European Water 30: 13-24, 2010.

2010 E.W. Publications

Assessment of Intrinsic Vulnerability using the DRASTIC Model and GIS

in the Kiti Aquifer, Cyprus
K. Voudouris1, N. Kazakis1, M. Polemio2 and K. Kareklas3
1

Lab. of Engineering Geology & Hydrogeology, Dept. of Geology, Aristotle University, Thessaloniki, Greece.
E-mail: kvoudour@geo.auth.gr
2
IRPI, Istituto di Ricerca per la Protezione Idrogeologica, Bari, Italy. E-mail: m.polemio@ba.irpi.cnr.it
3
Development Agency of Larnaca. E-mail: kar@anetel.com

Abstract:

Approximately 70% of the worlds population lives in coastal areas and the majority of these people depend on
coastal aquifers for freshwater. For this reason, coastal aquifers are vulnerable to pollution and are now recognised as
a crucial arena for future progress towards global freshwater sustainability. This paper deals with an assessment of the
groundwater vulnerability of the Kiti aquifer, South Cyprus. The Kiti aquifer, covering an area of about 30 Km2 at a
mean elevation of 20 m above sea level, is situated in the southern part of Cyprus, a region characterised by semi-arid
climatic conditions. The groundwater resources are related to the Pleistocene coastal plain and the recent Tremithos
river valley deposits. The concept of groundwater vulnerability is based on the assumption that the physical
environment may provide some degree of protection for groundwater against human activities. The DRASTIC
method, applied to evaluate aquifer vulnerability, was developed by the United States Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) as a technique for assessing groundwater pollution potential and is based on seven (7) parameters:
Depth (D), Recharge (R), Aquifer media (A), Soil media (S), Topography (T), Impact of vadose zone media (I) and
hydraulic Conductivity of the aquifer (C). Determination of the DRASTIC index (DI) involves multiplying each
parameter weight by its site rating and summing the total. Based on DI values, a groundwater vulnerability map was
produced using a Geographical Information System (GIS). The highest vulnerability values, covering a large expanse
of the study area, are associated with shallow aquifers without great depth of vadose zone. The results provide
important information, with the vulnerability map suitable for use by local authorities and decision makers responsible
for groundwater resource management and protection zoning.

Keywords:

Aquifer, Cyprus, DRASTIC method, GIS technique, Kiti, Vulnerability

1. INTRODUCTION
The socioeconomic development of a region depends on the availability of good quality water.
Recent decades have seen a global increase in demand for freshwater, mainly satisfied by
groundwater abstracted from aquifers via numerous wells and boreholes. Groundwater is under
intense anthropogenic pressure in the Mediterranean basin, from sources such as changes in land
use, urbanisation, a lack of proper sewerage, intensive agriculture and a general increase in demand.
These factors can cause severe degradation of both the quality and quantity of groundwater
resources (UNESCO, 1998; Civita, 1994; Polemio, 2005; Polemio et al., 2008).
The most efficient method of combating groundwater pollution is its initial prevention. The new
EC Directive 2006/118 on the protection of groundwater against pollution and deterioration,
developed under Water Framework Directive 2000/60, sets out criteria with which to assess the
chemical status of groundwater bodies. The aforementioned Directives have also forced EC
member states to ensure good chemical and ecological groundwater conditions. Given this
description of the problem, it seems necessary to individuate and implement a water system
management strategy in order to guarantee sustainability of water use and safeguard ecosystems
depending on water resources (Foster & Hirata, 1998; Gianneli et al., 2007).
The concept of aquifer vulnerability to external pollution was introduced in the 1960s by Margat
(1968), with several systems of aquifer vulnerability assessment developed in the following years
(Aller et al., 1987; Civita, 1994; Vrba & Zaporozec, 1994; Sener et al., 2009; Polemio et al., 2009).

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K. Voudouris et al.

Vulnerability refers to the sensitivity of an aquifer system to deterioration due to an external action
(Al-Zabet, 2002). It is an intrinsic property of an aquifer system and can vary with regard to the
specific natural and/or human impact. It is pointed out that vulnerability is a general concept and
can be used in the assessment of impacts from floods or droughts (Tsakiris, 2009). In the last few
decades, many techniques have been developed to assess groundwater vulnerability, including
index, rating, hybrid, statistical and simulation methods (Voudouris, 2009). The DRASTIC method
has been the most commonly used for mapping vulnerability in porous aquifers (Aller et al., 1987).
This paper deals with the groundwater vulnerability in the alluvial aquifer of the Kiti aquifer,
South Cyprus. Firstly, results from previous hydrogeological studies, including the development of
aquifers, hydraulic parameters and groundwater quality are discussed. A vulnerability map is then
presented, produced using the DRASTIC method in a GIS context (Vrba & Zaporozec, 1994;
Polemio & Ricchetti, 2001; Panagopoulos et al., 2005; Gemitzi et al., 2006). This scientific work
was carried out within the framework of an INTERREG III B ARCHIMED program, funded by the
European Union (Voudouris et al., 2007).

2. DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA

The region of study is the River Tremithos basin (Kiti aquifer), situated in the southern part of
Cyprus and covering an area of about of 30 Km2 (Fig. 1). It extends from the border of the Kiti
Community as far as the coast and contains both residential and rural land-use (Fig. 1). The most
important economic activities in the area are tourism and agriculture.
At an elevation of 20 m above sea level, the region is characterised by semi-arid climatic
conditions, with a mean annual rainfall of 342.5 mm and a mean annual temperature of 19.6 oC.
A simplified geological map is shown in Fig. 2. The study area is affected by many pollution
sources (agricultural activities, municipal wastes) influencing groundwater quality.

Figure 1. Topographic map of the Kiti area.

The groundwater resources are related to the Pleistocene coastal plain and the recent Tremithos
River valley deposits. The thickness of the deposits varies from 45 m near the mouth of the River
Tremithos to about 20 m near the village of Kiti (MANR, 1982). Figure 3 shows a N-S geological
cross-section through the Kiti aquifer system. The system is layered, consisting of an upper
unconfined alluvial aquifer separated from a lower confined carbonate aquifer by Pliocene marls
(Milnes & Renard, 2004).

European Water 30 (2010)

Figure 2. Geological map of the Kiti area (above) and a typical geological profile (below; Geological Survey
Department, with modifications).

Figure 3. Geological cross-section through the Kiti aquifer (Adapted from Milnes & Renard, 2004).

15

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K. Voudouris et al.

Over-exploitation during the last few decades has led to seawater intrusion. Water levels
recovered in the 1990s, but today remain below sea level during the pumping season (Fig. 4). Until
1981, groundwater abstraction took place at an average rate of 3x106 m3/yr, but has since decreased
to 1.3x106 m3/yr in recent years (Milnes & Renard, 2004). Saturated thickness is 2-3 m, while
transmissivity values range between 6-135 m2/d, as deduced from pumping tests (MANR, 1982).
Permeability ranges from 2 to 80 m/d. Groundwater flow generally follows the topography of the
area, moving towards the sea.
Degradation of groundwater quality is mainly caused by seawater intrusion and nitrate pollution.
Seawater intrusion phenomena are recorded in the coastal part of the study area, while nitrate
pollution is mostly associated with agricultural activity. High nitrate concentrations are recorded in
the central part of the basin, reaching levels of up to 300 mg/l - much higher than the limit
established by the European Union Nitrate Directive 91/676/EEC. Water quality is classified into
two dominant types: Ca-HCO3 (freshwater) and Na-Cl (brackish water in coastal areas affected by
seawater intrusion).
groundwater level

G12

1/03

3/01

9/00

3/00

1/99

3/98

3/97

3/96

5/95

9/94

3/94

9/93

3/93

9/92

-2

3/92

9/91

2
3/91

m a.s.l.

-4
Figure 4. Fluctuation of groundwater level in m a.s.l.

3. GROUNDWATER VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT BY THE DRASTIC

METHOD
The concept of groundwater vulnerability is based on the assumption that the physical
environment may provide some degree of protection for groundwater against human activities. Vrba
and Zaporozec (1994) defined intrinsic vulnerability as an inherent property of an aquifer. In other
words, vulnerability represents the degree of weakness of an individual aquifer system to pollution.
In this study, intrinsic vulnerability was evaluated using the DRASTIC method, a system typically
used in groundwater assessment. The DRASTIC index is even more accurate as part of
hydrogeological investigations on a local scale or when more detailed data are available (Gogu &
Dassargues, 2000; Martinez-Bastida et al., 2010; Massone et al., 2010).
The acronym DRASTIC (Aller et al., 1987; Al-Adamat et al., 2003) is derived from the initials
of the seven (7) assessed parameters: Depth, Recharge, Aquifer media, Soil media, Topography,
Impact of vadose zone media and hydraulic Conductivity of the aquifer.
In determining the DRASTIC index (DI), each parameter is assigned a numeric rating of
between 1 (least pollution potential) and 10 (highest pollution potential), depending on its value at
the site in question. Each parameter is also assigned a weighting factor ranging between 1 and 5,
based on their relative influence in affecting pollution potential (Table 1). Calculation of the DI then
involves multiplying each parameter weight by its site rating then summing the total and can be
expressed as follows:

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17

DI = rj .w j or DI = DrDw + RrRw + ArAw + SrSw + TrTw + IrIw + CrCw

(1)

j =1

where: D, R, A, S, T, I and C are the parameters, r is the rating of each parameter for the study area
and w is the importance weight for the parameter.
The higher the DRASTIC index value, the greater the groundwater pollution potential and
aquifer vulnerability. Some researchers have modified the DRASTIC method and introduced
additional parameters such as land use index, aquifer thickness etc. (Secunda et al., 1998;
Voudouris & Mandilaras, 2004; Panagopoulos et al., 2005).
Table 1. Relative weights given to the DRASTIC parameters (Aller et al., 1987).
Parameters
D
R
A
S
T
I
C

Depth
Recharge
Aquifer media
Soil media
Topography
Impact of vadose zone media
Hydraulic Conductivity of the aquifer

DRASTIC Weight
(typical)
5
4
3
2
1
5
3

The DRASTIC method was developed using 4 assumptions (Al-Zabet, 2002):

1. the pollutant is introduced at the ground surface
2. the pollutant is flushed into the groundwater by rainfall
3. the pollutant has the velocity of water
4. the area evaluated using DRASTIC is 40 hectares or larger.
Values of the parameters used in the aforementioned method are essentially derivable from
monitoring gauges, hydrogeological field surveys including water level measurements, pumping
tests and soil analyses, as well as remote sensing studies. A database was established in order to
input the collected data into Arcview 3.2a GIS, which offers the ability to store, manipulate and
analyse data in different formats and at different scales (Rahman, 2008; Voudouris, 2009; Sener at
al., 2009). Once in the database, it is then possible to register all data as data layers with a common
coordinate system and manipulate them to produce thematic maps, including the overall study area
vulnerability map.

4. RESULTS
4.1 Model parameters
4.1.1 Depth to groundwater (D)
The value of the variable D (Depth to the water table) was obtained using piezometric maps. The
depth to groundwater in the alluvial aquifer of the Kiti basin ranges from less than 4.5 to more than
18 m below the ground surface (Fig. 5). In general, the deeper the water levels are, the longer the
pollutant takes to reach the groundwater table (Voudouris & Mandilaras, 2004).

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K. Voudouris et al.

Figure 5. Depth to groundwater rating map.

4.1.2 Net recharge (infiltration) (R)

Net recharge is the total quantity of water which infiltrates from the ground surface to the aquifer
on an annual basis. Leaching and transport of pollutants from the surface due to rainfall that
infiltrates through the vadose zone is a very important associated process in terms of aquifer
vulnerability. The variable R was calculated from rainfall data and coefficients of infiltration of
geological formations. The amount of annual rainfall that infiltrates the aquifer varies from 10 to
20%, depending on soil type and lithology. As a result, net recharge in the study area ranges
between 35-85 mm/yr, as shown by the thematic map in Fig. 6.

Figure 6. Net annual recharge rating map.

4.1.3 Aquifer material (A)

The evaluation of variable A (Aquifer material) was based on data from the geological map and
drilling analyses. Based on this information, the aquifer media was classified as (Fig. 7):
1. Gravel,
2. Sand and Gravel,
3. Sandstone and
4. Limestone

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19

In general, the larger the grain size of a material, the higher its permeability and the lower its
attenuation capacity.

Figure 7. Aquifer media rating map.

4.1.4 Soil media (S)

Soil type plays an important role in the net recharge of an aquifer, with the presence of fine
material decreasing infiltration and therefore also pollution potential.
The value of variable S (Soil type) was obtained from soil classification maps produced by the
Geological Survey Department of Cyprus. The predominant soil types are (Fig. 8):
fine textured,
medium textured,
coarse textured,
thin layer of soil and
no soil.

Figure 8. Soil media rating map.

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K. Voudouris et al.

4.1.5 Topography (T)

The variable T (Topography) was obtained via elevation points, using the triangulation method
in the ARC/INFO system (Fig. 9). This parameter controls the likelihood of a pollutant to be
transported by runoff or to remain on the ground where it may infiltrate the surface.
The topography of the Kiti area is for the most part a flat plain where slopes are generally
shallow (<2%), although some in a small area in the northern part of the basin reach almost 10%.

Figure 9. Slope rating map.

4.1.6 Impact of the vadose zone (I)

The vadose zone is the unsaturated zone of subsoil above the water table and plays an important
role in the percolation of rainfall and surface flow. The characteristics of the vadose zone therefore
also determine the pathway and concentration of a pollutant, with the degree of attenuation related
to the structure, mineral composition and organic matter content.
The evaluation of variable I was based on data from drilling reports (Fig. 10). The vadose zone
in the study area is composed of unconsolidated gravel, sand and clay materials, except in the
northwest where it is constituted by conglomerates.

Figure 10. Vadose zone media rating map.

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4.1.7 Hydraulic conductivity (C)

The value of hydraulic conductivity is controlled by the properties of the aquifer and determines
the rate of groundwater movement in the saturated zone. As hydraulic conductivity increases,
groundwater velocity as well as the speed at which pollutants are transported also increase, raising
aquifer vulnerability. However, achieving an accurate estimate of hydraulic conductivity is difficult
and is considered a weakness of the DRASTIC method (Fritch et al., 2000; Stigter et al., 2006;
Martinez-Bastida et al., 2010). As a result, similar values may be assigned across large and nonhomogeneous areas.
The variable C was calculated from pumping test data and ranges between 2-80 m/day. The
distribution of hydraulic conductivity values is shown in Figure 11. The values of the seven
assessed parameters are summarised in Table 2.

Figure 11. Hydraulic conductivity rating map.

Table 2. DRASTIC parameters.
1. Depth to groundwater
Ranges Ratings Index
(m)
(Dr)
(D)
< 4,5
9
45
4,5-9
7
35
9-12
6
30
12-15
5
25
15-18
4
20
>18
3
15
Weight: 5
5. Topography
Slope Ranges
Ratings
(%)
(Dr)
<2
9
2-5
8
5-10
5

Weight: 1

2. Net recharge
Ranges Ratings Index
(mm/year) (Dr)
(D)
>85
6
24
55-85
4
16
35-55
3
12
<35
1
4

3. Aquifer media
Ratings Index
Aquifer
(Dr)
(D)
Limestone
9
27
Gravel
8
24
Gravel-sand
7
21
Sandstone
6
18

4. Soil media
Ratings Index
Ranges
(Dr)
(R)
No Soil
10
20
Thin
9
18
Coarse texture
8
16
Medium texture
6
12
Fine texture
4
8

Weight: 4

Weight: 3

Weight: 2

Index
(D)
9
8
5

6. Impact of the vadose zone

Ratings
Index
Ranges
(Dr)
(D)
Conglomerate
9
45
Gravel
8
40
Gravel-Sand
7
35
Sand-Gravel
6
30
Sand
5
25
Clay-Sand-Gravel
4
20
Clay-Sand
3
15
Clay
2
10
Weight: 5

7. Hydraulic conductivity
Ranges
Ratings
Index
(m/day)
(Dr)
(D)
>80
9
27
60-80
8
24
40-60
7
21
<40
6
18

Weight: 3

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K. Voudouris et al.

4.2 DRASTIC index vulnerability

Values of the DRASTIC vulnerability index vary across the study area, ranging between 70 and
185. These values were classified into four classes, namely: Very high (>140), High (120-140),
Medium (100-120) and Low (<100). The vulnerability map of the Kiti area is shown in Fig. 12.
The majority of the Kiti region is characterised by high and very high vulnerability levels, which
are associated with shallow aquifers without a great depth of vadose zone. For this reason, a set of
measures should be applied in order to protect groundwater quality. Medium and low levels of
vulnerability are located in the north central part of the area (Dromolaxia village), in which the
aquifer has a great depth of vadose zone composed of layers of clay and silt, as well as a great depth
to groundwater level.
Based on chemical analysis of groundwater samples (Republic of Cyprus, 1982 and 2003), it can
be concluded that those areas of high vulnerability are also associated with high nitrate
concentrations.

Figure 12. Vulnerability map of the Kiti aquifer.

Martinez-Bastida et al. (2010) highlight that none of the parameters used in the DRASTIC
method account for the influence of groundwater flow direction, a property that greatly influences
whether some parts of the aquifer receive groundwater from a larger area than others. Stigter et al.
(2006) also note another limitation of the DRASTIC method; excessive emphasis on the attenuation
capacity of the vadose zone is not necessarily appropriate in the case of stable and mobile pollutants
such as nitrate, for which dilution processes are more influential. For these aforementioned reasons,
several researchers have argued of the necessity to modify the DRASTIC method (Al-Adamat et al.,
2003; Panagopoulos et al., 2005). However despite these limitations, the results gathered from its
application to the Kiti aquifer provide useful conclusions concerning the latters vulnerability status.
Furthermore, based on the vulnerability map, a Decision Support System (DSS) could be
developed in which different factors, e.g., irrigation type, crop type, type of fertilizers, water
consumption, are gathered together to create a more comprehensive tool in order to define
appropriate land use and groundwater quality protection zones (Manos et al., 2009 and 2010).

European Water 30 (2010)

23

5. CONCLUSIONS
The Kiti aquifer is under great pressure from a variety of sources, including urbanisation,
tourism and agricultural activity. The study area is also characterised by several sources of pollution
affecting groundwater quality.
The DRASTIC index was used to assess the intrinsic vulnerability to pollution of groundwater in
the Kiti aquifer. Low and very low values of vulnerability are found in the northern part of the study
area, but the majority of the region falls within high and very high vulnerability zones. Highest
vulnerability values are associated with shallow aquifers without a great depth of vadose zone. In
order to validate the DRASTIC method, the vulnerability map was compared with a nitrate
concentration distribution map. This comparison showed that high nitrate concentrations are related
to areas of high vulnerability values.
Assessment of groundwater vulnerability is a useful tool for groundwater resource management
and protection zoning. The results provide important information, while the vulnerability map could
potentially be used by local authorities and decision makers in order to prevent further pollution of
already contaminated areas. Finally, it could also be of help to planners in selecting the location for
waste disposal and industrial sites etc.
Future investigations of the intrinsic vulnerability of groundwater in the Kiti aquifer system
would benefit from the application of isotopic analysis and/or geophysical measurements to
estimate hydraulic conductivity more accurately, computer modelling to simulate groundwater flow
and net aquifer recharge, as well as improved water table data monitoring methods.

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