'soeuvreis shownin a book,
reflections
of
architectural
ofpaintings
areselected,ordered,
byproponents
spatial- pictures
juxtaIn
situates
In thisrespect,
Schindler
and
Architecture,"
ity. "Space
posed,
given"name-plates."
ofmodernarchitecture
"in the traditional
artbooksare actuallylikemuseums.
thedevelopment
mindsof the artistswho can grasp'space' and
Thisissobecausethereistypically
onlyoneproper
as a newmedium
forhumanexpres- wayto photograph
a painting;
in sucha
'spaceforms'
namely,
is thedescription
of
sion."11
Even morestriking
that
the
of
way
process depictiondisappearsas
AdolfLoos's buildings
thiswasalso
extent,
bythecomposerArnold muchas possible.To a certain
im- thecaseforsculpture.
"Here I see ... an uncompound,
artbooksporSchnberg:
Traditionally,
thatmaybe traysculptures
in neutrallight,individually,
and
mediate,tridimensional
conception,
can
if
someone
who
is
fromdifferent
sidesbut
or, necessary,
only
equallygifted fully
grasp. frontally,
Herethings
arethought,
deto thesameprinciples.
Themajority
of
invented,
composed,
according
historical
treatment
bebuildings
signedinspace."12
requirea similar
are"abstract"
causetheyweremeantto be contemplated
from
because,in
Spatialcompositions
to shift a particular
orderto appreciatethem,it is necessary
pointofview.The forceofthesymispreone'sattention
fromwhatthebuilding
consists
of
metric
ofhistorical
architecture
conception
tothefrontal
viewisimplicit
towardhowitenfoldsemptyvolumes. ciselythata reference
materially
wedo notperceivea building's
interior in anypossibleperspective.
Whena symmetric
Generally,
it is still"apperceived"
inthisway,as wehavenotlearnedtolookatitthis faadeis seen obliquely,
to BrunoZevi,therehas beena
rightly.
way.According
thepioneers
archi"lackofspatialeducation."13
WhatdefinesarchiAs iswellknown,
ofmodern
ofa domiincontrast
is
tecture
tecture
totheotherarts,Zeviargues,
explicitly
rejectedtheprinciple
thefront
itsinnerspace,thevoidsthatwe inhabit.
Hence, nantperspective.
side,facTraditionally,
valueofa building
shouldbe deter- ingthepublicdomain,was designedaroundthe
theaesthetic
The faadewas meantto be
a visitor. building's
entrance.
minedbyhowitsinterior
space affects
forourlackofspatial a building's
WhatZeviholdsresponsible
onlyaspectmostofthepublicwould
wanted
"ourmethodsofrepresen- eversee. Modernist
educationis precisely
however,
architects,
thetraditional
front
sideinfavorofa
tation"(forexample,floorplans,crosssections, toeliminate
inofeachindividual
andthelike);theserepresentations freedevelopment
building's
photographs,
inaccordance
withitsneeds.15
that ternalorganization
areabstractions
becausetheyshow"a reality
no one eversees."14
The morea building's
exterior
is determined
by

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MattensTheAesthetics
ofSpace
itsinterior
becomes
spaces,themorethebuilding
a three-dimensionally
articulated
whole.
Whena building
is designedas a spatialwhole,
evena photographer
whomerely
wantsto registersucha building
is forcedto choosean angle.
Mostremarkably,
itappearsthatmanybuildings
seemtoinvite
onespecific
As a conseperspective.
are"shown"fromall sides,
quence,fewbuildings
whilemanybuildings
areonly"known"fromone
side.
A well-known
case in pointis FrankLloyd
, a housewithno traditional
Fallingwater
Wright's
distinction
betweenfaadeand side walls,buta
siltrulyspatialcomposition
offering
surprising
houettes
fromall possibleangles.Thevastmajorin booksor availableonline,howityofpictures
fromalmostexactlythe
ever,showFallingwater
sameangle.Hence,everybody
knowsthishouse
from
belowthecascade.Butfewpeoplehaveseen
theentrance.
Thecase ofFallingwater
illustrates
that,today,
a specific
viewis oftenmorewidely
photographic
knownthanthebuilding
itselfin itstotality.
Dethe
modernist
to
rid
of
the
tradispite
attempt get
tionalone-sided
of
designlogic,thedissemination
thesameviewtendsto
pictures
nearlyallshowing
reinstate
theearlierroleofthefaade.Byreducing
a complexspatialdesignto one well-known
view
of it,suchpictures
counteract
thearchitect's
efforts
toreplacethetraditional
faadewitha truly
three-dimensional
whole.
IV.PORTRAYING
MODERNISM
fromthefact
Apartfromtheproblemsderiving
thatspacecanneither
be showndirectly
(Section
II) norrepresented
indirectly
(SectionIII), the
ideathatarchitectural
spaceshouldbe recognized
as a possiblesourceof delightcontendswithan
evenmoreobstinate
a difficulty
ofa thedifficulty,
oretical
nature
relatedtothefactthatarchitectural
spacesarealwaysalsospacesthatpeopleinhabit.
Thosewhofailto appreciatemodernist
or conarchitecture
tendtolumptogether
the
temporary
mostdivergent
as
all
in
problems
originating the
invention
ofmodernarchitecture.
Without
distinthenaiveintentions
ofitspioneersfrom
guishing
thepractical
failures
oftheirinheritors,
theyupholda caricature
of themodernist
which
spirit,
is heldresponsible
foreverysingleabuseandindiscretion
in postwarbuildinghistory,
fromthe

109
in urbanplanning
to excessiveuse of
monotony
concretein commercial
towers.16
In thisway,the
ofspacecharacteristic
veryidea of an aesthetics
ofmodernarchitecture
is absorbedinthegeneral
orevenantihuman,
archipictureofan inhuman,
tectural
ideologyandthendismissed.
A morenuancedapproachto theelements
inrevealsa remarkable
bevolved,however,
intrigue
tweenmodernism,
Atthe
space,andphotography.
intersection
ofthefollowing
threeobservations,
a
newquestionarisesthatwillbe addressedin the
sections.
remaining
i. Architectural
modernism
was consciously
deIn itspromovement.
velopedas a programmatic
thetraditional
inhabitagram,we finddwellingtionofspace-tobe an issueofhighpriority.
This,
of an
however,is not trivial;it is symptomatic
important
development.
Dwellinghad becomea
becauseit had
partof the agendaof architects
lostitsnaturalness.
Thereis no needto denythat
severalmodernists'
visionsand practices
display
a blatantmisjudgment
ofthenatureofdwelling.
arHowever,thisdoes notimplythatmodernist
chitecture
itselfcreatedthedisintegration
ofthe
naturalrelationbetweenbuildingpracticesand
traditional
life.To thecontrary,
facedwiththis
desituation,
problematic
earlytwentieth-century
setthemselves
thetaskofproviding
an arsigners
chitectural
solution.
theoriginofwhat
Moreover,
has becometheaesthetics
of modernism
lies in
a reactionagainstthosemovements
thatdidnot
mostnotably,
trulyaddresstheissueofdwelling,
themany"aestheticisms"
thattriedto coverup
theproblematic
conditions
oflifewithdecorative
profusion.
RudolfSchindler
's 1912 Manifesto
is one of
theclearestexamplesoftheconnection
between
therepudiation
of stylistic
theadvanceartistry,
mentof space as an architectural
and
category,
a growing
awarenessofdwelling.
who
Schindler,
callsstructural
functionalism
a "hollowslogan,"
developeda programthatcenterson theshiftofdwelling.
Muchlater,Schindler
ingconditions
consideredhimself
thefirstto have consciously
abandonedstylistic
architecture
in orsculptural
der to developspace as a mediumof art.But
thishas neverkepthimfroma clearviewofthe
On thecontrary,
for
properroleof architecture.
Schindler,
spaceto residein is whatthearchitect
offers:
"Once an architect
about
beginsto worry
downand aboutcorrect
he
tying
things
spacings,

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110

TheAesthetics
ofArchitecture

arrivesonlyat formal
andthesehave
harmonies,
littleto do withliving."17
Thereareseveralpassagesinthewritings
ofinfluential
architects
thattheybelievedindicating
oratleasthoped-thatthenewaesthetics
ofspace
andsobriety
wouldcontribute
to a formofliving
world.Forexample,
adaptedtoa rapidly
changing
in 1927,GustavPlatzwrote:"It is beyonddoubt
thatabstractspace without
and
anydecoration,
in
it
with
household
living
well-designed
goods
thenoblest,
formof
cultivated
represents
highest
our time."18
Likewise,Srgeldiscerneda "selfevidentconnection"
between"space" and "the
soberand fundamental
demandsof function
inherent
intheessenceofbuilding
andliving."19

architect
whoprefers
machinesto people.From
the drawingsmade by WaughhimselfforDeclineand Fall, it appearsverylikelythatOtto
Silenusrepresents
WalterGropius,thearchitect
andformer
Bauhausdirector
whountiringly
tried
to substantiate
with
a
theoretspatialexperience
ical foundation.
underscores
the
Waughfurther
antihuman
ofthemodernist
architect,
disposition
detail:"His
addingthisunnecessary
biographical
other
work
was
the
dcor
fora cinonly
completed
emafilmofgreatlength
andcomplexity
ofplot-a
rendered
themoreinextricable
complexity
bythe
austereelimination
ofall humancharproducer's
acters."21

iii. AgainstWaugh'spersiflage
I wouldlike to
setthefollowing
observation.
The emergence
of
modernarchitecture
coincidedwiththepopularizationofphotography.
Forthefirst
timeinitshisarchitecture
couldbe depictedbythosewho
tory,
werenotgiftedaquarellists.
Whereaspreviously
thegreatmajority
ofarchitectural
were
drawings
madebefore
inorderto
realization,
presentations
couldnow
pleasethepatronor client,architects
recordtheresultoftheirimagination
atwillso as
to producetruthful
ofunprecedented
depictions
remarkaccuracy.However,thereis something
able abouttheoriginof architectural
photografascination
withthe
phy.Giventhemodernists'
thebustleofcrowded
streets
andbusy
metropolis,
and giventhetypically
modernist
visions
traffic,
oftheorchestration
ofthecrowds,
itis striking
to
see howdesolatetheirinterior
are
when
spaces
Schools,cinemas,
houses,andthe
photographed.
likeare almostalwaysshownas deserted,
devoid
ofpeople,andoftenevencompletely
clearedout,
withno furniture
or othersignsof humanoccuThischaracterizes
a greatdealofarchitecpation.
Theproblem
ofarchitecture
asI seeitistheproblem
of
turalphotography
fromitsoriginto thepresent
allart-theelimination
ofthehuman
element
from
the
day.A striking
examplecan be foundin phoconsideration
ofform.
. . . Allillcomesfrom
man.. . .
of
L'Aubette
, thefamousdancehalldeManis never
beautiful.
. . . Whycan'tthey
sitstilland tographs
TheoVanDoesburg,oneoftheearliest
signed
by
work?
Do dynamos
staircases?
Do monkeys
re- authorsto claim
require
that"thevisualconsciousness
of
Whatanimmature,
antiself-destructive,
quirehouses?
thearchitect
mustground
itself
onspace."22
Many
mischief
isman!20
quated
havedescribedhowthediagonalspatialcompositionof the wallsand ceilingof L'Aubettereofdancingpeople.However,
Waugh'smessageleaveslittleroomforinterpreta- flectsthedynamics
tion.Themodernists
arehos- itprovesto be impossible
to finda singlepicture
andtheiraesthetics
He
be
of
concern
to
man.
of
this
interior
that
shows
tileto whatever
peopledancing.
may
space
ferabilityofthemodernists'
One couldeasilyrelatethisthirdobservation
accentuates
theinsuf
in- toSilenus'scraving
forthe"elimination
offtheneedsofa building's
ofthehuagendabyplaying
habitants
the
sterile
aesthetic
desire
of
the
man
element"
from
all
art
via
allusion
to
against
Waugh's
ii. Againstthewidespread
butidlecriticism
that
the 'modernist
style'flowsfroma blindnessto
the truepurposeof buildings,
I have pointed
out thatthe forerunners
of contemporary
architecture
reactedagainstthe declineof architecture'sintegrity.
The veryoriginof the modernist
aesthetic
inthisreaction
lies,at leastpartly,
those
movements
that
had
themselves
neagainst
to
to
the
of
glected respond
question dwelling.
an awareness
ofthecrisisofhuBut,eventhough
mandwelling
lies at theoriginof themodernist
movement
anditsaesthetics,
fromthebeginning,
modernism
was portrayed
as misanthropic.
Alreadyby the 1920s,theBritishnovelistEvelyn
architects.
Waughhadbeguntoparodymodernist
In hisnovelDeclineand Fall, he introduces
the
character
ofa youngmanwhograduated
from
the
Bauhausandprefers
to be calledProfessor
Otto
Ina conversation
Silenus.
witha journalist,
Silenus
says:

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MattensTheAesthetics
ofSpace
the"elimination
ofall humancharacters"
froma
film(compareSectionIV.ii)andadd itto thelist
of incriminating
evidenceagainstthemodernist
spirit.However,thetensionbetweenmodernist
architecture's
own missionstatement
(compare
and
[SectionIV.i]J itsself-portrayal
(compareSectionIV.iii)showsthatmatters
aremorecomplex.
Here,a questionarisesthattouchesupontherelationbetween
andtheaesthetic
status
photography
ofarchitectural
space:whatis thepurposeofthe
thatso strongly
characterizes
architec'emptiness'
turalphotography?
Is itthat(a) theemptiness
of
thesedepictedspacesmerelyservesthepurpose
of rendering
a neutralphotographical
representation?Or is it that(b) thisemptiness
fulfills
a
rolein thatitinfluencesor has cometo
specific
influenceourappreciation
ofthespatiality
ofarchitecture?
thefirst
therecanbe no
alternative,
Regarding
doubtthatwhena building
is emptied,
it allows
foran optimalphotographic
depictionof itsinteriorand of thecondition
of itsmaterialcomButthesecondoptionshedsa different
ponents.
subservience
ofphotography
lightontheputative
to architecture.
It suggests
thatphotography
dearchitecture
that
velopeda mannerofportraying
hascometo determine
thewaywe lookat architectural
In
the
section,I outline
space.
following
howpictures
influence
theperception
ofobjects
in generaland,subsequently,
howdepicting
livcaninterfere
with
ingspacesthrough
photography
ourperceptual
inparticular.
graspofspatiality

111

Even thoughI do notmodify

theobjectitself
whenI takea pictureofit,myrelation
to theobinseveralways.An
jectis mediatedandmodified
artphotograph
of,say,a utensildoes notmerely
"show"a utensilat least,notinthesamewayas
a picturein a store'scatalogue.Furthermore,
the
utensilI see in thepictureis notphysically
connectedto thepicture'simmediate
surroundings,
and hence,I am disconnected
fromitspurposefulness.
theutensildepictedis,technically
Finally,
not
identical
withthedepictedutensil,
speaking,
forI cannotascribealltheproperties
oftheutensil
itselftotheutensilas itis depictedandviceversa.
A viewermustseparatethevisualproperties
ofthe
itself
from
thoseofwhatthepicture
picture
reprecondition
for
sents;thisis a well-known
necessary
I believethatthedeMoreover,
seeingpictures.
withtheviewer's
relation
tothe
pictioninterferes
realobjectina lessretrievable
way.Forexample,
lookingat a pictureofa tower,I takethetower's
shapeto be true,butnotthesmallersize it has
in thepicture;
thus,I correctly
separatedepicted
fromproperties
ofdepiction.
Andyet
properties
itispossiblethat,inthephotograph,
thetowerappearsmuchlargerthanitreallyis (orthanI would
judgeit on thebasisof anotherpicturein which
ithas thesamemetrical
size). It followsthatthe
sizeis neither
a property
ofthematerial
apparent
nor
a
of
the
real
picture property
object;itemerges
in the way the depictedobject is presented.
These principles
the relationbeconcerning
tweenobjects,perception,
and photography
extendto the depictionof architecture.
Architecturalphotography
can presentfamiliar
V. SPACE
OREMPTINESS
buildings
and livingspacesin a specific
wayand,in doing
of visual so,influence
ourviewofthem.
Despitethenecessary
correspondence
a photograph
ofan objectis fundamenGiventhatso manybuildings
of interest
are
content,
from
a directperceptual
located
and
closed
to
the
tallydifferent
experience distantly
public,phoofthesameobject.A photograph
leavesoutthe tographs
remaintheonlywayto viewa vastmaspatialhorizonof possibleviewson theobject's jorityof them.As a consequence,the waywe
as wellas thetemporalhorizonof
knowbuildings(especiallyfromthe inside)is
surroundings
and
of
the
Mostlikely,
this
previous subsequent
experiences
per- oftenmediatedbyphotography.
ceiver.By freezing
a moment
andframing
a per- determines
whatwe expectto findwhenwe ocisolatesobjects,
and
Our wayof seeevents,
spective,
photography
casionallyvisitthesebuildings.
situations
fromtheiroriginal
con- ingis inevitably
influenced
spatiotemporal
by thewayinterior
text.Thus,bycapturing
in a frame,
a
inbooksandjournals.
Letus
something
spacesarepresented
offers
an uncommon
of
therefore
reformulate
thequestionunderconsidphotograph
presentation
commonthings.
Artphotography
canfurther
ex- eration:howmight
theemptiness
thatso strongly
at famil- characterizes
architectural
alterour
ploitthisandmakeone lookdifferently
photography
iarthings.
To givejustone example,theunusual apperception
ofthespatialqualitiesofbuildings?
ofa monochrome
Considerfirst
howwe normally
the
shading
portrait
alreadymakes
apperceive
a familiar
facelookdifferent.
Interior
thescenery
spacesweinhabit.
spacesform

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112

TheAesthetics
ofArchitecture

in whicha greatdeal of our livestakesplace. themodernist

tenetthattheproperaesthetic
value
In everyday
remainto a
of a building,
as Van Doesburgputit,originates
life,however,
buildings
cannot initsspatiality.
largeextentinthebackground.
Buildings
sustainourpractical
whilesimultaneTheadventofillustrated
as a means
occupations
magazines
our
attention.
the
to
inarchitecture
coincides
Rather, way
ouslycompelling
propagatetendencies
we perceiveinterior
dewith
architecture's
reorientation
tospacesis fundamentally
historically
termined
oftheirpurposes. wardinterior
itselfin the
byourunderstanding
space.Whatmanifests
Wedo notsee rooms;we see diningrooms,living earlyself-portrayal
of modernarchitecture
is a
andso on. We see theserooms craving
forlucidity
andsobriety.
Pictures
rooms,staircases,
present
in theirfunctional
connection
withtheadjacent roomsthatareclearedout,as ifarchitecture
were
aboutemptyspaces.The atmosphere
rooms,which,in turn,are also notjustindeter- essentially
minatespaces.Thismeansthatthewaywe per- inthesepictureswhichis appealingfordifferent
ceivetheconcrete
of
reasons-seemsto reflect
andsustainthetheoretspatialnexusoftheinterior
a building
is a function
ofhowwe spontaneously ical discourseofarchitectural
space.In anycase,
itspractical
sincedesigners,
and critics
students,
apperceive
organization.
getto know
It is precisely
due to our spontaneous
theaesthetics
of
apper- buildings
through
photographs,
ceptionofa functional
spatialnexusthatitis suf- architectural
photography
helpedto establisha
ficient
fora filmortelevision
seriestobe recorded certain
isorshould
imageaboutwhatarchitecture
on setswithonlythreewalls,withno directcon- be.
nectionbetweenthem.Thepurposive,
functional
tothisscenario,
themutual
influence
According
andarchitectural
setupand thebehaviorof its"inhabitants"
per- ofphotography
spacemaybe litcoverupthefactthatthereisnorealconnec- tlemorethana confusion
oftheaesthetics
ofsofectly
tionbetweenthedifferent
rooms.Thefurnishing, briety
witha pleaforspatiality,
a confusion
dueto
thenarrative,
andtheplayersenactthelogicofa
a superficial
betweenemptiness
andspaaffinity
cultivated
To a certainextent,
spacethatis notreallythere.Architectural
pho- tiality
bypictures.
seeksto do theopposite.It is strongly thismustbe thecase.Thereare,however,
tography
good
characterized
toremoveinhabitants reasonstodrawa different,
morenuancedconclubya tendency
to theiroccupa- sionfromthisscenario,
one whichgrantsa more
alongwithanyobjectreferring
tionsfromtheimageit presents.
roleforarchitectural
However,with direct,
positive
photography.
theremovaloffunctional
thesupport
toZevi,ourlackofa senseforspace
references,
According
fora spontaneous
of the spatial is due to thecommontechniques
ofrepresentaunderstanding
also
When
tion
like
floor
andphosections,
organization disappears.
functionality
plans,elevations,
anditssignificance
so toodoesthepurpo- tographs.
Theseare said to be "abstract"
in that
vanish,
sivenexusthatgroundsourspontaneous
spatial theypresenta viewthatno one actuallyexperiences.The problemwithaddingphotography
to
interpretations.
As significance
ofexperirecedes,abstractspatialcom- thelistofsuchabstract
representations
positionscome to the fore.Hence,it is plausi- entialspaceis notso muchthatitseemswrongto
ble thattheinitial"idea" of architectural
wouldshowa viewthatno
space
saythatphotographs
has beenfurther
elaboratedthrough
thewayin
onecanactually
see.Tothecontrary,
whatmatters,
whichinterior
beendepicted I believe,is thatphotographs
spaceshavetypically
bringoutwhatwe
in photographs.
As theyare usuallyseenin pic- failto see in normalperceptual
Preexperience.
interiors
exerta certain
attrac- ciselyheretheartificial
architectural
visionofa photograph
can
tures,
I willexplain
tionon us becausetheyno longerappearas part playa positiverole.In thefollowing
ofa functional,
whole.Thisattraction howtheinterplay
between
different
purposeful
aspectsofpicin
of
torial
to
the
of
thus
have
its
the
absence
can
contribute
sigspace
development
might
origin
If so,thenit is likelythatthisabsence a senseforarchitectural
nificance.
spatiality.
ofemptiness,
ofsignificance
is a mereby-product
inturn,
is deceptively
which,
expoundedinterms VI. FLATNESS,
ANDREAL
PICTORIAL
DEPTH,
ofspatiality.
Whena placeis emptiedoutandfa- SPATIALITY
an atmosphere
thatintrigues
miliarity
disappears,
thisappeal As is wellknown,as thelightchangesthroughand appealsdoes emerge.Probably,
fromemptiedinteriors
helpedsustain outtheday,theapparentcolorofa room'swalls
proceeding

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MattensTheAesthetics
ofSpace
weperceivethemthroughNevertheless,
changes.
outtheentiredayas,say,simply
whitewalls.Acit is extremely
difficult
to tellwhatcolor
tually,
one sees whenone is alreadyfamiliar
withthe
tintin"neutral"
weperceivea
daylight.
Similarly,
tomatoasredwhile,
atanygivenmoment,
actually,
anenormous
ofshadescanbe discerned
in
variety
notevencallredifwe
it,manyofwhichwemight
sawthemseparately
on a samplesheet.Seen on
a photograph,
mostpeoplecan readily
however,
determine
thecolorstheysee. Whenviewingan
discern
objectina picture,
peoplecaneffortlessly
different
shades.When,in addition,the photoinsucha waythatitdoesnotgive
graphisframed
what
kind
ofobjectis depicted,
thevariety
away
ofapparent
shadescanbe determined
evenmore
accurately.
Pictures
visualrelationto
changea perceiver's
an object.As theyare materialized
in a picture,
thequalitiesof a visualappearanceliterally
intervene
betweentheperceiver
andtheobjectdepicted.Hence,it is mucheasierin photographs
thaninperceptual
tofocuson theway
experience
an objectappears,rather
thanon whattheobject
is knowntobe.In thisway,seeingpictures
canalterone'swayoflooking.
Similar
effects
occurwith
tothespatialqualitiesofwhatis depicted.
respect
withone'shandsandthenlookMakinga frame
it helpsone to see a real scene as
ingthrough
ifitwerea picture.
Thisis a time-honored
techand painting
fromnature,for
niquefordrawing
it enablesone to focuson objects'profiles.
This
is thecasebecause"framing"
seemstoflatten
the
scene.As theframenarrows
thescene,andmore
of thecontextis cutout,visualdepthand relief
decrease.As a result,theprofilesof objectsat
different
distancesappearas juxtaposedpatches
ofcolor,andtheirshapesandmutualproportions
canmoreeasilybe transposed
toa flatcanvas.Insteadofframing
a realscenewithone'shands,a
fareasiermethodis to drawfroma photograph
ofthescene.It is precisely
thiseffect
ofpictorial
thathelpsustoseeanarchitectural
representation
interior
as a composition.
As itframes
andliterally
flattens
thescene,a photograph
turnsa perspectiveon an architectural
interior
intoa composition,which,paradoxically,
bringsout thespatial
qualitiesofthedesign.
In leavingout thefunctional
contextas well,
mucharchitectural
revealsa formal
photography
The more
playthatextendsin threedimensions.
recedesintothebackground,
the
purposiveness

113
morespatiality
is brought
intorelief.Thiseffect
can easilybe testedbyturning
ofarchipictures
tecturalspacesupsidedown:as the basis fora
normalapperception
is lacking,
one lookssponintothedepthof thedepictedspatial
taneously
environment.
The spatialnexusbecomesvisible
as a wholethatalso extendsin thedirection
of
view.Thisphenomenon
turnspictorial
depthinto
a constitutive
momentof depicting
architectural
space.
Pictorialframingcutsout theouter
literallywhilethereduction
of significance
has
context,
thesameeffect
from
within
theframe.
Thecutting
outofsignificant
whichis effectuated
context,
by
and
reinforced
that
framing
bythe"emptiness"
so strongly
characterizes
architectural
photograoutarchitectural
as a quality
phy,brings
spatiality
on itsown.How thephysical
partitions
encapsulatethevoidbecomesmanifest,
theintershowing
thefull
lockingvolumesas a spatialcomposition,
of whichwouldalso involvethereal
perception
ofdepth.
experience
How emptiness
and pictorialspace reinforce
eachothercan easilybe demonstrated
whererefurther
reducessignificance.
Forexample,
framing
inArchitecture
andModernity
, a black-and-white
ofthestaircase
fromthecloakroom
tothe
picture
central
hallinLoos'sMollerHouseis reprinted.23
Thispicturehardlyprovidesanysupportforan
ofitsfunctional
apperception
organization.
Apart
fromthreetreadboardsanda door'shingesinthe
lowerleftcornerof thepicture,
thereis no clue
as to thenormalorientation
and function
ofthe
illusdepictedinterior
space.Thepicture
palpably
tratesthetendency
in architectural
photography
thatI pointedout;thedesignbeautifully
exemplifiestheidea of a spatialcomposition.
It is hard
to tellwhether
Loos anticipated
thisvisualeffect,
butas itiscaptured
inthispicture,
thisimageleads
theeyeintothedepthdepictedandmanifests
the
wholeas a complexspatialnexusofinterlocking
rooms.Now,oppositethetitlepage of thesame
book,thereis an insetshowinga smallerfragmentofthesamepicture;
thesmaller
frame
eliminatesthelastsignificant
elements
fromtheimage
(namelythetreadboardsand hinges).As there
is nota singlecluefororientation
andapprehensionleftwithinthisframe,
thispictureperfectly
demonstrates
thesuggested
effect
ofphotography
on spatialvision.In fact,thisspatialdesign,or,
morecorrectly,
thispicture
ofit,isintriguing
from
all sides.Ifithasanyaesthetic
value,thiscanonly

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114

TheAesthetics
ofArchitecture

be due to thedelight
involvedinlookingintothe
ofspaces.
ingenious
composition
At the beginningof this article,I pointed
out thatphotography
cannotfullycapturethe
of
Rather,
uniquequalities spatialarchitecture.
can becomean obstacleto recogphotographs
of a givendenizingthe aestheticimportance
I argued,the
sign'sspatialnature.Nevertheless,
beenpresented
wayinterior
spaceshavetypically
indicates
thatthereis a pethrough
photography
culiarrelation
betweenphotography
andtheaesofspace.
thetics
ofthenormalapperception
ofspaMyanalysis
the
from
tiality
explains appealproceeding architectural
itfollows
thatthis
however,
photography;
in thespatialqualities
appealdoes notoriginate
butin theabsenceof whatgrounds
themselves,
ourusualapperception
oflivingspaces.In thefinal section,I havearguedfora moredirectand
ofphotography
to theaespositivecontribution
thetics
ofspace.Myanalysisoftheinterplay
betweenpictorial
flatness
andrealspaceshowedthat
andthewayspacesaretypically
photographs
presentedin themcan havea similarand mutually
effectin makingus see thecomposisustaining
tionalqualitiesof architectural
design.The susof
and
sound
theremovalof
movement,
pension
the reduction
of full-blown
orientation,
experienceto a merely
static,two-dimensional
imageincreasesour sensitivity
to space.
paradoxicallyThisappearsto be a fortunate
side effect
of the
of
architecture
in
representation
photography.24

3. DavidGebhard,
Schindler
Rudolph
(NewYork:
Viking,
1971),
p.191.
4. TheoVanDoesburg,
DrieVoordrachten
overde
Nieuwe
Beeidende
Kunst
voor
(Amsterdam:
Maatschappij
engoedkope
goede
lectuur,
1919),
p.46(mytranslation).
5. See Geoffrey
Scott,The Architecture
of HuA Studyin theHistory
manism.
of Taste(Gloucester,UK: Smith,1965),p. 168; ErichMendelsohn,
Structures
and Sketches
ErnstBenn,1924),
(London:
p.3.
6. Herman
in die ArchitekturSrgel,Einfhrung
sthetik
undLoehle,
1918,
(Mnchen:
Piloty
repr.
1921),
p.184(mytranslation).
7. Scott,
TheArchitecture
ofHumanism,
p.172.
8. Scott,
TheArchitecture
ofHumanism,
p.172.
9. Theexample
istaken
from
Scruton's
Roger
argument
theideaofarchitectural
SeeRoger
Scruton,
against
space.
TheAesthetics
Methuen,
ofArchitecture
(London:
1979),
voir
l'Architecture
Zevi,Apprendre
p.44.SeealsoBruno
ditions
deMinuit,
(Paris:
1959),
p.25.
10.Christoph
DerArchitektonische
Raum:
Feldtkeller,
eineFiktion.
aneine
Annherungen
funktionale
Betrachtung
(Braunschweig:
1989).
Vieweg,
11.Rudolph
DuneFoSchindler,
Architecture,"
"Space
rum
44-46.
1934):
(February,
12.Burkhard
FrAdolf
Loos(Wien:
Rukschcio,
Locker,
1985),
pp.60-61
(mytranslation).
13.Bruno
voirl'Architecture
Zevi,Apprendre
(Paris:
ditions
deMinuit,
1959),
p.9.
14.Zevi,
voir
l'Architecture,
Apprendre
p.9.
15.See,forexample,
thedesign
noted
down
principles
between
1916and1923inTheoVan
byVanDoesburg
NaareenBeeidende
EenarchitecArchitectuur,
Doesburg,
tonisch
naarDe Stijl(Nijmegen:
onderzoek
SUN,1983),
pp.91-98.
16.Seealsothecritical
ofVenturi's
analysis
argument
inDavidGoldblatt,
from
"TheFrequency
ofArdiversity
chitectural
Acts:Diversity
andQuantity
inArchitecture,"
TheJournal
andArtCriticism
46 (1987):
ofAesthetics
61-66.
17.Asquoted
inEsther
FiveCalif
ornian
ArchiMcCoy,
FILIPMATTENS
tects
(NewYork:
Praeger,
1975),
pp.173-175.
Institute
ofPhilosophy
18.Gustav
DieBaukunst
derneuesten
Zeit(Berlin:
Platz,
ofLeuven
University
Mann,
2000),
p.80.
B-3000
19.Srgel,Einfhrung
in die Architektur-sthetik,
Leuven,
Belgium
p.164.
20.Evelyn
Decline
andFall(London:
Waugh,
Chapman
internet:
Filip.Mattens@hiw.kuleuven.ac.be and
Hall,1962),
p.141.
21.Waugh,
Decline
andFall,p.144.
DrieVoordrachten
22.VanDoesburg,
overdeNieuwe
4.
1. Clement
Collected
andCriticism
Beeidende
Kunst
,p.45(mytranslation).
Essays
Greenberg,
23.HildeHeynen,
Architecture
andModernity:
A CriModernism
with
a Vengeance
O'Brian
, 1957-1969
,ed.John
ofChicago
Press,
tique
(MITPress,
1999),
p.87.
(University
1995),
p.86.
24.I thank
2. Hendrik
undEntwicklung
der
theeditors
andananonymous
referee
for
Grundlagen
Berlage,
their
comments.
Architektur
Bard,
(Berlin:
1908),
helpful
p.46.

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