Preface

One thing that obviously confuses many people is the idea of flux density within
the transformer core. While this is covered in more detail in Section 2, it is
important that this section's information is remembered at every stage of your
reading through this article. For any power transformer, the maximum flux density
in the core is obtained when the transformer is idle. I will reiterate this, as it is
very important ...

For any power transformer, the maximum flux density is obtained when the
transformer is idle.

The idea is counter-intuitive, it even verges on not making sense. Be that as it

may, it's a fact, and missing it will ruin your understanding of transformers. At
idle, the transformer back-EMF almost exactly cancels out the applied voltage.
The small current that flows maintains the flux density at the maximum allowed
value, and represents iron loss (see Section 2). As current is drawn from the
secondary, the flux falls slightly, and allows more primary current to flow to
provide the output current.

It is not important that you understand the reasons for this right from the
beginning, but it is important that you remember that for any power transformer,
the maximum flux density is obtained when the transformer is idle. Please don't
forget this

Introduction

As you look through this article, you may be excused for exclaiming "This is for
beginners? - the man's mad. Mad, I tell you!" This is probably fair comment, but
transformers are not simple, and there is no simple way to provide all the
information you need to understand them properly. There are sections here that
probably go a little bit deeper than I originally intended, but were just too
interesting to leave out.

There are parts of this article you may want to skip over, but I suggest that you
do read all of it if you can. A full understanding to the extent where you can
design your own transformer is not the aim, but the majority of the information is
at the very least interesting, and will further your general electronics knowledge.

For those who wish to delve deeper, Section 2 does just that. It is recommended
reading, even for beginners, as there is a great deal to be learned about
transformers, despite their apparent simplicity.

The principles that allow us to make use of electro-magnetism were only

discovered in 1824, when Danish physicist Hans Oersted found that a current
flowing through a wire would deflect a compass needle. A few years after this, it
was found that a moving magnetic field induced a current into a wire. From this
seemingly basic concept, the field of electromagnetism has grown to the point
that society as we know it would not exist without the many machines that make
use of these discoveries.

Transformers are essential for all modern electronics equipment, and there are
very few devices that do not use them. Each transformer type has a specific use,
and it is uncommon that a transformer made for one application can be used for
another (quite different) purpose.

Before embarking on a description of the different types, the basic theory must
be understood. All transformers use the same basic principle, and only the finer
points ever change. A transformer works on the principle of magnetic coupling to
transfer the energy from one side (winding) to the other.

Transformers are bi-directional, and will work regardless of where the input is
connected. They may not work as well as they otherwise might, but basic
functionality is unchanged. An ideal transformer imposes no load on the supply
(feeding the primary) unless there is a load across the secondary - real life
components have losses, so this is not strictly true, but the assumption can be
used as a basis of understanding.

Power transformers are rated in Volt-Amps (VA). Using Watts is of no use, since
a load that is completely reactive dissipates no power, but there are still Volts
and Amps. It is the product of "real" voltage and current that is important - a
wattmeter may indicate that there is little or no real power in the load, but the
transformer is still supplying a voltage and a current, and will get hot due to
internal losses regardless of the power.

Transformer cores have a quoted permeability, which is a measure of how well

they "conduct" a magnetic field. Magnetism will keep to the path of least
resistance, and will remain in a high permeability core with little leakage. The
lower the permeability, the greater is the flux leakage from the core (this is of
course a gross simplification, but serves well enough to provide an initial
explanation of the term).

A transformer may be made with various materials as the core (the magnetic
path). These include

• Air - provides the least coupling, but is ideal for high frequencies
(especially RF). Permeability is 1.
• Iron - A misnomer, since all "iron" cored transformers are steel, with
various additives to improve the magnetic properties. Permeability is
typically about 500 and upwards.
• Powdered Iron - Steel magnetic particles formed into a core and held
together with a bonding agent, and fired at high temperature to create a
 ceramic-like material with very good properties at medium to high
frequencies (over 1 MHz). Especially suited to applications where there is
a significant DC component in the winding or for very high power.
Permeability is typically 40-90.
• Ferrite - A magnetic ceramic, usually using exotic magnetic materials to
obtain extremely high permeability and excellent high frequency
performance (from 50kHz to over 1MHz). An astonishing range of different
formulations is available for different applications. Permeability is from
about 500 up to 9,000 or more.

Technically, powdered iron and ferrites are both classified as soft (see below)
ferrites, but they have very different characteristics, even within the same
"family". They are generally unsuitable for low frequency operation, except at low
levels. Ferrites are often used as signal transformers (such as isolation
transformers for telecommunications or other small signal applications), where
the high permeability makes them an ideal choice for small size and high
inductance.

Core materials are generally classified as "soft" - this has nothing to do with their
physical properties (they are all hard to very hard), but is a reference to their
ability to retain magnetism (remanence). Hard magnetic materials are used for
magnets, and they have a very high remanence, which is to say they retain a
very large proportion of the original magnetic field that was induced into them
during manufacture.

All switchmode power supplies use ferrite transformers, since conventional

laminations cannot be made thin enough to prevent huge losses in the core.

Many limitations exist in any core material. For low frequency power applications,
grain-oriented silicon steel (about 4% silicon) is by far the most common, as it
has a very high flux density before saturation. Almost all other materials are
inferior in this respect, one of the main reasons this material is still so common.
 Toroidal E-I

Split Bobbin E-I Plug-Pack Conventional E-I

A small sample of some transformers is shown above (not to scale). The toroidal
and E-I transformers are the same power rating, and a small selection of little
transformers and a plug-pack (wall transformer, wall-wart, etc) are shown as well.

1. Magnetism and Inductors

The transformer is essentially just two (or more) inductors, sharing a common
magnetic path. Any two inductors placed reasonably close to each other will work
as a transformer, and the more closely they are coupled magnetically, the more
efficient they become.

When a changing magnetic field is in the vicinity of a coil of wire (an inductor), a
voltage is induced into the coil which is in sympathy with the applied magnetic
field. A static magnetic field has no effect, and generates no output. Many of the
same principles apply to generators, alternators, electric motors and
loudspeakers, although this would be a very long article indeed if I were to cover
all the magnetic field devices that exist.

When an electric current is passed through a coil of wire, a magnetic field is

created - this works with AC or DC, but with DC, the magnetic field is obviously
static. For this reason, transformers cannot be used directly with DC, for although
a magnetic field exists, it must be changing to induce a voltage into the other coil.

Try this experiment. Take a coil of wire (a loudspeaker crossover coil will do
nicely for this), and a magnet. Connect a multimeter - preferably analogue) to the
coil, and set the range to the most sensitive current range on the meter. As you
move the magnet towards or away from the coil, you will see a current, shown by
the deflection of the meter pointer. As the magnet is swung one way, the current
will be positive, the other way - negative. The higher the coil's inductance and the
stronger the magnet (and/ or the closer it is to the coil), the greater will be the
induced current.

Move the magnet slowly, and the current will be less than if it is moved quickly.
Leave it still, and there is no current at all, regardless of how close the magnet
may be. This is the principle of magnetic induction, and it applies to all coils
(indeed to all pieces of wire, although the coil makes the effect much greater).

If you now take a handful of nails and place them through the centre of the coil,
you will see that the current is increased many times - the magnetic field is now
more concentrated because the steel nails make a better magnetic path than air.

The ability of a substance to carry a magnetic field is called permeability, and

different materials have differing permeabilities. Some are optimised in specific
ways for a particular requirement - for example the cores used for a switching
transformer are very different from those used for normal 50/60Hz mains
transformers.

The permeability of transformer cores varies widely, depending on the material

and any treatment that may be used. The permeability of air is 1, and most
traditional cores have a much higher (i.e. > 1) permeability. A couple of notable
exceptions are aluminium and brass, which are sometimes used to reduce the
inductance of air cored coils in radio frequency (RF) work. This is much less
common than a ferrite "slug" core, which increases the inductance and is used to
tune some RF transformers.

As well as permeability, magnetic cores (with the exception of air) have a

maximum magnetic flux they can handle without saturation. In this context,
saturation means the same as in most others - when a towel is saturated, it can
hold no more water, and when a magnetic core is saturated, it can carry no more
magnetic flux. At this point, the magnetic field is no longer changing, so current is
not induced into the winding.

You will be unable to saturate your nails with the magnet, as there is a very large
air gap between the two pole pieces. This means that the core will always be
able to support the magnetic flux, but the efficiency is also very much lower
because the magnetic circuit is open. Nearly all the transformers you will see
have a completely closed magnetic circuit, to ensure that as much of the
magnetism induced into the core as possible will pass through the winding(s).

There are some cases where a tiny air gap will be left deliberately, and this is
done routinely when a transformer or coil must sustain a significant DC
component as well as the AC. This is covered briefly below, but there is more on
this subject in the second section of the article.

Figure 1.1 - Essential Workings of a Transformer

Figure 1.1 shows the basics of all transformers. A coil (the primary) is connected
to an AC voltage source - typically the mains for power transformers. The flux
induced into the core is coupled through to the secondary, a voltage is induced
into the winding, and a current is produced through the load.

The diagram also shows the various parts of a transformer. This is a simple
transformer, with two windings. The primary (denoted as such during the design)
will induce a magnetic field into the core in sympathy with the current produced
by the applied AC voltage. The magnetic field is concentrated by the core, and
nearly all of it will pass through the windings of the secondary as well, where a
voltage is induced. The core in this case is typical of the construction of a "C-
Core" transformer, where the primary and secondary are separated. More
common is the "traditional" EI (ee-eye) type, which although somewhat out of
favour these days is still used extensively. This is shown below.
The magnitude of the voltage in the secondary is determined by a very simple
formula, which determines the "turns ratio" (N) of the component - this is
traditionally calculated by dividing the secondary turns by the primary turns ...

1.1.1 N = Ts / Tp
Tp is simply the number of turns of wire that make up the primary winding, and
Ts is the number of turns of the secondary. A transformer with 500 turns on the
primary and 50 turns on the secondary has a turns ratio of 1:10 (i.e. 1/10 or 0.1)
1.1.2 Vs = Vp * N
Mostly, you will never know the number of turns, but of course we can simply
reverse the formula so that the turns ratio can be deduced from the primary and
secondary voltages ...
1.1.3 N = Vs / Vp
If a voltage of 240V (AC, naturally) is applied to the primary, we would expect
24V on the secondary, and this is indeed what will be measured. The transformer
has an additional useful function - not only is the voltage "transformed", but so is
the current.
1.1.4 Is = Ip / N
If a current of 1A were drawn by the primary in the above example, then logically
a current of 10A would be available at the secondary - the voltage is reduced, but
current is increased. This would be the case if the transformer were 100%
efficient, but even this - the most efficient "machine" we have - will sadly never be
perfect. With large transformers used for the national supply grid, the efficiency of
the transformers will generally exceed 95%, and some will be as high as 98% (or
even more).

Smaller transformers will always have a lower efficiency, but the units commonly
used in power amplifiers can have efficiencies of up to 90% for larger sizes. The
reasons for the lost power will become clear (I hope) as we progress. For the
time being, we shall consider the transformer to be "ideal" (i.e. having no losses)
for simplicity.

Figure 1.2 - E-I Laminations

The conventional E-I lamination set is still extensively used, and a few pertinent
points are worth mentioning. The centre leg is always double the width of the
outer legs to maintain the cross-sectional area. Likewise, the "I" lamination and
the "back" of the E are the same width as (or sometimes slightly larger than) the
outer legs. The winding window is where the copper windings live, and in a well
designed transformer will be almost completely full. This maximises the amount
of copper and reduces resistive losses because the windings are as thick as they
possibly can be.

2. Magnetic Core Terminology

This list is far from complete, but will be sufficient to either get you started or
scare you away. I have included the symbols and units of only three of the
entries below, since most are of no real interest.

Coercivity -is the field strength which must be applied to reduce (or coerce) the
remanent flux to zero. Materials with high coercivity (e.g. those used for
permanent magnets) are called hard. Materials with low coercivity (those used for
transformers) are called soft.

Effective Area - of a core is the cross sectional area of the centre limb for E-I
laminations, or the total area for a toroid. Usually this corresponds to the physical
dimensions of the core but because flux may not be distributed evenly the
manufacturer may specify a value which reflects this.

Effective length - of a core is the distance which the magnetic flux travels in
making a complete circuit. Usually this corresponds closely to the average of the
physical dimensions of the core, but because flux has a tendency to concentrate
on the inside corners of the path the manufacturer may specify a value for the
effective length.

Flux Density - (symbol; B, unit; Teslas (T)) is simply the total flux divided by the
effective area of the magnetic circuit through which it flows.

Flux linkage - in an ideal inductor the flux generated by one turn would be
contained within all the other turns. Real coils come close to this ideal when the
other dimensions of the coil are small compared with its diameter, or if a suitable
core guides the flux through the windings.

Magnetomotive Force - MMF can be thought of as the magnetic equivalent of

electromotive force. It is the product of the current flowing in a coil and the
number of turns that make up the coil.

Magnetic Field Strength - (symbol: H, unit; ampere metres (A m )) when current

-1

flows in a conductor, it is always accompanied by a magnetic field. The strength,

or intensity, of this field is proportional to the amount of current and inversely
proportional to the distance from the conductor (hence the -1 superscript).

Magnetic Flux - (symbol: ; unit: Webers (Wb)) we refer to magnetism in terms

of lines of force or flux, which is a measure of the total amount of magnetism.

Permeability - (symbol; µ, units: henrys per metre (Hm ) is defined as the ratio of
-1

flux density to field strength, and is determined by the type of material within the
magnetic field - i.e. the core material itself. Most references to permeability are
actually to "relative permeability", as the permeability of nearly all materials
changes depending upon field strength (and in most cases with temperature as
well).

Remanence - (or remnance) is the flux density which remains in a magnetic

material when the externally applied field is removed. Transformers require the
lowest possible remanence, while permanent magnets need a high value of
remanence.

I mention these here for the sake of completeness, but their real importance is
not discussed further in Section 1. Section 2 of this article will revisit the terms,
and their importance is somewhat enhanced in context.

3. How a Transformer Works

At no load, an ideal transformer draws virtually no current from the mains, since it
is simply a large inductance. The whole principle of operation is based on
induced magnetic flux, which not only creates a voltage (and current) in the
secondary, but the primary as well! It is this characteristic that allows any
inductor to function as expected, and the voltage generated in the primary is
called a "back EMF" (electromotive force). The magnitude of this voltage is such
that it almost equals (and is effectively in the same phase as) the applied EMF.

Although a simple calculation can be made to determine the internally generated

voltage, doing so is pointless since it can't be changed. As described in Part 1 of
this series, for a sinusoidal waveform, the current through an inductor lags the
voltage by 90 degrees. Since the induced current is lagging by 90 degrees, the
internally generated voltage is shifted back again by 90° so is in phase with the
input voltage. For the sake of simplicity, imagine an inductor or transformer (no
load) with an applied voltage of 230V. For the effective back EMF to resist the full
applied AC voltage (as it must), the actual magnitude of the induced voltage
(back EMF) is just under 230V. The output voltage of a transformer is always in
phase with the applied voltage (within a few thousandths of a degree).

For example ... a transformer primary operating at 230V input draws 150mA from
the mains at idle and has a DC resistance of 2 ohms. The back EMF must be
sufficient to limit the current through the 2 ohm resistance to 150mA, so will be
close enough to 229.7V (0.3V at 2 ohms is 150mA). In real transformers there
are additional complications (iron loss in particular), but the principle isn't
changed much.

If this is all to confusing, don't worry about it. Unless you intend to devote your
career to transformer design, the information is actually of little use to you, since
you are restrained by the "real world" characteristics of the components you buy -
the internals are of little consequence. Even if you do devote your life to the
design of transformers, this info is still merely a curiosity for the most part, since
there is little you can do about it.

When you apply a load to the output (secondary) winding, a current is drawn by
the load, and this is reflected through the transformer to the primary. As a result,
the primary must now draw more current from the mains. Somewhat intriguingly
perhaps, the more current that is drawn from the secondary, the original 90
degree phase shift becomes less and less as the transformer approaches full
power. The power factor of an unloaded transformer is very low, meaning that
although there are volts and amps, there is relatively little power. The power
factor improves as loading increases, and at full load will be close to unity (the
ideal).

Now, another interesting fact about transformers can now be examined.

We will use the same example as above. A 240V primary draws 1A, and the 24V
secondary supplies 10A to the load. Using Ohm's law, the load resistance
(impedance) is therefore 24/10 = 2.4 Ohms. The primary impedance must be
240/1 = 240 Ohms. This is a ratio of 100:1, yet the turns ratio is only 10:1 - what
is going on?

The impedance ratio of a transformer is equal to the square of the turns ratio ...

3.1.1 Z = N²
Transformers are usually designed based on the power required, and this
determines the core size for a given core material. From this, the required "turns
per volt" figure can be determined, based on the maximum flux density that the
core material can support. Again, this varies widely with core materials.

A rule of thumb can be applied, that states that the core area for "standard" (if
indeed there is such a thing) steel laminations (in square centimetres) is equal to
the square root of the power. Thus a 625VA transformer would need a core of (at
least) 25 sq cm, assuming that the permeability of the core were about 500,
which is fairly typical of standard transformer laminations. This also assumes that
the core material will not saturate with the flux density required to obtain this
power.
The next step is to calculate the number of turns per volt for the primary winding.
This varies with frequency, but for a 50Hz transformer, the turns per volt is
(approximately) 45 divided by the core area (in square centimetres). Fewer turns
are needed for a 60Hz transformer, and the turns per volt will be about 38 / core
area. Higher performance core materials may permit higher flux densities, so
fewer turns per volt might be possible, thus increasing the overall efficiency and
regulation. These calculations must be made with care, or the transformer will
overheat at no load.

For a 625VA transformer, it follows that you will need about 432 turns for a 240V
primary, although in practice it may be less than this. The grain-oriented silicon
steels used in better quality transformers will often tolerate much higher total flux
per unit area, and fewer turns will be needed.

You can determine the turns per volt of any transformer (for reasons that will
become clearer as we progress) by adding exactly 10 turns of thin "bell wire" or
similar insulated wire to an existing transformer, wound over the existing
windings. When powered from the correct nominal supply voltage, measure the
voltage on the extra winding you created, and divide by 10 to obtain the turns per
volt rating for that transformer.

Now, what earthly use is this to you? Well, you might be surprised at what you
can do with this knowledge. Assume for a moment that you have a transformer
for a fair sized power amplifier. The secondary voltage is 35-0-35V which is much
too high to power the preamp circuit or even its power supply - but you will be
able to do that with a single 16V winding. Another transformer would normally be
used, but you can also add the extra winding yourself. This is almost too easy
with toroidal transformers, but with others it may not be possible at all. If the
transformer uses (say) 2 turns per volt, a mere 32 extra turns of bell wire (or
similar) will provide 16V at the typical 100mA or so you will need. Add a 10%
margin, and you still have only 36 turns to add, and this can be done in a few
minutes. Make sure that the extra winding is securely taped down with a good
quality tape (Kapton is highly recommended if you can get it). Do not use
ordinary electricians' tape - it is not designed for the temperature that
transformers may operate at under consistent load.

NOTE: Ensure that there is no possibility whatsoever of the added winding shorting
between turns - this will cause the smoke to escape from the insulation in a spectacular
fashion, and you may ruin the transformer itself.

4. Interesting Things About Transformers

As discussed above, the impedance ratio is the square of the turns ratio, but this
is only one of many interesting things about transformers (well, I think they are
interesting, anyway :-)
For example, one would think that increasing the number of turns would increase
the flux density, since there are more turns contributing to the magnetic field. In
fact, the opposite is true, and for the same input voltage, an increase in the
number of turns will decrease the flux density and vice versa. This is counter-
intuitive until you realise that an increase in the number of turns increases the
inductance, and therefore reduces the current through each coil.

I have already mentioned that the power factor (and phase shift) varies according
to load, and this (although mildly interesting) is not of any real consequence to
most of us.

A very interesting phenomenon exists when we draw current from the secondary.
Since the primary current increases to supply the load, we would expect that the
magnetic flux in the core would also increase (more amps, same number of
turns, more flux). In fact, the flux density decreases! In a perfect transformer with
no copper loss, the flux would remain the same - the extra current supplies the
secondary only. In a real transformer, as the current is increased, the losses
increase proportionally, and there is slightly less flux at full power than at no load.

5. Examples of Transformer Uses

This is only a brief discussion of the many uses of transformers. I have avoided
switchmode supplies in this section, and will only present the most common
linear applications. Power supply applications are covered more fully in Section
2, and also in the article on Linear Power Supply Design.

It would be impossible to cover all aspects of transformers and their uses, since
they are so diverse and are used in so many different things. Computer network
interface cards, modems, through to power amplifiers and microwave ovens, car
and marine ignition systems, Tesla coils and moving coil phono preamps are a
very small sampling of the diversity of the humble transformer (well, maybe it is
not so humble after all :-)

5.1 - Push-Pull Valve Output Stage

Apart from the obvious uses in power supplies, transformers are used in other
areas as well. Valve power amplifiers nearly all use a transformer for the output
stage, and this converts the high impedance of the anodes to the loudspeaker
impedance, as well as providing the voltage feed to the output valves. No biasing
or other support components have been shown here - for more information on
this, have a look at How Amplifiers Work. <
 Figure 5.1 - Push-Pull Valve Output Stage

Figure 5.1 shows how this works. The primary winding acts in a manner that may
surprise you at first, but it is quite in accordance with all the theory. The supply
voltage shown is 500V, and we will assume that the valve can turn on hard
enough to reduce this to zero alternately at each end of the winding. This is
never the case, because valves do not have a low enough internal impedance,
but it makes the explanation simpler :-)

Neither valve will draw appreciable current with no signal, and the amount drawn
does not magnetise the core. The reason is simple - an equal amount of current
is drawn through each section of the primary winding, but effectively in opposite
directions. The magnetic field created by one half of the winding is cancelled by
that from the second half, leaving a nett steady state magnetic field of zero.

When valve V1 turns on completely, the voltage at its end of the winding is
reduced to zero, and the voltage at the anode of V2 is 1,000 volts. This must be
the case, or the transformer theory is in tatters. The primary is operating as an
"auto-transformer". Likewise, when V1 turns off and V2 turns on, the situation is
reversed. You may well ask why 2 valves are needed at all? The voltage from
one valve is quite capable of swinging the voltage from one extreme to the other,
it would seem.

This is not the case. Since the valve can only turn on, it will only be able to
supply current for 1/2 of the waveform. A Class-A push-pull design will normally
have each valve carrying 1/2 of the maximum peak current required. In the case
of a push-pull design, there is no core saturation because of the DC current
(which cancels out as before), so although two valves are needed, the
transformer will be smaller and will have very much better performance. Single-
ended Class-A amps require a very large core with an air-gap to prevent
saturation. This reduces the performance of the transformer dramatically, and
increases distortion and gives a poorer low frequency response because of the
lower inductance. High frequencies can also be adversely affected, because the
air-gap causes some of the magnetic flux to "leak" out of the core. This is the
cause of leakage inductance (covered in more detail in Section 2).

It is worth noting that the effective peak to peak swing across the entire
transformer primary is 2,000V. When V1 is turned on completely, it has zero volts
(for our example only) at the plate, and V2 turns on it has a plate voltage of
1,000V. V2 has exactly the same voltage peaks, but they are 180 degrees out of
phase. The total voltage across the transformer is therefore the sum of the two
voltages. From an AC perspective, the B+ supply line can be considered the
same as zero volts (remember it will be bypassed with a large capacitance).

The RMS voltage is easily calculated from the standard formula ...

5.1.1 Vp = Vp-p / 2
To obtain the peak value from peak to peak, then ...
5.1.2 Vrms = Vp / √2
To find the RMS value.

In this case, the peak to peak voltage is 2,000V, so peak is 1000V. The RMS
value is 707V.

5.2 Single Ended Triode (SET) Output

Figure 5.2 shows the basic arrangement of a SET amplifier output stage. The full
DC current must flow through the transformer primary, and as discussed above,
an air-gap must be introduced into the core to prevent saturation. Because an air
gap reduces the efficacy of the magnetic path, the core needs to be considerably
larger than would otherwise be the case.
 Figure 5.2 - Single Ended Triode Output Stage

The core operates with only one polarity of flux, which varies with the signal. One
might think that this alone would reduce distortion, since the flux never crosses
the zero point, but this is not the case. It is still necessary for the flux to change,
and the characteristics of magnetic materials indicate that the resistance to
change (rather than the absolute polarity of the magnetic field) is the dominant
factor. The valve (and transformer primary) must now carry a current equal to the
peak AC current demanded by the load - subject to the transformation ratio, of
course. Maximum negative swing (valve turned on) will double this current, and it
will be reduced to nearly zero as the valve turns off (positive swing). As the
current is reduced below the average standing (quiescent) current, the voltage
across the transformer increases in the opposite polarity - hence the fact that the
plate voltage exceeds the supply voltage.

For the same power output, the valve in a single ended circuit must be
considerably larger than that required for a push-pull circuit, because of the
higher dissipation needed for the extra current. There are also many other issues
with this arrangement, and they will be covered in more detail in Section 2.

Not the least of these is that the (probable) advantage of the additional voltage
swing when using a centre tapped transformer is now gone, so the maximum
RMS voltage that can be developed is 353V - a significant drop in primary AC
voltage.

5.3 Line Level Applications

Transformers are also used for "line-level" low power applications, typically
balanced microphone inputs and line output stages. A transformer is
unsurpassed for real-world balanced circuits, as the input or output is truly
floating, and requires no connection to earth. This means that common mode
signals (i.e. any signal that is common to both signal leads) are almost
completely rejected.

Figure 5.3 shows a transformer balanced input, converting to unbalanced. The

signal is amplified, and sent to the output transformer for distribution as a
balanced signal again. The "amplifier" will typically be a mixing console, and will
take mic or line level signals as the input (having run from the stage to the mixing
area), and the final mixed output is sent back to the stage for the main (Front of
House) public address amplifiers and speakers. There may be in excess of 100
metres of cable from the microphone to the mixer and back to the main amps,
and barely any noise will be picked up in the process.

Figure 5.3 - Balanced Microphone and Line Outputs

The telephone system used to be completely dependent on transformers to feed

the signal from the exchange (or Central Office in the US) to the customer
premises equipment (CPE). The phone switch used in offices, (PABX - Private
Automatic Branch Exchange, or PBX for the US) equipment still uses
transformers for nearly all incoming circuits whether analogue or digital. The
principle is exactly the same as for the audio application shown above, except
that for telephone circuits there is usually a DC voltage present to power the CPE
(in the case of a home telephone) and to provide some basic signalling. All
modern PABX circuits use ferrite cored transformers, with DC isolation circuitry to
ensure that no DC flows in the transformer windings, as this degrades the
performance in the same way as with the output transformer for a SET power
amplifier.

Audio applications for transformers in balanced circuits came from the

telecommunications industry where the concepts were first thought of. A
telephone line may be 4km or more in length, and is not shielded, so a method of
eliminating hum and noise was essential.

6. Safety

Safety is a major consideration for any power transformer (and in the case of
telecommunications, the isolating transformers), and electrical contact between
primary and secondary must not be allowed under any realistic fault condition. All
countries have safety standards that apply to transformers where electrical
isolation is important, and if in any doubt about the safety of a transformer for a
particular purpose, make sure that you verify that the transformer complies with
the relevant standard(s). It is well beyond the scope of this article to cover all the
possibilities of standards and compliance issues, so I shall leave that to you.

Many power transformers are fitted with an internal "once only" thermal fuse that
will become open circuit in the event that a preset temperature is exceeded. This
temperature is chosen to be the maximum safe temperature of the windings
before the insulation melts or breaks down, so in the event of a fault, the thermal
fuse will open before the insulation is damaged and the component becomes
potentially dangerous. It also helps to prevent the risk of fire (and no, this is not
intended to be humorous - a friend of mine had his house burned to the ground
because of a faulty power transformer in a video recorder - as determined by the
fire investigators. True story!). See Figure 6.1 (below) as an example of how bad
things can get if the transformer is not protected.

Once the thermal fuse opens, the transformer must be discarded, as it is usually
not possible to gain access to the fuse for replacement. This is not as silly as it
may sound, since the thermal effects on the insulation cannot be predicted, and
the transformer may be unsafe if it were still able to be used.

There are transformers that are designed to be "intrinsically safe", and these
usually have the windings on separate sections of the core, not in physical
contact with each other. If the core is connected to the electrical safety earth
(which is usually a requirement), no method of failure (including a complete
meltdown) in the primary will allow mains voltage to appear at the secondary.
Side by side windings are the next safest, and although primary and secondary
are on the same bobbin, the material used is selected to withstand high
temperatures and will maintain separation of the windings. Toroidal cores and
other concentrically wound transformers are the least safe, since the only
separation between primary and secondary is a rather thin layer of insulation.
This is one of the reasons that thermal fuses are often used with toroids.
 Figure 6.1 - Transformer Meltdown

Figure 6.1 shows a transformer I removed from a repair job. It is a complete

meltdown, and the remains of the plastic bobbin can be seen quite clearly. In any
circuit, it is extremely important to protect the user from coming into contact with
the mains should this happen. In this case, the bobbin had melted away from the
windings, dribbled on the base of the equipment, and generally made a big mess.
Despite all this, there was no electrical connection between primary and
secondary or the laminations. This was a well made transformer (it failed due to
gross continuous overload, not any failure in the transformer itself).

Proper safety earthing is the only real way to ensure that a transformer that fails
catastrophically (such as that shown) does not cause the chassis to become live
- not all transformers are created equal when safety is concerned. Correct fusing
will ensure that the fuse blows - hopefully before the electrical safety is
compromised. A thermal fuse would have prevented the situation from becoming
as bad as shown, but the transformer would have been just as dead.

7. Noise

Transformers make noise. This is not only the electrical noise that is created by
the nasty current waveform through the windings, diodes and into the filter
capacitors, but actual audible noise. One source is winding vibration, due to the
wire moving because of the magnetic field and the current flowing through the
conductors. This is to be avoided at all costs, since constant vibration will
eventually wear away the insulation, the windings will short circuit, and the
transformer is ruined. Fortunately, this is rather unusual, but it can (and does)
happen on occasion.

Most of the noise is from the laminations or other core material, which contract
when subjected to an intense magnetic field. This is called magnetostriction, and
happens to a greater or lesser degree with all magnetic materials. A stethoscope
will verify the source of the noise, and there is little or nothing that will stop it. A
resilient mounting will stop most of the noise from being acoustically amplified by
the chassis, and generally the noise will be worse at no load. In some cases, a
transformer may have been designed for 60Hz, but is used at 50Hz. In this case,
the flux density will probably exceed the maximum allowable for the core, and the
transformer will get much hotter than it should, and will almost certainly be a lot
noisier as well. Toroidal transformers will generally be much quieter than EI
laminated (i.e. conventional) types.

Most (all?) transformers designed specifically for 60Hz will eventually fail with
50Hz mains, due to overheating. The reverse is not true, and 50Hz transformers
can be operated quite safely on 60Hz.

Another problem with E-I laminations is that they may not have been fastened
together well enough, and this allows the outer laminations in particular to
vibrate. Better quality conventional transformers will commonly be impregnated
with varnish (sometimes under vacuum) and baked in a moderate oven until
tender .... oops, I mean until the varnish is completely dry. This binds the
laminations and windings together, preventing noise, and also making the
transformer more resistant to damage by water or other contaminants, and/ or
under conditions of high humidity (such as in the tropics).

Section 2

Click here to view the second part of the article. As I am sure you have noticed,
transformers are not so simple after all.

References

These references are common to both sections of the article, although most only
apply to Section 2. Countless different Web pages were researched during the
compilation of these articles, and although some were interesting, the majority
were of minimal use. Of those who I actually remember (a daunting task in itself,
considering the sheer amount of searching I had to do), I must "thank" the
following Web pages (in alphabetical order) ...

• Amidon
• ATDL School (US Army)
• Jensen Transformers
• Mitchell Electronics Corporation
• Tomi Engdahl - (ePanorama.net)

In addition, I have used various other references, but notably (in order of
usefulness) ...

• Radiotron Designer's Handbook - F Langford-Smith (4th Edition)

 • Magnetism: quantities, units and relationships (E-mail:
R.Clarke@surrey.ac.uk)
• Basic Electronics - Grob, Third Edition (McGraw-Hill)
• Motorola Rectifier Applications Handbook (3rd Edition)

Download Silvio Klaic's neat little transformer calculator from his website
The following (slightly edited) definitions are from Units of Measurement

Units of Measurement site copyright by Russ Rowlett and University of North Carolina at Chapel
Hill.
Definitions used by permission.

Tesla (T) - flux density (or field intensity) for magnetic fields (also called the
magnetic induction). The intensity of a magnetic field can be measured by
placing a current-carrying conductor in the field. The magnetic field exerts a force
on the conductor which depends on the amount of the current and the length of
the conductor. One Tesla is defined as the field intensity generating one newton
of force per ampere of current per meter of conductor. Equivalently, one Tesla
represents a magnetic flux density of one Weber per square meter of area. A
field of one Tesla is quite strong: the strongest fields available in laboratories are
about 20 Teslas, and the Earth's magnetic flux density at its surface, is about 50
microteslas (µT). One Tesla equals 10,000 gauss. The Tesla, defined in 1958, is
named after Nikola Tesla (1856-1943), whose work in electromagnetic induction
led to the first practical generators and motors using alternating current (much to
the annoyance of Edison, who claimed DC was "safer").

Weber (Wb) - magnetic flux. "Flux" is the rate (per unit of time) in which
something crosses a surface perpendicular to the flow. In the case of a magnetic
field, then the magnetic flux across a perpendicular surface is the product of the
magnetic flux density, in Teslas, and the surface area, in square metres. If a
varying magnetic field passes perpendicularly through a circular loop of
conducting material (one turn), the variation in the field induces a electric
potential in the loop. If the flux is changing at a uniform rate of one Weber per
second, the induced potential is one volt. This means that numerically the flux in
webers is equal to the potential, in volts, that would be created by collapsing the
field uniformly to zero in one second. One Weber is the flux induced in this way
by a current varying at the uniform rate of one ampere per second. The unit
honours the German physicist Wilhelm Eduard Weber (1804-1891), one of the
early researchers of magnetism.